'
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'A
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
Jr
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION,
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,
A GENERAL INDEX,
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME VI.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
CAL
Caldiero /"'I ALDIERO, a town of the delegation of Verona, in the
II . Austrian kingdom of Venetian Lombardy, where
Caledonia, ^gj-g are some warm baths. It contains 2250 inhabitants.
CALDRON, or Cauldron, a large kitchen utensil,
commonly made of copper ; having a movable iron handle,
by which to hang it on the chimney hook. The word is
formed from the French chaudron, or rather the Latin
caldarium.
CALDWALL, Richard, a learned English physician,
born in Staffordshire about the year 1513. He studied
physic in Brazen-nose College, Oxford, and was examin¬
ed, admitted into, and made censor of, the College of
Physicians at London, all in one day. Six weeks after¬
wards he was chosen one of the elects; and in the year
1570 he was made president of that college. Wood in¬
forms us that he wrote several professional pieces; but he
does not tell us what they were, only that he translated a
book on the art of surgery, written by one Horatio More,
a Florentine physician. We learn from Camden, that Cald-
wall founded a chirurgical lecture in the College of Phy¬
sicians, and endowed it with a handsome salary. He died
in 1585.
CALEDONIA, the ancient name of Scotland. From the
testimonies of Tacitus, Dio, and Solinus, we find that the
ancient Caledonia comprehended all that country situated
to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde. In proportion
as the Silures or Cimbri advanced northwards, the Cale¬
donians, circumscribed within narrower limits, were forced
to pass over into the islands which fringe the western
coasts of Scotland. It is about this period, probably, that
we ought to fix the first great migration of the British Gael
into Ireland; that kingdom being much nearer to the pro¬
montory of Galloway and Cantyre than many of the Scot¬
tish isles are to the continent of North Britain.
To the country which the Caledonians possessed they
gave the name of Gael-doch, which is the only appella¬
tion the Scots, who speak the Gaelic language, know for
their own division of Britain. Gael-doch is a compound
formed from Gael, the first colony of the ancient Gauls
who transmigrated into Britain, and dock, a district or di¬
vision of a country. The Romans, by transposing the
VOL. VI.
CAL
letter l in Gad, and by softening into a Latin termina-Caledonia,
tion the ch of dock, formed, it is supposed, the well-known
name of Caledonia.
At the period when Agricola invaded North Britain,
a. d. 81, that portion of the island appears to have been
possessed by twenty-one tribes of aboriginal inhabitants
having little or no political connection with one another,
although evidently identical in origin, in language, in cus¬
toms, and in manners. The names and topographical posi¬
tions of these Caledonian tribes or clans have been pre¬
served and pretty accurately ascertained. They were,
1. The Ottadini, or Ottadeni, who occupied the south-east
boundary of North Britain, extending along the whole line
of coast from the southern Tyne to the Frith of Forth, and
including the half of Northumberland, the eastern part of
Roxburghshire, and the whole of Berwickshire and of East
Lothian ; 2. The Gadeni, who inhabited the interior of the
country, to the west of the Ottadini, including the western
part of Northumberland, a small part of Cumberland to the
north of the Irthing, the western part of Roxburghshire,
the whole of Selkirkshire, Tweeddale, a considerable part of
Mid-Lothian, and nearly all West-Lothian; their posses¬
sions extending from the Tyne on the south to the Frith
of Forth on the north ; 3. The Selgovce, who inhabited An-
nandale, Nithsdale, and Eskdale in Dumfriesshire, and the
eastern part of Galloway as far as the river Deva or Dee,
which was their western boundary ; 4. The Novantce, who
possessed the middle and western parts of Galloway, from
the Dee on the east to the Irish Sea on the west; on the
south they were bounded by the Solway Frith and the Irish
Sea, and on the north by the chain of hills which separates
Galloway from Carrick; 5. The Damnii, the most important
of the southern tribes, who inhabited the whole extent of
country from the ridge of hills which separates Galloway
frcju Ayrshire on the south, to the river Erne on the north,
and possessed all Strathclyde, the shires of Ayr, Renfrew,
and Stirling, and a small part of those of Dumbarton and
Perth ; 6. The Horestii, who inhabited the country between
Bodotria or Forth on the south, and the Tavus or Tay on
the north, comprehending the shires of Clackmannan,
Kinross, and Fife, with the eastern part of Strathern, and
A
9
CAL CAL
Caledonia, the country westward of the Tay as far as the river Brann ;
7. The Venricones, who possessed the territory between the
Tay on the south and the Carron on the north, compre¬
hending Gowrie, Strathmore, Stormont, and Strathardle in
Perthshire, together with the whole of Angus, and the larger
part of Kincardineshire ; £• The Taixali, who inhabited
the northern part of the Mearns, and the whole of Aber¬
deenshire as far as the Doveran ; 9. The Vacomagi, who in¬
habited the country on the south side of the Moray Frith,
from the Doveran on the east to the Ness on the west,
comprehending the shires of Banff, Elgin, Nairn, the east¬
ern part of Inverness, and Braemar in Aberdeenshire ;
10. The Albani, afterwards called Damnii-Albani, who pos¬
sessed the interior districts between the lower ridge of
the Grampians, which skirts the southern side of the loch
and river Tay on the south, and the chain of mountains
which forms the southern limit of Inverness-shire on
the north ; 11. The Attacoti, who inhabited the whole of the
country from Lochfyne on the west to the eastwaid of
the river Leven and Lochlomond, comprehending the
whole of Cowal in Argyleshire and the greater part of
Dumbartonshire ; 12. The Caledonii proper,1 who inha¬
bited the whole of the interior of the country from the ridge
of mountains which separates Inverness and Perth on the
south, to the range of hills which forms the forest of Bal-
nagowan in Ross on the north, comprehending all the
middle parts of Inverness and Ross ; 13. The Canto;, who
possessed the east of Ross from the Moray Frith on the
south to the Frith of Dornoch on the north ; 14. The Logi,
who possessed the south-eastern coast of Sutherland, ex¬
tending from the Dornoch Frith on the south-west to the
Helmsdale river on the east; 15. The Carnabii, who inha¬
bited the south, the east, and the north-east of Caithness,
from the Helmsdale river, comprehending the three great
promontories of Noss-head, Duncansbay-head, and Dunnet-
head; 16. The Cattini, a small tribe, who inhabited the
north-western corner of Caithness, and the eastern half of
Strathnaver in Sutherlandshire, having the river Naver,
the Navarijluvius of Ptolemy, for their western boundary ;
17. The Mertce, who occupied the interior of Sutherland ;
18. The Carnonaco, who inhabited the northern and western
coast of Sutherland, and a small part of the western shore
of Ross, from the Naver on the east to the Volsas bay on
the south-west; 19. The Craves, who inhabited the western
coast of Ross, from the Volsas bay on the north to Loch-
duich on the south ; 20. The Cerones, who inhabited the
whole western coast of Inverness, and the districts of Ard-
namurchan, Morvern, Sunart, and Ardgower in Argyleshire,
having Lochduich on the north, and the Linne-loch on the
south ; and, 21. The Epidii, who inhabited the south-west
of Argyleshire, from Linne-loch on the north, to the Frith
of Clyde and the Irish Sea on the south, including Cantyre,
and were bounded on the east by the country of the Al¬
bani, and by Lochfyne. Such, according to the best au¬
thorities, were the names and geographical positions of
the twenty-one tribes which, at the time of the Roman
invasion, occupied the whole of North Britain.
When the tribes of North Britain were attacked by the
Romans under Agricola (see article Britain, chap, i.),
they entered into associations, in order that, by uniting
their strength, they might be more able to repel the com¬
mon enemy. But the particular name of the tribe which
either its superior power or military reputation placed at
the head of the association, was the general name given
by the Romans to all the confederates. Hence it is that
the Monata;, who inhabited the districts of Scotland lying
southward of the frith, and the Caledonians, who inhabit- Caledonia
ed the west and north-west parts, engrossed the glory which II
belonged in common, though in an inferior degree, to the Calenberg.
other tribes settled of old in North Britain.
The origin of the appellations Scoti and Picti, intro¬
duced by the later Roman authors, has occasioned much
controversy among antiquaries in modern times. It seems
tolerably certain, however, that the Scots and Piets were
one and the same people; or rather, that the term Picti
or Piets was the generic, and that of Scoti, or Scots, only
a specific appellation. Eumenius the orator, who first men¬
tions the Piets, alludes to the Caledones aliique Picti; an
expression which implies that the Caledones and other tribes
were considered as Piets. Again, with reference to the
question whether the Scots were aboriginal Britons, or
merely emigrants from Ireland, it has been shown by ar¬
guments which appear to be invincible, that they came ori¬
ginally from Ireland; but, on the other hand, it seems equally
certain, that the Scots of Ireland, or the Scotico gentes of
Porphyry, a branch of the great Celtic family, passed over,
at a very remote period, from the shores of Britain into
Ireland, and before the beginning of the fifth century had
given their name to the whole of that country. Their
name, however, does not occur in the Roman annals till
a. d. 360; but all the authors of the fourth century agree
that Ireland was the proper country of the Scots, and that
they invaded the Roman territories in North Britain about
the period above mentioned. They are described as an er¬
ratic or wandering race, who carried on a predatory system
of warfare, and also as a transmarine people, who came from
Ireland, their native island. Under the denomination of
Piets were included the Caledonians and Scots, and pro¬
bably also the Attacots, a warlike clan, settled on the
shores of Dumbarton and Cowal. See Scotland.
Caledonia, the name of a settlement made by the
Scots on the western side of the Gulf of Darien in 1698, out
of which they were starved at the request of the East India
Company.
New Caledonia, an island in the South Sea, discovered
by Captain Cook. See Australasia.
‘ CALEDONIAN Canal. See Navigation Inland,
and Scotland.
CALEFACTION, the production of heat in a body
from the action of fire, or that impulse impressed by a hot
body on others around it.
CALELLA, a town of Spain, on the sea-coast, in the
province of Catalonia, with 2400 inhabitants, who are em¬
ployed in distilling brandy and wine, in casting anchors,
and in making fishing nets, lace, and blonde.
CALENBERG, a principality or duchy in the kingdom
of Hanover. It is bounded on the north-east by Luneburg;
on the south-east by Hildesheim ; on the south by Bruns-
wdek, the Prussian circle of Minden, and Pyrmont; and on
the wrest by Lippe, Schaumburg, and Hoj^a. It is 1090
square miles, or 667,800 English acres, in extent; and con¬
tains a population of 151,000 persons. The city of Hano¬
ver is the capital of the principality, as well as of the king¬
dom. The southern part is generally hilly, but with broad
valleys interposed. The northern division is part of that
sandy plain which extends through the Continent, and is
of little fertility except in a few spots. The principal pro¬
ducts are corn, cattle, buttex-, and liax; and the latter, made
into yarn or cloth, is almost the only article manufactured
for exportation. The river Weser flows through one part
ofthis principality; and the Leine, which also passes through
it, has by great efforts been made navigable.
1 This name, according to Chalmers, is merely the latinized form of Celyddoni, from Celyddon, the descriptive appellation given to
the country by the British colonists, and signifying literally the Coverts.
3
CALENDAR.
Calendar. A calendar is a method of distributing time into cer-
v—tain periods adapted to the purposes of civil life, as hours,
days, weeks, months, years, &c.
Of all the periods marked out by the motions of the
celestial bodies, the most conspicuous, and the most inti¬
mately connected with the affairs of mankind, are the solar
day, which is distinguished by the diurnal revolution of
the earth and the alternation of light and darkness, and
the solar year, which completes the circle of the seasons.
But in the early ages of the world, when mankind were
chiefly engaged in rural occupations, the phases of the moon
must have been objects of great attention and interest;
hence the month, and the practice adopted by many nations
of reckoning time by the motions of the moon, as well as
the still more general practice of combining lunar with solar
periods. The solar day, the solar year, and the lunar month,
or lunation, may therefore be called the natural divisions
of time. All others, as the hour, the week, and the civil
month, though of the most ancient and general use, are
only arbitrary and conventional.
Day.—The true solar day is the interval of time which
elapses between two consecutive returns of the same ter¬
restrial meridian to the sun, and therefore, by reason of
the inclined position of the ecliptic, and the unequal pro¬
gressive motion of the earth in its orbit, is not always of
the same absolute length. But as it would be hardly pos¬
sible, in the artificial measurement of time, to have regard
to this small inequality, which is besides constantly vary¬
ing, the mean solar day is employed for all civil purposes.
This is the time in which the earth would make one revo¬
lution on its axis, as compared with the sun, if the earth
moved at an equable rate in the plane of the equator.
The mean solar day is therefore a result of computation,
and not marked by any astronomical phenomenon ; but its
difference from the true solar or apparent day is so small
as to escape ordinary observation.
The subdivision of the day into twenty-four parts, or
hours, has prevailed since the remotest ages, though dif¬
ferent nations have not agreed either with respect to the
epoch of its commencement or the manner of distributing
the hours. Europeans in general, like the ancient Egyp¬
tians, place the commencement of the civil day at midnight,
and reckon twelve morning hours from midnight to mid¬
day, and twelve evening hours from midday to midnight.
Astronomers, after the example of Ptolemy, regard the
day as commencing with the sun’s culmination, or noon,
and find it most convenient for the purposes of computa¬
tion to reckon through the whole twenty-four hours. Hip¬
parchus reckoned the twenty-four hours from midnight to
midnight. Some nations, as the ancient Chaldeans and
the modern Greeks, have chosen sunrise for the com¬
mencement of the day; others, again, as the Italians and
Bohemians, suppose it to commence at sunset. In all
these cases the beginning of the day varies with the sea¬
sons at all places not under the equator. In the early
ages of Rome, and even down to the middle of the fifth
century after the foundation of the city, no other divisions
of the day were known than sunrise, sunset, and midday,
which was marked by the arrival of the sun between the
Rostra and a place called Graecostasis, where ambassadors
from Greece and other countries used to stand. The
Greeks divided the natural day and night into twelve
equal parts each, and the hours thus formed were deno¬
minated temporary hours, from their varying in length ac¬
cording to the seasons of the year. The hours of the day
and night were of course only equal at the time of the equi- Calendar,
noxes. The whole period of day and night they called
vu%dr]/iiegov.
Week.—The week is a period of seven days, having no
reference whatever to the celestial motions; a circum¬
stance to which it owes its unalterable uniformity. Al¬
though it did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks,
and was not introduced at Rome till after the reign of
Theodosius, it has been employed from time immemorial
in almost all eastern countries; and as it forms neither
an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those
who reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delam-
bre remarks, to assign to it an origin having much sem¬
blance of probability. It might have been suggested by
the phases of the moon, or by the number of the planets
known in ancient times, an origin which is rendered more
probable from the names universally given to the dilferent
days of which it is composed. In the Egyptian astrono¬
my, the order of the planets, beginning with the most re¬
mote, is Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury,
the Moon. Now, the day being divided into twenty-four
hours, each hour was consecrated to a particular planet,
namely, one to Saturn, the following to Jupiter, the third
to Mars, and so on according to the above order; and the
day received the name of the planet which presided over
its first hour. If, then, the first hour of a day was con¬
secrated to Saturn, that planet would also have the 8th,
the 15th, and the 22d hour; the 23d would fall to Jupiter,
the 24th to Mars, and the 25th, or the first hour of the
second day, would belong to the Sun. In like manner the
first hour of the 3d day would fall to the Moon, the first
of the 4th day to Mars, of the 5th to Mercury, of the 6th
to Jupiter, and of the 7th to Venus. The cj^cle being
completed, the first hour of the 8th day would return to
Saturn, and all the others succeed in the same order.
According to Dio Cassius, the Egyptian week commenced
with Saturday. On their flight from Egypt, the Jews,
from hatred to their ancient oppressors, made Saturday
the last day of the week.
The English names of the days are derived from the
Saxon. The ancient Saxons had borrowed the week from
some eastex-n nation, and substituted the names of their
own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In legis¬
lative and justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained.
Latin. English. Saxon.
Dies Solis. Sunday. Sun’s day.
Dies Lunae. Monday Moon’s day.
Dies Martis. Tuesday. Tiw’s day.
Dies Mercurii. Wednesday. Woden’s day
Dies Jovis. Thursday. Thor’s day.
Dies Veneris. Friday. Friga’s day.
Dies Saturni. Saturday. Seterne’s day.
Month.—Long before the exact length of the year was
determined, it must have been perceived that the synodic
revolution of the moon is accomplished in about 29^ days.
Twelve lunations, therefoi’e, form a period of 354 days,
which differs only by about 114 days from the solar year.
From this circumstance has arisen the practice, perhaps
universal, of dividing the year into twelve months. But
in the course of a few years the accumulated difference
between the solar year and twelve lunar months would
become considerable, and have the effect of transporting
the commencement of the year to a different season. The
difficulties that arose in attempting to avoid this incon¬
venience induced some nations to abandon the moon alto-
CALENDAR.
Calendar, gether, and regulate their year by the course of the sun.
,^Y^/ The month, however, being a convenient period of time,
has retained its place in the calendars of all nations; but,
instead of denoting a synodic revolution of the moon, it is
usually employed to denote an arbitrary number of days
approaching to the twelfth part of a solar year,
and so on to the 30th, which was called the third before the Calendar.
Calends (tertio Calendas), the last being the second of
the Calends, or the day before the Calends (jrridie Ca¬
lendas'). As frequent allusion is made by classical writers
to this embarrassing method of computation, which is
carefully retained in the ecclesiastical calendar, we will
O C
p s
March.
May.
July.
October.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Calendae.
6
5
4
3
Prid. Nonas
Nonse.
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idus.
Idus.
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Calen
January.
August.
December.
April.
June.
September.
November.
Calendse.
4
3
Prid. Nonas
Nonae.
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idus.
Idus.
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Calen
Calendae.
4
3
Prid. Nonas.
Nonae.
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idus.
Idus.
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Calen
Februarv.
Among the ancient Egyptians, the month consisted of here give a table showing the correspondence of the Ro-
thirty days invariably; and in order to complete the year, man months with those of modern Europe,
five days were added at the end, called supplementary
days. They made use of no intercalation, and by losing a
fourth of a day every year, the commencement of the
year went back one day in every period of four years, and
consequently made a revolution of the seasons in 1461
years. Hence 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460
Julian years of 365^ days each. This year is called vague,
by reason of its commencing sometimes at one season of
the year, and sometimes at another.
The Greeks divided the month into three decades, or
periods of ten days; a practice which was imitated by
the French in their unsuccessful attempt to introduce a
new calendar at the period of the revolution. This divi¬
sion offers two advantages; the first is, that the period is
an exact measure of the month of thirty days; and the
second is, that the number of tbe day of the decade is
connected with and suggests the number of tbe day of
the month. For example, the 5th of the decade must
necessarily be the 5th, the 15th, or the 25th of the month ;
so that when the day of the decade is known, that of the
month can scarcely be mistaken. In reckoning by weeks,
it is necessary to keep in mind the day of the week on
which each month begins.
The Romans employed a division of the month and a
method of reckoning the days which appears not a little
extraordinary, and must, in practice, have been exceed¬
ingly incommodious. Instead of distinguishing the days
by the ordinal numbers first, second, third, &c. they count¬
ed backwards from three fixed epochs, namely, the Ca¬
lends, the Nones, and the Ides. The Calends were placed
invariably on the first day of the month, and were so de¬
nominated because it had been an ancient custom of the
pontiffs to call the people together on that day, to apprize
them of the festivals, or days that were to be kept sacred
during the month. The Ides (from an obsolete verb idu-
are, to divide) were at the middle of the month, either
the 13th or the 15th day; and the Nones were the ninth
before the Ides, counting inclusively. From these three _ ,
terms the days received their denomination in the follow- Year.—The year is either astronomical or civil. I he
ing manner:—Those which were comprised between the solar astronomical year is the period of time in which the
Calends and the Nones were called the days before the earth performs a revolution about the sun, or passes from
Nones; those between the Nones and the Ides were called any point of the ecliptic to the same point again ; and con-
the days before the Ides; and, lastly, all the days after the sists of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 49-62 seconds of
Ides to the end of the month were called the days before mean solar time. The civil year is that which is employed
the Calends of the succeeding month. In the months of in chronology, and varies among different nations, both in
March, May, July, and October, the Ides fell on the 15th respect of the season at which it commences, and of its
day, and the Nones consequently on the 7th; so that subdivisions. When regard is had to the suns motion
each of these months had six days named from the Nones, alone, the regulation of the year, and the distribution of
In all the other months the Ides were on the 13th and the days into months, may be effected without much
the Nones on the 5th ; consequently there were only four trouble ; but the difficulty is greatly increased when it is
days named from the Nones. Every month had eight sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to make
days named from the Ides. The number of days re- the subdivisions of the year depend on the moon, and at
Calendse
4
3
Prid. Nonas.
Nonae.
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idus.
Idus.
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Prid. Calen
Martii.
ceiving their denomination from the Calends depended
on the number of days in the month and the day on
which the Ides fell. For example, if the month con¬
tained 31 days, and the Ides fell on the 13th, as was the
the same time to preserve the correspondence between the
whole year and the seasons.
Of the Solar Year.—In the arrangement of the civil
year, two objects are sought to be accomplished: the
case in January, August, and December, there would first is, the equable distribution of the days among twelve
remain 18 days after the Ides, which, added to the first
of the following month, made 19 days of Calends. In
January, therefore, the 14th day of the month was called
the nineteenth before the Calends of February (counting
inclusively), the 15th was the 18th before the Calends,
months ; and the second is, the preservation of the begin¬
ning of the year at the same distance from the solstices
or equinoxes. Now, as the year consists of 365 days and
a fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by 12, it is
impossible that the months can all be of the same length,
CALENDAR, 5
Calendar, and at the same time include all the days of the year,
v—'-y-w' By reason also of the fractional excess of the length of the
year above 365 days, it likewise happens that the years
cannot all contain the same number of days if the epoch of
their commencement remains fixed; for the day and the
civil year must necessarily be considered as beginning at
the same instant; and therefore the extra hours cannot be
included in the year till they have accumulated to a whole
day. As soon as this has taken place, an additional day
must be given to the year.
The civil calendar of all European countries has been bor¬
rowed from that of the Romans. Romulus is said to have
divided the year into ten months only, including in all 304>
days, and it is not very well known how the remaining days
were disposed of. The ancient Roman year commenced
with March, as is indicated by the names September, Oc¬
tober, November, December, which the four last months
still retain. July and August, likewise, were anciently
denominated Quintilis and Sextilis, their present appella¬
tions having been bestowed in compliment to Julius Caesar
and Augustus. In the reign of Numa two months were
added to the year, January at the beginning, and Feb¬
ruary at the end ; and this arrangement continued till the
year 452 c. c., when the Decemvirs changed the order of
the months, and placed February after January. The
months now consisted of twenty-nine and thirty days al¬
ternately, to correspond with the synodic revolution of
the moon, so that the year contained 354 days; but a day
was added to make the number odd, which was consider¬
ed more fortunate, and the year therefore consisted of 355
days. This differed from the solar year by ten whole days
and a fraction ; but, to restore the coincidence, Numa or¬
dered an additional or intercalary month to be inserted
every second year between the 23d and 24th of Febru¬
ary, consisting of twenty-two and twenty-three days alter¬
nately, so that four years contained 1465 days, and the
mean length of the year was consequently 366^ days.
The additional month was called Mercedinus, or Merce-
donius, from merces, wages, probably because the wages of
workmen and domestics were usually paid at this season of
the year. Accordihg to the above arrangement, the year
was too long by one day, which rendered another correc¬
tion necessary. As the error amounted to twenty-four
days in as many years, it was ordered that every third
period of eight years, instead of containing four interca¬
lary months, amounting in all to ninety days, should con¬
tain only three of those months, consisting of twenty-two
days each. The mean length of the year was thus re¬
duced to 365^ days; but it is not certain at what time
the octennial periods, borrowed from the Greeks, were in¬
troduced into the Roman calendar, or whether they were
at any time strictly followed. It does not even appear
that the length of the intercalary month was regulated by
any certain principle, for a discretionary power was left
with the pontiffs, to whom the care of the calendar was
committed, to intercalate more or fewer days according as
the year was found to differ more or less from the celestial
motions. This power was quickly abused to serve politi¬
cal objects, and the calendar consequently thrown into
confusion. By giving a greater or less number of days to
the intercalary month, the pontiffs were enabled to pro¬
long the term of a magistracy, or hasten the annual elec¬
tions ; and so little care had been taken to regulate the
year, that, at the time of Julius Caesar, the civil equinox
differed from the astronomical by three months, so that
the, winter months were carried back into autumn, and
the autumnal into summer.
In order to put an end to the disorders arising from the
negligence or ignorance of the pontiffs, Caesar abolished
the use of the lunar year and the intercalary month, and
regulated the civil year entirely by the sun. With the Calendar,
advice and assistance of Sosigenes, he fixed the mean
length of the year at 365^ days, and decreed that every
fourth year should have 366 days, the other years having
each 365. In order to restore the vernal equinox to the
25th of March, the place it occupied in the time of Nu¬
ma, he ordered two extraordinary months to be inserted
between November and December in the current year,
the first to consist of thirty-three, and the second of thir¬
ty-four days. The intercalary month of twenty-three
days fell into the year of course, so that the ancient year
of 355 days received an augmentation of ninety days;
and the year on that occasion contained in all 445 days.
This was called the last year of confusion. The first Ju¬
lian year commenced with the 1st of January of the 46th
before the birth of Christ, and the 708th from the foun¬
dation of the city.
In the distribution of the days through the several
months, Caesar adopted a simpler and more commodious
arrangement than that which has since prevailed. He
had ordered that the first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and
eleventh months, that is January, March, May, July, Sep¬
tember, and November, should have each thirty-one days,
and the other months thirty, excepting February, which
in common years should have only twenty-nine, but every
fourth year thirty days. This order was interrupted to
gratify the vanity of Augustus, by giving the month bear¬
ing his name as many days as July, which was named af¬
ter the first Caesar. A day was accordingly taken from
February and given to August; and in order that three
months of thirty-one days might not come together, Sep¬
tember and November were reduced to thirty days, and
thirty-one given to October and December. For so fri¬
volous a reason was the regulation of Caesar abandoned,
and a capricious arrangement introduced, which it requires
some pains to remember.
The additional day which occurred every fourth year
was given to February, as being the shortest month, and
was inserted in the calendar between the twenty-fourth
and twenty-fifth day. February having then twenty-nine
days, the twenty-fifth was the sixth of the calends of
March, sexto calendas ; the preceding, which was the ad¬
ditional or intercalary day, was called bis-sexto calendas,
hence the term bissextile, which is still emplojmd to distin¬
guish the year of 366 days. The English denomination
of Leap- Year would have been more appropriate if that
year had differed from common years in defect, and con¬
tained only 364 days. In the ecclesiastical calendar the
intercalary day is still placed between the 24th and 25th
of February ; in the civil calendar it is the 29th.
The regulations of Cmsar were not at first sufficiently
understood; and the pontiffs, by intercalating every third
year instead of every fourth, at the end of thirty-six
years had intercalated twelve times instead of nine. This
mistake having been discovered, Augustus ordered that
all the years from the thirty-seventh of the era to the
forty-eighth inclusive should be common years, by which
means the intercalations were reduced to the proper num¬
ber of twelve in forty-eight years. No account is taken
of this blunder in chronology ; and it is tacitly supposed
that the calendar has been correctly followed from its
commencement.
Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps
the most convenient that could be adopted, yet, as it sup¬
poses the year too long by 11 minutes 10-35 seconds, it
could not without correction very long answer the purpose
for which it was devised, namely, that of preserving always
the same interval of time between the commencement of
the year and the equinox. Sosigenes could scarcely fail to
know that his year was too long; for it had been shown
6
CALENDAR.
Calendar, long before, by the observations of Hipparchus, that
the excess of 3651 (layS above a true solar year would
amount to a day in 300 years. The real error is indeed
more than double of this, and amounts to a day in 129
years; hut in the time of Caesar the length of the year
was an astronomical element not very well determin¬
ed. In the course of a few centuries, however, the equi¬
nox sensibly retrograded towards the beginning of the
year. When the Julian calendar was introduced, the equi¬
nox fell on the 25th of March. At the time of the Coun¬
cil of Nice, which was held in 325, it fell on the 21st;
and when the reformation was made in 1582, it had retro¬
graded to the 11th. In order to restore the equinox to
its former place, Pope Gregory XIII. directed ten days to
be suppressed in the calendar; and as the error of the
Julian intercalation was now found to amount to three
days in 400 years, he ordered the intercalations to be
omitted on all the centenary years excepting those which
are multiples of 400. According to the Gregorian rule of
intercalation, therefore, every year of which the number is
divisible by four without a remainder, is a leap year, ex¬
cepting the centurial years, which are only leap years when
divisible by four after suppressing the two zeros. Thus
1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800, and 1900, are com¬
mon years; 2000 will be a leap year, and so on.
As the Gregorian method of intercalation has been
adopted in all Christian countries, Russia excepted, it be¬
comes interesting to examine with Vhat degree of accu¬
racy it reconciles the civil with the solar year. According
to the best determinations of modern astronomy (Bailli’s
Tables, p. 16), the solar year consists of 365 days 5 h.
48 min. 49,62 sec. or 365’242241 days. Now the Grego¬
rian rule gives 97 intercalations in 400 years; 400 years
therefore contain 365 X 400-f97> that is, 146,097 days; and
consequently one year contains 365'2425 days, or 365 d.
5 h. 49 min. 12 sec. This exceeds the true solar year by
22*38 seconds, which amount to a day in 3866 years. It
is perhaps unnecessary to make any formal provision
against an error which can only happen after so long a pe¬
riod of time; but as 3866 differs little from 4000, it has
been proposed to correct the Gregorian rule by making
the year 4000 and all its multiples common years. With
this correction the rule of intercalation is as follows :—
Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a
leap year; excepting the last year of each century, which
is a leap year only when the number of the century is di¬
visible by 4: but 4000, and its multiples, 8000, 12,000,
16,000, &c. are common years. Thus the uniformity of the
intercalation, by continuing to depend on the number four,
is preserved, and by adopting the last correction the com¬
mencement of the year would not vary more than a day
from its present place in a thousand centuries.
In order to discover whether the coincidence of the civil
and solar year could not be restored in shorter periods by
a different method of intercalation, we may proceed as
follows:—The fraction 0.242241, which expresses the ex¬
cess of the solar year above a whole number of days, being
converted into a continued fraction, becomes
1
4+1
7+1
T+i
4+1
7+1
1 + , &c.
which gives the series of approximating fractions,
1 7 8 39 281 320
4’ 29’ 33’ 161’ 1160’ 1321*
The first of these gives the Julian intercalation of one day Calendar,
in four years, and is considerably too great. It supposes s***~^-*mJ
the year to contain 365 days 6 hours.
The second gives seven intercalary days in twenty-nine
years, and errs in defect, as it supposes a year of 365 d.
5 h. 47 min. 35 sec.
The third gives eight intercalations in thirty-three years,
or seven successive intercalations at the end of four years
respectively, and the eighth at the end of five years. This
supposes the year to contain 365 d. 5 h. 49. min. 5*45 sec.
The fourth fraction, ™ = _f§+L = ’X
’161 132 + 29 4 X 33 + 29’
combines four periods of thirty-three years with one of
twenty-nine, and would consequently be very inconve¬
nient in application. It supposes the year to consist of
365 d. 5 h. 48 min. 49*19 sec.
The fifth gives 281 intercalary days in 1160 years, aiid
supposes a year of 365 d. 5 h. 49*19 sec.
rp, . ,320 960
1 he sixth, gives 960 intercalary days in
3963 years, whereas the Gregorian rule gives 961 in that
time. It gives a year of 365 d. 5 h. 48 min. 49*59 sec.,
differing from the true solar year only by three-hundredths
of a second.
The fraction yy offers a convenient and very accurate
method of intercalation. It implies a year differing in excess
from the true year only by 15*38 seconds, while the Grego¬
rian year is too long by 25*38 seconds. In a period of thirty-
three years, therefore, it produces a nearer coincidence be¬
tween the civil and solar years than the Gregorian method
in 400 years ; and, by reason of its shortness, confines the
evagations of the mean equinox from the true within much
narrower limits. It has been stated by Scaliger, Weidlar,
Montucla, and others, that the modern Persians actually
follow this method, and intercalate eight days in thirty-
three years. The statement has, however, been contest¬
ed on good authority; and it seems proved (see Delam-
bre, Astronomie Moderne, tom. i. p. 81) that the Persian
7 8
intercalation combines the two periods — and yy. If they
7 + 4X8 39
follow the combination 294 x 33 = Jei’ the^r determi¬
nation of the length of the tropical year has been extremely
exact. The discovery of the period of thirty-three years
is ascribed to Omar Cheyam, one of the eight astronomers
appointed by Gelal-Eddin Malech Schah, sultan of Kho-
rassan, to reform or construct a calendar, about the year
1079 of our era.
If the commencement of the year, instead of being re¬
tained at the same place in the seasons by a uniform me¬
thod of intercalation, were made tp depend on astronomical
phenomena, the intercalations would succeed each other
in an irregular manner, sometimes after four years and
sometimes after five; and it would occasionally, though
rarely indeed, happen, that it would be impossible to de¬
termine the day on which the year ought to begin. In
the calendar, for example, which was attempted to be in¬
troduced in France in 1793, the beginning of the year was
fixed at the midnight preceding the day in which the true
autumnal equinox falls. But supposing the instant of the
sun’s entering into the sign Libra to be very near mid¬
night, the small errors of the solar tables might render it
doubtful to which day the equinox really belonged; and
it would be in vain to have recourse to observation to ob¬
viate the difficulty. It is therefore infinitely more com¬
modious to determine the commencement of the year by
a fixed rule of intercalation; and of the various methods
CALENDAR.
Calendar, which might be employed, no one, perhaps, is on the whole
'V'*"’" more easy of application, or better adapted for the pur¬
poses of computation, than the Gregorian.
Of the Lunar Year and Luni-solar Periods.—The lunar
year, consisting of twelve lunar months, contains only 354
days ; its commencement consequently anticipates that of
the solar year by eleven days, and passes through the
whole circle of the seasons in about thirty-four lunar years.
It is therefore so obviously ill adapted to the computation
of time, that, excepting the modern Jews and Mahomme-
dans, almost all nations who have regulated their months
by the moon have employed some method of intercalation
by means of which the beginning of the year is retained at
nearly the same fixed place in the seasons.
In the early ages of Greece the year was regulated en¬
tirely by the moon. Solon divided the year into twelve
months, consisting alternately of twenty-nine and thirty
days, the former of which were called deficient months, and
the latter full months. The lunar year, therefore, contain¬
ed 354 days, exceeding the exact time of twelve lunations
by about 8‘8 hours. The first expedient adopted to recon¬
cile the lunar and solar years seems to have been the
addition of a month of thirty days to every second year.
Two lunar years would thus contain 25 months, or 738
days, while two solar years, of 365^ days each, contain
7301 Jays. The difference of 7-1 days was still too great
to escape observation; it was accordingly proposed by
Cleostratus of Tenedos, who flourished shortly after the
time of Thales, to omit the biennary intercalation every
eighth year. In fact, the 7^ days by which two lunar
years exceeded two solar years, amounted to thirty days,
or a full month, in eight years. By inserting, therefore,
three additional months instead of four in every period of
eight years, the coincidence between the solar and lunar
year would have been exactly restored if the latter had
contained only 354 days, inasmuch as the period contains
354 X 8 + 3 X 30 =: 2922 days, corresponding with eight
solar years of 3651 days each. But the true time of 99
lunations is 2923'528 days, which exceeds the above pe¬
riod by 1*528 days, or thirty-six hours and a few minutes.
At the end of two periods, or sixteen years, the excess is
three days, and at the end of 160 years, thirty days. It
was therefore proposed to employ a period of 160 years,
in which one of the intercalary months should be omitted ;
but as this period was too long to be of any practical use,
it was never generally adopted. The common practice
was to make occasional corrections as they became neces¬
sary, in order to preserve the relation between the octen¬
nial period and the state of the heaven ; but these correc¬
tions being left to the care of incompetent persons, the ca¬
lendar soon fell into great disorder, and no certain rule
was followed till a new division of the year was proposed
by Meton and Euctemon, which was immediately adopted
in all the states and dependencies of Greece.
The Metonic Cycle, which may be regarded as the chef
d'ceuvre of ancient astronomy, is a period of nineteen solar
years, after which the new moons again happen on the
same days of the year. In nineteen solar years there are
235 lunations, a number which, on being divided by nine¬
teen, gives twelve lunations for each year, with seven of a
remainder, to be distributed among the years of the pe¬
riod. The period of Meton, therefore, consisted of twelve
years, containing twelve months each, and seven years
containing thirteen months each; and these last formed
the third, fifth, eighth, eleventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, and
nineteenth years of the cycle. As it had now been dis¬
covered that the exact length of the lunation is a little
more than twenty-nine and a half days, it became neces¬
sary to abandon the alternate succession of full and de¬
ficient months; and, in order to preserve a more accurate
correspondence between the civil month and the lunation, Calendar.
Meton divided the cycle into 125 full months of thirty
days, and 110 deficient months of twenty-nine days each.
The number of days in the period was therefore 6940. In
order to distribute the deficient months through the pe¬
riod in the most equable manner, the whole period may
be regarded as consisting of 235 full months of thirty
days, or of 7050 days, from which 110 days are to be de¬
ducted. This gives one day to be suppressed in sixty-
four; so that if we suppose the months to contain each
thirty days, and then omit every sixty-fourth day in reck¬
oning from the beginning of the period, those months in
which the omission takes place will be the deficient months
of course.
The number of days in the period being known, it is
eaSy to ascertain its accuracy both in respect of the solar
and lunar motions. The exact length of nineteen solar
years is 19 X 365*24224 = 6939*60156 days, or 6939 days
14 hours 26*275 minutes; hence the period, which is ex¬
actly 6940 days, exceeds nineteen revolutions of the sun
by nine and a half hours nearly. On the other hand,
the exact time of a synodic revolution of the moon
is 29*5305887 days; 235 lunations, therefore, contain
235 X 29*5305887 =r 6939*68834 days, or 6939 days 16
hours 31*2 minutes, so that the period exceeds 235 luna¬
tions only by seven and a half hours.
After the Metonic cycle had been in use about a cen¬
tury, a correction was proposed by Calippus. At the end
of four cycles, or seventy-six years, the accumulation of
the seven and a half hours of difference between the cycle
and 235 lunations amounts to thirty hours, or one whole
day and six hours. Calippus, therefore, proposed to quad¬
ruple the period of Meton, and deduct one day at the
end of that time by changing one of the full months into
a deficient month. The period of Calippus, therefore,
consisted of three Metonic cycles of 6940 days each, and
a period of 6939 days; and its error in respect of the moon,
consequently, amounted only to six hours, or to one day in
304 years. This period exceeds seventy-six true solar
years by fourteen hours and a quarter nearly, but coincides
exactly with seventy-six Julian years; and in the time of
Calippus the length of the solar year was almost univer¬
sally supposed to be exactly 3651 days. The Calippic
period is frequently referred to as a date by Ptolemy.
The Mahommedan Year, which is regulated entirely by
the moon, consists of twelve months, containing twenty-
nine and thirty days alternately; and in order to preserve
the correspondence between the civil month and the lu¬
nation, a method of intercalation is employed, which, in
point of accuracy, could scarcely be surpassed. The
moon’s synodic revolution is performed in 29 days 12
hours 44 min. 2*8 sec.*, whereas the civil month supposes
it only 291 days. Now the excess, which is 44 min. 2*8
sec., amounts to 8 hours 48 min. 35*6 sec. in a year, and,
neglecting the seconds, to 264 hours, or eleven days, in
thirty years. Hence, eleven times in thirty years one day
is added to the last month; so that in a period of thirty
years there are nineteen simple years of 354 days and
eleven intercalary years of 355 days. The average length
of the year, therefore, differs from twelve lunations only
by 35*6 seconds. The eleven intercalary years are the
second, fifth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, sixteenth, eigh¬
teenth, twenty-first, twenty-fourth, twenty-sixth, and
twenty-ninth, of each cycle of thirty years.
For an account of the year adopted by the Jews, Chinese,
Indians, and some other nations, and of the correspondence
of their eras and epochs with those employed by Euro¬
peans, the reader may consult the article Chronology.
Ecclesiastical Calendar.—The ecclesiastical calendar,
which is adopted in all the Catholic, and most of the Pro-
8
CALENDAR,
Calendar, testant countries of Europe, is luni-solar, being regulated
partly by the solar, and partly by the lunar year; a cir¬
cumstance which gives rise to the distinction between the
movable and immovable feasts. So early as the second
century of our era, great disputes had arisen among the
Christians respecting the proper time of celebrating Eas¬
ter, which governs all the other movable feasts. I he
Jews celebrated their passover on the 14th day of the
first month, that is to say, the lunar month of which the
fourteenth day either falls on, or next follows, the day of
the vernal equinox. Most Christian sects agreed that
Easter should be celebrated on a Sunday. Others follow¬
ed the example of the Jews, and adhered to the 14th of
the moon ; but these, as usually happened to the minority,
were accounted heretics, and received the appellation of
Quarto-decimantes. In order to terminate dissensions,
which produced both scandal and schism in the church,
the council of Nice, which was held in the year 32o, or¬
dained that the celebration of Easter should thenceforth
always take place on the Sunday which immediately fol¬
lows the full moon that happens upon, or next after, the
day of the vernal equinox. Should the fourteenth of the
moon, which is regarded as the day of full moon, happen
on a Sunday, the celebration of Easter was deferred to
the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with
the Jews and the above-mentioned heretics. The obser¬
vance of this rule renders it necessary to reconcile three
periods which have no common measure, namely, the
week, the lunar month, and the solar year; and as this
can only be done approximately, and within certain limits,
the determination of Easter is an affair of considerable
nicety and complication. It is to be regretted that the
reverend fathers who formed the council of Nice were not
advised to abandon the moon altogether, and appoint
Easter to be celebrated on the first or second Sunday of
April. The ecclesiastical calendar would in this case have
possessed all the simplicity and uniformity of the civil ca¬
lendar, which only requires the adjustment of the civil to
the solar year; but they were probably not sufficiently
versed in astronomy to be aware of the practical difficulties
which their regulation had to encounter.
Dominical Letter.—The first problem which the con¬
struction of the calendar presents is to connect the week
w'ith the year, or to find the day of the week correspond¬
ing to a given day of any year of the era. As the number
of days in the week and the number in the year are prime
to one another, two successive years cannot begin with the
same day ; for if a common year begins, for example, with
Sunday, the following year will begin with Monday, and
if a leap year begins with Sunday, the year following will
begin with Tuesday. For the sake of greater generality,
the days of the week are denoted by the first seven letters
of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, which are placed in
the calendar beside the days of the year, so that A stands
opposite the first day of January, B opposite the second,
and so on to G, which stands opposite the seventh ; after
which A returns to the eighth, and so on through the 365
days of the year. Now, if one of the days of the week,
Sunday for example, is represented by E, Monday will be
represented by F, Tuesday by G, Wednesday by A, and
so on ; and every Sunday through the year will have the
same character E, every Monday F, and so with regard to
the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is called the
Dominical Letter, or the Sunday Letter; and when the
dominical letter of the year is known, the letters which
respectively correspond to the other days of the week be¬
come known at the same time.
Solar Cycle.—In the Julian calendar the dominical let¬
ters are readily found by means of a short cycle, in which
they recur in the same order without interruption. The
number of years in the intercalary period being four, and Calendar,
the days of the week being seven, their product is 4 >< 7=28;
twenty-eight years is therefore a period which includes
all the possible combinations of the days of the week with
the commencement of the year. This period is called the
Solar Cycle, or the Cycle of the Sun, and restores the first
day of the year to the same day of the week. At the end
of the cycle the dominical letters return again in the sanm
order on the same days of the month; hence a table of
dominical letters, constructed for twenty-eight years, will
serve to show the dominical letter of any given year from
the commencement of the era to the reformation. I he
cycle, though probably not invented before the time of the
council of Nice, is regarded as having commenced nine years
before the era, so that the year one was the tenth of the solar
cycle. To find the year of the cycle, we have therefore
the following rule: Add nine to the date, divide the sum by
twenty-eight; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and
the remainder is the year of the cycle. Should there be no
remainder, the proposed year is the twenty-eighth or last
of the cycle. This rule is conveniently expressed by the
formula (X —^ , in which x denotes the date, and the
\ 28 /r
symbol r denotes that the remainder, which arises from the
division of a; + 9by 28, is the number required. Thus, for
1840 + 9 P f1840 + 9\
1840, we have  = 66^, therefore ^Jr
= 1, and the year 1840 is the first of the solar cycle.
In order to make use of the solar cycle in finding the
dominical letter, it is necessary to know that the first year
of the Christian era began 4vith Saturday. The dominical
letter of that year, which was the tenth of the cycle, was
consequently B. The following year, or the 11th of the
cycle, the letter was A ; then G. The fourth year was bis¬
sextile, and the dominical letters were F, E; the follow¬
ing year D, and so on. In this manner it is easy to find
the dominical letter belonging to each of the twenty-eight
years of the cycle. But at the end of a century the order
is interrupted in the Gregorian calendar by the secular
suppression of the leap year; hence the cycle can only
be employed during a century. In the reformed calendar
the intercalary period is four hundred years, which number
being multiplied by seven, gives two thousand eight hun¬
dred years as the interval in which the coincidence is re¬
stored between the days of the year and the days of the
week. This long period, however, may be reduced to four
hundred years ; for since the dominical letter goes back five
places every four years, its variation in four hundred years,
in the Julian calendar, was five hundred places, which is
equivalent to only three places (for five hundred divided
by seven leaves three); but the Gregorian calendar sup¬
presses exactly three intercalations in four hundred years,
so that after four hundred years the dominical letters must
again return in the same order.
Hence the following table of dominical letters for four
hundred years will serve to show the dominical letter of
any year in the Gregorian calendar for ever. It contains
four columns of letters, each column serving for a cen¬
tury. In order to find the column from which the letter
in any given case is to be taken, strike off the two last
figures of the date, divide the preceding figures by four,
and the remainder will indicate the column. The symbol
X, employed in the formula at the top of the column, de¬
notes the date after the two last figures have been sup¬
pressed. For example, required the dominical letter of the
year 1839? In this case X = 18, therefore = 2 5
and in the second column of letters, opposite 39, we find F,
which is the letter of the proposed year.
CALENDAR, '
9
Calendar.
TABLE I.—Dominical Letters.
It deserves to be remarked, that as the dominical letter
of the first year of the era was B, the first column of the
above table will give the dominical letter of every year
from the commencement of the era to the reformation.
For this purpose divide the date by 28, and the letter op¬
posite the remainder, in the first column of figures, is the
dominical letter of the year. For example, suppose the
date to be 1148. On dividing this number by 28, the re¬
mainder is 0, or 28; and opposite 28, in the first column
of letters, we find D, C, which, therefore, are the domini¬
cal letters of the year 1148.
Lunar Cycle and Golden Number.—In connecting the
lunar month with the solar year, the framers of the eccle¬
siastical calendar adopted the period of Meton, which
they supposed to be exact. A different arrangement has,
however, been followed with respect to the distribution of
the months. The lunations are supposed to consist of
twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, or the lunar year
of 354 days; and in order to make up nineteen solar
years, six embolismic or intercalary months, of thirty days
each, are introduced in the course of the cycle, and one
of twenty-nine days at the end. This gives 19 X 354 + 6
X 30 + 29 = 6935 days, to be distributed among 235 lu¬
nar months. But every leap year one day must be added to
the lunar month in which the 29th of February is includ¬
ed. Now if leap year happens on the first, second, or
VOL. VI.
third year of the period, there will be five leap years in Calendar,
the period, but only four when the first leap year'falls on
the fourth. In the former case the number of days in the
period becomes 6940, and in the latter 6939. The mean
length of the cycle is therefore 6939| days, agreeing ex¬
actly with nineteen Julian years.
By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the ca¬
lendar were indicated before the reformation. As the
cycle restores these phenomena to the same days of the
civil month, they will fall on the same days in any two
years which occupy the same place in the cycle; conse¬
quently a table of the moon’s phases for 19 years will
serve for any year whatever when we know its number
in the cycle. This number is called the Golden Number,
either because it was so termed by the Greeks, or because
it was usual to mark it with red letters in the calendar.
The Golden Numbers were introduced into the calendar
about the year 530, but disposed as they would have been
if they had been inserted at the time of the council of Nice.
The cycle is supposed to commence with the year in
which the new moon falls on the 1st of January, which
took place the year preceding the commencement of our
era. Hence, to find the Golden Number N, we have
——) , which gives the following rule : Add 1 to
the date, divide the sum by 19 ; the quotient is the number of
cycles elapsed, and the remainder is the Golden Number.
When the remainder is 0, the proposed year is of course
the last or 19th of the cycle. It ought to be remarked that
the new moons, determined in this manner, may differ from
the astronomical new moons sometimes so much as two
days. The reason is, that the sum of the solar and lunar
inequalities, which are compensated in the whole period,
may amount in certain cases to 10°, and thereby cause
the new moon to arrive on the second day before or after
its mean time.
Dionysian Period.—The cycle of the sun brings back
the days of the month to the same day of the week; the
lunar cycle restores the new moons to the same day of the
month; therefore 28 X 19 = 532 years, includes all the
variations in respect of the new moons and the dominical
letters, and is consequently a period after which the new
moons again occur on the same day of the month and the
same day of the week. This is called the Dionysian or Great
Paschal period, from its having been employed by Diony¬
sius Exiguus, familiarly styled Denys the Little, in deter¬
mining Easter Sunday. It was however first proposed by
Yictorius of Aquitain, who had been appointed by Pope
Hilary to revise and correct the church calendar. Hence
it is also called the Victorian period. It continued in use
till the Gregorian reformation.
Cycle of Indiction.—Besides the solar and lunar cycles,
there is a third of 15 years, called the cycle of indiction,
frequently employed in the computations of chronologists.
This period is not astronomical, like the two former; but
has reference to certain judicial acts which took place at
stated epochs under the Greek emperors. Its commence¬
ment is referred to the 1st of January of the year 313 of
the common era. By extending it backwards, it will be
found that the first of the era was the fourth of the cycle
of indiction. The number of any year in this cycle will
therefore be given by the formula L- that is to say,
add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder
is the year of the indiction. When the remainder is 0, the
proposed year is the fifteenth of the cycle.
Julian Period.—The Julian period, proposed by the
celebrated Joseph Scaliger as an universal measure of
chronology, is formed by taking the continued product of
B
10
CALENDAR.
Calendar, the three cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the in-
diction, and is consequently 28 X 19 X 15 =: 7980 years.
In the course of this long period no two years can be
expressed by tbe same numbers in all the three cycles.
Hence, when the number of any proposed year in each of
the cycles is known, its number in the Julian period can
be determined by the resolution of a very simple problem
of the indeterminate analysis. It is unnecessary, however,
in the present case, to exhibit the general solution of the
problem, because when the number in the period corre¬
sponding to any one year in the common era has been as¬
certained, it is easy to establish the correspondence for all
other years, without having again recourse to the direct so¬
lution of the problem. We shall therefore find the num¬
ber of the Julian period corresponding to the first of our
era.
We have already seen that the year 1 of the era had 10
for its number in the solar cycle, 2 in the lunar cycle, and
4 in the cycle of indiction; the question is therefore to
find a number such, that when it is divided by the three
numbers 28, 19, and 15 respectively, the three quotients
shall be 10, 2, and 4.
Let x, y, and z, be the three quotients of the divisions;
the number sought will then be expressed by 28 a; + 10,
by 19 ?/ + 2, or by 15 s + 4. Hence the two equations
28 x + 10 = 19 ?/ + 2 = 15 z + 4.
To resolve the equation 28 a; + 10 = 19 ?/ -|- 2, or
9a; + 8 9#+8
y — x "t* ——, Jet m = ———, we have then
x — 2 in +
19 ’ “ 19
m — 8 _ m — 8 , , , , _
—-—. Let —v.— = m ; then m — m + 8;
hence a? = 18 m’ + 16 + m’ = 19 m’ + 16 (1)
Again, since 28 a? + 10 15 z + 4, we have 15 z =
0 2 x — 6 T 2 x—6
28 x + 6, or z — 2 a?   . Let —  = n ;
15 15
71
then 2 a: r= 15 77 + 6, and a; = 7 77 + 3 + -. Let
- zz n'; then n — 2 n'; consequently
a; zz 14 ?7/ 3 -f- 77' — 15 77' -f- 3 (2)
Equating the above two values of x, wc have 15 n' + 3
zz!9 777' + 16; whence n' — m' -f- -- m Let
15
4 777' + 13 _
15
p ; we have then 4 777' zz \5> p — 13, and
, » + 13 T » + 13
4 p   . Let —^ — pt; then p — 4 p'
— 13 ; whence 777' zz \Q> p' — 52 — p>' zz 15 p' — 52.
Now in this equation p' may be any number whatever,
provided 15/7 exceed 52. The smallest value of// (which
is the one here wanted) is therefore 4; for 15 X 4 zz: 60.
Assuming therefore p’ — 4, we have m' zz 60 — 52 zz 8;
and consequently, since a; zz 19 m' + 15, a? =z 19 X 8
+ 16 zz 168. The number required is consequently
20 X 168 + 10 zz 4714.
Having found the number 4714 for the first of the era,
the correspondence of the years of the era and of the pe¬
riod is as follows:
Era, 1, 2, 3,... x,
Period, 4714, 4715, 4716,...4713 + a;;
from which it is evident, that if we take P to represent the
year of the Julian period, and Y the corresponding year
of the Christian era, we shall have
P zz 4713 + Y, and Y zz P — 4713.
With regard to the numeration of the years previous to
the commencement of the era, the practice is not uniform.
Chronologists, in general, reckon the year preceding the
first of the era —1, the next preceding
In this case
Era, —1, —2, —3,... —x,
Period, 4713, 4712, 4711,...4714—a; ;
whence
2, and SO on. Calendar.
P zz 4714 — Y, and Y zz 4714 — P.
But astronomers, in order to preserve the uniformity of
computation, make the series of years proceed without in¬
terruption, and reckon the year preceding the first of the
era 0. In this case
Era, 0, —1, —2,... —x,
Period, 4713, 4712, 4711,...4714—x;
therefore
P zz 4713 — Y, and Y = 4713 — P.
Reformation of the Calendar.—The ancient church ca¬
lendar was founded on two suppositions, both erroneous,
namely, that the year contains 365£ days, and that 235
lunations are exactly equal to nineteen solar years. It
could not therefore long continue to preserve its corre¬
spondence with the seasons, or to indicate the days of the
new moons with the same accuracy. About the year 730,
the venerable Bede had already perceived the anticipation
of the equinoxes, and remarked that these phenomena then
took place about three days earlier than at the time of the
council of Nice. Five centuries after the time of Bede, the
divergence of the true equinox from the 21st of March,
which now amounted to seven or eight days, was pointed
out by John of Sacrobosco, in a work published under the
title I)e Anni Ratione ; and by Roger Bacon, in a treatise
I)e Reformatione Calendarii, which, though never publish¬
ed, was transmitted to the pope. These works were pro¬
bably little regarded at the time; but as the errors of the
calendar went on increasing, and the true length of the year,
in consequence of the progress of astronomy, became bet¬
ter known, the project of a reformation was again revived
in the fifteenth century; and in 1474 Pope Sextus IV.
invited Regiomontanus, the most celebrated astronomer
of the age, to Rome, to superintend the reconstruction of
the calendar. The premature death of Regiomontanus
caused the design to be suspended for the present; but in
the following century numerous memoirs appeared on the
subject, among the authors of which were Stceffier, Albert
Pighius, John Schcener, Lucas Gauricus, and other ma¬
thematicians of celebrity. At length Pope Gregory XIII.
perceiving that the measure was likely to confer a great
eclat on his pontificate, undertook the long-desired refor¬
mation ; and having found the governments of the principal
catholic states ready to adopt his views, he issued a brief in
the month of March 1582, in which he abolished the use of
the ancient calendar, and substituted that which has since
been received in almost all Christian countries under the
name of the Gregorian Calendar or New Style. The au¬
thor of the system adopted by Gregory was Aloysius Li-
lius, or Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, a learned astronomer and
physician of Naples, who died, however, before its intro¬
duction ; but the individual who most contributed to give
the ecclesiastical calendar its present form, and who was
charged with all the calculations necessary for its verifi¬
cation, wasClavius, by whom it was completely developed
and explained in a great folio treatise of 800 pages, pub¬
lished in 1603, the title of which is given at the end of
this article.
It has already been mentioned that the error of the Ju¬
lian year was corrected in the Gregorian calendar by the
suppression of three intercalations in 400 years. In order
to restore the commencement of the year to the same place
in the seasons that it had occupied at the time of the
council of Nice, Gregory directed the day following the
feast of St Francis, that is to say the 5th of October, to
be reckoned the 15th of that month. By this regulation
CALENDAR.
11
Calendar, the vernal equinox, which now happened on the 11th of
March, was restored to the 21st. From 1582 to 1700, the
difference between the old and new style continued to be
ten days; but 1700 being a leap year in the Julian calen¬
dar, and a common year in the Gregorian, the difference
of the styles during the eighteenth century was eleven
days. The year 1800 was also common in the new calen¬
dar, and, consequently, the difference in the present cen¬
tury is twelve days. From 1900 to 2100 it will be thirteen
days.
The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the
year, and the correction of the intercalary period, were at¬
tended with no difficulty; but Lilius had also to adapt the
lunar year to the new rule of intercalation. The lunar
cycle contained 6939 days 18 hours, whereas the exact
time of 235 lunations, as we have already seen, is 235
X 29*5305887 = 6939 days 16 hours 31*2 minutes. The
difference, which is 1 hour 28*8 minutes, amounts to a day
in 308 years, so that at the end of this time the new
moons occur one day earlier than they are indicated by
the golden numbers. During the 1257 years that elapsed
between the council of Nice and the reformation, the
error had accumulated to four days, so that the new moons,
which were marked in the calendar as happening, for ex¬
ample, on the 5th of the month, actually fell on the first.
It would have been easy to correct this error by placing
the golden numbers four lines higher in the new calendar;
and the suppression of the ten days had already rendered
it necessary to place them ten lines lower, and to carry those
which belonged, for example, to the 5th and 6th of the
month, to the 15th and 16th. But, supposing this correction
to have been made, it would have again become necessary,
at the end of 308 years, to advance them one line higher, in
consequence of the accumulation of the error of the cycle
to a whole day. On the other hand, as the golden numbers
were only adapted to the Julian calendar, every omission
of the centenary intercalation would require them to be
placed one line lower, opposite the 6th, for example, in¬
stead of the 5 th of the month; so that, generally speak¬
ing, the places of the golden numbers would have to be
changed every century. On this account Lilius thought
fit to reject the golden numbers from the calendar, and
supply their place by another set of numbers called
Epacts, the use of which we shall now proceed to explain.
Epacts.—Epact is a word of Greek origin, employed in
the calendar to signify the moon’s age at the end of the
year. The common solar year containing 365 days, and
the lunar year only 354 days, the difference is eleven ;
whence, if a new moon fall on the 1st of January in any
year, the moon will be eleven days old on the first day of
the following year, and twenty-two days on the first of
the third year. The numbers eleven and twenty-two are
therefore the epacts of those years respectively. Another
addition of eleven gives thirty-three for the epact of the
fourth year; but in consequence of the insertion of the
intercalary month in each third year of the lunar cycle,
this epact is reduced to three. In like manner the epacts
of all the following years of the cycle are obtained by suc¬
cessively adding eleven to the epact of the former year,
and rejecting thirty as often as the sum exceeds that
number. They are therefore connected with the golden
numbers by the formula
in which n is any whole
number; and for a whole lunar cycle (supposing the first
epact to be 11), they are as follows: 11, 22, 3, 14, 25, 6,
17, 28, 9, 20, 1, 12, 23, 4, 15, 26, 7, 18, 29. But the order
is interrupted at the end of the cycle; for the epact of
the following year, found in the same manner, would be
29 + 11 = 40 = 10, whereas it ought again to be 11 to
correspond with the moon’s age and the golden number 1.
The reason of this is, that the intercalary month, inserted Calendar,
at the end of the cycle, contains only twenty-nine days in- '‘-■'"'y'-'w'
stead of thirty; whence, after 11 has been added to the
epact of the year corresponding to the golden number 19,
we must reject twenty-nine instead of thirty, in order to
have the epact of the succeeding year; or, which comes
to the same thing, we must add twelve to the epact of the
last year of the cycle, and then reject thirty as before.
This method of forming the epacts might have been
continued indefinitely if the Julian intercalation had been
followed without correction, and the cycle been perfectly
exact; but as neither of these suppositions is true, two
equations or corrections must be applied, one depend¬
ing on the error of the Julian year, which is called the
solar equation; the other on the error of the lunar cycle,
which is called the lunar equation. The solar equation
occurs three times in 400 years, namely, in every secular
year which is not a leap year; for in this case the omis¬
sion of the intercalary day causes the new moons to
arrive one day later in all the following months, so that
the moon’s age at the end of the month is one day less
than it would have been if the intercalation had been
made, and the epacts must accordingly be all diminished
by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, &c. become 10,
21, 2, 13, &c. On the other hand, when the time by
which the new moons anticipate the lunar cycle amounts
to a whole day, which, as we have seen, it does in 308
years, the new moons will arrive one day earlier, and the
epacts must consequently be increased by unity. Thus
the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, &c. in consequence of the lunar
equation, become 12, 23, 4, 15, &c. In order to preserve
the uniformity of the calendar, the epacts are changed
only at the commencement of a century; the correction
of the error of the lunar cycle is therefore made at the
end of 300 years. In the Gregorian calendar this error is
assumed to amount to one day in 3121 years, or eight days
in 2500 years, an assumption which requires the line of
epacts to be changed seven times successively at the end
of each period of 300 years, and once at the end of 400
years; and, from the manner in which the epacts were
disposed at the reformation, it was found most correct to
suppose one of the periods of 2500 years to terminate with
the year 1800.
The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting
from the reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200,
2300, 2500, &c. Those in which the lunar equation oc¬
curs are 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, 3600, 3900,
after which, 4300, 4600, and so on. When the solar equa¬
tion occurs, the epacts are diminished by unity ; when the
lunar equation occurs, the epacts are augmented by unity;
and when both equations occur together, as in 1800, 2100,
2700, &c. they compensate each other, and the epacts are
not changed.
In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is
evident that the epact, or moon’s age at the beginning of
the year, must, in the course of centuries, have all different
values from one to thirty inclusive, corresponding to the
days in a full lunar month. Hence, for the construction
of a perpetual calendar, there must be thirty different sets
or lines of epacts. These are exhibited in the subjoined
table (Table II.), called the Extended Table of Epacts,
which is constructed in the following manner. The series
of golden numbers is written in a line at the top of the
table, and under each golden number is a column of thir¬
ty epacts, arranged in the order of the natural numbers,
beginning at the bottom and proceeding to the top of the
column. The first column, under the golden number 1,
contains the epacts 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. to 30 or 0. The second
column, corresponding to the following year in the lunar
cycle, must have all its epacts augmented by 11; the low-
12 CALENDAR.
Calendar, est number therefore in the column is 12, then 13, 14, 15, are formed. Each of the thirty lines of epacts is desig- Calendar.
'—and so on. The third column, corresponding to the golden nated by a letter of the alphabet, which serves as its in-
number 3, has for its first epact 12 + 11 = 23 ; and in dex or argument. The order of the letters, like that ot
the same manner all the nineteen columns of the table the numbers, is from the bottom of the column upwards.
TABLE II.—Extended Table of Epacts.
In the tables of the church calendar the epacts are
usually printed in Roman numerals, excepting the last,
which is designated by an asterisk (#), used as an indefinite
symbol to denote 30 or 0; and 25, which in the eight last
columns is expressed in Arabic characters, for a reason
that will immediately be explained. In the table here
given, this distinction is made by means of an accent
placed over the last figure.
At the reformation the epacts were given by the line D.
The year 1600 was a leap year ; the intercalation accord¬
ingly took place as usual, and there was no interruption
in the order of the epacts; the line D was employed till
1700. In that year the omission of the intercalary day
rendered it necessary to diminish the epacts by unity, or
to pass to the line C. In 1800 the solar equation again
occurred, in consequence of which it was necessary to de¬
scend one line to have the epacts diminished by unity;
but in this year the lunar equation also occurred, the an¬
ticipation of the new moons having amounted to a day;
the new moons accordingly happened a day earlier, which
rendered it necessary to take the epacts in the next high¬
er line. There was consequently no alteration ; the two
equations destroyed each other. The line of epacts be¬
longing to the present century is therefore C. In 1900
the solar equation occurs, after which the line is B. The
year 2000 is a leap year, and there is no alteration. In
2100 the equations again occur together and destroy each
other, so that the line B will serve three centuries, from
1900 to 2200. From that year to 2300 the line will be
A. In this manner the line of epacts belonging to any
given century is easily found, and the method ot proceed¬
ing is obvious. When the solar equation occurs alone,
the line of epacts is changed to the next lower in the
table ; when the lunar equation occurs alone, the line is
changed to the next higher; when both equations occur
together, no change takes place. In order that it may be
perceived at once to what centuries the different lines of
epacts respectively belong, we have placed them in a co¬
lumn on the left hand side of the above table.
The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new
moons, and consequently the moon’s age on any day of the
year. For this purpose they are placed in the calendar
C A L E
Calendar. (Table III.) along with the days of the month and domini-
'-Y'"'-' cal letters, in a retrograde order, so that the asterisk stands
beside the 1st of January, 29 beside the 2d, 28 beside the
3d, and so on to 1, which corresponds to the 30th. After
this comes the asterisk, which corresponds to the 31st of
January, then 29, which belongs to the 1st of February,
and so on to the end of the year. The reason of this dis¬
tribution is evident. If the last lunation of any year ends,
for example, on the 2d of December, the new moon falls
on the 3d; and the moon’s age on the 31st, or at the end
N D A R.
13
of the year, is twenty-nine days. The epact of the follow- Calendar,
ing year is therefore twenty-nine. Now that lunation hav-
ing commenced on the 3d of December, and consisting of
thirty days, will end on the 1st of January. The 2d of
January is therefore the day of the new moon, which is
indicated by the epact twenty-nine. In like manner, if
the new moon fell on the 4th of December, the epact of
the following year would be twenty-eight, which, to indi¬
cate the day of next new moon, must correspond to the
3d of January.
TABLE III.— Gregorian Calendar.
E L E L
E L
•c
p.
■<
E L
E
E L
E L
3
M
3
•<
E L
E
E
E
E
29
28
27
26
25'25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
29
28
27
25'26
25 24
#
29
28
27
26
29
28
27
25'26
2524
28
27
26
25'25
24
27
25'26
25 24
23
22
26
25'25
24
23
22
25 24
23
22
21
20
23
22
21
20
19
22
21
20
19
18
21
20
19
18
17
23
22
21
20
19
25'25
24
23
22
21
23
22
21
20
19
23
22
21
20
19
21
20
19
18
17
21
20
19
18
17
19
18
17
16
15
18
17
16
15
14
17
16“
15
14
13
16
15
14
13
12
18
17
16
15
14
20
19
18
17
16
18
17
16
15
14
18
17
16
15
14
16
15
14
13
12
16
15
14
13
12
14
13
12
11
10
13
12
11
10
9
12
11
10
9
8
11
10
9
8
7
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
13
12
11
10
9
15
14
13
12
11
13
12
11
10
9
13
12
11
10
9
11
10
9
8
7
11
10
9
8
7
10
9
8
7
6
3
2
1
*
29
2
1
*
29
28
1
*
29
28
27
*
29
28
27
26
26
27
28
29
30
3
2
1
*
29
3
2
1
*
29
1
*
29
28
27
1
*
29
28
27
29
28
27
26
25'25
28
27
25'26
25 24
23
27
26
2525
24
23
25'26
25 24
23
22
21
25'25
24
23
22
21
Ei
28 D
25'26 B
24 E
22
19'20 A
When the epact of the year is known, the days on which
the new moons occur throughout the whole year are shown
by this table, which is called the Gregorian Calendar of
Epacts. For example, the epact of the year 1832, as
found in Table II., is twenty-eight. This epact occurs at
the 3d of January, the 2d of February, the 3d of March,
the 2d of April, the 1st of May, &c.; and these days are
consequently the days of the ecclesiastical new moons in
1832. The astronomical new moons generally take place
one or two days, sometimes even three days, earlier than
those of the calendar.
There are some artifices employed in the construction
of this table, to which it is necessary to pay attention.
The thirty epacts correspond to the thirty days of a full
lunar month ; but the lunar months consist of twenty-nine
and thirty days alternately; therefore in six months of the
year the thirty epacts must correspond only to twenty-nine
days. For this reason the epacts twenty-five and twenty-
four are placed together, so as to belong only to one day
in the months of February, April, June, August, Septem¬
ber, and November, and in the same months another 25',
distinguished by an accent, or by being printed in a dif-
14
CALENDAR.
Calendar, ferent character, is placed beside 26, and belongs to the
same day. The reason for doubling the 25 was to prevent
the new moons from being indicated in the calendar as
happeniftg twice on the same day in the course of the
lunar cycle, a thing which actually cannot take place.
For example, if we observe the line B in Table II., we shall
see that it contains both the epacts twenty-four and twen¬
ty-five, so that if these correspond to the same day of the
month, two new moons would be indicated as happening
on that day within nineteen years. Now the three epacts
24, 25, 26, can never occur in the same line ; therefore in
those lines in which 24 and 25 occur, the 25 is accented,
and placed in the calendar beside 26. When 25 and 26
occur in the same line of epacts, the 25 is not accented,
and in the calendar stands beside 24. rlhe lines of epacts
in which 24 and 25 both occur, are those which are mark¬
ed by one of the eight letters b, e, k, n, r, B, E, N, in all
of which 25' stands in a column corresponding to a golden
number higher than 11. There are also eight lines in
which 25 and 26 occur, namely, c,/, l, p, s, C, F, P. In
the other 14 lines, 25 either does not occur at all, or it
occurs in a line in which neither 24 nor 26 is found.
From this it appears, that if the golden number of the
year exceeds 11, the epact 25, in six months of the year,
must correspond to the same day in the calendar as 26 ;
but if the golden number does not exceed 11, that epact
must correspond to the same day as 24. Hence the rea¬
son for distinguishing 25 and 25'. In using the calendar,
if the epact of the year is 25, and the golden not above 11,
take 25 ; but if the golden number exceeds 11, take 25'.
Another peculiarity requires explanation. The epact
19' (also distinguished by an accent or different character)
is placed in the same line with 20 at the 31st of Decem¬
ber. It is, however, only used in those years in which the
epact 19 concurs with the golden number 19. When the
golden number is 19, that is to say, in the last year of the
lunar cycle, the supplementary month contains only 29
days. Hence, if in that year the epact should be 19, a
new moon would fall on the 2d of December, and the lu¬
nation would terminate on the 30th, so that the next new
moon would arrive on the 31st. The epact of the year,
therefore, or 19, must stand beside that day, whereas, ac¬
cording to the regular order, the epact corresponding to
the 31st of December is 20; and this is the reason for
the distinction.
As an example of the use of the preceding tables, sup¬
pose it were required to determine the moon’s age on
the 10th of April 1832. In 1832 the golden number is
/I832 + 1\
V 19 Jr
— 9, and the line of epacts belonging to the
century is C. In Table II. under 9, and in the line C, we
find the epact 28. In the calendar, Table III. look for
April, and the epact 28 is found opposite the second day.
The 2d of April is therefore the first day of the moon,
and the 10th is consequently the ninth day of the moon.
Again, suppose it were required to find the moon’s age on
the 2d of December in the year 1916. In this case the
golden number is
/1916 + 1\
V 19 Jr
= 17, and the line
of
epacts is B. Under 17, in line B, the epact is 25'. In
the calendar this epact first occurs before the 2d of De¬
cember at the 26th of November. The 26th of November
is consequently the first day of the moon, and the 2d of
December is therefore the seventh day.
Easter.—The next, and indeed the principal use of the
calendar, is to find Easter, which, according to the regu¬
lation of the council of Nice, must be determined from the
following conditions : First, Easter must be celebrated on
a Sunday; second, this Sunday must follow the 14th day
of the paschal moon, so that if the 14th of the paschal Calendar,
moon falls on a Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated
on the Sunday following; third, the paschal moon is that
of which the 14th day falls on or next follows the day of
the vernal equinox; fourth, the equinox is fixed invari¬
ably in the calendar on the 21st of March.
From these conditions it follows, that the paschal full
moon, or the 14th of the paschal moon, cannot happen
before the 21st of March, and that Easter in consequence
cannot happen before the 22d of March. If the 14th of
the moon falls on the 21st, the new moon must’ fall on
the 8th; for 21 — 13 = 8; and the paschal new moon
cannot happen before the 8th; for suppose the new moon
to fall on the 7th, then the full moon would arrive on the
20th, or the day before the equinox. The following moon
would be the paschal moon. But the fourteenth of this
moon falls at the latest on the 18th of April, or 29 days
after the 20th of March; for by reason of the double
epact that occurs at the 4th and 5th of April, this lunation
has only 29 days. Now, if in this case the 18th of April
is Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on the follow¬
ing Sunday, or the 25th of April. Hence Easter Sunday
cannot happen earlier than the 22d of March, or later
than the 25th of April.
Hence we derive the following rule for finding Easter
Sunday from the tables. 1st, Find from Table II. the epact
of the proposed year. 2d, Find in the calendar (Table III.)
the first day after the 7th of March, which corresponds to
the epact of the year; this will be the first day of the pas¬
chal moon. 3J, Reckon thirteen days after that of the
first of the moon ; the following will be the fourteenth of
the moon, or the day of the full paschal moon, ^th, Find
from Table I. the dominical letter of the year, and observe
in the calendar the first day after the fourteenth of the
moon, which corresponds to the dominical letter ; this will
be Easter Sunday.
Example.—Required the day on which Easter Sunday
falls in the year 1840? ls£, For this year the golden
number is ^ = and the epact (Table II.
line C) is 26. 2d, After the 7th of March the epact 26
first occurs in Table III. at the 4th of April, which there¬
fore is the day of the new moon. 3c?, Since the new moon
falls on the 4th, the full moon is on the 17th (4 + 13 = 17).
Uh, The dominical letters of 1840 are E, D (Table I.), of
which D must be taken, as E belongs only to January and
February. After the 17th of April D first occurs in the
calendar (Table III.) at the 19th. Therefore, in 1840,
Easter Sunday falls on the 19th of April.
Such is the very complicated and artificial, though
highly ingenious method, invented by Lilius, for the
determination of Easter and the other movable feasts.
Its principal, though perhaps least obvious advantage, con¬
sists in its being entirely independent of astronomical
tables, or indeed of any celestial phenomena whatever; so
that all chances of disagreement arising from the inevit¬
able errors of tables, or the uncertainty of observation, are
avoided, and Easter determined without the possibility of
mistake. But this advantage is only procured by the sacri¬
fice of some accuracy: for notwithstanding the cumbersome
apparatus employed, the conditions of the problem are not
always exactly satisfied, nor is it possible that they can be
always satisfied by any similar method of proceeding. The
equinox is fixed on the 21stof March, though the sun enters
Aries generally on the 20th of that month, sometimes even
on the 19th. It is therefore quite possible that a full moon
may arrive after the true equinox, and yet precede the
21st of March. This therefore would not be the paschal
moon of the calendar, though it undoubtedly ought to be
so, if the intention of the council of Nice were rigidly fol-
CALENDAR.
15
Calendar, lowed. The new moons Indicated by the epacts also dif-
fer from the astronomical new moons, and even from the
mean new moons, in general by one or two days. In imita¬
tion of the Jews, who counted the time of the new moon, not
from the moment of the actual phase, but from the time the
moon first became visible after the conjunction, the four¬
teenth day of the moon is regarded as the full moon ; but
the moon is in opposition generally on the 16th day; there¬
fore, when the new moons of the calendar nearly concur
with the true new moons, the full moons are considerably
in error. The epacts are also placed so as to indicate the
full moons generally one or two days after the true full
moons ; but this was done purposely, to avoid the chance
of concurring with the Jewish passover, which the framers
of the calendar seem to have considered a greater evil
than that of celebrating Easter a week too late.
We will now show in ovhat manner this whole appa¬
ratus of methods and tables may be dispensed with, and
the Gregorian calendar reduced to a few simple formulae
of easy computation. And, first, to find the dominical
letter.
Let L denote the number of the dominical letter of any
given year of the era. Then, since every year which is
not a leap year ends with the same day as that with which
it began, the dominical letter of the following year must
be (L — 1), retrograding one letter every common year.
After x years, therefore, the number of the letter will be
(L — x). But as L can never exceed 7, the number x
will always exceed L after the first seven years of the
era. In order therefore to render the subtraction possible,
L must be increased by some multiple of 7, as 7m, and
the formula then becomes (7m + L — x). In the year
preceding the first of the era, the dominical letter was C ;
for that year, therefore, we have L = 3 ; consequently for
any succeeding year x, Ju = (7m + 3 — x), the years
being all supposed to consist of 365 days. But every
fourth year is a leap year, and the effect of the intercala¬
tion is to throw the dominical letter one place farther
back. The above expression must therefore be dimi¬
nished by the number of units in j, or by (A (this nota-
tion being used to denote the quotient, in a whole number,
that arises from dividing x by 4). Hence in the Julian
calendar the dominical letter is given by the equation
L = 7 m + 3 — x — fA .
X^Jw
This equation gives the dominical letter of any year
from the commencement of the era to the reformation.
In order to adapt it to the Gregorian calendar, we must
first add the 10 days that were left out of the year 1582;
in the second place we must add one day for every cen¬
tury that has elapsed since 1600, in consequence of the
secular suppression of the intercalary day; and lastly, we
must deduct the units contained in a fourth of the same
number, because every fourth centesimal year is still a
leap year. Denoting therefore the number of the cen¬
tury (or the date after the two right-hand digits have
been struck out) by c, the value of L must be increased
by 10 + (c — 16) — [°-—We have then
L=7m-f 3 x (!)w+ 10 + (e 16) -
that is, since 3 + 10 =: 13 = 6 (the 7 days being rejected,
as they do not affect the value of L),
L = 7M + 6 + (e- 16)-
This formula is perfectly general, and easily calculated.
As an example, let us take the year 1839. In this case, Calendar.
- = 1839’ ©„= (T)„ = 459’ * = I* * - 16 = 2,
Hence
and
= 0.
I, = 7m + 6 — 1839 — 459 + 2 — 0.
L = 7m — 2290 = 7 X 328 — 2290.
L =: 6 - F.
The year therefore begins with Monday. It will be re¬
membered that in a leap year there are always two do¬
minical letters, one of which is employed till the 29th of
February, and the other till the end of the year. In this
case, as the formula supposes the intercalation already
made, the resulting letter is that which applies after the
29th of February. Before the intercalation the dominical
letter had retrograded one place less. Thus for 1840 the
formula gives D ; during the first two months, therefore,
the dominical letter is E.
In order to investigate a formula for the epact, let us
make
E = the true epact of the given year ;
J = the Julian epact, that is to say, the number the epact
would have been if the Julian year had been still
in use, and the lunar cycle had been exact;
S = the correction depending on the solar year;
M = the correction depending on the lunar cycle;
then the equation of the epact will be
E = J + S + M;
so that E will be known when the numbers J, S, and M,
are determined.
The epact J depends on the golden number N, and must
be determined from the fact that in 1582, the first year of
the reformed calendar, N was 6, and J = 26. For the fol¬
lowing years, therefore, the golden numbers and epacts
are as follows:
and in
1583, N = 7, J = 26 + 11 — 30 = 7;
1584, N= 8, J= 7+11 =18;
1585, N = 9, J = 18 + 11 =29;
1586, N= 10, J = 29 + 11 — 30= 10;
1T /26 +11 (N — 6)\ „ ^
general J = ( ^ 1 . But the nume¬
rator of this fraction becomes by reduction 11 N — 40
= 11 N — 10 (the 30 being rejected, as the remainder
only is sought) = N + 10 (N — 1) ; therefore, ultimately
/N + 10 (N — 1)\
\ 30 Jr
On account of the solar equation S, the epact J must
be diminished by unit every centesimal year, excepting
always the fourth. After x centuries, therefore, it must
be diminished by a; —
Now, as 1600 was a leap
year, the first correction of tl\e Julian intercalation took
place in 1700; hence, taking c to denote the number of
the century as before, the correction becomes (c — 16)
which must be deducted from J.
We
have therefore
S=_(c_16)+(1=L^.
With regard to the lunar equation M, we have already
stated that in the Gregorian calendar the epacts are in¬
creased by unit at the end of every period of 300 years,
seven times successively, and the following increase takes
place at the end of 400 years. This gives eight to be added
in a period of twenty-five centuries, and — in # centuries.
aO
!
16
Calendar-
—
CALENDAR.
Kut— = — — —=- — — = lx—(£). Now from
25 24 600 3 75 3 \25j
the manner in which the intercalation is directed to be
made (namely, seven times successively at the end of
300 years, and once at the end of 400), it is evident that
the fraction ^ must amount to unit when the number of
centuries amounts to twenty-four. In like manner, when
the number of centuries is 24 + 25 = 49, we must have
~z= 2; when the number of centuries is 24 + 2 X 25=74,
then ^r=:3; and, generally, when the number of centuries
is 24 + ?* X 25, then ^ = w + 1.
Now this is a condition
which will evidently be expressed in general by the formu¬
la n  . Hence the correction of the epact, or
V 25 Jw
the number of days to be intercalated after x centuries
reckoned from the commencement of one of the periods
U-(X-±V
ies, is -j V 25
( 3
of twenty-five centuries,
-l]
The last
period of twenty-five centuries terminated with 1800;
therefore, in any succeeding year, if cbe the number of the
century, we shall have x — c — 18 and x + 1 = c — 17.
Let [C ^ = a, then for all years after 1800 the value
\ 25 )io
of M will be given by the formula^ there-
l = letter belonging to the day on which the 15th of the Calendar,
moon falls;
then, since Easter is the Sunday following the 14th of the
moon, we have
p=P+(L —0-
The value of L is always given by the formula for the
dominical letter, and P and l are easily deduced from the
epact, as will appear from the following considerations.
When P=l, the full moon is on the 21st of March, and
the new moon on the eighth (21 — 13=8), therefore the
moon’s age on the 1st of March (which is the same as on the
1st of January) is twenty-three days ; the epact of the year
is consequently twenty-three. When P=2 the new moon
falls on the ninth, and the epact is consequently twenty-two;
and, in general, when P becomes 1 E becomes 23—a?,
therefore P + E = l + ic+23 —^ = 24, and P = 24 —E.
In like manner, when P=l, £=D=4; for D is the domi¬
nical letter of the calendar belonging to the 22d of March.
But it is evident that when l is increased by unity, that is
to say, when the full moon falls a day later, the epact of
the year is diminished by unity; therefore, in general,
when Z=4 + a;, E=23—^whence/+E=27 and 1—21—E.
But P can never be less than 1 nor l less than 4, and in
both cases E=23. When, therefore, E is greater than 23,
we must add 30 in order that P and l may have positive
values in the formula P=24 — E and 1—21—E. Hence
there are two cases.
( p=24 — E
i te27_E, or
Y P=54 —E
| ,=57_-
When E < 24
When E> 23
A 3
fore, counting from the beginning of the calendar in 1582,
_ fc__ 15 —a)
“l 3 /
Z=57_E,or(^.
M
w
By the substitution of these values of J, S, and M, the
equation of the epact becomes
By substituting one or other of these values of P and l,
according as the case may be, in the formula />=?+
(L — 1), we shall have p, or the number of days from the
21st of March to Easter Sunday. It will be remarked,
that as (L — 1) cannot either be 0 or negative, we must
add 7 to L as often as may be necessary, in order that
(L — l) may be a whole positive number.
/N+10(N—1)\ fc~l6\ (c—15—a\ By means of the formulae which we have now given for
E —( go )r—c lt)+ \ 4“ 3 Jw the dominical letter, the golden number, and the epact,
 ' Easter Sunday may be computed for any year after the
It may be remarked, that as a = (——) , the value of reformation, without the assistance of any tables whatever.
\ 2b Jw As an example, suppose it were required to compute
Easter for the year 1840. By substituting this number
in the formula for the dominical letter, we have x= 1840,
c—16=2, (“r—) =0, therefore
\ 4 Jio
L,=lm-\-6— 1840 — 460+2
a will be 0 till c —17=25 or c=42; therefore, till the
year 4200, a may be neglected in the computation. Had
the anticipation of the new moons been taken, as it ought
to have been, at one day in 308 years instead of 3121, the
lunar equation would have occurred only twelve times in
3700 years, or eleven times successively at the end of 300
years, and then at the end of 400. In strict accuracy,
therefore, a ought to have no value till c— 17=37, or
c=54, that is to say, till the year 5400. The above for¬
mula for the epact is given by Delambre {Hist, de VAstro¬
nomic Moderne, tom. i. p. 9) ; it may be exhibited under
a variety of forms, but the above is perhaps the best adapt¬
ed for calculation. Another had previously been given
by Gauss, but inaccurately, inasmuch as the correction
depending on a was omitted.
Having determined the epact of the year, it only re¬
mains to find Easter Sunday from the conditions already
laid down. Let
P=the number of days from the 21st of March to the
15th of the paschal moon, which is the first day on
which Easter Sunday can fall;
p=the number of days from the 21st of March to Easter
Sunday;
L = dominical letter of the year;
-lm — 2292
=7 X 328 — 2292=2296 — 2292=4
L=4=D.
.(1).
For the golden number we have N= ^ 19^ )y’
therefore N=17 (2).
^ ^ r /N+ 10(N—1)\ /17 +160\
For the epact we have I  —  ) = I—^— 1
= 0^J^ =27; likewise c—16=18—16=2,^—^— = 1,
a=0, therefore
E=27 —2+1=26 (3).
Now since E > 23, we have for P and l,
P=54 — E=54 —26=28,
consequently, since j9=P + (L — l)
jt?=28 + (4 — 3)=29 ;
CAL
Calender, that is to say, Easter happens twenty-nine days after the
21st of March, or on the 19th of April, the same result
as was before found from the tables.
The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and
the times of their celebration, are as follows:
Septuagesima Sunday! f9 weeks) before
Ash Wednesday  j \46 days / Easter.
Rogation Sunday 'v r5 weeks'v
Ascension day or Holy Thursday ( • ' 40 days (after
Pentecost or Whitsunday C lSj 7 weeks f~Easter.
The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Por¬
tugal, and part of Italy, the same day as at Rome. In
France it was received in the same year in the month of
December, and by the Catholic states of Germany the
year following. In the Protestant states of Germany the
Julian calendar was adhered to till the year 1700, when it
was decreed by the diet of Ratisbon that the new style
and the Gregorian correction of the intercalation should
be adopted. Instead, however, of employing the golden
numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter and
the movable feasts, it was resolved that the equinox and
the paschal moon should be found by astronomical com¬
putation from the Rudolphine tables. But this method,
though at first view it may appear more accurate, was
soon found to be attended with numerous inconveniences,
and was at length, in 1774, abandoned at the instance of
Frederic II. king of Prussia. In Denmark and Sweden
the reformed calendar was received about the same time
as in the Protestant states of Germany. Russia still ad¬
heres to the Julian reckoning.
In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a
long time successfully opposed by popular prejudice. The
inconvenience, however, of using a different date from
that employed by the greater part of Europe, in matters
of history and chronology, began to be generally felt; and
at length, in 1751, an act of parliament was passed for the
adoption of the new style in all public and legal transac-
C A L 17
tions. The difference of the two styles, which then Calender,
amounted to eleven days, was removed by ordering the
day following the 2d of September of the year 1752 to be
accounted the 14th of that month; and in order to preserve
uniformity in future, the Gregorian rule of intercalation
respecting the secular years was adopted. At the same
time, the commencement of the legal year was changed
from the 25th of April to the 1st of January. With re¬
spect to the movable feasts, Easter is determined by the
rule laid down by the council of Nice ; but instead of em¬
ploying the new moons and epacts, the golden numbers
are prefixed to the days of the full moons. In those years
in which the line of epacts is changed in the Gregorian
calendar, the golden numbers are removed to different
days, and of course a new table is required whenever
the solar or lunar equation occurs. The golden numbers
have been placed so that Easter may fall on the same day
as in the Gregorian calendar. The calendar of the church
of England is therefore from century to century the same
in form as the old Roman calendar, excepting that the
golden numbers indicate the full moons instead of the new
moons.
The principal works on the calendar are the following:
Clavius, Romani Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P. M. res-
tituti Explicatio. Romse, 1603.
Lalande, Astronomic, tom. ii.
Traite de la Sphere et du Calendrier, par M. Revard.
Paris, 1816.
Delambre, Traite de TAstronomic Theorique et Pra¬
tique, tom. iii. Histoire de lAstronomic Moderne.
Methodus technica brevis, perfacilis ac perpetua, constru-
endi Calendarium Ecclesiasticum, Stylo tam novo quam
vetere, pro cunctis ChristianisEuropce populis, Sfc. Auctore
Paulo Tittel. Gcettinguae, 1816.
Formole analitiche pel calcolo della Pasqua, e correzicne
di quello di Gauss, con critiche osservazioni sii quanto ha
scritto del Calendario il Delambre, di Lodovico Ciccolini.
Roma, 1817. (s.)
CALENDER, a mechanical engine empioyed by cloth-
lappers, for dressing and finishing cloths and stuffs of va¬
rious descriptions and fabrics, before exposure to sale, or
delivery to purchasers. It is also used by calico-printers,
in order to extend and smooth the surface of their cloths,
after they have been bleached, and before they are sub¬
jected to the operations of the printing table or copper¬
plate press.
In all cases two, and in many three requisites must be
attained, in order to give to cloth that appearance which
it is deemed necessary that it should possess, to attract
the eye and gratify the fancy of the purchaser and con¬
sumer.
The^/zrstf of these requisites consists in as perfect exten¬
sion and smoothness of surface as can be attained ; so that
no wrinkle or doubled folding may remain in it, excepting
such as shall afterwards be intentionally made, in order
to the reducing of it to the proper form and shape.
The second requisite acquired by the calendering of
cloth, is the compression of the yarn or threads of which
the texture is composed, which in some degree divests
them of their cylindrical shape, and reduces them to a de¬
gree of flatness, which, by bringing them more closely into
contact with each other, gives to the fabric a greater ap¬
pearance of closeness and strength than it would other¬
wise possess. The operation of the calender also im¬
proves the superficial appearance, by flattening down all
knots, lumps, and other imperfections, from which no
material from which cloth is fabricated can ever be en¬
voi,. VI.
tirely freed during the previous processes of spinning and
weaving.
And, thirdly, in many fabrics it is desirable, and esteem¬
ed a great addition to the effect and beauty of the super¬
ficial appearance, that cloth should receive, by means of
friction, an additional lustre or polish, which is generally
distinguished by the appellation of glazing, and is chiefly
required in those stuffs which are employed in the orna¬
mental descriptions of female attire.
Such, in a strictly limited sense, are the sole and exclu¬
sive effects resulting from the mechanical operation of the
calender; but, as other operations besides smoothing or
glazing are necessary for the proper preparation of cloths
for the market, these also are carried on by the same per¬
sons, and in the same premises. Hence by a natural, al¬
though not strictly correct, extension of its acceptation,
the term calender, which really means only the chief me¬
chanical engine employed, gives the general name to the
whole establishment where all the varied operations of
cloth-lapping are carried on; and it is as usual to say that
goods are packed, as that goods are dressed, at a calender.
In the illustration, therefore, of those operations which
the limits of this article will admit, the first object will be
to convey a distinct idea of the principles, construction,
and operation of the principal machinery employed; and
then to add such general and miscellaneous observations
as may serve to elucidate how the business of cloth-lap-
ping is carried on in its present extended form.
For the purpose of smoothing both surfaces of a piece
c
18
CALENDER.
Calender, of cloth, it is necessary that they should be exposed to
'universal contact and pressure in every point, with some
body of sufficient density to acquire the requisite degree of
superficial polish. Such equality of surface, however, as
will produce this effect, is not very easily attainable in large
plane surfaces. Hence the contact of cylinders in this
operation has been found to be in all respects infinitely
preferable to that of planes, both in the speed and the ef¬
fect of the operation. The common domestic smoothing
iron is the most simple of all calendering utensils; but,
even in the application of its small and limited surface, it
would be difficult to procure any table or board sufficient¬
ly level to bring the whole cloth into equal contact with
the iron, without the intervention of a few folds of blan¬
ket, or some other thick and soft woollen cloth.
The old and now almost entirely superseded machine
termed a mangle gives the most simple and rude approxi¬
mation towards cylindrical calendering, and the substitu¬
tion of circular for plane surfaces. Its operation is that
of a cylinder applied to a plane, upon which it is rolled
backward and forward, until some degree of smoothness
is produced by this reciprocating motion. It is, there¬
fore, very analogous in principle to the common gardener’s
roller, with which land is resmoothed after having been
dug up for sowing or other agricultural purposes.
The smoothing calender completes the substitution of
cylindrical for plane surfaces, all the parts which operate
upon the cloth being of that form. This ingenious engine,
which was introduced into Britain from Flanders and Hol¬
land, during the persecution of the Huguenots, has, since
its introduction and adoption here, undergone no very ma¬
terial or important alteration or improvement in point of
theoretical principle; nor, until the extension of the cot¬
ton manufacture had introduced a general spirit of mecha¬
nical improvement, had it received any great amelioration
in practical execution. Two very important improvements
have, however, since that period been introduced and adopt¬
ed. The first of these, which originated in Lancashire, is
now almost universally employed. The second was in¬
vented at Glasgow.
The scope of the former of these improvements con¬
sists in the substitution of pasteboard in the place of wood,
in constructing three out of the five cylinders of which
the engine is composed. These cylinders, when previous¬
ly composed of wood, were found to be liable to two seri¬
ous and important objections. Calenders employed in ge¬
neral business are necessarily subjected to frequent alter¬
nations and vicissitudes of heat and cold. These are en¬
tirely unavoidable, because, in smoothing or dressing cloths
of the denser fabrics, the effect, as in the common opera¬
tion of ironing linens, is found to be greatly heightened
by the application of as great a degree of heat as can safe¬
ly be communicated without danger to the fabrics which
are to be smoothed.
The expansion of every thread which composes a given
extent of cloth, although individually indistinguishable,
even with microscopic aid, produces very considerable ge¬
neral effect, when exerted upon eight or ten thousand of
these minute cylindrical substances, all combined together
in the space of one single square yard. In this expanded
state, the pressure of the calender divests them more easi¬
ly of their cylindrical form, and flattens them down until
they come more closely into contact than before. This
effect, which is in exact unison with the general theories
of expansion and contraction, will at once produce an ap¬
parent increase of closeness and density to the texture,
as well as of gloss to the surfaces ; although the former is
in fact deceptive, as no real acquisition of strength to the
fabric can thus be obtained. The apparent density of fab¬
ric, as well as a higher accession of gloss, is also frequent¬
ly obtained by impregnating and stiffening the cloth, after Calender,
it has been bleached, with a mucilage of starch ; and this is v
too frequently carried to a very unfair height, for the pur¬
poses of deception, which is not very easily detected, un¬
til the cloth be again exposed to moisture, when the delu¬
sive appearance instantly vanishes. Hence, in all dense
fabrics, the calender is generally used in a heated state;
whilst in flimsy fabrics, in which transparency of appear¬
ance is more the requisite than strength, the operation is
conducted with the calender perfectly cold.
The effect of these frequent and sudden transitions upon
wooden cylinders was necessarily productive both of fis¬
sure and warping or twisting ; and no care in drying or
seasoning the wood before turning could entirely remove
these defects. The substitution of pasteboard, however,
afforded a radical cure for both, as well as a collateral ad¬
vantage arising from its being susceptible of a much high¬
er degree of superficial polish, which is always transferred
to the cloth.
The paper or pasteboard cylinder, besides total exemp¬
tion from all defects incidental to ligneous substances,
from the immense density of which it is susceptible by
compression, presents a superficies capable of receiving and
retaining an almost unparalleled smoothness and polish.
In order to construct cylinders of this description, an
axis of malleable iron, and two circular plates of cast iron,
are, in the first place, provided. In these plates, which
must be at least from one to two inches thick, there are
six equidistant perforations near to the circumference,
each capable of admitting a rod of malleable iron at least
three fourths of an inch in diameter. The entire space
between the two iron plates is then to be filled with cir¬
cular pieces of the strongest pasteboard, exceeding by
about one inch in diameter the iron plates, and having
each a correspondent perforation, through which the six
iron rods may pass parallel to the axis. A cylinder is thus
formed, the substance of which is of pasteboard locked
together by plates of iron at the extremities, and suscep¬
tible, by means of screws on the extremities of the six
connecting rods, of immense compression. After under¬
going this preparation, the cylinder is exposed to strong
heat in a confined apartment; and, as the pasteboard daily
contracts, the screws are every day tightened for the space
of some weeks. The density of the cylinder is thus in¬
creased, whilst it is contracted in length upon the axis,
for which contraction adequate allowance must be made
in its original measure, and the operation is continued
until it has gradually acquired the requisite compression.
It is then re-exposed to the ordinary temperature of the
atmosphere, and by its re-expansion presents a body al¬
most inconceivably compact, its specific gravity in this
state being greater than even that of silver. The only
operation now required is that of turning its superficies
until correctly cylindrical; and this is a work of immense
labour and patience.
The rotatory motion in turning does not exceed forty
or fifty revolutions per minute ; and the turner requires two
or three assistants constantly employed in sharpening his
tools. When properly finished and smoothed, a pasteboard
cylinder, however, amply compensates, by its strength, its
gloss, and its durability, for the great labour and expense
which its construction has created.
A second practical improvement in calenders of the
common description consists in the substitution of cast
iron for wood in the construction of the connecting frames.
This improvement is now common to almost every de¬
scription of machinery; and when applied to the calender,
it is of more than usual advantage, because, independent¬
ly of the accession of strength and diminution of space
occupied, the total exemption of iron from warping is of
GALE
Calender, peculiar advantage in an engine so rapidly exposed to al-
teration of temperature as the calender must be. The en¬
tire exemption of iron framing from combustion forms also
another advantage of some importance in an engine fre¬
quently heated by the application of red-hot cylinders of
iron. With this cursory outline of general improvement,
the next object of the present article is to afford a descrip¬
tion of the new glazing calender.
Glazing Previously to the introduction of this improvement, the
calender, operation of glazing, although performed sufficiently well,
was somewhat tedious, being effected almost exclusively
by the mere application of manual labour. It was per¬
formed upon a table, the cover of which was oblique to
the horizon, forming with it an angle of 15° or 20°. The
cloth being stretched on this, and a quantity of wax being
thinly spread on its surface, the glazing was effected by
the reciprocation of a smoothed flint, vibrating at the end
of a rod, somewhat similar to the oscillations of a pendu¬
lum. The centre of oscillation was also movable on a
spring, in order to reduce the arc of vibration to a plane,
and keep the flint in uniform contact with the cloth. But
a man’s power was competent to glaze only a few inches
in breadth at once, and it was only by successive shift-
ings that the whole breadth was successively brought un¬
der the friction of the flint. The glazing calender pro¬
duces the same effect, with increased uniformity, simply
by changing the relative velocities of the cylinders to each
other, and generating friction, as well as pressure, at the
points of contact. The process of flint glazing is still
practised in Manchester, but on a large scale, the opera¬
tion being carried on by means of steam power.
Ihe following is a description of the new glazing ca¬
lender. Fig. 1, Plate CXLIII. is en elevation of a five-
rollered calender for finishing cloth. AA are two paper
rollers, of twenty inches diameter each. BB are two cast-
iron cylinders, externally turned until perfectly smooth;
their diameter is eight inches, allowing the substance of
iron to be two inches, and leaving a perforation of four
inches diameter. C is a paper roller of fourteen inches
diameter; DD is the framing of cast iron for containing
the bushes in which the journals of the rollers revolve;
EE are two levers by which the rollers are firmly pressed
together while the cloth is passing through.
Fig. 2 is an end view of the same calender, with the
wheels for glazing cloth. The wheel on the upper cylinder
is ten inches diameter, the wheel on the under cylinder is
thirteen inches diameter, both connected by the wheel F,
which communicates the speed of the upper cylinder, so
that the wheel on the under cylinder being nearly one
third of an inch more in diameter, the difference of their
motions retards the centre paper roller, by which means
the upper cylinder passes over the cloth one third faster
than the cloth passes through the calender, and polishes
it in consequence.
Fig. 3 is a perspective view of a hydrostatic press. A,
the piston, eight inches diameter, working in the cylinder
B, and kept watei’-tight by passing through a collar of
leather; D, a cast-iron plate raised by the piston A, be¬
tween which and the entablature EE the goods to be
pressed are laid; CCCC, four malleable iron columns,
2f th inches diameter, having screwed ends, with nuts, by
which the entablature and the base FF are firmly con¬
nected together. G, a cistern for holding water to sup¬
ply the two force-pumps HI, the largest of which has a
piston inch diameter, and the other one of half an inch
diameter, which is used to give the highest pressure ; KK,
weights to balance the pump-handles which fit into the
sockets at ll. The pistons of the force-pumps are made
water-tight by collars of leather, kept in their place by
the screwed pieces m and n. e e e, a pipe communicating
NDER. ]9
with the pumps and the large cylinder B; there is a stop- Calender,
cock at f, which shuts this communication when required. -w'
Fig. 4 is an enlarged view of the largest piston, to show
the method of keeping the rod parallel.
For dressing muslins, gauzes, lawns, and other goods of Small ca-
the light and transparent fabrics, a smaller species of ca-Ender for
lender is employed. It consists of only three cylinders of1’^4 &-
equal diameters (generally about six inches), and is easily brics‘
moved by a common winch or handle. The middle cy¬
linder is iron, and the others are wood or pasteboard.
They are of equal diameters, and are moved with equal
velocities by small wheels. This machine is always used
in a cold state.
The folding of cloth is so entirely regulated by fashion,
that no precise rules can be laid down for its regulation.
In general, as all the different manufactures of cloth have
been imported from other countries, the original foldings
have been copied to complete the resemblance. In the
infant state of.imitation there was probably some policy
in this, but the continuance may be ascribed almost ex¬
clusively to the power of habit. Pi’eservation and porta¬
bility are the main requisites to be attained by folding;
and these are attained by subjecting the cloth, when
Folded, to a very powerful compression.
Water-presses upon the forcing principle of Mr Bramah, Bramah’s
or acted upon by the pressure of a column of water, are water-
now in genei’al use in Glasgow and Manchester. Besides presses,
the immense power thereby procured, the labour of press¬
ing is much lessened. No improvements that have taken
place in calendering can exceed the power and facility
of the water-press; one of these presses is generally
wrought by two men, who can with great ease work the
pi’ess so as to produce a pi'essure of four hundred tons;
and thereby the appearance and finish of the goods, in
consequence of such an immense weight acting on them,
are materially improved. Not only this, but the Bramah
press is also used for the purpose of packing, which has
increased the method of packing in bales considerably.
The bale is commonly packed, roped, &c. while in a com¬
pressed state; the dimensions ai'e therefore greatly dimi¬
nished from what they would otherwise be by any other
method; for instance, the same quantity of goods packed
in a bale would be one third less in size than if they were
packed in a box.
To the mechanical art of calendering it is found ex-Operations
pedient, in the extended states of commerce, to add many connected
of the operations of packing, sheeting, and preparing goods wdthcalen-
for shipment; and these generally form a branch of the dering,
establishment. In order to suit the great extent and va^
riety of manufacture practised in Britain, and to adapt
these to the pi'evalent tastes and views of the extensive
range of consumex's to be supplied, a multiplicity of fold¬
ings or lappings has been necessarily adopted, few of
which probably possess much claim to entii'e originality.
The high, and perhaps pre-eminent, station which the
productions of the British looms have gradually attained,
seem to be rather the effect of assiduous and enterpi-ising
industry, than of great originality of invention, or prece¬
dence in mechanical improvement. Certainly she can, at
the utmost, boast of only one raw material, fx-om which
cloth is manufactured, as peculiai'ly indigenous.
At an early period, no doubt, the British wool had at¬
tracted the peculiar attention of economists and statesmen
as of paramount value; and the prohibition of its expor¬
tation became an object of legislative enactment. That
manufacture, therefore, has long been the staple of Eng¬
land, as the linen trade, at a later period, has become that
of Ireland.
The attempts to introduce both of these branches of
industry into Scotland, although, during the latter part of
20
CALENDER,
Calender, the last century, they engrossed much of the attention
both of public bodies"and of patriotic individuals, cannot
be regarded as having proved eminently successful; and
the progress actually made has been almost entirely su¬
perseded and extinguished by the more recent introduc¬
tion of the cotton manufacture.
The latter branch of industry, since the splendid inven¬
tion of spinning by the aid of machinery, has indeed made
most rapid advances in every part of the united kingdom,
and has attained to a height which has, perhaps, absorbed
a greater portion of national industry than consumers can
easily be found to employ. The extension of external
commerce has constantly supplied the raw material at
easy and generally moderate rates; and even the India
Company have long ceased to oppose to it any very for¬
midable competition in the market.
The silk manufactures of Britain formerly were not car¬
ried on to a very great extent; they have now, however,
increased considerably. Whatever may have, directly or
indirectly, tended to regulate the finishing, folding, and
preparing of British goods for the various markets of con¬
sumption, will chiefly refer to the three former branches
of manufacture.
Extensively as the woollen trade is carried on, it is in
a great measure absorbed either by internal or colonial
consumption, and does not, therefore, enter so generally
into actual competition with the cloths of other nations,
as to render it either peculiarly desirable that its market¬
able aspect should be either servilely copied from those
of other countries, or very peculiarly distinguished from
them. The chief object appears to have generally been,
to prevent the intrusion of foreign cloths and stufts into
our own markets; and hence adopting their usual folds into
such rolls as most effectually preserve the dressed surface
from acute cresses, is found to be most expedient and con¬
venient, the goods being distinguished by letters denot¬
ing them to be “ British manufacture” on the ends of the
pieces.
In the Irish manufactures of cambrics and linens, the
case is almost entirely reversed. From the superiority of
climate, the French flax is admitted to be of finer appear¬
ance ; and although the importation of manufactured cam¬
brics be strictly prohibited, the restraint during periods
of peace has always been considerably evaded, in conse¬
quence of the demand experienced, and the reputation in
which they are held. Indeed it was found generally
most expedient, by many retailers, to sell Irish cambrics
under the title of French, and hence the fold was correct¬
ly imitated. The pieces, after being folded into lengths
of about twelve inches, and twice laterally doubled, until
the whole breadth of thirty-four inches was reduced to
about eight and a half inches, were subjected to a power¬
ful compression in the press until fully flattened. They
were then packed in purple coloured wrappers or papers,
and a small engraved card or ticket was attached to each
piece, specifying the length, generally about eight or eight
and a half yards. The cards were attached by a silken
string, so as to be easily cut away with a penknife or pair
of scissors, in order to avoid seizure; and French or Irish
goods were sold indiscriminately as “ foreign cambrics.”
Custom has even carried this practice farther; and cot¬
ton cambrics, which are avowedly British manufacture,
and subjected to no risk whatever, because easily distin¬
guishable from any cambric manufactured from flax, are put
up into the same folds, papered, and ticketed, in exactly
the same manner.
In linens, hollands, and sheetings, whether of foreign or
Irish manufacture, the same fold is also employed ; and in
cotton shirtings and sheetings it is closely imitated. The
form is that of a cylindric roll, somewhat flattened by
subsequent compression ; and, in general, all dense fabrics, Calender,
whether of linen or of cotton, are rolled up and compres- 'w-vw
sed in a similar manner, the object of which is evidently
safety and diminution of space in land carriage or expor¬
tation.
In others of the extensive varieties of cotton cloths of
British manufacture, some are avowed imitations of the
manufactures of Hindustan, whilst others profess no such
imitation. Very few among the manufactures of Lanca¬
shire are either distinguished by Indian names, or copied
from Indian cloths, although some of great extent are di¬
rectly so. Calicoes, cossacs, and jaconets, for printing, as
well as Ballusore, Bandana, and Pullicate handkerchiefs,
are amongst the leading articles of the latter description ;
whilst among the former may be classed the very exten¬
sive manufactures of corduroys, thicksetts, velveretts, vel¬
veteens, &c. although their origin is also probably Asiatic,
but because well known and manufactured by the Ge¬
noese, French, and other European nations, even before
the discoveries of De Gama and other mariners had first
laid open the maritime intercourse with India by the Cape
of Good Hope.
When, at a period infinitely more recent, the splendid
invention of spinning cotton by the agency of machinery
to any degree of fineness afforded new scope to the Bri¬
tish weaver, the imitation of the lighter Indian fabrics
fell chiefly into the hands of the Scottish weavers, for exe¬
cuting which they had been in a considerable degree pre¬
viously prepared, by their habits of weaving lawns in imi¬
tation of the French, as well as their lighter fabrics of
silk and thread gauzes. Io their share, in consequence,
fell the bouks, mulls, and japuns, almost exclusively, as
well as the lighter jaconets, designed for ornament from
the needle and tambour frame. And whilst they have
made no successful attempt to compete with their Lan¬
cashire brethren in the dense fabrics of corduroys, quilt¬
ings, and other ponderous articles, they have shared with
them the manufacture of the middling textures of cam¬
brics, Pullicates, and ginghams.
Indeed, whatever prepossession may, at an early period,
have existed in favour of the real Indian fabrics, it has now
so entirely subsided as to possess no influence whatever
in swaying general opinion. ’Ihe British workmanship
has proved itself long ago so decisively superior to the In¬
dian, both in spinning and weaving, as to eradicate every
doubt in the minds of all-who are really competent to de¬
cide the question of comparative superiority. Still, how¬
ever, candour will compel us to allow that the Indian pos¬
sesses advantages in the rich qualities of his cotton, and
the brilliancy of some of his dyes, which, in some degree,
compensate for the immense superiority of the British
skill and machinery, and which, to those who examine
superficially, may appear to entitle him to the preference.
Nothing, therefore, exists in the cotton manufacture
which could, in general cases, prompt to a servile imita¬
tion of external appearance for the purposes of deception ;
and the Indian mode of lapping their cloth is too rude and
laborious to admit of its being copied as a matter of con¬
venience. Their method consists merely in doubling a
piece of twenty yards, to reduce its length to ten yards,
which is again doubled, in order to reduce it to five; and
thus they continue to redouble, until the piece be redu¬
ced to a moderate length, capable of being contained in a
chest or bale. Thus often redoubled, an Indian piece
cannot be examined throughout unless the whole piece be
again unfolded; and this, in large transactions, would be
utterly impracticable.
British muslins are folded generally to a yard in length,
with a small allowance for extra measure; and as the
folding is alternately from right to left, every part can be
Calenders
General
| observa¬
tions.
CAL
CAL
21
Calian.
instantly examined upon a table or counter, every fold from Santon Calender!, their founder. This Santon went Calentius
opening as easily as the leaves of a book in its uncut state, bareheaded, without a shirt, and with the skin of a wild
The piece, when folded, is reduced by doubling it longi- beast thrown over his shoulders. He wore a kind of apron
tudinally to about nineteen inches, and it is then folded before, the strings of which were adorned with counterfeit
across to the breadth of about thirteen inches. An ordi- precious stones. His disciples are rather a sect of epicures
nary sized trunk, 39 X 19 inches, thus contains three lay- than a society of religious persons. They honour a ta-
ers of pieces, in which package goods for exportation to vern as much as they do a mosque, and think they pay as
the colonies are generally packed, the trunk there forming acceptable worship to God by the free use of his crea¬
tures, as others do by the greatest austerities and acts of
devotion, They are called in Persia and Arabia Abdals,
or Abdallat, that is, persons consecrated to the honour and
service of God. Their garment is a single coat, made up
an article of merchandise as much in general demand as
the muslins which it contains.
Even the Indian ornaments of gilt silver threads which
were at first woven into one end of each piece, although
preach in the market places, and live upon what their au¬
ditors bestow on them. They are generally very vicious
persons ; for which reason they are not admitted into any
houses.
CALENTIUS, Elisius, a Neapolitan poet and prose
author. He was preceptor to Frederick, the son of Fer¬
dinand, king of Naples, and the earliest writer on the il-
they did not exceed the value of twopence each, have of a variety of pieces, and quilted like a rug. They
been either greatly curtailed, or totally given up upon *' A 1:”° '",w °”-
principles of economy. Even the cost of this trivial orna¬
ment has been computed to have amounted annually in
Glasgow and Paisley to about L.30,000.
Pullicate and other handkerchiefs are most commonly
folded up in dozens. For the African and some other fo¬
reign trades, pieces containing only eight handkerchiefs „
are preferred. These are still imitations of Indian prece- legality of putting criminals to death, except for murder,
dents, confined to markets where competition continues to He died in 1503.
exist, not only with the British Company, but with Ame- CALENTURE, a feverish disorder incident to sailors
ricans and others trading to India. A species of pale in hot countries, the principal symptom of which is their
orange-coloured India handkerchiefs, distinguished by the imagining the sea to be green fields,
name of Mudrus, being in extensive reputation in the Ca- CALENZANA, a city of the island of Corsica, in the
raccas and other Spanish settlements in South America department of Calvi, containing 1950 inhabitants,
at the period of the capture of Trinidad in 1795, patterns CALEPIN, Ambrosius, an Augustine monk of Cale-
were procured by some British traders, who ordered very pio, whence he took his name, in the sixteenth century,
large quantities to be manufactured in Scotland of the He is author of a dictionary of eight languages, since
same quality and appearance. With such effect were augmented by Passerat and others.
these imitated in texture, in dye, in finishing, and even in CALF, in Zoology, the young of the ox kind. See
the packages, that some hundreds of pieces sent to Lon- Mammalia.
don for exportation were actually seized at the custom- Golden Calf, an idol set up and worshipped by the
house as India goods, either illegally imported, or stolen Israelites at the foot of Mount Sinai, in their passage
from some of the Company’s ships in the river. A scru- through the wilderness to the land of Canaan. Our ver-
tiny, however, clearly ascertained that these goods were sion makes Aaron fashion this calf with a graving tool
not Indian, but British, and that no trespass against either after he had cast it in a mould. The Geneva translation
the privileges or the property of the Company had been makes him engrave it first, and cast it afterwards. Others,
even attempted. The goods were of course released, and with more probability, render the whole yeise thus,
permitted to proceed to their destination, where, after ex- “ And Aaron received them (the golden ear-rings), and tied
amination and trial, it was found totally unnecessary longer them up in a bag, and got them cast into a molten ’
to conceal their real origin; and a very extensive trade* which version is authorized by the different senses of the
through direct channels, has been since carried on for word tzur, which signifies to tie up or bind, as well as to
similar goods. shape or form ; and of the word cherret, which is used both
From the above general and cursory sketch, it will be for a graving tool and a bag.. Some of the ancient fathers
obvious that the management of an extensive calendering have been of opinion that this idol had only the face of a
establishment will require* on the part of its conductor* calf* and the shape of a man from the neck downwards, m
not only a competent knowledge and experience of the imitation of the Egyptian Isis; while others have thought
mechanical operations and duties of his particular profes¬
sion, but that a more extensive mercantile acquaintance
with the demands, habits, and tastes of particular markets,
will conduce equally to his own interests and those of his
employers. From the variations of markets, and fluctua¬
tions of mercantile transactions, there can be no precise
or definite limit to the extent of such knowledge. It is
only by constant attention and sedulous inquiry that he
can preserve accuracy in what is liable to almost daily
it was only the head of an ox without a body. But the
most general opinion is, that it was an entire calf, in imi¬
tation of the Apis worshipped by the Egyptians; among
whom, no doubt, the Israelites had acquired their propen¬
sity to idolatry. This calf Moses is said to have burnt
with fire, reduced to powder, and strewed upon the water
which the people were to drink. How this could be ac¬
complished has been a question. M. Stahl conjectures
that Moses dissolved it by means of liver of sulphur. The
change. His immediate employers will no doubt be often rabbin tell us that the people were made to.i.unk ot tins
both able and desirous to supply him with this. But as even water, in order to distinguish the idolaters h om the rest,
they must sometimes be liable to error or deception, he for that as soon as they had drunk of it, the beards of t ic
ought to omit no opportunity of extending his inquiries, former turned red. The Cabbalists add, that the ca f
and arriving, as nearly as he can, at the most comprehen- weighed 125 quintals ; which they gather fiom the Hebievv
sive and unambiguous information. word massekah, whose numerical letters make 125.
Calender of Monteith, a district in the south-west CALI, a town of Popayan, in South America, on t le
corner of Perthshire, in Scotland, from which a branch of river Cauca, in a fertile and populous plain, abounding m
the ancient family of Livingstone had the title of earl, mines, vegetable productions, and cattle. 18
Both estate and title were forfeited in consequence of the eighty-seven miles from Popayan. Long. / 6. ~3. W.
possessor being engaged in the rebellion of 1715. Lat. 3.24. S. , .
CALENDERS, a sort of Mahommedan friars, so called CALIAN, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Au-
!2 CAL
Caliber rungabad, which was formerly of larger size and of greater
, II importance than it is at present, being now a poor place,
d lcut‘ inhabited by Mahommedans. It was exposed to many
sieges during the wars which were carried on between the
Mahommedans and the Mahrattas, and is now surrounded
with the ruins of numerous forts. It still carries on some
traffic in cocoa nuts, oil, coarse cloth, brass, and other
ware. It is 32 miles north-east from Bombay, and 91 from
Poonah. Long. 73. 12. E. Lat. 19. 17. N.
CALIBER, Calibre, or Calliper, properly denotes
the diameter of any body: thus we say, two columns of
the same caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the
caliber of a bullet, &c.
Caliber Compasses, a sort of compasses made with
arched legs, to take the diameter of round or swelling bo¬
dies. See Compasses. •
Caliber Buie, or Gunner s Callipers, is an instrument
in which a right line is so divided that the first part being
equal to the diameter of an iron or leaden ball of one
pound weight, the other parts are to the first as the dia¬
meters of balls of two, three, four, or more pounds are to
the diameter of a ball of one pound. The caliber is used
by engineers, from the weight of the ball given to deter¬
mine its diameter or caliber, or vice versa.
The gunner’s callipers consist of two thin plates of brass
joined by a rivet, so as to move quite round each other.
Its length from the centre of the joint is between six
inches and a foot, and its breadth from one to two inches ;
that of the most convenient size is about nine inches long.
Many scales, tables, and proportions, &c. may be intro¬
duced on this instrument; but none is essential to it ex¬
cept those for taking the caliber of shot and cannon, and
for measuring the magnitude of salient and re-entering
angles.
CALICO, in commerce, a sort of cloth resembling lin¬
ens, made of cotton. The name is taken from that of Ca¬
licut, a city on the coast of Malabar, being the first place
at which the Portuguese landed when they discovered the
India trade. The Spaniards still call it callicu.
Calicoes are of different kinds, plain, printed, painted,
stained, dyed, chintz, muslins, and the like, being all in¬
cluded under the general denomination of calicoes. Some of
them are painted with various flowers of different colours;
others are not stained, but have a stripe of gold and silver
quite through the piece, and at each end is fixed a tissue
of gold, silver, and silk, intermixed with flowers.
Calico-Printing. See Dyeing.
CALICUT, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Malabar, which extends along the sea coast, between the pa¬
rallels of 10 and 12 degrees north latitude, about sixty or
seventy miles, but is of inconsiderable breadth. It is fertile
and productive, abounding generally in all sorts of Indian
commodities, such as rice, cocoa nuts, betel nuts, black
pepper, ginger, turmeric, &c. which are exported in ex¬
change for articles of clothing. This district is inhabited
by the sect of the Nairs, whose habits and customs are so
singular. It was governed by the Tamuri rajahs until
the Mussulman invasion; and Calicut became a flourish¬
ing city, owing to the success which its lords had in war,
and the encouragement they gave to commerce. These
princes were regularly crowned. All the males of their fa¬
mily are called Tamburans, and all the females Tamburet-
ties. The children are also entitled to these appellations ;
and, according to seniority, rise to the highest dignities
that belong to the families. These Tamburetties are be¬
trothed in their infancy, and are married at the age of
ten ; but it would be reckoned scandalous to cohabit with
their husbands; and they accordingly live in the houses
of their brothers and mothers, and cohabit with Nambu-
ris, or Brahmins of high caste, whose sacred character is
CAL
preferred, and sometimes by Nairs of the higher rank. Calicut
The husband allows his wife clothes, ornaments, and sub- _ II
sistence; and she lives in the house of his mother or bro- California,
ther, cohabiting indiscriminately with Brahmins and Nairs,
so that, according to this system of promiscuous inter¬
course, no man knows his own father. The oldest man of
the family by the female line is the Tamuri. The English
first began to frequent the zamorin’s dominions in 1664.
In 1766 Hyder Ali invaded the country in person, and the
Cochin rajah quietly submitted to pay tribute. But the
pride of the rajah or zamorin, who pretends to be of a
higher rank than the Brahmins, refused any kind of sub¬
mission ; and after an unavailing resistance, being made
prisoner, he set fire to the house in which he was confined,
and was burned along with it; while several of his attend¬
ants who were accidentally excluded when he shut the
door, threw themselves into the flames, and shared the fate
of their master. Hyder being called away by a war in the
dominions of the nabob of Arcot, the rajahs embraced the
opportunity, and repossessed themselves of their lands,
which they held for seven years. They were afterwards
driven into Travancore. After nine years the British en¬
tered the country and took Palighat; but on the ap¬
proach of Tippoo they were obliged to retreat. The ra¬
jahs continued in exile until 1790; but in the war with
Tippoo they joined the British army; and in 1792 the
country was ceded to the Company.
Calicut, the capital of the preceding district, was for¬
merly a magnificent and extensive city. The ancient
town has long been submerged by the sea; and at very
low tides the waves are said to break over the tops of the
highest temples and minarets. The present town stands
on the sea-shore, in a low and unsheltered situation, with
narrow and dirty streets. It is, however, populous, and
the seat of a considerable trade. The port is frequented
by vessels from Arabia and the Red Sea for wood, which
is the principal commodity ; as also spiceries, cardamums,
piece goods, &c. It was at this city that Vasco de Gama
arrived in May 1498, ten months and two days after he had
departed from Lisbon. In 1509 the Portuguese attacked
Calicut with 3000 troops; but they were repulsed with
great loss, and the general was slain in the attack. This
town was taken in 1773 by Hyder Ali, who expelled all
the merchants and factors, destroyed the cocoa-nut trees,
sandal-wood, and pepper vines, that the country, reduced
to ruin, might present no temptation to the cupidity of
Europeans. It was afterwards taken and destroyed by
his son Tippoo Saib, who carried off the inhabitants
to Beypoor. When the country was conquered by the
English, they returned and rebuilt the town, which, in
the year 1800, consisted of 5000 houses, for the most part
mean edifices, inhabited by Moplays. The proper name
of the place is Colicodu, which means the cock-crowing;
the district of Colicodu being meant to include all the ter¬
ritory in which a cock crowing in a small temple could be
heard. It is 76 miles W. of Coimbetore, and 95 S. W. of
Seringapatam. Long. 75. 50. E. Lat. 11. 15. N.
CALICOOTE, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern
Circars, near the Chilcath Lake, 20 miles N. Wh from
Ganjam. Long. 85. 21. E. Lat. 19. 20. N.
CALIDUCT, in Antiquity, a kind of pipes or canal dis¬
posed along the walls of houses or apartments, used by
the ancients for conveying heat to several remote parts of
the house from one common furnace.
. CALIFORNIA, New, a province of Mexico, or New
Spain, which extends from the isthmus of Old California,
or the bay of Todos Santos, to Cape Mendocino in north
lat. 40. 19. It is a narrow stripe of land, stretching to 600
miles in length by thirty in breadth. The climate is more
mild than in the same latitude on the eastern coast. The
CAL
California, soil is as well watered and fertile as that of Old Califor-
nia is arid and stony. The aspect of the country is ex¬
ceedingly picturesque and beautiful, and the inhabitants
enjoy almost a perpetual spring. On every side are pre¬
sented views of magnificent forests and verdant savannahs,
whose numerous herds of deer, or elks of gigantic size,
graze undisturbed in their sylvan retreats. The soil has
easily admitted of different varieties of European vegeta¬
tion ; and the vine, the olive, and wheat are successfully
cultivated. There are great varieties of land and water
game, and few countries in the world abound more in fish
of every description. There are eighteen missionary set¬
tlements formed by the Spaniards on the coast of New
Carolina; and, of all the colonial establishments, these have
made the most rapid progress in civilization. The object
of these settlements is, by instructing the natives in agri¬
culture and other branches of industry, to reclaim them
from their wandering and unsettled habits, and gradually to
bend them under the restraints of social life. To a cer¬
tain extent they have succeeded. Some of the Indians
are employed in spinning woollen stuffs; but their princi¬
pal occupation is in dressing stag-skins. The hunting of
these stags is also a favourite pursuit, in which the natives
display singular dexterity and address. San Francisco,
the most northern military post or presidio, is situated
upon an extensive bay of the same name, into which a
large river empties itself. Near the mission of Santa
Clara wheat produces from twenty-five to thirty for one,
and requires very little culture. The harvest is reaped
in July. San Carlos de Monterery is the seat of the go¬
vernor of the two Californias. The port of Monterery is
far from meriting the celebrity which it has received from
the Spanish navigators; it is a bay with an indifferent
anchorage. Santa Barbara, the principal town of a juris¬
diction, is situated on a canal of the same name, formed
by the continent and some small islands. The population
of New California is estimated at about 15,000 souls, and
its surface at 2125 square leagues.
California, Old, a province of Mexico, or New Spain,
was first discovered to be a peninsula in 1541. It is unit¬
ed on the north to the continent of North America, from
which it is separated on the east by a narrow sea called
the Gulf of California; and it is bounded on the south and
west by the Pacific Ocean. It is nearly 900 miles in
length, and varies from thirty to a hundred and twenty
miles in breadth. The climate is in general hot, dry, and
barren ; but, in some spots where there are water and vege¬
table mould, fruit and corn multiply in an astonishing
manner, and the vines afford a wine similar to that of the
Canaries. The sky is of a deep blue colour, and seldom
obscured by clouds; but when these are seen floating in
the horizon towards sunset, they display the most brilliant
tints of purple and emerald. The ground of this penin¬
sula is rough and uneven, full of mountainous ridges and
sandy and stony places. There runs through the centre a
chain of mountains, of which the greatest elevation is from
4500 to 4900 feet above the level of the sea. A consider¬
able number of wild quadrupeds, as well as a great vari¬
ety of birds, are found here ; and there is met with a va¬
riety of the sheep of a very large size, which affords an ex¬
ceedingly delicate and excellent food, and a wool which
is easily spun. Wood is very scarce; and it is only to¬
wards the Cape Sanducas that any trees are to be found.
Gold mines were at one time supposed to abound in this
province, but all that have been discovered are only a few
scanty veins. At the distance of forty leagues from Loret-
to there are two silver mines, which are considered as to¬
lerably productive; but, from the want of wood and mer¬
cury, it is found almost impossible to work them. In the
interior of the country there are plains covered with a very
CAL 23
beautiful crystalline salt. The coast of California sup- Caliga
plies pearls of a beautiful water, and large, but of an irre- II
gular figure. Since the missions have been on the de- Caliph,
cline, the population has been reduced to less than 9000 '
inhabitants, who are dispersed over a tract of country as
large as England. Loretto, a little town with a military
post, is the chief place of California. The inhabitants,
Spaniards, Mestizos, and Indians, are supposed to amount
to about 1000 in number. This is the most populous place
of all California.
CALIGA, in Roman Antiquity, was the proper soldier’s
shoe, made in the sandal fashion, without upper leather
to cover the superior part of the foot, though otherwise
reaching to the middle of the leg, and fastened with
thongs. The sole of the caliga was of wood, like the sa¬
bot of the French peasants, and its bottom stuck full of
nails, which clavi are supposed to have been of consider¬
able length in the shoes of the scouts and sentinels; whence
these were called, by way of distinction, caligce speculato-
ricc ; as if, by elevating the wearer to a higher pitch, they
gave a greater advantage to the sight; though others will
have the caligcB speculatorice to have been made soft and
woolly, to prevent their making a noise. From these caligce
it was that the emperor Caligula took his name, as having
been born in the army, and afterwards bred up in the habit
of a common soldier. According to Du Cange, a sort of
caliga was also worn by monks and bishops when they
celebrated mass pontifically.
CALIGATI, an appellation given by some ancient wri¬
ters to the common soldiers in the Roman armies, by rea¬
son of the caliga which they wore. The caliga was the
badge or symbol of a soldier ; and hence, to take away the
caliga and belt, imported a dismission or cashiering.
CALIGAWN, a town of Northern Hindustan, tribu¬
tary to the chief of Nepaul, and situated in the country
of the twenty-four rajahs. Long. 33. 56. E. Lat. 28. 40. N.
CALIGULA, the Roman emperor and tyrant, a. d. 37,
began his reign with every promising appearance of be¬
coming the real father of his people; but at the end of
eight months he was seized with a fever, which it is thought
left a frenzy on his mind ; for his disposition totally chan¬
ged, and he committed the most atrocious acts of impiety,
cruelty, and folly, such as proclaiming his horse consul,
feeding it at his table, introducing it into the temple in
the vestments of the priests of Jupiter, and causing sa¬
crifices to be offered to himself, his wife, and the horse.
After having murdered many of his subjects with his own
hand, and caused others to be put to death without any
cause, he was assassinated by a tribune of the people as
he came out of the amphitheatre, a. d. 41, in the twenty-
ninth year of his age and fourth of his reign.
CALIPH, or Khalif, the supreme ecclesiastical digni¬
tary among the Saracens; or, as the term is otherwise de¬
fined, the sovereign dignitary among the Mahommedans,
vested with absolute authority in all matters relating both
to religion and policy. In the Arabic it signifies successor
or vicar ; the caliphs bearing the same relation to Mahom-
med that the popes pretend they do to Jesus Christ or St
Peter. It is at this day one of the grand signior’s titles, as
successor of Mahommed; and of the sophi of Persia, as
successor of Ali. One of the chief functions of the caliph,
in quality of imaum or chief priest of Islamism, was to be¬
gin the public prayers every Friday in the chief mosque,
and to deliver the khothbak or sermon. In after times they
had assistants for this latter office ; but the former was al¬
ways performed by the caliph in person. The caliph was
also obliged to lead the pilgrims to Mecca in person, and
to march at the head of the armies of his empire. He
granted investiture to princes, and sent swords, standards,
gowns, and the like, as presents, to princes of the Mahom-
24
CAL
CAL
Caliphate medan religion; who, though they had thrown off the yoke
II of the caliphate, nevertheless held of it as vassals. The
Calixtins. ca]iphs usually went to the mosque mounted on mules;
anti the sultans Selgiucides, though masters of Bagdad,
held their stirrups, and led their mules by the bridle some
distance on foot, till such time as the caliphs gave them the
sign to mount on horseback. At one of the windows of
the caliph’s palace there always hung a piece of black vel¬
vet, twenty cubits long, which reached to the ground, and
was called the caliph's sleeve ; which the grandees of his
court never failed to kiss every day with great respect.
After the destruction of the caliphate by Hulaku, the
Mahommedan princes appointed a particular officer in
their respective dominions, to sustain the sacred authority
of caliph. In Turkey this officer goes under the denomi¬
nation of mufti, and in Persia under that of sadne.
CALIPHATE, the office or dignity of caliph. The
successions of caliphs continued from the death of Ma-
hommed till the 655th year of the hegira, when the city
of Bagdad was taken by the Tartars. After this, however,
there were persons who claimed the caliphate, as pretend¬
ing to be of the family of the Abassides, and to whom the-
sultans of Egypt rendered great honours at Cairo, as the
true successors of Mahommed ; but this honour was mere¬
ly titular, and the right allowed them only in matters re¬
lating to religion ; and though they bore the sovereign
title of caliphs, they were nevertheless subjects and de¬
pendents of the sultans. In the year of the hegira 361,
a kind of caliphate was erected by the Fatemites in Africa,
and lasted till it was suppressed by Saladin. Historians
also speak of a third caliphate in Yemen or Arabia Felix,
erected by some princes of the family of the Jobites. The
emperors of Morocco assume the title of grand scherifs,
and pretend to be the true caliphs, or successors of Ma¬
hommed, though under another name. See Arabia.
C ALIPPIC Period, in Chronology, a series of seventy-
six years, perpetually recurring; which being elapsed, the
middle of the new and full moons, as its inventor Calippus,
an Athenian, imagined, return to the same day of the solar
year. Meton, a hundred years before, had invented the
period or cycle of nineteen years, assuming the quantity
of the solar year to be 365d. 6h. 18m. 56s. 503 414 34;5, and
that of the lunar month 29d. 12h. 45m. 47s. 263 484 3Q5; but
Calippus, considering that the Metonic quantity of the solar
year was not exact, multiplied Meton’s period by four, and
thence arose a period of seventy-six years, called the Ca-
lippic. The Calippic period, therefore, contains 27,759
days; and since the lunar cycle contains 235 lunations,
and the Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains
940 lunations. This period began in the third year of the
112th Olympiad, or the 4384th of the Julian period. It
may be demonstrated, however, that the Calippic period
itself is not accurate, and that it does not bring the new and
full moons precisely to their places; 8h. 5m. 52s. 603 being
the excess of 940 lunations above seventy-six solar years;
but brings them too late by a whole day in 225 years.
CALISTA, in fabulous history, the daughter of Lycaon,
king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of Diana. Being
beloved by Jupiter, that god assumed the form of the god¬
dess of chastity, by which means he debauched her; but
her disgrace being revealed as she was bathing with her
patroness, the incensed deity turned her and the child with
which she was pregnant into bears ; when Jupiter, in com¬
passion for her sufferings, took them up into the heavens
and made them the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa
Minor.
CALITRI, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
Principato-Ulteriore, with 4540 inhabitants.
CALIXTINS, a name given to those among the Lu¬
therans who follow the sentiments of George Calixtus, a
Callao.
celebrated divine, and professor at Helmstadt in the duchy Calixtins
of Brunswick, who died in 1656. He opposed the opinion
of St Augustin on predestination, grace, and free will, and
endeavoured to form an union among the various members
of the Romish, Lutheran, and reformed churches; or rather
to join them in the bonds of mutual forbearance and charity.
Calixtins also denote a sect in Bohemia, derived from
the Hussites, about the middle of the fifteenth century,
who asserted that the use of the cup was essential to the
eucharist. And hence their name, which is formed from
the Latin calyx, a cup.
The Calixtins are not ranked by Romanists in the list
of heretics, since in the main they still adhered to the doc¬
trine of Rome. The reformation they aimed at terminat¬
ed in the four following articles : 1. in restoring the cup
to the laity; 2. in subjecting criminal clerks to the pu¬
nishment of the civil magistrate ; 3. in stripping the clergy
of their lands, lordships, and all temporal jurisdiction ;
4. in granting liberty to all priests who were capable of
preaching the word of God.
CALKEN, a market-town in the province of East Flan¬
ders, in the Netherlands, containing 3940 inhabitants.
CALL, among hunters, a lesson blown upon the horn
to comfort the hounds.
Call, among sailors, a sort of whistle or pipe, of silver
or brass, used by the boatswain and his mates to summon
the sailors to their duty, and direct them in the different
employments in the ship. As the call can be sounded to
various strains, each of them is appropriated to some par¬
ticular exercise, such as hoisting, heaving, lowering, veer¬
ing away, belaying, letting go a tackle, &c. The act of
winding this instrument is called piping, which is as atten¬
tively observed by sailors as the beat of the drum to march,
retreat, rally, or charge, is obeyed by soldiers.
Call, among fowlers, the noise or cry of a bird, espe¬
cially to its young, or to its mate in coupling time.
CALL AC, a town of the department of Cote du Nord,
in France, containing 1686 inhabitants.
CALLACAND, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Tinnevilly, forty-two miles north by east of Cape
Comorin. Long. 77. 44. E. Lat. 8. 31. N.
CALL AN, a town of Ireland, in the county of Kilkenny,
situated on the banks of King’s River. It consists of four
streets intersecting each other at right angles. The church,
once a stately fabric, is now nearly in ruins. On the east
side of the town are the remains of an abbey which was
founded in the fifteenth century, and consisted of fine
architecture. Distillation is the only branch of industry of
any consequence carried on here. Callan is an ancient
place, and received certain privileges from the Earl of
Marashall as far back as the year 1217. In 1821 the po¬
pulation amounted to 5678.
CALLANDER, a village and parish of Scotland, in the
county of Perth, situated on the river Teith. It is neatly
built; and much resorted to by travellers, who come to visit
the scenery around, which is uncommonly beautiful. The
population in 1821 was 2031, and in 1831 1909.
CALLAO, a strong town of South America, in Peru.
It is the port of Lima, from which it is distant about two
leagues. The town is built on a low flat point of land on
the sea shore, not more than nine or ten feet above the level
of high water mark; but the tide does not commonly rise
or fall above five feet. The roadstead is beautiful, and one
of the largest and safest in the South Sea. The water is
without rocks, deep, and always tranquil. Callao is the
rendezvous of from 16,000 to 17,000 tons of shipping, 5000
of which are reserved for the navigation of the Pacific.
The houses are built of light materials; the circumstance
of its almost never raining in this country rendering stone
houses unnecessary, which are also more liable to be in-
25
CAL
Callao jured by the earthquakes so frequent here. The most re-
|| markable of these occurred in 1746, when Callao was en-
Calli- tirely destroyed, and only two hundred inhabitants escaped,
graphy. wag j-g^uiit on the same plan as before, hut a little far-
ther from the sea. The population amounts to about 5000.
Long. 77. 4. W. Lat. 12. 2. S.
CALLAO, so called by its inhabitants, but more gene¬
rally known to Europeans under the name of Campello,
lies opposite to the coast of Cochin China, and about eight
miles to the eastward of the mouth of a considerable river on
the coast of Cochin China, upon the banks of which is situ¬
ated the town of Faifoo, a place of some note, not far from
the harbour of Turon. The only inhabited part of the
island is on the south-west coast, upon a slip of ground ris¬
ing gently to the east. This small spot, when the Chinese
embassy visited the island, was beautifully laidout with neat
houses, temples, clumps of trees, and small hillocks rich¬
ly decoi'ated with shrubbery. The houses, which amount¬
ed to about sixty, were very clean and decent; a few were
built with stone, and covered with tiles. The depth of
water in the bay and road is sufficient for ships of any
burden; and there is a perfect shelter from every wind
except the south-west. It is thirty miles south-east of the
harbour of Turon. The extreme points of the island lie
in longitude 108. 30. E. and latitude 15. 53. N.
CALLAS, a city of the department of the Var, in
France. It has fourteen oil-mills, and 2095 inhabitants.
CALLATABELLOTA, a city of Sicily, in the inten¬
dancy of Girgents, on a lofty mountain, containing 4500
inhabitants.
CALLIAN, a market-town of the department of the
Var, in France, in a district where there are coal mines,
and where much glass is made. The inhabitants amount
to 1823.
CALLIANY, a large and populous town of Hindustan,
in the province of Beeder, and the capital of a district
of the same name, seventy-seven miles west by north of
Hyderabad, and eighty-five east of Bejapoor. Long. 77.
33. E. Lat. 17. 22. N.
CALLICRATES, an ancient sculptor, who engraved
some of Homer’s verses on a grain of millet, made an
ivory chariot that might be concealed under the wing of
a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the members were
distinct. But Ailian justly blames him for exerting his
genius and talents in things so useless, and at the same
time so difficult. He flourished about the year 472 before
Christ.
CALLIGRAPHUS anciently denoted a copyist or scri¬
vener, who transcribed fair, and at length, what the notaries
had taken down in notes or minutes. The word is com¬
pounded of xaKkos, beauty, and ygapu, I write. The minutes
of acts, &c. were always taken in a kind of cipher or short¬
hand, such as the notes of Tyro in Gruter, by which means
the notaries, as the Latins called them, or the cr^s/oyga^o/
and ray^jy^acpoi, as the Greeks named them, were enabled to
keep pace with a speaker or person who dictated. These
notes, being understood by few, were copied over fair, and
at length, by persons, who had a good hand, and who were
called calligraphi, a name frequently met with in the an¬
cient writers.
CALLIGRAPHY, the art of fair writing. Callicrates
is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum
seed. Junius speaks of a person, as very extraordinary,
who wrote the apostles’ creed and the beginning of St
John’s Gospel in the compass of a farthing. What would
he have said of our famous Peter Bale, who, in 1575, wrote
the Lord’s prayer, creed, ten commandments, and two
short prayers in Latin, with his own name, motto, day of
the month, year of our Lord, and reign of the queen, in the
compass of a single penny, enchased in a ring and border
VOL. VI.
CAL
of gold, and covered with a crystal, all so accurately Callima-
wrought as to he perfectly legible? chus
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architect, painter, and ( .11
sculptor, born at Corinth, having seen by accident a ves- raUinjer]
sel about which the plant called acanthus had raised its
leaves, conceived the idea of forming the Corinthian ca¬
pital ; and hence the Corinthian order of architecture. The
ancients assure us that he worked in marble with wonder¬
ful delicacy. He flourished about 540 b. c.
Callimachus, a celebrated Greek poet, and native of
Cyrene, in Libya, flourished under Ptolemy Philadelphus
and Ptolemy Euergetes, kings of Egypt, about 280 years
before Christ. He passed, according to Quintilian, for
the prince of the Greek elegiac poets. His style is ele¬
gant, delicate, and nervous. He wrote a great number of
small poems, of which we have only some hymns and epi¬
grams remaining. Catullus has closely imitated him, and
translated into Latin verse his small poem on the locks of
Berenice. Callimachus was also a good grammarian and
a learned critic. There is an edition of his remains, by
Lefevre, 4to, and another in two volumes 8vo, with notes
by Spanheim, Grsevius, Bentley, and others.
CALLINGAPATAM, a town of Hindustan, on the
sea coast of the Northern Circars, seventy miles north-east
from Vizagapatam. Long. 84. 15. E. Lat. 18. 25. N.
CALLINGER, a district of Hindustan, in Bundelcund,
and province of Allahabad, situated between the 24th and
26th degrees of north latitude. It is hounded on the
north by the river Jumna, and on the west by Bundel¬
cund; but to the east and south its boundaries are not
distinctly defined. The country is mountainous. The
river Cane runs through its whole extent from south to
north, and falls into the Jumna at Jana. Its principal
towns are Callinger, Senrab, and Attouah. The country
produces ebony and diamonds, a few elephants, much iron,
and a quantity of cotton. This country, from time imme¬
morial, has been independent, until of late years. It was,
indeed, frequently overrun by the Afghans, Moguls, and
Mahrattas, and compelled to pay tribute; but the rajah
still retained his fort and his title. In 1022 he was at the
head of the Hindu confederacy against the Mahommedans.
In 1803 this district was ceded by the Mahrattas to the
British, and was completely subdued by their troops, when
the rajah was forced to retire on a pension. The natives
are Hindus of the Rajpoot tribe.
Callinger, a strong town and celebrated fortress of
Hindustan, and capital of the above district. It is built
of stone on the top of a lofty mountain, is five miles in
circumference, and is well supplied with water from seve¬
ral tanks which are inclosed within it. It is surrounded
by a thick wood, which, though it adds to its strength,
renders it unhealthy. This fort has been often besieged,
but generally without success. The celebrated Mahmoud
of Ghizne attempted its capture in 1024, but without
success; and Lhen Shah, the Afghan who expelled the
Emperor Humayon from the throne of Hindustan in 1545,
was slain in attempting to take it. From the want of a
battering train in the early periods of Indian history, it
was found impracticable to take so strong a fortress; and
the siege was generally converted into a blockade, though
ultimately without success. A garrison of 5000 men
would he required to defend the works. In 1810 the Bri¬
tish laid regular siege to the fortress, which had become
a rallying point for all the banditti of the country ; but
they were repulsed with great slaughter in an attempt to
carry this stronghold by storm. So intimidated, however,
was the garrison by their determined efforts, that they
evacuated the place during the night. Since this period
it has been garrisoned by a battalion of native infantry
and a detachment of European artillery. There are fa-
D
26 CAL
Callino mous diamond mines to the south of this fort. Long. 80.
^ II 25. E. Lat. 24. 58. N.
CALLINO, a town of Itaty, in the Neapolitan province
Abruzzo Ulteriore, with 1400 inhabitants.
CALLINUS of Ephesus, a very ancient Greek poet,
and the inventor of elegiac verse, some specimens of which
are to be found in the collection of Stobceus. He flourish¬
ed about 776 years before Christ.
CALLIONDROG, a town and fortress of Hindustan,
on the west side of the river Noggry, in the Mysore,
forty-four miles south by east from Bellary. Long. 77.
9. E. Lat. 14. 30. N.
CALLIOPE, in Pagan Mythology, the muse who pre¬
sides over eloquence and heroic poetry. She was thus
named from the sweetness of her voice, and was reckoned
the first of the nine sisters. Her distinguishing office
was to record the worthy actions of the living; and ac¬
cordingly she is represented with tablets in her hand.
C ALLIP7EDIA, the art of getting or breeding fine and
beautiful children. Divers rules and practices relating to
this art are to be found in ancient and modern writers.
Claude Quillet de Chinon, a French abbot, under the fic¬
titious name of Clavicles Lcetus, has published a Latin poem
in four books, under the title of Callipcedia, sen de pulchrce
prolis habendce ratione, in which are contained all the pre¬
cepts of that art. Mr Rowe translated this poem into verse.
C ALLIRRHOE, in Ancient Geography, surnamed En-
neacrunos from its nine springs or channels, a fountain not
far from Athens, greatly adorned by Peisistratus, where
there were several wells, but this the only running spring.
Callirrhoe was also the name of a very fine spring of hot
water beyond Jordan, near the Dead Sea, into which it
empties itself.
CALLISTEA, in Grecian Antiquity, a Lesbian festival,
in which the women presented themselves in Juno’s tem¬
ple, and the prize was assigned to the fairest. There was
another of these contentions at the festival of Ceres Eleu-
sinia among the Parrhasians, and another among the
Eleans, where the most beautiful man was presented with
a complete suit of armour, which he consecrated to Mi¬
nerva, to whose temple he walked in procession, being ac¬
companied by his friends, who adorned him with ribbons,
and crowned him with a garland of myrtle.
C ALLISTHENE S, the philosopher, disciple, and relation
of Aristotle, by whose desire he accompanied Alexander the
Great in hisexpeditions ; but proving too severe a censurer
of that hero's conduct, he was by him put to the torture,
on a suspicion of a treasonable conspiracy, and died under
the infliction, 328 years before Christ.
CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator, was
banished for having obtained too great an authority in the
government. Demosthenes was so struck with the force
of his eloquence, and the glory it procured to him, that
he abandoned Plato, and resolved from thenceforward to
apply himself to oratory.
CALLOT, James, a celebrated engraver, was born at
Nancy in 1593. In his youth he travelled to Rome to
learn designing and engraving, and thence proceeded to
Florence, where the grand duke took him into his service.
After the death of that prince, Callot returned to his na¬
tive country, where he was very favourably received by
Henry duke of Lorrain, who settled a considerable pension
upon him. His reputation having soon afterwards spread
all over Europe, the infanta of the Netherlands drew him to
Brussels, where he engraved the siege of Breda. Louis XIII.
caused him design the siege of Rochelle, and that of the Isle
of Rhe. The French king having taken Nancy in 1631,
made Callot a proposal for representing that new con¬
quest, as he had already done the taking of Rochelle;
but Callot begged to be excused; and some courtiers re-
C A L
solving to oblige him to do it, he answered, that he would Callow
sooner cut off his thumb than do any thing against the II
honour of his prince and country. This excuse the king Calmont.
accepted; and said that the Duke of Lorrain was happy
in having so faithful and affectionate subjects. Callot fol¬
lowed his business so closely, that, though he died at forty-
three years of age, he is said to have left of his own exe¬
cution about fifteen hundred pieces.
CALLOW, a town in the province of East Flanders, on
the left bank of the Scheldt, with 2030 inhabitants.
CALLVIZZANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom and
province of Naples, with 2200 inhabitants.
CALLYGONG Hills, a range of mountains in Hin¬
dustan, the south-west part of a ridge which runs along
the south bank of the river Nerbuddah. They have been
but little explored.
CALM, the state of rest which exists in the air and
sea when there is no wind stirring. Calms are never so
great on the ocean as on the Mediterranean, because the
flux and reflux of the former keep the water in a continual
agitation, even where there is no wind ; whereas, there being
no tides in the latter, the calm is sometimes so dead that
the face of the water is as clear as a looking-glass; but
such calms are almost constant presages of an approach¬
ing storm. On the coasts about Smyrna -a long calm is
reputed a prognostic of an earthquake.
Calm Latitudes, in sea language, are situated in the
Atlantic Ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and the
latitude of 29° north ; or they denote the space that lies
between the trade and variable winds, because it is fre¬
quently subject to calms of long duration.
CALMAR, a province of Sweden, formed out of the
eastern part of Smaland, and the island Oeland. It is
bounded on the north-west and north by Lenkoping, on
the east by the Baltic Sea, on the south by Blekinge, and
on the west by Cronberg and Jonkoping. The extent
is 4312 square miles. The population is 148,396, inha¬
biting four cities, one market-town, and 3485 villages.
Calmar, a city, the capital of the Swedish province of
the same name. It is built on the island of Quarnholm, on
the Baltic Sea, and is connected with the main land by a
bridge of boats. It is a well-built town, the seat of a
bishop, and of the provincial courts of law. It is surround¬
ed with walls, has a cathedral, a gymnasium, with 491
houses, and 3058 inhabitants, who carry on manufactures
of woollen cloth, of leather, of glass, and the making of pearl
ashes ; and export, chiefly to Great Britain, pitch, tar, and
timber. In former times it was a place of much more im¬
portance than it is at present; and the remains of it are
to be seen in an old castle, palace, and house of assem¬
bly, now in ruins, not far from the city. Long. 16. 8. E.
Lat. 56. 14. N.
CALMET, Augustine, one of the most learned and
laborious writers of the eighteenth century, was born at
Mesnil le Horgne, a village in the diocese of Toul, in
France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the Bene¬
dictines in 1688. Among the many works he published
are, 1. A literal Exposition, in French, of all the Books of
the Old Testament, in nine volumes folio; 2. An histo¬
rical, critical, chronological, geographical, and literal Dic¬
tionary of the Bible, in four volumes folio, enriched with a
great number of figures of Jewish antiquities; 3. A civil
and ecclesiastical History of Lorrain, three volume folio ;
4. A History of the Old and New Testament, and of the
Jews, in two volumes folio, and seven volumes duodecimo ;
5. An universal sacred and profane History, in several vo¬
lumes quarto. He died in 1757.
CALMONT, a town in the department of the Upper
Garonne, in France, with 1522 inhabitants.
CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks.
GAL
Caine CALNE, a market ami borough town in the hundred
II of the same name in Wiltshire, ninty-one miles from Lon-
Calvados. on t}ie roacl to Bath. It is chiefly built of stone
raised in the neighbourhood. It is situated on the river
Marlow, which runs through the lower part of the town.
The market is held on Tuesday. The greater part of the
inhabitants are occupied in the woollen trade. The popu¬
lation consisted in 1811 of 3547, in 1821 of 4549, and
in 1831 of 4795.
CALOGERI, in Ecclesiastical History, monks of the
Greek church, divided into three degrees; the novices,
called archari; the ordinary professed, called michrochemi;
and the more perfect, called megalochemi. They are likewise
divided into coenobites, anchorites, and recluses. The
coenobites are employed in reciting their offices from mid¬
night to sunset; they are obliged to make three genu¬
flexions at the door of the choir, and, returning, to bow
to the right and to the left, to their brethren.
CALORIC. See Chemistry.
CALOSA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia,
with 3200 inhabitants. Manufactures of earthen-ware and
esparto are carried on here.
CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, satin, or other stuff;
an ecclesiastical oraament in most Popish countries.
CALOWZ, a mountainous and woody district of Hin¬
dustan, principally situated in the province of Lahore,
about the 32d degree of north latitude. It is bounded on
the north by Kaugrah, on the east by Besseer, on the
south by Nhan, and on the west by the Punjab. Its capital
is Bellaspore, and it is nearly divided by the river Sutlege.
The inhabitants are Hindoos and Seiks.
CALPE, a mountain of Andalusia, in Spain, at the foot
of which, towards the sea, stands the town of Gibraltar.
It is half a league in height towards the land, and so steep
that there is no approaching it on that side.
CALPURNIUS, Titus, a Latin Sicilian poet, who liv¬
ed under the Emperor Carus and his son. Seven of his
eclogues are extant.
CALTAGIRONE, a city of the intendancy of Catania,
in the island of Sicily. It is in a healthy situation on a
hill watered by the river Terra Nova. It has a universi¬
ty and other establishments for education. The environs
are rich in all the appropriate agricultural productions ; and
the city supplies a large surrounding district with earthen¬
ware and other manufactured goods. It contains 2868
houses and 19,600 inhabitants.
CALUSO, a town of Italy, in the province Ivrea, and
kingdom of'Sardinia, with 2850 inhabitants.
CALVADOS, a department of France, formed out of
that part of Lower Normandy formerly distinguished as
Bessin, Bocage, Champagne de Caen, Auge, and Lieu-
rain. It has received its present name from a chain of
rocks so called, at a small distance from the shore, between
the mouths of the rivers Orne and Bire, about sixteen
miles in extent. It is bounded on the north by the sea,
on the east by the department of the Eure, on the south
by that of Orne, and on the west by that of Manche.
The extent is 1123 square miles, or 570,400 hectares. It
is divided into six arrondissements, and subdivided into
thirty-seven cantons, formed out of 896 communes, which
contain 505,420 inhabitants. The face of the country is
undulating, with no lofty hills or deep valleys. The streams
are numerous, but of short course; and the few of them, as
the Orne and the Bire, that are navigable, are only so to a
short distance from their mouths. The soil in the valleys
is alluvial, and forms excellent pasture. On the plains it
is a mixture of clay and chalk, but in the more hilly dis¬
trict of the south it is sandy, resting on a subsoil partly of
chalk and slate and partly of clay and granite. The cli¬
mate is clear and healthy, but rather more inclined to
CAL 27
moisture than to dryness; and in the latter end of the Caltura
summer, when the wind is westerly, it is commonly cold II
and rainy. The winter is much prolonged. As the land is Calvert-
more adapted to the breeding and fattening of cattle than
to arable cultivation, the department scarcely produces
more corn than is equal to half the consumption of the
year; but its surplus of butter, cheese, and meat, is ex¬
changed for grain with the surrounding districts. The
breed of sheep is far inferior to that of cows, and the wool
is by no means of good quality. Fruit is abundant, espe¬
cially apples and pears, the cider from which supplies the
place of wine, which the department does not produce.
Flemp and flax are raised, of good quality, and equal to
the internal demand. Manufactures are established in
many of the towns, and are flourishing. They afford
clothing of wool, cotton, aild linen, equal to their own
demand, and supply other parts with a portion. There are
some fisheries on the coast. Coal is also found, and some
iron, but the mines are not extensively worked. Fuel is
provided partly from the forests, but in a greater degree
from the turf of the heaths.
CALTURA, a village and small port on the west coast
of the island of Ceylon, twenty-eight miles to the south of
Columbo, situated on the river Caltura, which is one of
the largest branches of the Muliwaddy, and is there about
a mile broad. Arrack and rum are manufactured here,
and there is a large plantation of sugar-canes, with tracts
of cinnamon, scattered in the vicinity.
CALVART, Denis, a celebrated painter, was born at
Antwerp in 1552, and had for his masters Prospero Fon¬
tana and Lorenzo Sabbatini. He opened a school at Bo¬
logna, which became celebrated, and from which proceed¬
ed Guido, Albani, and other great masters. Calvart was
well skilled in architecture, perspective, and anatomy,
which he considered as necessary to a painter, and taught
them to his pupils. His principal works are at Bologna,
Rome, and Reggio. He died at Bologna in 1619.
CALVARY, a term used in Catholic countries for a
kind of chapel of devotion, raised on a hillock near a city,
in memory of the place where Jesus Christ was crucified
near the city of Jerusalem. The word is derived from the
Latin calvarium; and that from calvus, bald, in respect
the top of the hillock was bare and destitute of verdure;
which is also signified by the Hebrew wordgolgotha.
Calvary, in Heraldry, a cross so called, because it is
supposed to resemble the cross on which our Saviour suf¬
fered. It is always set upon steps.
CALVERT, George, afterwards Lord Baltimore, was
born at Kipling in Yorkshire about the year 1582, and
educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of bachelor
of arts. He afterwards travelled. At his return he was
made secretary to Sir Robert Cecil: he was afterwards
knighted, and in 1618 appointed one of the principal se¬
cretaries of state. But after he had enjoyed that post
about five years, he willingly resigned it; frankly owning to
his majesty that he had become a Roman Catholic, so that
he must either be wanting to his trust, or violate his con¬
science in discharging his office. This ingenuous confes¬
sion so affected King James, that he continued him privy
counsellor all his reign, and the same year created him
baron of Baltimore in the kingdom of Ireland. He had
before obtained a patent for himself and his heirs, of the
province of Avelon in Newfoundland ; but that being ex¬
posed to the insults of the French, he abandoned it, and
afterwards obtained the grant of a country in the northern
part of Virginia from Charles I. who called it Maryland,
in honour of his queen. He died, however, in April 1632,
aged fifty, before the patent was made out. But it was
filled up to his son Cecil Calvert Lord Baltimore, and
bears date the 20th of June 1632. It is held from the crown
28 CAL
Calvi as part of the manor of Windsor, on one very singular con-
Oah in namely> to present two Indian arrows yearly, on East-
, _ J ' j er Tuesday, at the castle, where they are kept and shown
t-0 visitors. His lordship wrote, 1. A Latin poem on the
Death of Sir Henry Upton; 2. Speeches in Parliament;
3. Various Letters of State ; 4. The Answer of Tom Tell-
truth; 5. The Practice of Princes; and, 6. The Lamen¬
tation of the Kirk.
CALVI, an arrondissement of the island of Corsica, 550
square miles in extent, divided into six cantons, and these
into thirty-one communes, containing 18,603 inhabitants.
The capital is a fortified city of the same name, on the
western side of the island, with a good haven. It contains
400 houses and 2164 inhabitants. Long. 8. 50. E. Lat.
42. 30. N.
CALVIN, John, the mos't eminent of the reformers
from Popery after Luther, and, from the large body of
Christians distinguished by his name, deemed entitled to
equality with him, was born at Noyou, in Picardy, in 1509.
His father was a cooper in that place, and bore the name of
Chauvin or Cauvin, which his son afterwards latinized into
Calvinus, whence originated the usual appellation of Cal¬
vin, by which he has ever since been distinguished. Some
traits of early piety evincing themselves in Calvin, he was,
like Samuel, from his infancy designed by his family for
the church. The first benefice presented to him was in
the cathedral of his native place, to which was afterwards
added the rectory of Pont 1’Eveque. He had not as yet
received priest’s orders, but only the tonsure, when his
father changed his mind, and requested him to study the
civil law. This was the more readily assented to by the
young divine, as he had already become disgusted with
some of the practices of his own church. Accordingly he
repaired first to Orleans, and afterwards to Bourges, to
pursue his new professional career. Divinity, however,
was not neglected, for he still continued to cultivate it in
private with unslackened assiduity. His father dying, he
returned to Noyou ; and resigning his benefice, set out for
Paris, where he wrote his commentary on Seneca’s trea¬
tise De dementia, upon the title-page of which he first as¬
sumed the name of Calvinus. He now began to be iden¬
tified with the reformers ; but a storm having burst on them
in Paris, he was compelled to fly from that city. He re¬
paired to Angouleme, where he subsisted some time by
teaching Greek; and receiving shelter in the house of a
converted canon, he composed the greater portion of his
Institutes. The Queen of Navarre favoured his doctrines ;
and, under cover of her protection, he once more ventured
to return to Paris in 1534 ; but a further persecution being
again threatened, he finally quitted France, and retired
to Basel, in Switzerland, where he published his famous
Christian Institutes. This work was dedicated to Francis I.
in an elegant Latin epistle. It was designed to give a fair
view of the religious principles of the reformed, which had
already been confounded by their enemies with those of
the Anabaptists and other sects. In these circumstances,
it is not surprising that it obtained immediate popularity.
It went rapidly through several editions, and was trans¬
lated into all the principal modern languages. The bold¬
ness and originality of the speculations, the talent with
which the work was composed, and the effects which it
has produced upon the religious belief of Christians, en¬
title it to be looked upon as one of the most remarkable
books that ever appeared. After its publication, the au¬
thor repaired to Italy on a visit to the Duchess of Ferrara,
a convert to his doctrines; and returning to France* took
Geneva on his way, where, at the urgent request of seve¬
ral eminent reformers, he was induced to remain, filling the
offices of preacher and professor of divinity. He entered
upon these in 1536, and soon evinced the firmness and
CAL
vigour of his mind, by obliging the people to abjure Popery, Calvin,
and swear to a code of religious belief. He carried the
assumption of ecclesiastical authority so far, however, that
resistance succeeded; and the Catholic party prevailing,
he was compelled to quit Geneva. He went to Strasburg,
where he established a French church according to his
own plan, and was also preferred to the professorship of
divinity. Here he married the widow of an Anabaptist,
and published his Commentaries on the Epistle to the Ro¬
mans. He also wrote an able reply to Cardinal Sadolet,
who had published a work exhorting the Genevese to re¬
turn again to the Catholic church. In the mean time, his
party at Geneva having laboured assiduously for his recal,
he yielded at last to their entreaties, and triumphantly
returned to the scene of his former labours in 1541.
His plan of church government he now matured and
established. Indeed his whole system, both of doctrine
and ecclesiastical discipline, was maintained and promoted
with all the energy, firmness, and perseverance for which
he was so distinguished. He formed the lofty idea of mak¬
ing Geneva the mother and seminary of all the reformed
churches; and for this purpose he established an academy,
the character of which was eminently sustained by his own
great learning and ability, as well as by that of Beza and
other distinguished reformers. The result realized his
hopes; for every country on which the reformation had
shed its propitious influence sent forth a portion of its
youth to study at the feet of the new Gamaliel. The
three great points distinguishing the system of Calvin from
that of the other reformed churches consisted in the in¬
dependence of church government of the civil power;
the real though spiritual presence of the Saviour in the
sacrament; and the absolute decree of God by which por¬
tions of the human race are predestined from all eternity
to everlasting happiness or misery. With the same bold¬
ness which he had displayed in conceiving, did he maintain
his system, not only by his writings and extensive influence*
which reached wherever the new opinions prevailed, but
also by his form of ecclesiastical discipline, and a consis-
torial jurisdiction which had the power of inflicting cano¬
nical punishments. The latter were sometimes dispensed
with unpardonable severity; so much so, indeed, that many
apprehended that the reign of papal tyranny was to be re¬
vived under a new disguise. One or two facts show that Cal¬
vin had imbibed a portion of the persecuting spirit of that
church which he had forsaken. His treatment of Castalio
and others was .extremely harsh, but his conduct to Ser-
vetus was altogether barbarous. That ill-fated individual
haying fled from papal wrath, was seized at the instigation
of Calvin, and condemned to the flames. The spirit of the
age was of a persecuting character, and had its full influence
on the mind of Calvin. Besides, religious liberty was not the
primary object of the reformers ; it has rather been the re¬
sult of their labours. Thus philosophy may, to a certain ex¬
tent, palliate the crime, for such it must be called; but it has
left a blot upon Calvin, from which it will be vain for his
warmest eulogist even to attempt to purify his name.
But though the rigour of his proceedings sometimes oc¬
casioned great tumults in the city, nothing could shake
his steadiness and inflexibility. Amongst all the disturb¬
ances of the commonwealth, he exercised a paternal soli¬
citude for the foreign churches in England, France, Ger¬
many, and Poland; and did more by his pen than his
presence, sending his advice and instructions by letter,
and writing a number of works. After a life of incessant
labour and study, which, it is reasonable to believe, ma¬
terially shortened his days, this great reformer died in
May 1564, having nearly completed the fifty-fifth year of
his age.
Calvin possessed in an eminent degree those qualities
CAL
Calvinism which fit an individual for being the head of a party.
|| The leading characteristic of his mind was commanding
Calumet, power. He had a clear and comprehensive understand-
ing, which not only enabled him with facility to unravel
the tangled web of sophistry, but also to construct from
the wreck he had made a system of his own ; and a firm¬
ness and inflexibility of purpose which tended to wed him
for ever to the cause he had espoused, with a devotedness
which no opposition could overcome, and no vicissitude
could shake. There was certainly an alloy of human
error and weakness in his temper and character; but this
is only saying that nothing human reaches the standard
of perfect rectitude. His faults primarily resulted from
those very energies which gave him pre-eminence. In¬
domitable firmness imparts a certain sternness to the de¬
portment, and not unfrequently degenerates into a spirit
of persecution. But the benefits which mankind derive
from such a constitution of intellect, when the moral bias
is good, are generally of such a magnitude as totally to
counterbalance those minor defects to which the rancour
of party spirit would wish to give undue prominence. In
this light we must view Calvin; not so much a patron to
be imitated in all respects, as a benefactor to be revered.
He must take his place beside the illustrious Luther.
They are twin stars, the brightest of that constellation
of lights by whose effulgence was dispelled the long night
of darkness under the cloud of which the energies of men
had suffered eclipse ; and having emerged, they shone forth
with a brilliance and glory unparalleled in the history of
the world. In his principles Calvin was devoutly sincere,
and the purity of his “ walk and conversation” in private
life is unimpeachable. His writings are numerous ; for, be¬
sides the Institutes, and many controversial productions, he
published learned commentaries upon most of the books of
the New, and on the Prophets of the Old Testament. His
opinions are now, however, better known than his writings ;
and his doctrine of predestination in particular, connected
as it is with the philosophy of necessity, will probably sup¬
ply matter of speculative debate for the controversialists
of all future times.
CALVINISM, the doctrine and sentiments of Calvin
and his followers. See Theology.
Crypto-Calvinists, a name given to the favourers of
Calvinism in Saxony, on account of their secret attach¬
ment to the Genevan doctrine and discipline. Many of
them suffered by the decrees of the convocation of Tor-
gau, held in 1576. The Calvinists in their progress have
divided into various branches or lesser sects.
CALVISIUS, Seth, a celebrated German chronologer in
the beginning of the seventeenth century. He wrote Elen-
chus Calendarii Gregoriani, et duplex Calendarii melioris
forma, and other learned works, together with some excel¬
lent treatises on music. He died in 1617, aged sixty-one.
CALUMET, a symbolical instrument of great import¬
ance among the American Indians. It is nothing more
than a pipe, whose bowl is generally made of a soft red
marble, and the tube of a very long reed, ornamented with
the wings and feathers of birds. No affair of consequence
is transacted without the calumet. It ever appears in
meetings of commerce or exchanges; in congresses for
determining of peace or war ; and even in the very fury
of a battle. The acceptance of the calumet is a mark of
concurrence with the terms proposed, as the refusal is a
certain mark of rejection. Even in the rage of a conflict
this pipe is sometimes offered ; and if accepted, the wea¬
pons of destruction instantly drop from their hands, and
a truce ensues. It seems the sacrament of the savages ;
for no compact is ever violated which is confirmed by a
whiff from this holy reed. When they treat of war, the
pipe and all its ornaments are usually red, or sometimes
CAL
29
red only on one side. The size and decorations of the Calumny
calumet are for the most part proportioned to the quality ||
of the persons to whom they are presented, and to the Calypso,
importance of the occasion. The calumet of peace is dif-
ferent from that of war. They make use of the former to
seal their alliances and treaties, to travel with safety, and
to receive strangers ; but the latter is employed to proclaim
war. It consists of a red stone, like marble, formed into a
cavity resembling the head of a tobacco pipe, and fixed
to a hollow reed. They adorn it with feathers of various
colours, and name it the calumet of the sun, to which lumi¬
nary they present it, in expectation of thereby obtaining
a change of weather as often as they desire. From the
winged ornaments of the calumet, and its conciliating uses,
writers compare it to the caduceus of Mercury, which
was carried by the caduceatores, or messengers of peace,
with terms to the hostile states. It is singular, that the
most remote nations, and the most opposite in their other
customs and manners, should in some things have, as it
were, a certain consent of thought. The Greeks and the
Americans had the same idea, in the invention of the ca¬
duceus of the one, and the calumet of the other.
CALUMNY, the crime of accusing another falsely, and
knowingly so, of some heinous offence.
Oath of Calumny, Juramentum, or rather Jusjurandum,
Calumnice, or de Calumnia, among civilians and canonists,
was an oath which both parties in a cause were obliged to
take ; the plaintiff that he did not bring his charge, and the
defendant that he did not deny it, with a design to abuse
each other, but because they believed their cause was just
and good; that they would not deny the truth, nor create
unnecessary delays, nor offer the judge or evidence any
gifts or bribes. If the plaintiff refused this oath, the com¬
plaint or libel was dismissed; if the defendant, he was
held pro confesso. This custom was taken from the ancient
athletae, who, before they engaged, were bound to swear
that they had no malice, nor would use any unfair means
for overcoming each other. The juramentum calumnice is
much disused, as a great occasion of perjury.
CALVISSON, a city of the department of Gard, in
France, on the river Escates, with 500 houses and 2790
inhabitants.
CALVUS, Cornelius Licinius, a celebrated Roman
orator, was the friend of Catullus, and flourished sixty-
four years b. c. Catullus, Ovid, and Horace, spe^of him.
CALX properly signifies lime, but has been used by
chemists and physicians for a fine powder remaining after
the calcination of metals.
CALYBITES, the inhabitants of a cottage ; an appella- f
tion given to divers saints on account of their long resi¬
dence in some hut, by way of mortification. The word is
formed from koCKv'Ktu, tego, I cover ; whence xa/.uSry, a little
cot. The Romish church commemorates St John the Caly-
bite on the 15th of December.
CALYCISTiE, systematic botanists, so named by Lin¬
naeus, who have arranged all vegetables from the different
species, structui'e, and other circumstances, of the calyx
or flower-cup. The only systems of this kind are the
Character Plantarum Novus, a posthumous work of Mag-
nolius, professor of botany at Montpelier, published in
1720; and Linnaeus’s Methodus Calycina, published in his
Classes Plantarum, at Leyden, in 1738.
CALYDON, in Ancient Geography, a town of iEtolia,
situated seven miles and a half from the sea, and divided
by the river Evenus. The country was anciently called
ASolis, from the /Eolians, its inhabitants. This country
was famous for the story of Meleager and the Calydonian
boar.
CALYPSO, in fabulous history, a goddess who was the
daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or, as others say, of
30 C A M
Calyx Atlas. She was queen of the island of Ogygia, which
II from her was called the island of Calypso. According to
Camana. Homer, Ulysses suffered shipwreck on her coast, and staid
wJth her several years.
CALYX, among botanists, a general term, expressing
the cup of a flower, or that part of a plant which surrounds
and supports the other parts of the flower. See Botany.
CAMAIEU, or Camayeu, a word used to express a
peculiar sort of onyx; also a stone, on which are found
various figures, and representations of landscapes, or the
like, formed by a kind of lusus naturce, so as to exhibit
pictures without painting. It is of these camaieux Pliny
is to be understood as speaking when he says of the mani¬
fold pictures of gems, and the particoloured spots of preci¬
ous stones : Gemmarum pictura tam multiplex lapidumque
tam discolores macula:.
Camaieu is also frequently applied to any kind of gem
on which figures are engraved either indentedly or in
relievo. In this sense the lapidaries of Paris are called, in
their statutes, cutters of camaieux.
A society of learned men at Florence undertook to pro¬
cure all the cameos or camaieux and intaglios in the great
duke’s gallery to be engraven ; and began to draw the
heads of different emperors in cameos.
Camaieu is also used for a painting, where there is
only one colour, and where the lights and shadows are of
gold, wrought on a golden or azure ground. When the
ground is yellow, the French call it cirage; when gray,
grissaile. This kind of work is chiefly used to represent
basso relievos. The Greeks call pieces of such sort go'io-
CAMALDULIANS, Camaldunians, or Camaldo-
lites, an order of religious persons, founded by Romuald,
an Italian fanatic, in 1023, in the horrible desert of Camal-
doli, otherwise called Campo Malduli, situated in the state
of Florence, on the Apennines. Their rule is that of St
Benedict; and their houses, by the statutes, can never be
less than five leagues from cities. The Camaldidians
have not borne that title from the beginning of their or¬
der ; till the close of the eleventh century they were
called Romualdins, from the name of their founder. Pre¬
viously, Camaldulian was a particular name for those of
the desert Camaldoli, and, Grandi observes, was not given
to the whole order in respect it was in this monastery that
the order commenced, but because the regulation was best
maintained here.
Guido Grandi, mathematician of the grand duke of Tus¬
cany, and a monk of this order, has published Camaldu-
lian Dissertations on the origin and establishment of the
order.
The Camaldulites were distinguished into two classes,
of which the one were Coenobites, and the other Ere¬
mites.
CAMALODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Trinobantes, the first Roman colony in Britain. From
the Itineraries it appears to have stood where Malden now
stands. It continued to be an open town under the Ro¬
mans, a place of pleasure rather than strength, yet not
unadorned with splendid works, as a theatre and a temple
of Claudius; which the Britons had considered as badges
of slavery, and which gave rise to several seditions and
commotions.
CAMANA, a province of Peru, bounded on the north¬
west and north by the province of lea, on the north-east
by that of Lucanas, on the east by those of Pavinacochas
and Condesuios, on the south-east by that of Collahuas, and
on the west by the South Sea. It is about twenty-five
leagues in length, by about fourteen in breadth at the
widest part. It consists of a series of valleys, which for the
most part terminate in the coast. These abound in vines,
CAM
of which brandy is made ; but they are liable to suffer from Camand
drought, there being little rain except during the months II
of January, February, and March. Towards the moun- Carn!>a:
tainous ridges of the Andes it is, however, more frequent.
Gold mines are situated in this neighbourhood; but, from
the difficulty of working them, they yield but little profit.
Camana, the capital of the province, stands upon the
river Mages, about two leagues from the sea. The inha¬
bitants are about 1500 in number ; but they were former¬
ly more considerable. It is 70 miles west of Arequipa.
Lat. 16. 17. S.
CAMANDOO, a town of Hindustan, in the territory
of the Seiks, in the province of Lahore, situated on the
east side of the Beyah river, 124 miles north-east from
the city of Lahore. Long. 75. 50. E. Lat. 32. 26. N.
CAMARANA, an island of Arabia, in the Red Sea,
where the natives fish for coral and pearls. Lat. 15. 0. N.
CAMASSEI, or Camace, Andrea, painter of history
and landscape, was born at Bevagna, and at first learned
the principles of design and colouring from Domenichino ;
but afterw ards he studied in the school of Andrea Sacchi,
and proved a very great painter. He was employed in
St Peter’s at Rome, as also at St John Lateran ; and his
works are extremely admired for the sweetness of his co¬
louring,'the elegance of his thoughts and design, and like¬
wise for the delicacy of his pencil. Sandrart laments that
the world was deprived of so promising a genius in the
very bloom of life, when his reputation was daily advan¬
cing. He died in 1657.
CAMBAY, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Gu-
jerat, and the port of Ahmedabad, situated at the upper
part of the Gulf of Cambay, and supposed to be the
Camanes of Ptolemy. It was formerly a very flourishing
city, the seat of an extensive commerce. But it decayed
with Ahmedabad in Gujerat, in the supplying of which its
chief commerce consisted, and it is now much reduced.
Other causes also are assigned for its decay, namely, the
danger of navigating the Gulf of Cambay, owing to the
great rapidity of the tides, which rise here to the height
of forty feet, so that at high water ships can anchor near
the town; but at low water the river runs almost dry, so
that the vessels in the river lie aground in the mud; and
in some places the current is so rapid that a ship which
takes the ground is immediately upset, and all on board
generally perish. The trade has in consequence decreas¬
ed, and is now chiefly confined to elephants’ teeth and
cornelians, which are here procured for the China market,
and to cotton, which is the chief article of export, and
grain. The houses are built of stone or brick; and the
town is surrounded by a brick wall nearly five miles in cir¬
cumference, inclosing four large reservoirs of good water,
and three bazars. Many of these houses have underground
apartments, where the people were in the habit of conceal¬
ing their females and their valuable property in times of
alarm. To the south-east of the town there are very ex¬
tensive ruins of subterranean temples and other buildings,
half buried in the sand with which the ancient town was
overwhelmed. These temples belong to the Jains, and
contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black
and the other white. The principal one, as the inscription
intimates, is Pariswanath or Parswanatha, carved and con¬
secrated in the reign of the emperor Acbar in 1502; the
black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. Cambay is sup¬
posed about the fifth century to have been the capital of
the Hindoo emperors of the west; and in 1515 a Portuguese
writer, Osorio, says, that when Francis d’Almeida landed
near Cambay, he saw the ruins of sumptuous buildings and
temples, the ruins of an ancient city. In 1780 it was taken
possession of by the army of General Goddard, and re¬
stored to the Mahrattas in 1783. It was again taken
CAM
CAM
31
rv
,:ambaves possession of by the British, and confirmed to them at the
|| peace of 1803. The travelling distance from Bombay is
Camblet. 281, from Delhi 663, and from Calcutta 1253 miles. Long.
72. 45. E. Lat. 22. 23. N.
The Gulf of Cambay penetrates the north-west coast of
India, in the province of Gujerat, about 150 miles. It is
supposed that the depth of water in this gulf has been de¬
creasing for more than two centuries past. The tides run
into it with amazing velocity ; and at low water, during
spring tides, the bottom is left dry from latitude 22. 3.
(north to the town of Cambay. Fifteen miles east of Cam-
bay the bed of the gulf is not above six miles broad, and
at low water it is left entirely dry. But the passage is
extremely dangerous, and cannot be attempted without a
native guide, the whole surface being covered with deep
mud and quicksands, in which the traveller, losing his way,
may be overwhelmed by the flood-tide, which rushes fu¬
riously into the gulf, and with such rapidity, as scarcely
at times to admit of escape either by man or horse.
CAMBAYES, in commerce, cotton cloths made at Ben¬
gal, Madras, and some other places on the coast of Coro¬
mandel.
CAMBER, according to our monkish historians, one
of the three sons of Brute, who, upon his father’s death,
had that part of Britain assigned him for his share called
from him Cambria, now Wales.
CAMBERED Decks, among ship-builders. The deck
or flooring of a ship is said to be cambered, or to lie cam¬
bering, when it is higher in the middle of the ship’s length,
and droops towards the stem and stern, or the two ends;
also when it lies irregular, a circumstance which renders
the ship very unfit for war.
CAMBERT, a French musician in the seventeenth
century, was at first admired for the manner in which he
touched the organ, and became superintendent of music
to Anne of Austria, the queen-mother. The Abbe Perin
associated him in the privilege he obtained from his
majesty, of setting up an opera in 1669. Cambert set to
music two pastorals, one entitled Pomona, the other
Ariadne, which were the first operas given in France. He
also wrote a piece entitled The Pains and Pleasures of Love.
These pieces pleased the public ; yet, in 1672, Lully
obtaining the privilege of the opera, Cambert was obliged
to come to England, where he became superintendent of
music to king Charles II.; and died there in 1677.
CAMBERWELL, a large village in the hundred of
Brenton, in Surrey, adjoining to London, whose population
amounted in 1811 to 11,309, in 1821 to 17,876, and in
1831 to 28,231.
CAMBIO, an Italian word which signifies exchange,
commonly used in Provence, and in some other countries,
particularly Holland.
CAMBIST, a name given in France to those who trade
in notes and bills of exchange. The word cambist, though
a term of antiquity, is even now a technical word of some
use among merchants, traders, and bankers. Some derive
it from the Latin cambium, or rather cambio.
CAMBLET, or Chamblet, a stuff composed sometimes
!of wool, sometimes of silk, and sometimes of hair, especi¬
ally that of goats, with wool or silk: in some, the warp is
silk and wool twisted together, and the woof hair.
The true or oriental camblet is made of the pure hair of
a sort of goat, frequent about Angora, and which consti¬
tutes the riches of that city, all the inhabitants of which
are employed in the manufacture and commerce of cam-
blets. In writers of the middle age we find mention made
of stuffs composed of camels’ hair, under the denominations
of cameletum- and camelinum, whence probably the origin
of the term ; but these are represented as strangely coarse,
rough, and prickly, and seem to have been chiefly used
among the monks by way of mortification, as the hair shirt Camblets
of later times. II
Figured Camblets are those of one colour, on which ('1air,'JCK^a‘
are stamped various figures, flowers, foliage, &c. by means
of hot irons, which are a kind of moulds, passed, together
with the stuff, under a press.
Watered Camblets are those which, after weaving, re¬
ceive a certain preparation with water, and are afterwards
passed under a hot press, which gives them a smoothness
and lustre.
Waved Camblets are those on which waves are im¬
pressed, as on tabbies, by means of a calender, under
which they are passed and repassed several times.
CAMBO, a town of the department of the Lower Py¬
renees, in France, on the river Nive, which is thus far na¬
vigable. It is celebrated for its mineral springs, one cold,
containing iron, and two warm and sulphureous, which are
much frequented. The stationary inhabitants amount to
1150.
CAMBODIA, Gamboge, Camboja, or Camboya, a
country of Asia, occupying the eastern shore of the Gulf
of Siam, bounded on the north by Loas, on the east by
Cochin-China and Tsiampa, on the west by Siam and the
Burman empire, and on the south by the sea. In length
it may be estimated at 350 miles, by 150 in average breadth.
This is a country very little known to Europeans. The
coasts, to which alone they have had access, are so remark¬
ably flat, that at the distance of four or five miles from the
shore the water is seldom more than four or five fathoms
deep, and no craft except boats can approach within two
miles of the shore. The country near the coast is over¬
grown with wood. Farther inward it is mountainous, in¬
tersected by deep ravines ; and the middle portion, through
which the great river Camboja passes, is described as a
fine plain, though it is almost wholly unknown. The soil
is fertile, resembling that of Ava, Siam, and the neigh¬
bouring countries. It produces rice, legumes, and fruits,
as well as many medicinal plants. Here is produced the
colouring matter named gamboge, which derives its name
from this kingdom, being the concrete resinous juice of
certain trees found here. Here are also the sandal and
the eagle wood trees, and many other valuable vegetable
products. There is a vegetable poison, in which, if a wea¬
pon is dipped, it is sure to inflict a mortal wound. In the
deep forests with which the country is covered the wild
animals of the country find abundant shelter. They con¬
sist chiefly of elephants, lions, tigers, &c. and are eagerly
hunted by the natives. Cattle are also plentiful. The
chief river, which runs southward through the centre of
the country from Thibet, where it has its rise, is Camboja
or May Kaung, or more properly Me Kon, and is naviga¬
ble for boats along the greater part of its course, which
is through the province of Yunan in China. It is navi¬
gable for ships forty miles from the sea, where the city of
Saigong is situated. It is about two miles broad, and very
deep, and falls into the Chinese Sea by several mouths.
Some sand banks obstruct its entrance; but they may be
easily avoided. The chief town is Lowaick, named Cam¬
bodia by Europeans ; and there are just three others that
deserve the name, whose position, however, is very indis¬
tinctly known to Europeans. The foreign commerce of the
country is extremely limited ; and the inhabitants seldom
leave their country for commercial objects. The Chinese
and Portuguese from Macao import to a small extent silk
goods, china and lackered ware, tea, sweetmeats, tin, and
tutenague ; while the exports are betel-nut, various kinds
of wood, mother of pearl, shells, peltry, silk, and coarse
cloths. The mountains yield various sorts of precious stones,
also gold of great beauty, and in considerable quantities.
The Portuguese were formerly rivals with the Dutch for
32 CAM
Cambong the trade of this country. In the year 1670 the English
II t attempted some traffic with the inhabitants, but to little
( advantage. The country is inhabited by a mixture of
Cochin-Chinese, Malays, Japanese, and Portuguese. The
men are generally handsome, with a dark complexion and
long hair; the women are likewise handsome, but rather
licentious in their manners. The inhabitants of the in¬
terior are very little known; they seem to resemble the
barbarous aborigines found all over India, and to follow
neither the religion of Mahommed nor Buddha, but some
idolatrous superstition of their own. The city of Cam¬
bodia is 150 or 170 miles from the sea; it is now a mean
place, with an indifferent palace of wood. Long. 104. 35.
E. Lat. 13. N.
CAMBONG, or Cambing, an island in the Eastern
Seas, about thirty miles in circumference. It lies off the
north coast of Trinon. Lat. 8. to 9. N.
CAMBHAY, an arrondissement of the department of
the North, in France, extending over 355 square miles, di¬
vided into seven cantons, and containing 117 communes,
with 112,994 inhabitants. The chief place, of the same
name, is a fortified city on the river Scheldt, which divides
it into two parts. It is well but irregularly built, is the seat
of a bishop, and contains eleven churches, 2990 houses,
and 15,608 inhabitants. It has long been celebrated for
those linens of delicate texture which have obtained in
England the name of the city. Fine lawns and thread
gauzes are manufactured in Cambray; besides which there
are produced fine threads, inferior linen, carpets, soap,
snuff, and copper utensils; and there are several large
bleaching establishments. From 1815 to 1818 it was the
head quarters of the army of occupation under the com¬
mand of the Duke of Wellington. It is in longitude 3. 8.
27. E. and latitude 50. 10. 37. N.
CAMBREMER, a town in the department of Calvados,
in France, with 165 houses and 1056 inhabitants.
CAMBRIA, a name for the principality of Wales.
CAMBRIC, in commerce, a species of linen made of
flax, very fine and white; the name of which was origi¬
nally derived from the city of Cambray, where they were
first manufactured.
CAMBRIDGE, the capital of the English county of the
same name, stands on the river Cam, which is navigable to
the Ouse, and communicates with the sea through the port
of Lynn. It is situated on an extensive and not very fertile
plain, and is considered a very salubrious situation. Neither
the streets nor private buildings have any thing remark¬
able, but the general appearance of the town has been
much improved by the recent additions and embellish¬
ments which the colleges have received. The town is
governed by a mayor, thirteen aldermen, and twenty-four
common-council men. The chief object of attention is its
university, which is a corporation of itself, and returns in
that capacity two members to the House of Commons, who
are chosen by such students as have taken the degree of
master of arts, and from whom no landed qualification is
required on taking their seat in that assembly. The public
library, the senate-house, the printing press, the observa¬
tory, and some other establishments, belong to this corpo¬
ration ; and it also possesses power to adopt rules and
make regulations for the government of the whole body,
as well as to choose the several professors.
Each college is also a separate corporate body, holding
the buildings and libraries, and possessing large funds in
money, in land, in houses, and in advowsons, by which
the expenses of the several establishments are defrayed,
and stipends allowed to the holders of fellowships. The
constitutions of these colleges are various, as well as the
amount of their property, and the mode in which the
scholars, fellows, and masters are appointed and remune-
C A M
rated. Our limits do not admit our describing the wealth, Cambridi
the inducements to study, or the mode of examination prac- '
tised in the several colleges; but we may enumerate the
names of each of them, and the number of scholarships,
fellowships, and advowsons. ls£, St Peter’s was founded
in 1257, contains a master, tutors, and bursars, like the
others, to be noticed in succession, with fourteen fellow¬
ships, forty-eight scholarships, and eleven advowsons. 2d,
Clare Hall was founded in 1326; it has ten senior and
seven junior fellowships, thirty-eight scholarships, and
fifteen advowsons. 3d, Pembroke Hall has sixteen fellow¬
ships, several scholarships under ten pounds, and seven
above thirty pounds a year, and ten advowsons. 4tfA, Gon-
ville and Caius, founded in 1348, has twenty-nine fellow¬
ships, seventy-six scholarships, and sixteen advowsons.
5th, Trinity Hall, founded in 1350, has twelve fellowships,
fourteen scholarships, and seven advowsons. 6th, Benet
College, which has twelve fellowships, fifty-two scholar¬
ships, and eleven advowsons. 7th, King’s College, founded
in 1441, consists of seventy fellows and scholars supplied
in regular succession from Eton College: it possesses
twenty-six advowsons. 8th, Queen’s College, founded in
1448, has twenty fellowships, several small scholarships,
and ten advowsons. 9th, Catherine Hall, founded in 1475,
has fourteen fellowships, thirty scholarships, and three ad¬
vowsons. 10th, Jesus College, founded in 1496, enjoys
sixteen fellowships, forty-six scholarships, and fifteen ad¬
vowsons. Wth, Christ College, founded in 1505 : the fel¬
lowships are fifteen in number, and the scholarships fifty-
two; the advowsons are eight. \2th, St John’s College,
founded in 1511 : the fellowships are fifty-one, the scholar¬
ships a hundred and fourteen, and the advowsons forty-
three. 13^, Magdalen College, founded in 1519, which
enjoys seventeen fellowships, forty-one scholarships, and
five advowsons. 14^, Trinity College, founded in 1546 :
it has sixty fellowships, sixty-nine scholarships, and fif¬
ty-eight advowsons. 15^A, Emanuel College, founded in
1584, has thirteen fellowships, thirty-six scholarships, and
fourteen advowsons. 16^4, Sidney Sussex College: this
has twelve fellowships, forty-eight scholarships, and six
advowsons. 17^4, Downing College, founded in 1800, has
sixteen fellowships, six scholarships, and two advowsons.
These seventeen foundations have each their separate
chapel, library, and hall, with apartments for the members
of the college. They have also college tutors to superin¬
tend the morals and tuition of the students, and to main¬
tain the due discipline. There are in all of them private
tutors, of which benefit the more aspiring pupils common¬
ly avail themselves. In each house there are prizes dis¬
tributed corresponding to the rank which the students at¬
tain at the examinations.
As the increase of the value of land has augmented the
funds of these colleges, though some of the result of their
economy has been applied to the'purchase of advowsons,
other parts have been liberally made use of to enlarge the
accommodation for the pupils, or to beautify and adorn the
edifices. This has recently been the case in several of
the corporations, to the great improvement of the town.
There has been a gradual increase in the number of stu¬
dents, who in a few years have risen from 1500 to up¬
wards of 3000; many of whom are now under the necessity
of procuring lodging in the town, though they attend at
meals and at daily worship in the colleges to which they
belong. It is impossible to reduce into a narrow compass
the list of interesting objects in this university; but Tri¬
nity College, King’s with its wonderful chapel, the senate
house, and the new part of St John’s, are all objects excit¬
ing great admiration. The number of eminent men pro¬
duced from this university may be deemed the most con¬
vincing proof of the value of the system of education that
CAM
lambridge is pursued. The inhabitants of Cambridge amounted in
II 1811 to 11,108, in 1821 to 14,142, and in 1831 to 20,917,
ambridge-inciucjing tiie university. (See Universities.)
Cambridge, a post town of the United States, Middle-
sex county, situated on the north side of Charles River,
three miles west-north-west of Boston. This town pos¬
sesses a university, in many respects the first institution
of the kind in America. In 1820 the population amount¬
ed to 3295.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE is divided into two parts by the
river Ouse. Its most northerly division, which is princi¬
pally composed of the Isle of Ely, is bounded by rivers
and their communicating branches. The limits thus form¬
ed are so intermixed as with difficulty to be traced. The
southern half has an indented and undistinguished boun¬
dary-line on the adjacent counties. The form of Cam¬
bridgeshire bears some resemblance to that of the human
ear, the county of Huntingdon cutting deeply into its
western side by a circular projection. The number of
acres assigned to it by Dr Beeke is 530,000; but from
the agricultural report, and in the returns of the poor-rates
in 1803, the number is stated to be 443,300 and 439,040
respectively. When the original agricultural report was
made in 1794 by Mr Vancouver, he calculated that, of
the 443,000 acres, there were 132,000 open field, and
150,000 waste and unimproved fen; but since that time
both these-descriptions of land have been very consider¬
ably reduced by inclosure and cultivation.
The surface of this county presents considerable variety.
The northern part, including the Isle of Ely, is chiefly fen
land, and perfectly level, intersected with numerous ca¬
nals and ditches, and abounding with windmills, for the
purpose of carrying the water from the lands. This dis¬
trict is naturally a bog, formed by the stagnation of the
water from the overflowing rivers. It comprises nearly
half of that extensive tract called the Bedford Level, the
whole extent of which is 400,000 acres. This great level
has been from an early period divided into three parts,
the north level, the middle level, and the south level.
The largest portion of the middle level, and a consider¬
able part of the south level, are in Cambridgeshire, com¬
prehending the Isle of Ely, and a few parishes to the
south-east of the isle. The principal of the drains by
means of which this immense fenny district has been in a
great measure rendered either rich meadow or arable
land, are the Bedford Old and New Rivers, which are navi¬
gable in a straight line upwards of twenty miles across
the county, from the Great to the Little Ouse. There
are some rising grounds in this part of the county, on the
most considerable of which the city of Ely stands. Those
parts of Cambridgeshire which lie adjacent to Suffolk, Es¬
sex, and Hertfordshire, have their surface varied by gent¬
ly rising hills and downs. The Gogmagog Hills, which
begin about four miles to the south-east of Cambridge,
and which are one of the terminations of the range of
chalk hills that commence in the south-west of England,
are the highest in the county; but their height is very
inconsiderable. The district which extends from these
hills to Newmarket is bleak and thinly inhabited. This
district is connected with that vast tract of land which,
extending southwards into Essex, and northwards through
Suffolk into Norfolk, forms one of the largest plains in the
kingdom.
The substrata of this county are chalk, chinch, gravel,
gault, sand, silt, and peat-earth. The chalk extends
through the hilly part of the county from Royston to
Newmarket. The chinch, an impure limestone, chiefly
abounds in the parishes of Burwell and Iselham. On the
east and west sides of the upland division of the county,
gaidt, a stiff blue clay, chiefly prevails. The sand enters
VOL. IV.
C A M 33
Cambridgeshire from Bedfordshire, in the parish of Gam-Cambridge-
lingay. In the northern extremity of the county, near shire/
Wisbeach, silt, a fine sea-sand, is found. The peat-earth
extends through the whole of the fen-land.
The principal rivers are the Ouse, and Granta or Cam.
The Ouse enters the county between Fen Drayton and
Erith, and thence runs eastward through the fens, till, at
some distance above Denny Abbey, it takes a northerly
course, and, passing Streatham, Ely, and Littleport, flows
into Norfolk. From this river are many cuts, called loads.
The Cam enters the county to the west of Gilden Mor-
den, and thence flowing to the east, it receives several
rivulets. Near Grantchester its stream is enlarged by the
united waters of several rivulets from Essex. After their
junction it takes a northerly direction, and having passed
Cambridge and several villages, it falls into the Ouse in
the parish of Streatham.
Besides the numerous canals in the fenny district, prin¬
cipally for the purposes of draining the land, there are the
Cambridgeshire Canal, which commences in the Ouse at
Harrimere, and terminates at Cambridge. A cut of three
miles extends to Reche, and another of three and a half
miles to Burwell; and the Wisbeach Canal, which joins
the Wisbeach river at the old sluice in the town, opening
a communication with Norfolk, Suffolk, and other places.
The climate of Cambridgeshire differs considerably in
different parts. In the south-east it is cold and bleak; in
the fenny district damp and unhealthy, though much less
so than formerly ; in the south and south-western districts
the climate is mild, agreeable, and healthy.
Estates vary much in size. There are many large ones,
especially those of the Earl of Hardwicke and the Dukes
of Bedford and Rutland. College tenures are numerous.
There are some farms of a thousand acres or more, but
the general size is from a hundred to five hundred acres.
Cambridgeshire is not celebrated as an agricultural
county. It may be considered as chiefly arable. Wheat
is grown principally in some parts of the fenny district,
and in the south and south-western parts of the county.
Barley is cultivated in these parts, and in some of the
more fertile portions of the south-east district. Immense
crops of oats, of good quality, are grown in the fenny dis¬
trict, and also in most other parts of the county. It is
supposed that about one fourth of the fen-lands is crop¬
ped w ith cole, which is principally sowm to be eaten green
by sheep, very little being now' cultivated for the seed.
The cultivation of hemp and flax is carried on to a consi¬
derable extent in that part of the county which borders
on Norfolk, particularly in the parishes of Upwell and
Wolney. Saffron has been very little, if at all cultivated,
for upwards of forty years. In some parts mustard is a
favourite and valuable crop. Sedge is cultivated near
Chippenham; but the cultivation of the reed is rapidly
decreasing, in consequence of the improvement of the
fens. White seed, or fen-hay, is growm abundantly in
several places. It increases the milk of cows. Oziers
are grown in the Wash, as well as in many parts of the
fen, and are a profitable crop in these districts. So
great is the value of turf, that the land producing it has
been sold at from L.50 to L.80 per acre. At Ely, Soham,
Wisbeach, &c. are many large gardens, producing ve¬
getables and common kinds of fruit so abundantly, as to
supply not only the neighbouring towns and counties, but
even London. Great quantities of strawberries are grown
in the vicinity of Ely, and are chiefly conveyed in barges
to Lynn, and carried thence to Newcastle and other places
in the north of England. There are numerous and large
orchards in the same districts as the gardens; and their
chief produce consists of apples and cherries. Soham is
remarkable for the latter.
E
34 CAM
Cambridge- That district of the county which by old authors is
shire. termed the Dairies, comprehends the parishes of Shengay,
Wengy, Whaddon, &c.; but the dairy farms in this dis¬
trict are at present much less considerable than those in
the parishes of Chattris, Mepal, Sutton, Cottenham, So-
ham, Ely, and Streatham. The whole number of cows
kept in this district is supposed to be between 9000 and
10,000; in the parish of Cottenham alone about 1500 are
usually kept; in Willingham about 1200. These two pa¬
rishes make the cheese, so much esteemed, which goes
by the name of Cottenham cheese; the parish of Soham
is also esteemed for good cheese. Little cheese is made
in other parts of the county, the rearing of calves and
making of butter being the chief dairy management. The
butter is sold, rolled up in pieces of a yard long, and
about two inches in circumference. This is done for the
convenience of the colleges, where it is cut into pieces
called parts, and so sent to table. Its quality is excellent.
The cows kept on the dairy farms are mostly of the breed
of the county. Most of the calves that are suckled are
sent to the London market. Immense numbers of sheep
are pastured on the heaths and commons with which the
south and south-western districts of this county are inter¬
sected. The downs in the vicinity of the Gogmagog
Hills are also chiefly used as sheep-walks. The principal
breeds kept here are the Norfolk and west country; in
the fens the most prevalent sort is a cross between the
Leicester and Lincoln. The Cambridgeshire farmers
think themselves unrivalled in cart-horses, which are of
the large black breed. In the fens they are a source of
great profit. In Cambridgeshire there is also a peculiar
breed of hogs, some of which are so large as to fatten to
forty stones, fourteen pounds to the stone, at two years
old.
From the nature of the northern division of the county,
great attention has necessarily been paid to draining; and
in some places advantage has been taken of the numerous
rivers to irrigate and warp land. The interior drainage
of the fens is performed principally by mills. One or two
steam-engines have been erected for that purpose, and
will probably answer better. There is a large tract of
meadow land at Babraham, which has been irrigated from
the time of Queen Elizabeth, and is supposed to be one
of the oldest instances of this mode of improving land in
the kingdom. It was first irrigated by Pallavicino, who
was collector of Peter’s Pence at the death of Queen
Mary, and who, turning Protestant, applied the money
thus obtained to the purchase and irrigation of this estate.
The practice, however, though evidently beneficial, has
extended very little. Near Denver Sluice, on the Ouse,
some land has been warped by letting the muddy water
of that river upon it, and then throwing it back by means
of a wind-mill.
This is by no means a manufacturing county. At Ely
there is a pottery for coarse ware ; and at this city, Chat¬
teris, and Cambridge, excellent white bricks are made.
Lime and chalk are a source of considerable trade and
profit; the lime in the greatest estimation is that which
is burnt at Reach. At Cherryhinton, at the foot of the
Gogmagog Hills, are great chalk pits, noted for the ma¬
rine productions they contain, and for the many rare
plants growing in their vicinity. Elephants’ grinders, and
other animal remains, have been found in a gravel pit near
Chesterford, and a small tortoise in flint at Milttm. On
the borders of Norfolk a little yarn is spun for the Nor¬
wich weavers. Malt is made to a considerable amount
in the north-west part of the count}^. There are Several
mills for preparing oil from cole and raj>c-secd at Wittlos-
ford, Sawston, &c., and a pretty extensive paper manufac¬
tory at the latter place. Near Cambridge is annually held
CAM
one of the greatest fairs in England; it is called Stour- Cambridfl
bridge or Sturbich Fair, and is under the jurisdiction of s*“re‘
the university. It begins on the 18th September, and
lasts a fortnight; it has, however, been declining for many
years.
A very curious example, and unquestionably one of the
oldest in the kingdom, of Saxon architecture, occurs in
the remains of the conventual church of Ely. This build¬
ing is undoubtedly of as early a date as the tenth century,
having been erected in the reign of King Edgar. The
two transepts of Ely Cathedral afford specimens of the
more massive kind of architecture introduced by the Nor¬
mans. They were built towards the end of the eleventh
century. St Sepulchre’s Church at Cambridge affords a
curious specimen of that species of architecture which was
introduced into this country in imitation of the church of
the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; it is supposed to be
the oldest of this form in England, and to have been built
in the reign of Henry I. There are some instances in
this county of the pointed arch, enriched with Saxon
mouldings ; a style which was the immediate forerunner of
the Gothic. Soham Church, the south doorway of St
Giles in Cambridge, and the north and south doorways of
St Mary’s Church in Ely, are specimens of this species of
architecture. One of the most ancient buildings in the
county, in which the pointed arch makes its appearance,
is the great Tower at the west end of Ely Cathedral, and
the south transept adjoining; they were erected between
1174 and 1189. Some traces of Saxon architecture may
be observed in this part of the cathedral. The early or
simple Gothic may be seen in the vestibule at the west
end of Ely Cathedral, in Jesus College Chapel, Cambridge,
and in the chancels of Foxton, Kennett, and Cherryhin¬
ton churches. Of the Gothic architecture of the fifteenth
century, especially in the reign of King Henry VII. which
was distinguished by the abundance of its rich tracery, the
finest and most perfect example is found in the magnifi¬
cent chapel of King’s College in Cambridge.
There are not many remains of antiquity in this county.
The most remarkable are the ditches, which formerly ex¬
tended from the woods on the east side of the county to
the fens. The most entire is called the Devil's Ditch, and
extends from Wood-ditton or Ditch-town to Reach. Near
this latter place it is most perfect, the works consisting
of a deep ditch with an elevated vallum, the slope of which
measures fifty-two feet on the west and twenty-six on the
east side. The whole of the works are about 100 feet in
width. The origin and intention of these ditches are not
known ; they are certainly very ancient, and were proba¬
bly formed for the purpose of defence.
By returns made to the Board of Agriculture in the
year 1804, it appears that the poors’ rates rose, between
1790 and 1803, from 4s. lid. to 5s. 8|d. in the pound;
while the expense of maintaining them from Easter 1802
to Easter 1803 amounted to the sum of L.55,954. 14s. lid.
In the year ending the 25th of March 1815 the parochial
rates in 131 parishes amounted to the sum of L.63,354.
13s. l^d.; forty-four parishes had made no returns.
In the year 1377 the number of persons charged in
this county to a poll tax, from which the clergy, children,
and paupers were exempted, was 27,350; but it seems
doubtful whether it was exclusive of the town of Cam¬
bridge and city of Ely, in each of which 1722 persons
were taxed. If they were taxed separately, the total
number in the county would .be 30,794. In the year
1700 there are supposed to hqye been 76,000 inhabitants ;
and in the year 1750, T2,000. By the returns made un¬
der the act of parliament for ascertaining the population
of the kingdom in 1800, there were then 16,451 houses in
Cambridgeshire, of whieh 16,139 were inhabited. The
CAM
CAM
35
Camden, total number of inhabitants is stated to be 89,346, of whom culture; and 11,988 in trade, manufactures, and handi- Camden.
44,081 were males, and 45,265 females. Of this total crafts. The following is the result of the population re-
number there were 28,045 principally employed in agri- turns for 1811, 1821, and 1831 respectively.
YEARS.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
17,232
20,869
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
21,022
25,603
257
247
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
12,831
15,536
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
5303
6964
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
2888
3103
PERSONS.
Males.
50,756
60,301
72,031
Females.
50,353
61,608
71,924
Total of
Persons.
101,109
121,909
143,955
CAMBYSES. See Persia.
CAMDEN, William, the great antiquary, was born
in London in the year 1551. His father was a native of
Lichfield, in Staffordshire, who, settling in London, became
a member of the company of paper-stainers, and lived in the
Old Bailey. His mother was of the ancient family of Cur-
wen of Workington, in Cumberland. He was educated first
at Christ's Hospital, and afterwards at St Paul’s School;
from which he was sent, in 1566, to Oxford, and entered
servitor of Magdalen College; but being disappointed of
a demy’s place, he removed to Broadgate Hall, and, some¬
what more than two years afterwards, to Christ Church,
where he was supported by his kind friend and patron Dr
Thornton. About this time he was a candidate for a fel¬
lowship of All-souls College, but lost it by the intrigues of
the Popish party. In 1570 he supplicated the regents of
the university to be admitted bachelor of arts, but in this
also he miscarried. The following year Mr Camden came
to London, where he prosecuted his favourite study of
antiquity, under the patronage of Dr Goodman, dean of
Westminster, by whose interest he was made second mas¬
ter of Westminster School in 1575. From the time of
his leaving the university to this period, he took several
journeys to different parts of England, with a view to make
observations and collect materials for his Britannia, in
which he was now deeply engaged. In 1581 he became
intimately acquainted with the learned President Brisson,
who was then in England, and in 1586 he published the
first edition of his Britannia ; a work which, though much
enlarged and improved in future editions, was even then
esteemed as an honour to its author and the glory of its
country. In 1593 he succeeded to the head mastership
of Westminster School, on the resignation of Dr Grant.
In this office he continued till 1597, when he was promot¬
ed to be clarencieux king at arms. In the year 1600 Mr
Camden made a tour to the north, as far as Carlisle, ac¬
companied by his friend Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Cot¬
ton. In 1606 he began his correspondence with the ce¬
lebrated President de Thou, which continued to the death
of that faithful historian. In the following year he pub¬
lished his last edition of the Britannia, which is that from
which the several English translations have been made;
and in 1608 he began to digest his materials for a history
of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In 1609, after recover¬
ing from a dangerous illness, he retired to Chislehurst in
Kent, where he continued to spend the summer months
during the remainder of his life. The first part of his
annals of the queen did not appear till the year 1615, and
he determined that the second volume should not appear
till after his death.1 The work was entirely finished in
1617 ; and from that time he was principally employed in
collecting more materials for the further improvement of
his Britannia. In 1622, being now upwards of seventy,
and finding his health decline apace, he determined to
lose no time in executing his design of founding a history
lecture in the university of Oxford. His deed of gift was
accordingly transmitted by his friend Mr Heather to Mr
Gregory Wheare, who was by himself appointed his first
professor. He died at Chislehurst in 1623, in the sevent}'-
third year of his age, and was buried with great solemnity
in Westminster Abbey, in the south aisle, where a monu¬
ment of white marble was erected to his memory. Cam¬
den was a man of singular modesty and integrity, pro¬
foundly learned in the history and antiquities of this king¬
dom, and a judicious and conscientious historian. He was
reverenced and esteemed by the literati of all nations, and
will be ever remembered as an honour to the age and
country in which he lived. Besides the works already
mentioned, he was author of an excellent Greek grammar,
and of several tracts in Hearne’s collection. But his
great and most useful work, the Britannia, is that upon
which his fame is chiefly built. The edition above men¬
tioned, to which he put his last hand, was correctly print¬
ed in folio, much augmented, amended where amendment
was necessary, and adorned with maps. It was first trans¬
lated into English, and published in folio at London, in 1611,
by the laborious Dr Philemon Holland, a physician of
Coventry, who is thought to have consulted our author
himself; and therefore great respect has been paid to the
additions and explanations that occur therein, on a suppo¬
sition that they may belong to Camden. But in a later
edition of the same translation, published in 1636, the
doctor has taken liberties which cannot be either defend¬
ed or excused. A new translation, made with the utmost
fidelity from the last edition of our author’s work, was
published in 1695, by Edmund Gibson of Queen’s College,
in Oxford, afterwards bishop of London ; in which, besides
the addition of notes, and of all that deserved to be taken
notice of in Dr Holland’s first edition, which, though
thrown out of the text, is preserved at the bottom of the
page, there are many other augmentations and improve¬
ments, all properly distinguished from the genuine work
1 The reign of Queen Elizabeth was so recent when the first volume of the annals was published, that many of the persons con¬
cerned, or their dependents, were still living. It is no wonder, therefore, that the honest historian should offend those whose actions
would not bear inquiry. Some of his enemies were clamorous and troublesome, which determined him not to publish the second vo¬
lume during his file; but, that posterity might be in no danger of disappointment, he deposited one copy in the Cotton Library, and
transmitted another to his friend Dupuy at Paris. It was first printed at Leyden in 1623.
30 C A M
Camden of the author, as they ought to be; and the same judicious
II method was followed in the next edition of this perform-
1 ucidiT which was justly considered as the very best book
, of its kind that had been hitherto published. But the
^ public was afterwards put in possession of a new transla¬
tion, and still more improved edition, by that learned and
industrious topographer Mr Gough, under whose hands it
was enlarged to near double the size of the last of the pre¬
ceding editions.
Camden, a post-town, and capital of Kenshaw district,
South Carolina, situated on the east side of the Wateree.
It is a pleasant town, regularly laid out, and contains
about 1000 inhabitants. Two battles were fought hei’e to
the advantage of the British during the revolutionary war.
Long. 80. 33. W. Lat. 34. 17. N.
CAMEL, in Zoology. See Mammalia.
CAMELODUNUM. See Camalodunum.
CAMELOPARDALIS, in Zoology. See Mammalia.
CAMEO. See Camaieu.
CAMERA TEolia, a contrivance for blowing the fire^
for the fusion of ores, without bellows, by means of water
falling through a funnel into a close vessel, which sends
from it so much air or vapour as continually blows the
fire. If there be the space of another vessel for it to ex¬
patiate in by the way, it there deposits its humidity, which
otherwise might hinder the work. This contrivance was
named camera ceolia by Kircher.
Camera Lucida, a contrivance of Dr Hook for making
the image of any thing appear on the wall of a room dur¬
ing sunshine. Opposite to the wall on which the image
is to be received there is an aperture in the window shut¬
ter of at least a foot in diameter. The object is placed
outside the aperture. The object must be strongly en¬
lightened by a mirror which throws the sun’s rays upon
it. Between the object and the wall which is to receive
the image place a large convex lens, whose focal distance
is sufficiently great to give an image on the wall. In pro¬
portion as the lens is placed nearer to the object, the
image on the wall will be larger; and when the lens is
moved farther from the object, the object will be less.
(Phil. Trans. No. xxxviii. p. 741 et seq.} With a good lens,
magnified images of objects, such as small gems in bas-
relief, may be formed on a wall or screen so perfect as to
be mistaken for real bas-reliefs.
Camera Lucida, an instrument for drawing in perspec¬
tive; one of the many ingenious inventions of Dr Wollas¬
ton.
If a piece of plain glass be fixed at an angle of forty-
five degrees with the horizon, and if, at some distance be¬
neath, there be a sheet of paper laid horizontally on a
table, a person looking downwards through the glass will
see an image of the objects situated before him; and as
the glass which reflects the image is also transparent, the
paper and pencil can be seen at the same time with the
image, so that the outline of the image may be traced on
the paper. The image is an inverted one. This is the
simplest form of the instrument, and may be constructed
extemporaneously by fixing on a stand a plain transparent
glass, with its surfaces ground parallel, or a piece of Mus¬
covy glass, at an angle of forty-five degrees with the ho¬
rizon ; a card with a small hole in it will serve as a sight
for keeping the eye steady in one situation whilst the
pencil is tracing the image.
If there be a plain mirror at an angle of 221 degrees
with the horizon, and a piece of plain transparent glass be
placed near it, at an angle of 221 degrees with the verti¬
cal, the rays from the object will be twice reflected before
they reach the eye; and consequently, on looking down
through the transparent glass, an erect image is seen, and
the pencil may be drawn over the outlines of this image
CAM
so as to leave a perspective representation on the paper. Camera
This disposition is seen at fig 1, Plate CXLIV., where be Lucid*,
is the mirror, ab the transparent plain glass.
As the image and pencil are at different distances,
they cannot be both seen in the same state of the eye.
To remedy this, inconvenience, a convex glass is used, of
such focus as to require no more effort than is necessary
for seeing the distant objects distinctly. By means of
this lens, the image will appear as if it were placed on the
surface of the paper. In fig. 1 is a convex glass of
twelve inches focus; at e the eye is placed; fghe is the
course of the rays proceeding from the object to the eye.
Those whose eyes are adapted to seeing near objects
alone, will not derive advantage from the use of a convex
glass, but will require a concave glass to be placed at f
in the course of the rays from the object to the reflecting
surface. In fig. 2, ik is a concave glass placed in the
above-mentioned situation: it is so disposed as to be
turned at pleasure into its place, as the sight of the ob¬
server may require. Persons whose sight is nearly per¬
fect may use either the concave glass placed before the
reflecting surface, or the convex glass placed between the
paper and the eye.
In the actual construction of the instrument, a prism is
used instead of a mirror and a plain glass. The rays from
the object fall upon the surface be of the prism, fig. 3.
This surface be is inclined 22L degrees to the horizon.
The refractive power of the glass allows none of the rays
in this situation to pass out; they are all reflected from
the surface be to the surface ab, and from that to the eye.
ab makes an angle of 135 degrees with be, and 22^ degrees
with the vertical. The eye cannot see the pencil through
the prism as it does through a plain glass; therefore, in
order that the pencil may be seen, the eye must be so
placed that only a part of the pupil may be above the
edge of the prism, as at e, fig. 3; and then the reflected
image will be seen at the same time with the paper and
pencil. There is a small piece of brass perforated with a
hole c, and moving on a centre, fig. 2; this serves to keep
the eye in one position, as it must be, that the image may
be steady, and also to I’egulate the relative quantities of
light to be received from the object and from the paper.
The instrument,* being near the eye, does not require
to be large. The smallest size which can be executed
with accuracy is to be preferred, and is such that the lens
is only three fourths of an inch in diameter. Fig 4 shows
the instrument on its stand, and clamped to a board. The
joint by which the prism is attached to the stand is dou¬
ble. The whole instrument packs in a box eight inches
by two, and half an inch deep.
This instrument serves for drawing objects of all forms,
and consequently also for copying lines already drawn on
a plain surface. If it is required that the copy shall be
of the same size as the original drawing, the distance of
the drawing from the prism should be the same as the
distance of the paper from the eye-hole. No lens will be
necessary in this case, because the image and the paper,
being both at the same distance from the eye, coincide
without the aid of a glass.
In order to have a reduced copy of a drawing, the draw¬
ing is to be placed at a distance from the prism greater
than the distance of the paper from the eye-hole. If the
distance is twice as great, a copy will be obtained in
which the lines are of one half the size of the lines in the
original, and so in proportion for other distances. A lens
is necessary, that the eye may be enabled to see at two
different distances ; and, in order that one lens may serve,
the distance between the eye-hole and the paper should
he variable; to that effect the stand is susceptible of be¬
ing lengthened or shortened at pleasure.
CAM C A M 3/
Camera The length of the stem is adjusted upon optical prin-
- Lucida. ciples. When a distant object is to be delineated, the
> rayS coming from it, and reflected by the instrument to
the eye, are parallel, and it is required that the rays pro¬
ceeding from the paper to the eye should also be parallel.
This is accomplished by interposing a lens between the
paper and the eye, with its principal focus on the paper.
When the object to be delineated is so near that the rays
which come from it to the eye are divergent, then it is
required that the rays from the paper should likewise be
divergent in the same degree, in order that the paper and
the image may both be seen distinctly by the same eye;
for this purpose the lens must be placed at a distance
from the paper less than the distance of its principal fo¬
cus. The stem of the instrument is marked at certain
distances, to which the conjugate foci are in the several
proportions of 2, 3, 4, &c. to 1, so that distinct vision may
be obtained in all cases by placing the original drawing
more distant.
If the convex lens be transposed to the front of the
prism, and the proportional distances be reversed, a mag¬
nified image of the object will be obtained.
This instrument has deservedly come into use. Its ad¬
vantages, when compared with the camera obscura, are,
Is?, That it is small and easily carried about. 2dly, That
no lines are distorted, not even those most remote from
the centre; whereas, in the camera obscura, the lines
which are not near the centre of the field are more or less
distorted. 3a7y, In the field of the camera lucida 70 or
80 degrees may be included, whilst the distinct field of
the camera obscura does not extend beyond 30 or 35 de¬
grees at most. The specification of Dr Wollaston’s pa¬
tent for the camera lucida is inserted in the Repertory of
Arts, vol. x. 1807, p. 1G2, and his description of the in¬
strument in Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xvii.
The camera lucida employed by Captain Hall packs in
a small box. When the instrument is to be used the box
folds out and forms a small table, which is fixed on the
top of a tripod. There is a folding three-legged seat,
which packs within the tripod. The tripod, when closed
and containing the seat, is only the size of a walking
stick.
If the camera lucida be fixed at the eye-glass of a tele¬
scope, it will reflect to the eye the image of the objects in
the field of the telescope, so that a drawing of the image
may be made. See Dr Brewrster’s Account of some Phi¬
losophical Instruments. A plain reflecting glass, fixed at
an angle of 45 degrees wdtli the horizon, and placed so as
to receive the rays from the eye-glass of a telescope, will
also give an image of the objects in the field, so situated
that the image may be traced with a pencil. Varley’s
patent graphic telescope is upon this principle. In order
that the field may be large, the magnifying power of the
telescope should be small.
-The inherent qualities of all the instruments for draw¬
ing in perspective being closely allied, it will be proper to
say something of the principles on which these instru¬
ments are formed, and to mention some that are not de¬
scribed in other parts of this work.
To make a perspective drawing of an object is to lay
down on paper a section of the perspective cone, whose
apex is at the eye, and whose base is the object. An ex¬
perienced draughtsman can draw the figure of this section
without the aid of instruments. Others who have not ac¬
quired the facility of drawing the image they see, must
have recourse either to measurement, or to instruments
which bring the image under the pencil.
Drawing by measurement is performed by actually
measuring the height of the principal parts of the object,
and their horizontal distance from the eye; together with
the distance of the paper from the eye; and from these Camera
dimensions the drawing is constructed by the systematic Lucida.
rules of perspective.
Another mode of obtaining a drawing by measurement
is to measure the angles at the eye. Suited to this pur¬
pose are theodolites, astronomical quadrants, or other in¬
struments capable of measuring vertical and azimuthal
angles at the eye. »The angles to be measured are, the
angles of altitude, and the angles of azimuth, between the
point of sight and the principal points of the object; and
if the tangents of the azimuthal angles be laid down with
a radius equal to the distance of the paper from the eye,
and the tangents of the angles of altitude with a radius
equal to the distance of the paper multiplied by the se¬
cant of the azimuth, the situation of the principal points
of the drawing will be determined. Or, if the instrument
is capable of measuring angles in any plane, the angles
between the principal points of the object and the point
of sight are to be observed, and the azimuthal angles of
these principal points with the point of sight; and the
tangents of both are to be laid down on the paper, with a
radius equal to the distance of the paper from the eye.
But these two modes by measurement' are long, parti¬
cularly the first. Usually, therefore, the instruments to
which recourse is had for facilitating the operation of
drawing, are such as give an image or section of the per¬
spective cone on a plain surface, so that the pencil may be
drawn over the outline of the image. These instruments
may be considered under two heads; the first compre¬
hending those in which the pencil is immediately drawn
over the lines of the image; the second those in which
the pencil has a motion parallel to that of the point which
moves over the lines of the image.
Of the first kind are the following. 1. The tracing pane,
a very simple and convenient instrument, consisting in a
transparent plate of plain ground glass, or of Muscovy
glass, placed vertically between the object and the eye;
whilst the eye is kept fixed by a sight, the outline of the
image is drawn on the glass with Indian ink. 2. Or the
upright glass may be divided into small squares by lines
crossing each other, and the paper on which the drawing
is to be made being similarly divided, the particular in¬
tersections on the glass that cover the principal points of
the object are observed, and these points are laid down
on the corresponding intersections on the paper. 3. The
image seen in a plain mirror may also be drawn on its
surface with Indian ink. 4. In the camera obscura, dif¬
ferent forms of which are described in the Encyclopaedia
under the articles Dioptrics and Optics, the image to be
drawn is formed at the focus of a lens. 5. In the camera
lucida the reflected image is used.
In the second division of the instruments which give a
section of the perspective cone susceptible of being deli¬
neated, the pencil does not move immediately over the .
lines of the image, but moves parallel to these lines. 1.
There is a rod which can be moved in all directions, con¬
sistent with its remaining parallel to itself. If one extre¬
mity of this rod be moved in space over the outlines of
the image which the eye sees, a pencil at the other ex¬
tremity wfill necessarily move with a similar motion, and
form a drawing of the object on paper. In Sir Christopher
Wren’s instrument, of which he has given the description
and figure in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. iv., the
rod is suspended by strings passing over pullies, and the
ends of the strings are fixed to a counterpoise. On a si¬
milar principle is Peacock’s instrument, described in the
Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixxv., p. 366, and the
instruments treated of in the Stockholm Transactions for
the years 1760, 1774, and 1790. A well-constructed in¬
strument on this principle, and for which there is a pa-
38 CAM
Camera tent,1 is to be found now (1831) at Mr Cary’s in the Strand.
Obscura 2. Ihe pencil may delineate the base of a cone similar and
Camera- °PP0Slte to the perspective cone. If the rays from the
rius. extreme points of an object cross on the ray from the
centre, as they do in passing through a small hole into a
dark room, and if it be supposed that, in the place of one
of the rays a slender inflexible rod is substituted movable
on a centre at the hole, when this rod is moved so that
its outer extremity goes over the outlines of the external
image, a pencil fixed to its inner extremity will form an
inverted drawing of the object. Of this nature is the op-
tigraph of llamsden and Thomas Jones, described in the
Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxviii. 1807, p. 67. The
image of the object is seen in a telescope. There is a
piece of plain glass near c in the focus of the eye-glass
of the telescope F, fig. 5. On the centre of this piece of
glass is a dot; « is a plain mirror, inclined so as to reflect
the image of the object down into the telescope. This
mirror remains fixed, whilst the telescope is movable on
a universal joint at its object-glass h. Near c is another
plain mirror, which reflects the rays to the eye-glass. The
eye being placed at the eye-glass at e, the telescope is to
be moved by the handle h, so that the dot in the focus of
the eye-glass shall pass over the outlines of the image
seen by the eye, and the pencil at L performing a similar
motion to that of the dot, and sliding freely in its sheath,
presses with its weight on the paper: a drawing of the
object is the result. If the stand and slider H be length¬
ened, an enlarged drawing will be obtained. The instru¬
ment packs in a box 14 inches by 6 and 3.
The instrument used for drawing profiles of the face
consists of a long rod which moves on a joint. One end of
the rod is moved over the face, the other end, which ter¬
minates in an iron point, describes the profile on paper.
Professor Wallace of Edinburgh has constructed an im¬
proved drawing instrument, which will be described under
the article Eidograph. It is of the nature of the pento-
graph, and serves for copying and reducing. (b. b.)
Camera Ohscura, or Dark Chamber, in Optics, a ma¬
chine or apparatus representing an artificial eye, by which
the images of external objects, received through a double
convex glass, are exhibited distinctly, and in their native
colours, on a white matter placed within the machine, in
the focus of the glass. The first invention of this instru¬
ment is ascribed to Baptista Porta.
The camera obscura affords very diverting spectacles;
both by exhibiting images perfectly like their objects,
each being clothed in its native colours, and by express¬
ing, at the same time, all their motions, which no other
art can^imitate. By means of this instrument, a person
unacquainted with designing will be able to delineate ob¬
jects with the greatest accuracy and justness, and another
well versed in painting will find in it many things to per¬
fect his art.
CAMERARIUS, Joachim, one of the most learned
writers of his time, was born in 1500, at Bamberg, a city
of Franconia, and obtained great reputation by his writ¬
ings. He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes,
Xenophon, Euclid, Homer, Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian,
Theodoret, Nicephorus, and other Greek writers. He pub¬
lished a Catalogue of the Bishops of the principal Sees;
Greek Epistles; Accounts of his Journeys, in Latin verse; a
Commentary on Plautus; the Lives of Flelius Eobanus
Hessus, and Philip Melancthon, &c. He died in 1574.
Camerarius, Joachim, son of the former, and a learned
physician, was born at Nuremberg in 1534. -After having
C A tM
finished his studies in Germany, he repaired to Italy, Cameri
where he obtained the esteem of the learned. At his re- II
turn he was courted by several princes, who invited him to Cameron,
live with them; but he was too much devoted to books,
and the study of chemistry and botany, to accept their
offers. He wrote a Hortus Medicus, and several other
works ; and he died in 1598.
CAMERI, a town of Italy, in the province of Novara,
in the kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated between the
Ticinio and Terdoppio, and growls much flax, which af¬
fords employment to a population of 4500 persons.
CAMERINOj one of the delegations into which the
papal dominions in Italy are divided. It is situated be¬
tween the delegations of Macerata, Fermo, Perugia, and
Spoletto, and includes part of the Apennines. It extends
over 407 square miles, or 260,400 English acres, and com¬
prehends one city, one market-town, and twenty-four vil¬
lages, with 31,150 inhabitants, who procure by their indus¬
try the best products of the papal states.
Camerino, a city, the capital of the delegation of the
same name, in Italy. It stands in a healthy situation,
and contains a university, a cathedral, twelve monaste¬
ries, and seven nunneries, with 7045 inhabitants, who are
employed chiefly in spinning silk. Long. 13. 19. E. Lat.
43. 6. N.
C AMERLINGO, according to Du Cange, signified for¬
merly the pope’s or emperor's treasurer. At present ca-
merlingo is nowhere used but at Rome, where it denotes
the cardinal who governs the ecclesiastical state, and ad¬
ministers justice. It is the most eminent office at the
court of Rome, because he who holds it is at the head of
the treasury. During a vacation of the papal chair, the
cardinal camerlingo publishes edicts, coins money, and ex¬
ercises every other prerogative of a sovereign prince. He
has under him a treasurer-general, auditor-general, and
twelve prelates called clerks of the chamber.
CAMERON, John, a theologian of great erudition, was
born at Glasgow about the year 1579. His parents are
described as respectable, but their situation in life has not
been specified. He received his early education in his
native city, and after completing the ordinary course of
study, he was employed in teaching the Greek language
in the university. In this employment he continued for
twelve months, and having then felt the usual desire of
visiting foreign countries, he embarked for France, and
arrived at Bordeaux in the year 1600. Here he imme¬
diately recommended himself to the favour and friendship
of two protestant clergymen, by his agreeable manners,
his frank and ingenuous disposition, his very promising
talents, and his uncommon skill in the Greek and Latin
languages. It is stated by Cappel that he spoke Greek
with as much fluency and elegance as any other person
could speak Latin; and that this rare proficiency excited
the admiration of Casaubon, with whom he soon after¬
wards became intimately acquainted. One of the pastors
of the church of Bordeaux was his own countryman Gil¬
bert Primrose, D. D. who was himself a man of learning,
and the author of several works. Through the recom¬
mendation of these clergymen, he was appointed a regent
in the newly-founded College of Bergerac, where it was
his province to teach the classical languages; but from
this station he was speedily withdrawn by tbe Due de
Bouillon, who appointed him a professor of philosophy in
the university of Sedan. In this new department he ac¬
quired new reputation; and the duke next made him an
offer of the Greek chair, which however he thought it de-
1 This patent instrument is the same in principle, and almost identical in form, with an instrument figured and described in an
old work on Perspective, Joannis Francisci Niceronis Thaumaturgus Opticus, pars i. Printed at Paris in 1646‘.
CAMERON.
j Tameron. cent to decline, as he could not accept it without depriv-
ing a friend of his office.
n In the personal history of Cameron we find some indi-
* I cations of a restless disposition. Having continued two
years at Sedan, he resigned his professorship, and, after
visiting Paris, returned to Bordeaux, where he again ex¬
perienced a very kind reception. In the beginning of the
year 1604, he was nominated one of the students of divi¬
nity who were maintained at the expense of the church,
in order to be prepared for its ministry when their ser¬
vices should be required, and who for the period of four
years were at liberty to prosecute their studies in any pro-
testant seminary. During this term of his exhibition, he
acted as tutor to the two sons of Calignon, chancellor of
Navarre; and one of them is mentioned as having made
great progress in Greek literature. They spent one year
at Paris, and the next two at Geneva, from whence they
removed to Heidelberg, and remained there nearly twelve
months. In this university, on the fourth of April 1608,
he gave a public proof of his ability by maintaining a se¬
ries of theses, “ De triplici Dei cum Homine Foedere,”
which have been printed among his works. During the
same year, he was recalled to Bordeaux, where the death
of his friend Renaud had left a vacancy in the protestant
church ; and he was now appointed the colleague of Dr
Primrose, with whom he lived on the most cordial terms.
The high reputation which he acquired by his talents and
learning, opened to him a new scene of professional exer¬
tion : when Gomarus was removed to Leyden, Cameron
was appointed professor of divinity in the university of
Saumur, the principal seminary of the French protestants.
He commenced his lectures on the thirteenth of June 1618,
but he was not installed till after an interval of two months.
He had experienced some opposition from the synod of
Poitou, under the pretext of his having adopted the opi¬
nion of Piscator as to the imputed righteousness of Jesus
Christ; but in the national synod held at Alez in the year
1620, this charge was adjudged to be groundless. The
principal of the college was at this time Dr Duncan, ano¬
ther of his learned countrymen, who were then so nume¬
rous in France.1 Cameron had already published several
of his works, and his celebrity was in no small degree in¬
creased by his academical lectures. Such indeed was his
reputation in the chair, that he was frequently honoured
with the attendance of Du Plessis Mornay ; a man distin¬
guished by his rank, his talents, and his zeal in the cause
of religion.
During the same year, 1620, he was engaged in a formal
disputation with Daniel Tilenus, a native of Silesia, who
had adopted the theological opinions of Arminius.2 He
had expressed a wish to discuss with Cameron the doc-
39
trines of grace and free-will; the time and place of meet- Cameron,
ing were duly arranged, and, according to their agreement,
the professor repaired, in the neighbourhood of Orleans,
to the country-house of Jerome Groslot, a protestant gen¬
tleman of rank and learning, who had taken refuge in
Scotland after the massacre of St Bartholomew, and had
there been distinguished by the friendship of Buchanan.
Tilenus having arrived five days after Cameron, their con¬
ference commenced on the twenty-fourth, and concluded
on the twenty-eighth of April. An account of this Arnica
Collatio was printed at Leyden in 1621. The theological
faculty of that university was not satisfied with some of
Cameron’s explanations ; and when Rivet, as dean of the
faculty, communicated to him their dissent, he defended
his opinions in a brief answer. Their orthodoxy was like¬
wise defended by Bochart,3 then a student of divinity,
but who afterwards rose to the highest eminence among
the learned men of the seventeenth century.
In 1620, the progress of the civil troubles in France
had nearly dispersed all the students of the university of
Saumur, and Cameron sought in England a place of re¬
fuge for himself and his family. For a short time he read
private lectures on divinity in London; and in 1622 the
king appointed him principal of the university of Glasgow,
in the room of Robert Boyd, a learned man who had been
removed from his office in consequence of his firm adher¬
ence to the cause of presbytery.4 His successor appears
to have been more favourably inclined to episcopacy; nor
is it improbable that this circumstance may have had a
strong tendency to diminish the cordiality of his reception
in his native city. The following passage in Baillie’s
epistle dedicatory to Robert Blair, reflects some light on
his sentiments respecting the controversies which then
agitated the church. “ I confesse, after you, to rny ex¬
ceeding great griefe and losse, were taken away from my
head, and I came to be set at the feet of other masters,
especially Mr Cameron and Mr Struthers, my very singu¬
lar friends, and excellent divines as our nation has bred,
I was gained by them to some parts of conformity, which,
if the Lords mercy had not prevented, might have led
me, as many my betters, to have run on in all the errours
and defections of these bad times: but thanks to his glo¬
rious name, who held me by the hand, and stopped me at
the beginning and first entry of that unlucky course ; who
before I had put my hand to any subscription, or was en¬
gaged in any promise, or had practised any the least ce¬
remony in my flock, did call me to a retreat.”5 Here he
likewise taught divinity with great reputation, but he re¬
signed his office in less than twelve months. Vernevil, a
Frenchman, who soon after the author’s death translated
one of his tracts into English, has given the subsequent
1 Mark Duncan, M. D. principal of the college, was at the same time professor of metaphysics and mathematics, and a practising
physician. We learn from an incidental notice of Scaliger that he was born in the west of Scotland. [Prima ScaUgerana, p. 33.) He
is the author of a treatise on logic, which is mentioned with high approbation by Burgersdicius in the preface to his InstUutioncs Lo¬
gic w. The first edition is entitled u Institutionis Logicse libri quinque.” Salmurii, 1GT2, 8vo. The third edition bears this title:
“ Institutionis Logicse libri quinque, in usum Academise Salmuriensis tertium editi, ut erant ab auctore recogniti.” Salmurii, 1643,
8vo. Prefixed is a Latin poem by his son Mark Duncan, who was afterwards well known by the name of M. de Cerizante. Toma-
sini has classed the father among the distinguished literary characters of the age. (Parnassus Euganeus, p. 8.) Menage mentions a
French book on the Devils of Loudun, written by Duncan, a celebrated physician of Saumur. (Menagiana, tonn ii. p. 254.) The
book to which he alludes is apparently an anonymous and very rare tract, published under the following title : “ Discovrs de la Pos¬
session des lleligieuses Vrsulines de Lodun.” 1634, 8vo. This tract, which consists of sixty-four pages, is written with talent and
dexterity. The conclusion at which the author arrives is such as might be expected from a man of sense and discernment; but at
that period, the management of a negative argument in any similar case required no small degree of caution. It appears from differ¬
ent passages of the work that Duncan, along with other physicians, had attended the sisters v'ho were supposed to be possessed with
devils. “ La premiere fois que ie fus present aux exorcism,es, Monsieur de Poictiers et I’exorciste ayans adiure le diable Gresil,
qu’on disoit estre dans le corps de la Mere Superieure, de dire le nom du Sieur Duncan, medicin de Saumur, la dicte Superieure auec
son Gresil se trompa deux Ms.” P. 28.
2 See Dr M‘Crie’s life of Melville, vol. ii. p. 444. 3 Cameronis Opera, p. 710.
4 Middleton’s Appendix to the History of the Church of Scotland, p. 22. Loud. 1077, fob Bannatyne Miscellany, vol. i. 296.
Edffib. IggL 4t<k h h-aroa. ♦namrrri?ai na dflw ortdf ns jBDtfijobr jgouijn imfl slopnhn pr Aobffi odJ et Jftdimniefle
5 Baillie’s Historical! Vindication of the Government of the Church of Scotland. Lond. 1646, 4to.
40
CAMERON.
Cameron, account of his return to Scotland. “ During his naturall
life, his reputation was great in France, and so great, that
all the lesuites there did seeke, and at last obtained to
haue him banished, nor was there any other cause thereof
then his great learning, the lesuites in their conferences
being not able to withstand him. Quoniam ccmulare non
licet, nunc inuides. He had his refuge here, where by the
speciall care of that great fauourer of learning K. lames
(of blessed memory) he was provided for in Scotland, his
natiue country, but so great was his harty lone to France,
that by the effectual mediation of those honourable am¬
bassadors then in France, he gat that envious sentence
reversed, which being done he immediately conveighed
himselfe to Montauban, to bee professour there, where he
ended his dayes, to the great losse of Gods church, and
that vniversity.” Calderwood has however assigned ano¬
ther reason for his quitting Glasgow: “ Cameron was so
misliked by the people, that he was forced to quite his
place soon afterwards.”1
On returning to France, he fixed his residence at Sau-
mur, where he was only permitted to read private lectures ;
and after an interval of a year, he was appointed profes¬
sor of divinity in the university of Montauban, whither he
removed about the close of the year 1624. The country
was still torn by civil and religious dissensions ; and as
Cameron maintained the doctrine of passive obedience, he
excited the indignation of the more strenuous adherents
of his own party. Nor was the expression of this indigna¬
tion confined to mere reproaches ; one individual treated
him with such outrageous violence, that his life was ex¬
posed to jeopardy. Indisposed in body, and afflicted in
mind, he sought for relief by a change of scene, and with¬
drew to the neighbouring town of Moissac: but what he
thus sought was not to be found ; he speedily returned to
Montauban, and there in the space of a few days terminat¬
ed Ids earthly career. He died in the year 1625, when
he had only attained the age of about forty-six, and left a
widow and several children to bewail his loss. His first
wife, Susan Bernard of Tonneins on the Garonne, he had
married in 1611, and by her had a son and four daughters ;
but the son and eldest daughter died before their father.
The son was born at London on the 10th of May 1622,
and died at Saumur in the month of July 1624. His
mother had died of consumption in the preceding March ;
and after the decent interval of a year, Cameron married
at Montauban a second wife named Susan Thomas, with
whom he only lived a few months, and who had no child.
The maintenance of his surviving family was undertaken
by the protestant churches of France, in which he left an
illustrious name.
With respect to his person, he was of the middle size,
somewhat inclining to a spare habit, sound but not robust
in his constitution. His hair was yellow, his eyes were bril¬
liant, and the expression of his countenance was lively and
pleasant. He appeared to be always immersed in deep
meditation, and was somewhat negligent in his apparel, Cameron,
and careless in his gait; but in his manners he was very
agreeable, and although he was not without a considerable
share of irritability, his anger was easily appeased, and he
was very ready to acknowledge his own faults. One writer,
of doubtful authority, has represented him as a person of
consummate vanity, as a tedious preacher, and an endless
talker : but this account is evidently to be received with
a considerable degree of caution ;2 and his distinguished
pupil Cappel has exhibited his character in a most favour¬
able light. According to his impression, he was a man of
eminent integrity and piety, open, candid, and incapable
of guile ; faithful to his friends, and not spiteful to his ene¬
mies ; of so liberal a turn of mind, that his generosity made
some approach to profusion.3
Cameron died before he had reached what may be con¬
sidered as the prime of a literary life, and too many of his
years had been spent at a distance from that tranquillity
which is so essential to the pursuits of literature. He was
fond of study, but not of writing, and yet he wrrote with
great facility ; he required to be incited by his friends, or
roused by his adversaries. The most considerable of his
works he did not himself commit to the press ; they were
published by the friendly care of others, from such copies
as had been taken by his pupils. He composed many
Latin poems which have not been preserved, and, in the
opinion of Cappel, they possessed uncommon merit. An
ample collection of his theological works has however been
transmitted to our times, and he occupies a conspicuous
place among the learned writers of the seventeenth cen¬
tury.
Sir Thomas Urquhart has extolled Cameron in his usu¬
al style. “ There was another Scotish man, named Ca¬
meron, who within these few yeers was so renowned for
learning overall the provinces of France, that, besides his
being esteemed for the faculties of the minde the ablest
man in ail that country, he was commonly designed (be¬
cause of his universal reading) by the title of the walking
Liberary ; by w'hich he being no less known then by his
own name, he therefore took occasion to set forth an
excellent book in Latine, and that in folio, intituled Bi¬
bliotheca movens, w'hieh afterwards was translated into
the English language.”4 This book, w'e strongly suspect,
must be placed on the same shelf with some others which
appear to have belonged exclusively to the knight of Cro¬
marty’s library. In the opinion of Dempster, Cameron
wanted nothing to make him a great man but the profes¬
sion of the catholic faith f and he has. been extolled by
various other authors, of higher authority in matters of theo¬
logy. Milton, in his Teirachordon, mentions Cameron as
“ a late writer, much applauded, an ingenious writer, and
in high esteem.” His Myrotkecium Evangelicum has re¬
ceived no slight commendation from a writer who cannot
be suspected of partiality to his sect. In this work, says
Simon, he discovers an intimate acquaintance with the
1 Calderwood’s Hist, of the Church of Scotland, p. 800.
2 See Bayle’s Dictionaire Historique et Critique, tom. i. p. 743.
3 Cappel, in his Icon Joh. Cameronis, has drawn this interesting picture. “ Corporefuit neque humili neque procero, sed mediocri,
gracili et macilento magis quam obeso, neque valido aut robusto, sed tamen sano ; vultu aperto et renidente, facie ingenua, oculis vi-
vidis et amoenis, capillo flavo, incessu, habitu et cultu corporis, quia totus pene semper erat cogitabundus et meditabundus, paulo ne-
glectiore. Moribus erat suavissimis, non morosus et austerus, sed neque remissus et effusus, verum ad gravitatem et lenitatem simul
compositus, blux,o\o; quidem et facile, prsesertim in notos et familiares, irritabilis, sed qui facile etiam iram deponeret, atque ultro
culpam et errorem agnosceret. Vir pietate et probitate spectabilis, integerrimus, candidus, apertus, fuci, fraudis, dolique mali plane
nescius, a <piXa.^yv^a et fiix£o\oy)«. alienissimus, imo vero pecuniae mirus et pro fortunae suae conditione nimius contemptor, et in ero-
gando supra modum facilis, ne profusum dicam. Amicis fidus, inimicis non iniquus fuit. Glorias et fortunae aemulos habuit, quibus
tamen minime infensus fuit, imo nullus fuit cui bene non cupiverit, et bene facere pro data occasione paratus non fuerit. Doctrinae
suae non minus quam xtu (iiurncav Komuntios et liberalis largitor, volentes a se discere nil celabat, quin facile quicquid sin-
gulare aut reconditum habuit, iis communicabat.”
4 Urquhart’s Discovery of a most exquisite Jewel, p. 182. Lond. 1052, 8vo.
aDempsteri Hist. Ecclesiast. Gentis Scotorurn, p. 173.
CAM
Cameron, principles of criticism, and an exact knowledge of the
Greek and Hebrew languages. These qualifications have
enabled him to exhibit a learned elucidation of the literal
and grammatical sense of many passages in the sacred
books which he professes to illustrate.1
Soon after the death of Cameron, his friends published
his “ Praelectiones in selectiora Loca Novi Testamenti.”
Salmurii, 1626-8, 3 tom. 4to. The editor was his learned
pupil Louis Cappel, professor of Hebrew, and afterwards
of divinity, in the university of Saumur; to whom we are
likewise indebted for an interesting sketch of the author’s
life and character. A collection of his theological works
appeared under the title of “ Joannis Cameronis, Scoto-
Britanni, Theologi eximii, ra sive Opera partim
ab auctore ipso edita, partim post ejus obitum vulgata,
partim nusquam hactenus publicata, vel e Gallico idio-
mate nunc primum in Latinam linguam translata : in unum
collecta, et variis indicibus instructa.” Genevae, 1642, fol.
Cappel’s Icon Joh. Cameronis is here reprinted. The
writer of the preface to the volume was Frederic Span-
heim, at that time professor of divinity in the university
of Geneva.2 The author of the anonymous “ Epistola
docti Viri ad Amicum,” refuted by Cameron, was Episco-
pius, a learned follower of Arminius. Cappel had pub¬
lished another work of his preceptor, which is not includ¬
ed in this collection. “ Myrothecium Evangelicum, in
quo aliquot Loca Novi Testamenti explicantur: una cum
Spicilegio Ludovici Cappelli de eodem argumento, cumque
2 Diatribis in Matth. xv. 5 de Voto Jephtae.” Genevae,
1632, 4to. Another edition appeared under the subse¬
quent title : “ Myrothecium Evangelicum ; hoc est, Novi
Testamenti Loca quamplurima ab eo, post aliorum labo-
res, apte et commode vel illustrata, vel explicata, vel vin-
dicata. Quibus adjectae sunt Alexandri Mori Notae in
Novum Foedus, jam antea editae, et Uissertatio in Mat. c.
24. v. 28. hactenus inedita : nec-non ejusdem A. Mori
Axiomata Theologica, quae nunc primum in lucem prode-
unt. Editio novissima, locorum indicibus iocupletata.”
Salmurii, 1677, 4to.
Two of Cameron’s French tracts were at an early period
translated into English. “ An Examination of those plav-
sible Appearances which seeme most to commend the Ro¬
mish Church, and to preiudice the Reformed: discover¬
ing them to be but meere shifts, purposely invented to
hinder an exact trial! of doctrine by the Scriptures. By
Mr lohn Cameron. Englished out of French.” Oxford,
1626, 4to. “ A Tract of the soveraigne Ivdge of Con¬
troversies in matters of Religion. By lohn Cameron, Mi¬
nister of the Word of God, and Divinity Professour in the
Academie of Montauban. Translated into English by
lohn Vernevil, M. A.” Oxford, 1628, 4to. The transla¬
tor of the first tract subscribes his dedication with the in¬
itials W. P. Yernevil’s dedication is dated “ from the
publique Library in Oxford.” (x.)
The name of this distinguished person furnished a de¬
nomination to a party of Calvinists in France, who asserted
that the will of a man is only determined by the practical
judgment of the mind; that the cause of men’s doing good
or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses
into them; and that God does not move the will physi¬
cally, but only morally, by virtue of its dependence on the
judgment of the mind. This peculiar doctrine of grace
and free will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, Bochart,
Daille, and others of the more learned among the re¬
formed ministers, who judged Calvin's doctrines on these
points too harsh. The Cameronites are a sort of mitigated
CAM 41
Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the Arminians. Oamero-
They are also called Universalists, as holding the univer- nians
sality of Christ’s death ; and sometimes Amyraldists. The P
rigid adherents to the synod of Dort accused them of Pe-
lagianism, and even of Manicheism; and the controversy
between the parties was carried on with a zeal and sub-
tilty scarcely conceivable ; yet the whole question between
them was only, whether the will of man is determined
by the immediate action of God upon it, or by the in¬
tervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the
mind. The synod of Dort had defined that God not only
illuminates the understanding, but gives motion to the
will by making an internal change therein; whereas Ca¬
meron only admitted the illumination by which the mind
is morally moved, and explained the sentiment of the sy¬
nod of Dort so as to make the two opinions consistent.
CAMERONIANS, a sect or party in Scotland, who
separated from the Presbyterians in 1666, and continued
to hold their religious assemblies in the fields. The Ca-
meronians took their denomination from Richard Came¬
ron, a famous field preacher, who refusing to accept the
indulgences granted by King Charles II. deeming such
acceptance an acknowledgment of the king’s supremacy,
and of his having a previous right to silence them, made
a defection from his brethren, and even headed a rising,
in which he was killed. But his followers were never entire¬
ly reduced till the revolution, when they voluntarily sub¬
mitted to King William. The Cameronians adhered ri¬
gidly to the form of government established in 1648.
C AMIGTEN, one of the Philippines, in the Eastern Seas,
about ten miles in length, situated due north of the island
of Luzon. Gold, wax, cassia, and cocoa-nuts, are the
chief articles of trade.
CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, was the first who ren¬
dered the family of Furius illustrious. He triumphed four
times, was five times dictator, and was honoured with the
title of the second founder of Rome. In a word, he acquir¬
ed all the glory which a man can gain in his own country.
Lucius Apuleius, one of the tribunes, prosecuted him in
order to compel him to render an account of the spoils
taken at Veii. Camillus anticipated judgment, and banish¬
ed himself voluntarily. But during his banishment, in¬
stead of rejoicing at the devastation of Rome by the Gauls,
he exerted all his wisdom and bravery to drive away the
enemy, and yet kept with the utmost strictness the sacred
law of Rome, in refusing to accept the command, which
several private persons offered him. In the year of the
city 363, the Romans who were besieged in the capitol
created him dictator; and in this office he acted with so
much bravery and conduct, that he entirely drove the
army of the Gauls out of the territories of the common¬
wealth. He died in the eighty-first year of his age, 365
years before the Christian era.
CAMILLI and Camillas, in Antiquity, boys and girls
of ingenuous birth, who ministered in the sacrifices of the
gods; and especially those who attended the Flamen Dia-
lis, or priest of Jupiter. The word seems borrowed from
the language of the ancient Etrurians, in which it was writ¬
ten casmillus, and signified minister. The Tuscans also
gave the appellation Camillus to Mercury, in quality of
minister of the gods.
C AMINHA, a sea-port town in the province of Entre-
Duero-e-Minho, in the kingdom of Portugal. It is on
the river Minho, about two miles above the bar which runs
across the mouth of the river. The defects of the port
are hindrances to commerce, and the principal depend-
VOL. vx.
1 Simon, Histoire Critique des principaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Testament, p. 781.
2 Colomies, Bibliotheque Choisie, p. 73.
F
42
Camis
II
Camoens.
'w-y-^
CAM CAM
ence of the inhabitants is on the fisheries. The number the Straits of Gibraltar, he was among the foremost to Canioens.
of the inhabitants amounts to 2520. It is situated in lat. board, and lost his right eye in the conflict. Yet neither
4d. 52. N. t^ie hurry of actual service, nor the dissipation of a camp,
CAMIS, or Kamis, in the Japanese mythology, denote could stifle his genius. He continued his Lusiadas, and
deified souls of ancient heroes, who are supposed still to several of his most beautiful sonnets were written in Africa,
interest themselves in the welfare of the people whom while, as he expressed it, “ one hand the pen, and one
they anciently commanded. The camis answer to the the sword employed.” The fame of his valour had now
heroes in the ancient Greek and Roman mythology, and reached the court, and he obtained permission to return
are venerated like the saints in the modern Roman church, to Lisbon. But whilst he solicited an establishment
C AMISADE, in the art of war, an attack by surprise which he had merited in the ranks of battle, the malignity
in the nhdit, or at break of day, when the enemy is sup- of evil tongues, as he expresses it in one of his letters,
posed to&be asleep. The word is said to have taken its was poured out upon him. Though the bloom of his early
rise from an attack of this kind, in which, as a badge or youth was effaced by several years’ residence under the
signal to know one another by, they bore a shirt, in French scorching sun of Africa, and though altered by the loss of
called chemise, or chamise, over their arms. an eye, his presence gave uneasiness to the gentlemen of
CAMISARDS, a name given by the French to the some families of the first rank where he had formerly vi-
Calvinists of the Cevennes, who formed a league, and sited ; and Camoens now found it prudent to banish him-
took up arms in their own defence, in 1688. self from his native country. Accordingly, in 1553, he
CAMISO, a city of the intendancy of Seragosa, in the sailed for India, with a resolution never to return. As
island of Sicily. It is situated at the foot of the mountain the ship left the Tagus, he exclaimed, in the words of the
Media, but healthy, and contains 10,000 inhabitants. sepulchral monument of Scipio Africanus, Ingrata patna,
CAMLETINE, a slight stuff, made of hair and coarse non possidebis ossa mea ; “ ungrateful country, thou shalt
silk, in the manner of camblet. ' not possess my bones.” But he knew not what evils in
CAMOENS, Louis, the most illustrious of the Portu- the East would awaken the remembrance of his native land,
guese poets, was born at Lisbon in 1517. His family was When Camoens arrived in India, an expedition was
of considerable note, and originally Spanish. In 1370 ready to sail, to avenge the king of Cochin on the king of
Vasco Perez de Camoens, disgusted at the court of Cas- Pimenta. Without allowing himself any rest on shore
tile fled to that of Lisbon, where King Ferdinand imme- after his long voyage, he joined this armament, and in the
diately admitted him into his council, and gave him the conquest of the Alagada islands displayed Ins usual bra-
lordships of Sardoal, Punhete, Marano, Amende, and very. In the following year Camoens attended Manuel
other lands of considerable extent, a certain proof of the de Vasconcello in an expedition to the Red Sea, where,
eminence of his rank and abilities. In the war of the sue- as he had no use for his sword, he employed his pen, and
cession which broke out on the death of Ferdinand, Ca- also visited Mount Felix and the adjacent pait of Afiica,
moens sided with the king of Castile, and was killed in which he so strongly pictures in the Lusiad, and in one
the battle of Aliabarota. But though John I. the victor, of his little pieces where he laments the absence of his
seized a ureat part of his estate, his widow, the daughter mistress. When he returned to Goa he enjoyed a tran-
of Gonzalo Tereyro, grand master of the order of Christ, quillity which enabled him to bestow attention on his epic ;
and general of the Portuguese army, wras not reduced be- but this serenity was interrupted by his own imprudence ;
neath her rank. She had three sons who took the name for he wrote some satires which gave offence, and, by or-
of Camoens. The family of the eldest intermarried with der of the viceroy, Francisco Barreto, he was banished to
the first nobility of Portugal, and even, according to Cas- China.
tera with the blood royal; but the family of the second But the accomplishments and manners of Camoens soon
brother, whose fortune was slender, had the superior ho- found him friends, though under the disgrace of banish-
nour of producing the author of the Lusiad. ment. He was appointed commissary in the island of
The misfortunes of our poet commenced early in life. Macao, a Portuguese settlement m the bay of Canton,
In his infancy, Simon Vaz de Camoens, his father, com- where he continued his Lusiad; and, after five years resi-
mander of a vessel, was shipwrecked at Goa, where he dence, he acquired a fortune, though small, yet equal to
perished, together with the greater part of his fortune, his wishes. Dom Constantine de braganza was now vice-
His mother, however, Anne de Macedo of Santarem, pro- roy of India ; and Camoens, desirous to return to Goa, re-
vided for the education of her son Louis at the university of signed his charge, and set sail in a ship freighted by himself;
Coimbra, where he acquired an intimacy with the classics, but he was shipwrecked in the gulf near the mouth of the
equal to that of a Scaliger, but directed by the taste of a river Mecon, on the coast of China, and all he had acquir-
Milton or a Pope. When he left the university he ap- ed perished in the waves. His poems, which he held in
peared at court. He was handsome, with expressive eyes one hand, while he swam with the other, were all he found
and a fine complexion; and as he was a polished scholar, himself possessed of when he stood friendless on an un-
this, added to the natural ardour and vivacity of his dis- known shore,
position, rendered him an accomplished gentleman. Courts On the banks of the Mecon he wrote his beautiful pa-
are the usual scenes of intrigue ; and intrigue was then fa- raphrase of the psalm, Super Jlumina Babylonis, where
shionable at Lisbon. But the particulars of the amours of the Jews, in the finest strain of poetry, are represented as
Camoens remain unknown. It only appears that he had hanging their harps on the willows, by the rivers of Ba-
aspired above his rank, and was in consequence banished bylon, and lamenting their exile from their native land,
from the court; and in several of his sonnets he ascribes Here Camoens continued some time, till an opportunity
his misfortunes to love. offered of a passage to Goa. When he arrived at that
He now retired to his mother’s friends at Santarem, city, Dom Constantine de Braganza, the viceroy, admitted
where he renewed his studies, and began his poem on the him to his friendship, and Camoens continued happy till
discovery of India. But as John III. was at this time pre- Count Redondo assumed the government. VV hile Constan-
paring an armament against Africa, Camoens, tired of an tine continued in power, those who had formerly procured
inactive and obscure life, went to Ceuta with the expedition, the banishment of the satirist were silent; but now they
and greatly distinguished himself by his valour in several exerted all their arts against him. Redondo, when he en-
encounters. In a naval engagement with the Moors in tered upon office, however, pretended to be the friend o.
C A M
CA M
43
Camoens ; yet, with unfeeling indifference, he suffered the
innocent man to be thrown into the common prison. But
after much delay in bringing forward witnesses, Camoens,
in a public trial, fully refuted every accusation directed
against his conduct while commissary at Macao, and his
enemies were loaded with ignominy and reproach. Ca¬
moens, however, had some creditors, and they detained
him in prison a considerable time, till the gentlemen of
Goa becoming ashamed that a man of his singular merit
should experience such treatment among them, he was set
at liberty, again assumed the profession of arms, and re¬
ceived the allowance of a gentleman volunteer, a character
at this time common in Portuguese India. Soon afterwards,
Pedro Barreto, appointed governor of the fort at Sofala,
allured the poet by high promises to attend him thither.
The governor of a distant fort, in a barbarous country,
shares in some measure the fate of an exile ; yet, though
the only motive of Barreto was to enjoy the conversa¬
tion of Camoens at his table, he took no care to render
the life of his guest agreeable. Chagrined with his treat¬
ment, and weary of a state of dependence, Camoens re¬
solved to return to his native country. A ship, on the
homeward voyage, at this time touched at Sofala, and se¬
veral gentlemen on board were desirous that Camoens
should accompany them; but this the governor ungene¬
rously endeavoured to prevent, and charged him with a
debt for board. Anthony de Cabra, however, and Hector
de Sylveira, paid the demand; and Camoens and the hb-
nour of Barreto were discharged together.
After an absence of sixteen years, Camoens in 1569
returned to Lisbon, unhappy even in his restoration to his
native country, for the pestilence then raged in the capital,
and prevented his publication for three years. At last, in
1572, he printed his Lusiad, which, in the opening of the
first book, he addressed to King Sebastian, then in his
eighteenth year, who was so pleased with its merit, that
he gave the author a pension of four thousand reals, on
condition that he should reside at court; but this salary
seems to have been withdrawn by Cardinal Henry, who
succeeded to the crown of Portugal, which Sebastian lost
at the battle of Alcacar in Africa.
Henry, though the patron of one species of literature,
utterly neglected the author of the Lusiad ; and under his
inglorious reign Camoens died in all the misery of poverty,
and, according to some, in an alms-house. It appears,
however, that he had not even that certainty of subsist¬
ence which such houses usually provide. He had a black
servant, who had grown old with him, and had long expe¬
rienced his master’s humanity. This grateful Indian, a
native of Java, who, according to some, had saved his
master’s life in the unhappy shipwreck where he lost his
effects, begged in the streets of Lisbon for the only man
in Portugal on whom God had bestowed those talents
which had a tendency to elevate the spirit of a declining
age. To the eye of a faithful observer, the fate of Camoens
throws great light on that of his country, and will appear
strictly connected with it. The same ignorance, and the
same degenerate spirit, which suffered Camoens to depend
on his share of the alms begged in the streets by his aged
servant, sunk the kingdom of Portugal into the most ab¬
ject vassalage ever experienced by a conquered nation.
But while the grandees of Portugal wei'e blind to the ruin
which impended over them, Camoens beheld it with a
pungency of grief which hastened his end. In one of his
letters he has these remarkable words : “ I am ending the
course of my life; the world will witness how I have
loved my country. I have returned, not only to die in her
bosom, but to die with Tier.” In this unhappy situation
died, at the age of sixty-two, the year after the fatal de¬
feat of Dom Sebastian, Louis de Camoens, the greatest
genius Portugal ever produced ; in martial courage and Camonica
spirit nothing inferior to her most honoured heroes. II
Fifteen years after his death, a monument was erected Camp,
in honour of Camoens. Death had allayed all jealousies ;
and the homage due to him, as the national poet of Por¬
tugal, was now enthusiastically paid. The genius of Ca¬
moens was inspired by the history of his country and
the manners of his age; his lyric poems, in particular,
like the works of Dante, Petrarch, Ariosto, and Vasso,
belong to romantic and chivalrous rather than to purely
classical literature ; and hence the partizans of the latter,
which were very numerous in his time, were far from
greeting with applause the first steps of his career. Of
the Lusiad it would be superfluous to offer any criticism
in this place. Suffice it to say, that with many faults,
both of design and execution, it possesses perfect unity of
interest, arising from the patriotic sentiments with which
it is animated throughout, and charms alike by the state¬
liness and grace of its versification, which foreigners as
well as native Portuguese can relish and appreciate. The
most esteemed edition of the works of C'amoens appeared
at Lisbon in 1779-1780, under the title of Obras de Luis
de Camoens principe dos poetas de Hespanha, 4 tom. 12mo.
A second edition also appeared in 1782-1783, the first
volume of which contains the life of the author and the
Lusiad, and the last the dramatic and other pieces ascrib¬
ed to Camoens.
CAMONICA, a market-town of Italy, in the Austrian
delegation of Bergamo. It stands on the river Adda,
where the canal from Milan joins that river.
CAMP, the ground on which an army pitch their tents.
It is marked out by the quartermaster-general, who ap¬
points every regiment its ground. See War.
The Hebrew camp wras of a quadrangular form, sur¬
rounded with an inclosure of the height of ten hands-
breadth. It formed a square of twelve miles in compass
about the tabernacle; and within this was another called
the Levites camp.
The Greek camps were fortified with gates and ditches.
The Lacedemonians formed their camps of a round figure,
looking upon that as the most perfect and defensible of
any form. We are not, however, to imagine, that they
thought this form so essential to a camp as never to
be dispensed with when the circumstances of the place
required it. Of the rest of the Grecian camps it may be
observed, that the most valiant of the soldiers were placed
at the extremities, and the rest in the middle. Thus we
learn from Homer, that Achilles and Ajax were posted at
the ends of the camp before Troy, as bulwarks on each
side of the rest of the princes.
The figure of the Roman camp was a square divided
into two principal parts. In the upper part were the ge¬
neral’s pavilion, or prcetorium, and the tents of the chief
officers; in the lower wTere those of inferior degree. On
one side of the prcetorium stood the qucestorium, or apart¬
ment of the treasurer of the army ; and near this the fo-
rum, both for a market-place and the assembling of coun¬
cils. On the other side of the prcetorium were lodged
the legati ; and below it the tribunes had their quarters,
opposite to their respective legions. Beside the tribunes
were the prafecti of the foreign troops, over against their
respective wings; and behind these were the lodgments
of the evocati, then those of the extraordinarii and ablecti
equites, which concluded the higher part of the camp.
Between the two partitions was a spot of ground called
principia, for the altars and images of the gods, and pro¬
bably also for the chief ensigns. The middle of the lower
partition was assigned to the Roman horse; next to them
were quartered the triarii ; then the principes, and close
by them the hastati; afterwards the foreign horse, and
44 CAM
Campagna lastly, the foreign foot. The Romans fortified their camp
II with a ditch and parapet, which they termed fossa and
Campbell. vaHum . |jut in the latter some distinguish two parts,
namely, the agger or earth, and the sudes or wooden stakes
driven in to secure it. The camps were sometimes sur¬
rounded by walls built of hewn stone; and the tents them¬
selves were formed of the same materials.
CAMPAGNA, a city of Italy, in the province Princi-
pato-Citeriore, of the kingdom of Naples, with 6744 inha¬
bitants, who are remarkable for their industry, and carry
on great trade in oil, silk, and other productions of the
fertile district that surrounds them.
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the space of
time during which an army keeps the field. See War.
CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a famous Italian philoso¬
pher, born at Stilo in Calabria in 1568. He distinguished
himself by his early proficiency in learning ; for at the age
of thirteen he was a perfect master of the ancient orators
and poets. His peculiar inclination was to philosophy, to
which he at last devoted his whole time and study. In
order to arrive at truth, he shook off the yoke of authority,
by which means the novelty of some of his opinions ex¬
posed him to many inconveniences ; for at Naples he was
thrown into prison, in which he remained twenty-seven
years, and during this confinement wrote his famous work
entitled Atheismus triumphatus. Being at length set at
liberty, he went to Paris, where he was graciously receiv¬
ed by Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu; the latter pro¬
cured him a pension of 2000 livres, and often consulted
him on the affairs of Italy. Campanella passed the re¬
mainder of his days in a monastery of Dominicans at Paris,
and died in 1639.
CAMPANI, Matthew, of Spoletto, curate at Rome,
wrote a curious treatise on the art of cutting glasses for
spectacles, and made several improvements in optics, in
which he was assisted by his brother and pupil Joseph.
He died after 1678.
CAMPANIFORM, or Campanulated, an appellation
given to flowers resembling a bell.
CAMPANINI, a name given to an Italian marble dug
out of the mountains of Carrara, because, when it is work¬
ed, it sounds like a bell.
CAMPBELL, Archibald, Earl and Marquis of Ar¬
gyll, was the son of Archibald Earl of Argyll, by the
Lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William Earl of Morton.
He was born in the year 1598, and educated in the pro¬
fession of the Protestant religion, according to the strict¬
est rules of the church of Scotland, as it was established
immediately after the reformation. During the com¬
monwealth he was induced to submit to its authority.
Upon the restoration he was tried for his compliance; a
crime common to him with the whole nation, and such a one
as the most loyal subject might frequently by violence be
induced to commit. To make this compliance appear the
more voluntary and hearty, there were produced in court
letters which he had written to Monk while that general
governed Scotland, and which contained expressions of
the most cordial attachment to the established govern¬
ment. But besides the general indignation excited by
Albemarle’s discovery of this private correspondence, men
thought, that even the highest demonstrations of affection
might, during jealous times, be exacted as a necessary
mark of compliance from a person of such distinction as
Argyll, and could not, by any equitable construction, im¬
ply the crime of treason. The parliament, however, scru¬
pled not to pass sentence upon him, and he suffered with
great constancy and courage.
Campbell, Archibald, Earl of Argyll, son to the former,
had from his youth distingoished himself by his loyalty
and his attachment to the royal family. Though his fa-
C A M
ther was head of the covenanters, he himself refused to Campbell,
concur in any of their measures; and when a commission
of colonel was given him by the convention of states, he
forbore to act upon it till it should be ratified by the king.
By his respectful behaviour, as well as by his services, he
made himself acceptable to Charles when that prince was
in Scotland; and even after the battle of Worcester, all
the misfortunes which attended the royal cause could not
engage him to desert it. Under Middleton he obstinately
persevered to harass and infest the victorious English ; and
it was not till he had received orders from that general,
that he would submit to accept of a capitulation. Such
jealousy of his loyal attachments was entertained by the
commonwealth and protector, that a pretence was soon
after fallen upon to commit him to prison; and his con¬
finement was rigorously continued till the restoration.
The king, sensible of his services, had remitted to him his
father’s forfeiture, and created him Earl of Argyll; and
when a most unjust sentence was passed upon him by the
Scotch parliament, Charles anew remitted it. In the sub¬
sequent part of this reign Argyll behaved himself duti¬
fully ; and though he seemed not disposed to go all lengths
with the court, he always appeared, even in his opposition,
a man of mild disposition and peaceable deportment.
A parliament was summoned at Edinburgh in summer
1681, and the Duke of York appointed commissioner.
Besides granting money to the king, and voting the inde¬
feasible right of succession, this parliament enacted a test
which all persons holding offices, civil, military, or eccle¬
siastical, were bound to take; in which test the king’s su¬
premacy was asserted, the covenant renounced, passive
obedience assented to, and all obligations disclaimed of
endeavouring any alteration in civil or ecclesiastical esta¬
blishments. But in addition to the test as prepared by
the courtiers, the country party proposed also a clause of
adherence to the Protestant religion, which could not with
decency be rejected. The whole was of an enormous
length, considered as an oath ; and, what was worse, being
voted in a hurry, it was found on examination to be a
medley of absurdity and contradiction. Though the cour¬
tiers could not reject the clause of adherence to the Pro¬
testant religion, they proposed that all princes of the blood
should be exempted from taking the oath; an exception
which was zealously opposed by Argyll, who observed that
the sole danger to the Protestant religion must proceed
from the quarter where it was thus proposed to grant an
exemption. By insisting on this topic he drew on him¬
self the secret indignation of the Duke of York, of which
he soon felt the fatal consequences.
When Argyll took the test as. a privy counsellor, he sub¬
joined, in the duke’s presence, an explanation which he
had previously communicated to that prince, and which
he believed to have been approved by him. It was in
these words:—“ I have considered the test, and am very
desirous of giving obedience as far as I can. I am confi¬
dent that the parliament never intended to impose con¬
tradictory oaths; therefore I think no man can explain it
but for himself. Accordingly I take it as far as it is con¬
sistent with itself and the Protestant religion. . And I do
declare that I mean not to bind myself in my station, and
in a lawful way, from wishing and endeavouring any alter¬
ation which I think to the advantage of church or state,
and not repugnant to the Protestant religion and my loyal¬
ty ; and this I understand as a part of my oath.” The
duke heard the qualification with tranquillity, and Argyll
was admitted to sit that day in council; nor was it possi¬
ble to imagine that a capital offence had been committed
where occasion seemed not to have been given for so much
as a frown or a reprimand. Argyll was therefore much sur¬
prised a few days afterwards to find that a warrant had
CAM
CAM
45
lampbell. been issued for committing him to prison ; that he was in-
dieted for high treason, leasing-making, and perjury; and
that from the innocent words above mentioned an accusa¬
tion had been extracted, by which he was to forfeit life,
honours, and fortune. It is needless to enter into parti¬
culars where the iniquity of the whole is so apparent. Of
five judges three did not scruple to find that the guilt of
treason and leasing-making had been incurred by the pri¬
soner; a jury of fifteen noblemen gave a verdict against
him; and the king being consulted, ordered sentence to
be pronounced, but the execution of it suspended till fur¬
ther orders. Argyll, however, saw no reason to trust to
the justice or mercy of such enemies. He made his escape
from prison, and, till he could find a ship for Holland, con¬
cealed himself during some time in London. All the parts
of his sentence, however, as far as the government in Scot¬
land had power, were rigorously executed ; his estate was
confiscated, and his arms were reversed and torn down.
Having got over to Holland, he remained there during
the remaining part of the reign of Charles II. But think¬
ing himself at liberty, before the coronation of James II.
to exert himself in order to recover the constitution by
force of arms, he concerted measures wkh the Duke of
Monmouth, and returned to Scotland to assemble his
friends; but not meeting with the success which he ex¬
pected, he was taken prisoner, and, being carried to Edin¬
burgh, was beheaded upon his former unjust sentence, on
the 30th June 1685. He showed great constancy and
courage under his misfortunes. At the place of execution
he made a short, grave, and religious speech; and, after
solemnly declaring that he forgave all his enemies, sub¬
mitted to death with heroic firmness.
Campbell, Archibald, first Duke of Argyll, son of the
preceding, was an active promoter of the revolution. He
came over with the Prince of Orange; was admitted into
the convention as Earl of Argyll, though his father’s attain¬
der had not been reversed; and in the claim of rights the
sentence against him was declared to be a reproach to the
nation. The establishment of the crown upon the Prince
and Princess of Orange being carried by a great majority
in the Scottish Convention, the earl was sent from the
nobility, with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John Dal-
rymple from the barons and burghs, to offer the crown, in
name of the Convention, to their majesties, and to tender
them the coronation oath; for which, and many other
eminent services, he was admitted a member of the privy
council, and, in 1690, made one of the lords of the trea¬
sury. He was afterwards made a colonel of the Scotch
horse guards, and, in 1694, one of the extraordinary lords
of session. He was likewise created Duke of Argyll, Mar¬
quis of Kintyre and Lorn, Earl of Campbell and Cowall,
Viscount of Lochow and Glenisla, Lord Inverary, Mull,
Morvern, and Terrey, by letters-patent, bearing date at
Kensington the 23d of June 1701. He sent over to Flan¬
ders for King William’s service a regiment, the officers of
which were chiefly of his own name and family, who brave¬
ly distinguished themselves throughout the whole course
of the war. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Lionel
Talmash of Helmingham in the county of Suffolk, by Eliza¬
beth, duchess of Lauderdale, his wife, daughter and heir¬
ess of William Murray, earl of Dysart, by whom he left
issue two sons and a daughter.
Campbell, John, second Duke of Argyll, and also
duke of Greenwich and baron of Chatham, son of the
preceding, was born on the 10th of October 1680; and,
on the very day when his grandfather suffered at Edin¬
burgh, he fell out of a window three pair of stairs high
without receiving any hurt. At the age of fifteen he had
made considerable progress in classical learning. His fa¬
ther then perceiving his military disposition, encouraged
it, and introduced him to King William, who appointed Campbell,
him to the command of a regiment. In this situation he
remained till the death of his father in 1703, when be¬
coming Duke of Argyll, he was soon afterwards sworn of
Queen Anne’s privy council, made captain of the Scotch
horse guards, and appointed one of the extraordinary lords
of session. In 1704, her majesty having revived the Scot¬
tish order of the thistle, his grace was installed as one of
the knights of that order, and was soon afterwards ap¬
pointed high commissioner to the Scotch parliament; and
having been of great service in promoting the union, he
was on his return created a peer of England, by the titles
of Baron of Chatham and Earl of Greenwich, and, in 1710,
was made knight of the garter. His grace first distin¬
guished himself in his military capacity at the battle of
Oudenarde, where he commanded as brigadier-general,
with all the bravery of youth, and the conduct of a vete¬
ran officer. He was present under the Duke of Marl¬
borough at the siege of Ghent, and took possession of the
town. He had also a considerable share in the victory
obtained over the French at the battle of Malplaquet, by
dislodging them from the wood of Sart, and gaining a post
of great consequence. In this sharp engagement several
musket-balls passed through the duke’s clothes, hat, and
peruke. Soon after the action he was sent to take the
command in Spain; but on the reduction of Port Mahon
he returned to England. Flis grace having now a seat in
the House of Lords, he censured the measures of the mi¬
nistry with such freedom, that all his places were disposed
of to other noblemen; but at the accession of George I.
he recovered his influence. On the breaking out of the
rebellion in 1715 he was appointed commander-in-chief of
the forces in North Britain, and was principally instru¬
mental in effecting the total extinction of the rebellion in
Scotland, without much bloodshed. He arrived in London
early in March 1716, and was at first in high favour; but, to
the surprise of people of all ranks, he was in a few months
divested of his employments; and from this period to
the year 1718 he signalized himself in a civil capacity,
by his incorruptible patriotism and manly eloquence. In
the beginning of the year 1719 he was again admitted into
favour, appointed lord-steward of the household, and in
April following created Duke of Greenwich. He conti¬
nued in the administration during the remaining part of
that reign, and, after the accession of George IL, till April
1740, when he delivered a speech with such warmth,
that the ministry being highly offended, he was again dis¬
missed from his employments. To these, however, on the
change of the ministry, he was soon restored ; but not ap¬
proving of the measures of the new administration any
more than those of the old, he gave up all his posts for the
last time, and never afterwards engaged in affairs of state.
He now enjoyed privacy and retirement; and died of a
paralytic disorder on the 4th of October 1743. To the
memory of his grace a noble monument was erected in
Westminster Abbey, executed by Roubiliac.
Campbell, Archibald, third Duke of Argyll, brother
of the preceding, was born at Hamhouse, in England, in
June 1682, and was educated at the University of Glas¬
gow. He afterwards applied himself to the study of the
civil law at Utrecht; but, upon his father’s being created a
duke, he betook himself to a military life, and served some
time under the Duke of Marlborough. Upon quitting the
army, in which he did not remain long, he applied to the
acquisition of the knowledge calculated to enable him to
perform a part in the political world. In 1705 he was ap¬
pointed treasurer of Scotland, and made a considerable
figure in parliament, though he was not more than twen¬
ty-three years of age. In 1706 he was appointed one of
the commissioners for treating of the union; and in the
46 C A M
Campbell, same year he was created Lord Oronsay, Dunoon, and Ar-
rois, Viscount and Earl of Isla. In 1708 he was made an
extraordinary lord of session; and when the union had
been effected, he was chosen one of the sixteen peers for
Scotland in the first parliament of Great Britain, and was
elected to every future parliament, except the fourth, till
his death. In 1710 he was appointed justice-general of
Scotland. In 1711 he was called to the privy council; and
upon the accession of George I. he was nominated lord
register of Scotland. When the rebellion broke out in
1715, he again betook himself to arms, in defence of the
house of Hanover, and by his prudent conduct in the West
Highlands, he prevented General Gordon, at the head of
three thousand men, from penetrating into the country
and raising levies. He afterwards joined his brother at
Stirling, and was wounded at the battle of Dumblans or
Sheriffmuir. He was appointed keeper of the privy seal
in 1725, and from this time he was intrusted with the
management of Scottish affairs. In 1734, upon his re¬
signing the privy seal, he was made keeper of the great
seal, which office he enjoyed' till his death. Upon the
decease of his brother, he became Duke of Argyll, here¬
ditary justice-general, lieutenant, sheriff, and commissary
of Argyleshire and the Western Isles, hereditary great
master of the household, and hereditary keeper of Dun-
staffhage, Garrick, and several other castles. He was also
chancellor of the University of Aberdeen, and laboured
to promote the interest of that, as well as of the other
universities of Scotland. It was by his advice that, alter
the rebellion in 1745, the Highlanders were employed in
the royal army. He was a man of great endowments,
both natural and acquired, and possessed considerable
parliamentary abilities. He was likewise eminent for his
literary accomplishments, and had collected one of the
most valuable private libraries in Great Britain. . The fa¬
culties of his mind continued unimpaired till his death,
which happened suddenly on the 15th of April 1561, in
the seventy-ninth year of his age. He was married, but
had no issue; and was succeeded in his titles and estates
by John Campbell, fourth Duke of Argyll, son of the
honourable John Campbell of Mammore, the second son
of Archibald the ninth Earl of Argyll. The family of Ar¬
gyll were heritable justices-general for Scotland till the
office was abolished by the jurisdiction act.. They aie
still heritable masters of the king’s household in Scotland,
and keepers of Dunstaffhage and Garrick.
Campbell, John, an eminent historical, biographical,
and political writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 8th
March 1708. His father, Robert Campbell of Glenlyon,
was captain of horse in a regiment commanded by the
then Earl of Hyndford; and his mother, Elizabeth, daugh¬
ter of Mr Smith of Windsor in Berkshire, had the honour
of claiming a descent from the poet Waller. John, their
fourth son, when five years old, was carried from Scot¬
land to Windsor, where he received the rudiments of his
education; and at a proper age he was placed as clerk
to an attorney, being intended for the law. I his pro¬
fession, however, he never followed; but by a close ap¬
plication to the acquisition of knowledge of various kinds,
he became qualified to appear with advantage in the lite¬
rary world. In 1736, before he had completed his thir¬
tieth year, he gave to the public, in two volumes folio,^the
Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marl¬
borough, enriched with maps, plans, and cuts. From the
reputation which he thus acquired, he was soon afterwards
solicited to take part in the Ancient Universal History.
But whilst employed in this capital work, Mr Campbell
found leisure to entertain the world wuth other produc¬
tions. In 1739 he published the Travels and Adventures
of Edward Brown, Esq. 8vo. In the same year appeared
C A M
his Memoirs of the Bashaw Duke de Ripperda, 8vo, re- Campbel
printed, with improvements, in 1740. These memoirs
were followed, in 1741, by the Concise History of Spanish
America, 8vo. In 1742 lie published a letter to a friend
in the country, on the publication of Thurloe’s State Pa¬
pers ; giving an account of their discovery, importance,
and utility. The same year was distinguished by the ap¬
pearance of the first and second volumes of his Lives of
the English Admirals, and other eminent British Seamen.
The two remaining volumes were completed in 1744; and
not long afterwards the whole was translated into German.
This was the first of Mr Campbell’s works to which he
prefixed his name, and it is a performance of great and
acknowledged merit. In 1743 he published Hermippus
Revived; a second edition of which, much improved and
enlarged, came out in 1749, under the title of Hermippus
Redivivus, or the Sage’s Triumph over Old Age and the
Grave. This tract had its origin in a foreign publication,but
it was much improved by the ingenuity and learning of Mr
Campbell. In 1744 he gave to the public, in two volumes
folio, his Voyages and Travels, on Dr Harris’s plan, being
an improvement of that collection which had appeared in
1705. The tirpe and care employed by Mr Campbell in
this important undertaking did not prevent his engaging
in another great work, the Biographia Britannica, which
began to be published in weekly numbers in 1745, and ex¬
tended to seven volumes folio; but our author’s articles
were confined to the first four volumes, of which, Dr Kip-
pis observes, they constitute the prime merit.
When Mr Dodsley formed the design of The Preceptor,
which appeared in 1748, Mr Campbell was engaged to as¬
sist in the undertaking; and the parts written by him
were the Introduction to Chronology, and the Discourse
on Trade and Commerce, both of which displayed an ex¬
tensive fund of knowledge upon these subjects. In 1750
he published the first separate edition of his Present State
of Europe; a work which had been originally begun in
1746, in the Museum, a very valuable periodical perfor¬
mance, printed for Dodsley. There is no production of
our author’s which has met with a better reception. It
passed through six editions, and fully deserved this en¬
couragement. The next undertaking which called for the
exertion of our author’s abilities and learning, was The
Modern Universal History. This extensive work was
published, from time to time, in detached parts, till it
amounted to sixteen volumes folio; and a second edition,
in octavo, began to make its appearance in the year 1759.
The parts of it written by Mr Campbell were, the histories
of the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Da¬
nish, and Ostend Settlements in the East Indies; and the
histories of the kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, Algarve,
Navarre, and that of France, from the time of Clovis till
1656. Our author having thus distinguished himself in
the literary world, the degree of LL.D. was conferred up¬
on him by the university of Glasgow, on the 18th June
1784-
His principal and favourite production was, A Political
Survey of Great Britain, in two volumes 4to, published
a short time before his death ; a work in which the extent
of his knowledge, and the ardour of his patriotic spirit, are
equally conspicuous. Dr Campbell’s reputation was not
confined to his own country, but extended to the remotest
parts of Europe. As an instance of this, it may be men¬
tioned, that in the spring of 1774, the empress of Russia
was pleased to honour him with the present of her picture,
drawn in the robes worn in that country in the days of
John Bassiliowitz, grand duke of Muscovy, who was con¬
temporary with Queen Elizabeth. ,
In 1736 Dr Campbell married Elizabeth, daughter of
Mr Benjamin Vobe, of Leominster, in the county of Here-
CAM
CAM
47
mipbell. ford, with whom he lived nearly forty years in the great-
est conjugal harmony and happiness. So wholly did he
dedicate his time to books, that he seldom went abroad;
but to relieve himself as much as possible from the incon¬
veniences incident to a sedentary life, it was his custom,
when the weather permitted, to walk in his garden, or in
some room of his housed by way of exercise. By this
method, united with the strictest temperance in eating,
and an equal abstemiousness in drinking, he enjoyed good
health, though his constitution was delicate. His domes¬
tic manner of life did not prevent him from cultivating an
extensive and honourable acquaintance. His house, espe¬
cially on a Sunday evening, was the resort of the most
distinguished persons of all ranks, and particularly of those
who had rendered themselves eminent by their knowledge
or love of literature. He received foreigners who were
fond of learning with an affability and kindness which
excited in them the highest respect and veneration; and
his instructive and cheerful conversation made him the
delight of his friends. During the latter part of his life
he was agent for the province of Georgia in North Ame¬
rica, and he died at the close of the year 1775, in the six¬
ty-seventh year of his age. Dr Campbell’s literary know¬
ledge was by no means confined to the subjects which he
more particularly treated of as an author. He was well
acquainted with the mathematics, and had read much in
medicine. He was eminently versed in the different parts
of sacred literature, and his acquaintance with the lan¬
guages extended not only to Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
among the ancient, and to French, Italian, Spanish, Por¬
tuguese, and Dutch, among the modern; but likewise to
the oriental tongues. He was particularly fond of the
Greek language. His attainment of such a variety of
knowledge was exceedingly assisted by a memory sur¬
prisingly retentive, and which indeed astonished every
person with whom he was acquainted. In communicating
his ideas, he had an uncommon readiness and facility;
and the style of his works, which had been formed upon
the model of that of the celebrated Bishop Sprat, was
perspicuous, easy, flowing, and harmonious. To all these
accomplishments of the understanding Dr Campbell join¬
ed the more important virtues of a moral and pious cha¬
racter. His disposition was gentle and humane, and his
manners kind and obliging. He was a tender husband,
an indulgent parent, a kind master, a firm and sincere
friend. To his Creator he paid the constant and sincere
tribute of devotion and reverence ; and in his correspond¬
ence he showed that a sense of piety was always nearest
his heart.
Campbell, George, D. D., a distinguished theologian
and philosopher, was born at Aberdeen in December
1719. He was educated at the grammar school of that
town; and being intended for the profession of the law,
he was bound as an apprentice to a writer or clerk to the
signet. The love of study, however, prevailed over all
opposition. In 1741 he attended divinity lectures at
Edinburgh before the term of his apprenticeship had ex¬
pired, and soon afterwards he became a regular student
in the university of Aberdeen, attending the lectures of
Professor Lumsden in King’s, and Professor Chalmers in
Marischal College. In 1746 he was licensed to preach
by the presbytery of Aberdeen. In 1748 he obtained the
living of Banchory Ternan, in which situation he married,
and was fortunate in possessing a lady remarkable for the
sagacity of her understanding, the integrity of her heart,
the general propriety of her conduct, and her skill in the
management of domestic affairs. Mutual happiness was
the consequence of this union, which was not terminated
till her death in 1792. In 1757 he was translated to
Aberdeen, to be one of the ministers of that town; and
in 1759 he was presented to the office of principal of Campbell.
Marischal College. s—w
Mr Hume’s Treatise on Miracles gave the new princi¬
pal an opportunity of evincing that he was not unworthy
of this office. He opposed it in a sermon preached before
the provincial synod of Aberdeen in 1760, which he was
requested to publish; but he preferred the form of a dis¬
sertation, and in that state sent the manuscript to Dr
Blair, to be by him communicated to Mr Hume. Avail¬
ing himself of the remarks of his friends, and of his op¬
ponent, he gave it to the world in 1763, with a dedication
to Lord Bute; but however desirable the patronage of the
minister might in other respects be, it proved of very lit¬
tle assistance in giving circulation, in the literary world, to
an essay which, from the favourable impressions of Blair
and Flume, was eagerly read and universally admired.
In 1771 he was elected professor of divinity in Marischal
College, upon which he resigned his office as one of the
ministers of Aberdeen ; but as minister of Grayfriars, an
office conjoined to the professorship about a century pre¬
vious to this, he was obliged to preach once every Sunday
in one of the established churches. Few persons seem to
have entertained truer notions of the office of a teacher in
an university than the new professor; and the plan he had
in view, on entering upon his lectures, though expressed
in rather too strong language, may be recommended to
every one who undertakes a similar employment.
“ The nature of my office,” said he, in addressing his
pupils, “ has been much misunderstood. It is supposed
that I am to teach you every thing connected with the
study of divinity. I tell you honestly, that I am to teach
you nothing. Ye are not school-boys. Ye are young
men, who have finished your courses of philosophy, and
ye are no longer to be treated as if ye were at school.
Therefore, I repeat it, I am to teach you nothing; but,
by the grace of God, I will assist you to teach yourselves
every thing.”
In 1771 he published his excellent sermon on the Spirit
of the Gospel; and, in 1776, appeared his Philosophy of
Rhetoric. In this latter year, also, he acquired the friend¬
ship of Dr Tucker, by a sermon, then much admired, and
very generally read, on the Duty of Allegiance, in which
he endeavoured to show that the British colonies in Ame¬
rica had no right, either from reason or from Scripture, to
throw off their allegiance ; and employed those vulgar ar¬
guments which, as being purely political, and more espe¬
cially adapted to the sentiments of the majority of that
day, were very improper topics for the pulpit. In 1777
he chose a better subject for a discourse, which he pub¬
lished at the request of the Society for Propagating
Christian Knowledge, and in which the success of the
first publishers of the gospel is ably treated as a proof of
its truth. In 1770, when many of his countrymen, led
away by an excess of enthusiasm and fanaticism, were
rushing headlong into the antichristian practice of perse¬
cution, he published a seasonable address to the people
of Scotland, on the alarms which had been raised by the
bill in favour of the Roman Catholics. In the same year,
also, he published a sermon on the influence of religion on
civil society. The last work which he lived to bring be¬
fore the public wras his translation of the Four Gospels,
with preliminary dissertations and explanatory notes, of
which it is unnecessary to say any thing further in this
place than that it is worthy of his talents and character.
In 1795 he resigned his professorship; and soon after¬
wards he also resigned the principalship, on a pension of
L.300 a year being conferred on him by government. But
this pension he possessed for a very short time; for on
the 31st of March 1796 his last illness seized him, and on
the next morning it was followed by a paroxysm of palsy.
48 CAM
Campbel- which destroyed the power of speech, and under this de¬
town privation he languished till his death. His funeral sermon
II o, was preached on the 17th of April by Dr Brown, who had
succeeded him in the offices of principal and professor.
CAMPBELTOWN, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the
peninsula of Kintyre, Argyleshire. It is beautifully situ¬
ated on the margin of a salt-water lake or inlet of the sea,
lying, in a semicircular form, around the head of the bay.
Campbeltown is mostly of modern erection. It consists,
besides the side streets, of one main street stretching up¬
wards from the water, intersected at right angles by ano¬
ther which goes through the town. Prior to the year 1700
it was a mere fishing village, but in that year it was erect¬
ed into a royal burgh, through the interest of the Ar¬
gyll family, in honour of whom it had received its name.
Campbeltown is of considerable antiquity, though no me¬
morial of this exists, except a flat stone cross, on which
are a variety of figures in relief, and an inscription, but no
date. Popular tradition, however, has assigned it to the
twelfth century. It was brought from Icolmkill, and is
now inserted in an elevated pedestal at the market-place.
There are five distilleries in the town, and the trade con¬
sists chiefly in the export of whisky and potatoes, of which
great quantities are shipped for Ireland. I he town is in
a very thriving state, from a number of respectable retired
families having taken up their residence in the handsome
cottages scattered over the sides of the loch. Campbel¬
town has a magisterial government, composed of a pro¬
vost, two bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a water
bailie, and twelve counsellors, but no incorporated trades.
Here branches of the Commercial and British Linen Com¬
pany’s Banks have been some time established. There
are two established churches, and some dissenting meeting¬
houses, besides a Roman Catholic chapel. The population
of the burgh and parish amounted in 1821 to 9016, and in
1831 to 9472.
CAMPDEN, a market-town in the hundred of Kifts-
gate, in Gloucestershire, ninety miles from London. The
market is held on Wednesday. Its population amounted
in 1811 to 1214, in 1821 to 1249, and in 1831 to 1503.
CAMPEACHY, or Campeche, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Yucutan, situated on a bay to which it
gives name, on the west coast of the peninsula. It is de¬
fended by a castle provided with cannon. The buildings
are of stone, and when first taken by the Spaniards it
contained about 3000 houses, and had considerable monu¬
ments of Indian art and industry. It has often been
stormed and taken by English and French bucaneers and
others, and has suffered severely from these marauders.
The port is large, but shallow. The principal branch of its
trade is the exportation of the wax of Yucutan. I here is
besides a manufacture of cotton cloth. It was formerly the
chief mart for logwood, of which great quantities grew in
the neighbourhood, before the English landed here and
cut it at the isthmus. The population of the town amounts
to about 6000. Long. 90. 31. W. Lat. 19. 51. N.
CAMPER, Peter, eminent for his extensive know¬
ledge in the various branches of medicine, zoology, and
comparative anatomy, and for his taste in the fine arts, was
born at Leyden on the 11th May 1722. His family had
long held distinguished situations in the magistracy of that
city, where his grandfather had exercised the profession
of medicine. His father, Florent Camper, was a Protes¬
tant clergyman, and had officiated in that capacity for
some years at Batavia; but had returned to his native
country in 1718, after marrying Sarah Ketting, who was
born of Dutch parents, at Surat. Florent Camper was
an enthusiastic admirer of painting, and took great delight
in the society of artists, whom he treated with the great¬
est liberality, his purse being ever open to such as need-
C A M
ed his assistance. He was much connected with the Camper
learned men who adorned the university of Leyden at the
beginning of the last century, and was on terms of inti¬
mate friendship with the great Boerhaave. Young Camper
has, no doubt, been greatly indebted for his success to the
fortunate circumstances in which he was placed in early
life ; being thus surrounded by men of enlarged and culti¬
vated understandings, eminent for their taste and learning,
and having, at the same time, every incentive that a wise
education could supply to emulate those excellent models';
but nature had besides endowed him with that inherent
desire of knowledge, that capacity, and that vigour and
activity of mind, which, united as they were with a robust
constitution of body, enabled him to reap the full benefit
of these advantages. He gave very early proofs of his
possessing those mental qualities which lay the founda¬
tion of future eminence ; and his father, discerning with
delight the auspicious dawn of his genius, judiciously re¬
moved whatever might cramp its growth, and avoided im¬
posing on him as a task those instructions and attainments
which he seemed so well inclined to acquire and pursue
as an amusement.
Fie applied himself at an early age to drawing and paint¬
ing, under the tuition of Moor and of his son, both of
whom were celebrated artists, and soon became remark¬
ably proficient in these accomplishments. He derived, in
the course of his life, immense advantage from the skill
with which he used bis pencil in delineating any object in
which he was interested, whether among the works of art
or the productions of nature, or whether they were the
offsprings of his own conception in the course of his phi¬
losophical researches. The value of this acquirement, as
an object of early education, is not perhaps in general
sufficiently appreciated. The power of conceiving readi-
ty, and with correctness, mechanical forms, is one of the
most useful results that practice in the delineation of ob¬
jects can confer, and is of incalculable advantage in a va¬
riety of pursuits, with which such a talent might not at
first sight seem to be immediately concerned. There is
no doubt, for instance, that it must remove many difficul¬
ties in the study of geometry, by facilitating the concep¬
tion of figured space, the properties of which are the sub¬
jects of that science. An accurate knowledge of anatomy
is still more directly dependent upon the same power of
apprehending the relations of form. The progress which
Camper made in this branch of science, and the range of
inquiries to which he afterwards made his knowledge sub¬
servient, are striking illustrations of this position.
He was indebted to Laborde for his first lessons in
geometry, and was instructed in natural philosophy by
Muschenbroeck and Gravesande, who were the intimate
friends of his father, and whose names will be ever illus¬
trious in the annals of science. From these studies he
was naturally led to the pursuit of medicine, of which the
elementary branches have so close an alliance with the
physical sciences; and having entered the university of
Leyden, became the pupil of Gaubius, Van Rooyen, and
the elder Albinus; for Boerhaave was by this time inca¬
pacitated, by the infirmities of age, from continuing his
exertions as public teacher in the university. Camper
earned the first fruits of his academical labours by receiv¬
ing, in 1746, the degree of doctor in philosophy and me¬
dicine, on which occasion he published two dissertations,
the one De Visu, the other De Oculi quibusdam Partibus,
which are mentioned with commendation by Baldinger in
his Biography of Living Physicians, and which have been
preserved by Haller. In the former he illustrates and de¬
fends Smith’s Theory of Vision, and in the latter describes
and gives plates of Petit’s Canal in the Eyes of different
Animals.
CAMPER
amper. The acquaintance he had formed at college with seve-
ral foreigners of merit had long inspired him with a de¬
sire of travelling, and of gratifying his thirst for know¬
ledge, by visiting different countries, and conversing with
men distinguished for their acquirements in the several
branches of science. But the declining health of his pa¬
rents, who were now advanced in years, and required the
continual presence and kindest attentions of their son,
long prevented him from accomplishing his wishes. Their
death, however, which happened in 1748, released him
from duties which he had the consolation of reflecting had
been so piously discharged; and he soon after, at the age
of twenty-six, embarked for England. In London he met
with the celebrated physicians Mead, Pringle, and Pit¬
cairn, with whom he became acquainted. He pursued
his medical studies under Hunter, Sharp, Smellie, and
Winchester; and indulged his taste for natural history, by
examining diligently the cabinets of Hans Sloane and Col-
linson, and the collections of Hill and Catesby. He stu¬
died botany under Elliot, and astronomy under Short, and
was instructed in the use of the microscope by Baker, who
was at that time applying this instrument with so much
success to objects of natural history. He seemed deter¬
mined to suffer no opportunity of amassing a store of use¬
ful knowledge to escape him ; and although his views em¬
braced a wide range of subjects, he was never satisfied
with a superficial glance, nor trusted to the reports of
others, when there was a possibility of seeing with his own
eyes the objects of his curiosity. His attention was par¬
ticularly directed to the mechanical arts; he visited the
principal manufactories, and was indefatigable in collect¬
ing instructions from artists of eminence in every depart¬
ment ; and his eager curiosity even extended to the details
of naval architecture, to the study of which he devoted a
considerable portion of time. He was in the habit, dur¬
ing all his travels, of making minutes of every thing he
saw and learned; and his happy facility in the employ¬
ment of the pencil enabled him to take sketches on the
spot of every object of which a delineation could be useful.
Knowledge thus derived from personal observation is the
more valuable, as it is more strongly impressed on the
memory, and as it is less liable to inaccuracy, and less
likely to be tinctured with prejudice, or distorted by the
medium through which it is received. He still cultivat¬
ed his taste for painting, and acquired much practical skill
in the art of engraving. After remaining about a year in
London, and visiting the universities of Oxford and Cam¬
bridge, he proceeded to Paris, and devoted two months
to the inspection of the principal public establishments in
that capital. He then travelled onwards to Lyons and
Geneva; but the prosecution of his journey in the direc¬
tion of Italy was stopped by the intelligence he received
of his being appointed professor in philosophy, medicine,
and surgery, at Franeker, in Friesland; and he returned
to Holland by Switzerland and the banks of the Rhine,
visiting, as he passed through Basel, the great Bernoulli,
and examining, in the library of that city, the writings of
Erasmus and the paintings of Holbein. The itinerary which
he kept of his journey contains a great number of valuable
remarks on agriculture and geology, and showed how well
he was gifted with the talent for observation.
In consequence of a severe illness, with which he was at¬
tacked in 1749, he was obliged to defer entering upon the
duties of his new professorship till the autumn of the fol¬
lowing year, when, in conformity with the custom on these
occasions, he pronounced a public inaugural discourse,choos¬
ing as his subject De Mundo Optimo. About the same
period he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of
London.
He had reaped so much advantage by his residence in
VOL. VI.
49
England, and was so much attached to its inhabitants, and Camper,
full of admiration for the great public establishments of v—
that country, that he returned there during the vacation
of 1752, and resumed his various pursuits, both medical
and scientific, with unabated ardour. Among other ob¬
jects, his attention was much directed to the method of
inoculating for the small-pox, the practice of which was
as yet confined to England. On his return to Franeker
he resumed his lectures, which were every year more nu¬
merously attended, and gained him such increasing cele¬
brity, that he was soon ranked as one of the ablest men of
science in Holland. In 1755 he was appointed professor
of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum of Amsterdam,
and came in consequence to settle in that city, which was
then the seat of opulence and learning. According to cus¬
tom, he pronounced two inaugural discourses, the first, De
Anatomes in omnibus Scientiis usu ; and the second, De
Certo in Medicina. In 1756 he married the widow of the
burgomaster of Harlingen.
After continuing six years in Amsterdam, his avocations
were so multiplied and fatiguing, that he yielded to the
strong desire which Mrs Camper had long entertained of
retiring to Friesland, and once more took up his abode at
his country house at Franeker. He of course resigned his
professorship at Amsterdam, but was allowed to retain
the title of honorary professor of that academy. His prin¬
cipal work, during the time he had held that chair, was
the first volume of his Demonstrationes Anatomico-Patho-
logicce. But the leisure he now enjoyed in his retirement
in Friesland allowed him to devote his whole time to
science ; and the second volume of the same work made
its appearance in 1762, together with several other publi¬
cations, of which notice will be taken in the sequel.
Two years thus glided by rapidly in the country, when
he was again called to the active duties of an academical
life, by the appointment which was conferred upon him of
professor of medicine, surgery, and anatomy, in the uni¬
versity of Groningen. The proximity of this city to his
present habitation, the natural activity of his mind, and a
conscientious desire of being useful to the community, con¬
curred with the love of fame, which retirement had not ex¬
tinguished, in inducing him to undertake the office which
he was now so honourably called upon to discharge. He
accordingly established himself and his family at Gronin¬
gen, and, at his inauguration as professor, delivered a dis¬
course, De admirabili analogia inter Stirpes et Animalia.
The great interest which he took in the improvement of
agriculture led to the establishment, under his auspices,
of a society for the purpose of conducting experiments in
this important art. To this society Camper was nominat¬
ed secretary. He bestowed much pains in investigating
the nature of an epidemic disorder which prevailed exten¬
sively among the cattle of Holland, and in devising the
best means of diminishing its ravages. He made these
the subject of several lectures, which he read in 1796, to
the academy of Groningen; and his proposed method of
inoculating the disorder, with a view of disarming it of its
virulence, appears to have effectually succeeded in those
districts where it was adopted. He was also much occu¬
pied, at this period, with researches in natural history;
and made a variety of important discoveries in comparative
anatomy, of which we shall afterwards give a brief account.
The ten years that he spent at Groningen were esteem¬
ed by Camper the happiest, at the same time that they
were the most laborious, of his life ; and he probably would
never have quitted a situation in every respect so con¬
genial to his taste, or the circle of friends he had formed
there, by whom his talents were well appreciated, and in
whose approbation he found the reward of his exertions,
if the wishes of his wife, and his own anxiety to superin-
G
50
CAMPER.
Camper.
tend the education of his family, had not induced him to
make the sacrifice of all these enjoyments, and once more
remove to Franeker Academy, at which his sons were to
be placed. He continued, nevertheless, steadily to pro¬
secute his various philosophical and medical researches
until the year 1776, when he sustained a heavy stroke of
affliction in the death of his wife, in whom his affections
had been centred during a union of twenty years, and
whose domestic virtues, and exemplary attention to her
children, had secured her the esteem and respect of all
who knew her. As the most efficacious mode of soothing
his grief, he determined upon varying the scene, and mak¬
ing occasional excursions to the neighbouring parts of the
Continent. He accordingly visited all the cities that of¬
fered objects of attraction in the sciences or the fine arts;
and, after gratifying his taste for painting by the sight of
the masterpieces of Rubens, Vandyke, and other paint¬
ers of the Flemish school, proceeded, in search of amuse¬
ment and instruction, to pay another visit to Paris. Here
he enjoyed the society of Franklin, Marmontel, Diderot,
Daubenton, Portal, and other distinguished characters in
the literary and scientific world. Returning to his own
country with recruited spirits, he applied himself with
fresh ardour to his favourite pursuits, and, aiming at more
comprehensive views of the animal kingdom, occupied him¬
self in pursuing the analogies which connect its several
departments, and in tracing the successive links of that
extended chain, by which the different orders of beings
are united in one continued series of gradation. A tour
through Germany, at a later period of his life, brought
him acquainted with many treasures in natural history,
with which that country abounds. The anatomical pre¬
parations of Kerkringius, and the observatory of Tycho
Brahe at Hamburg; the collections of natural history of
Taube and Desrogues at Zell, and the superb cabinet of
antiquities of the Count Walmoden at Hanover, particu¬
larly attracted his attention ; and he explored with the
eye of a geologist the volcanic district of Cassel. He
formed also the acquaintance of Zimmerman, Soemmer-
ring, and other eminent physicians. The following year
he visited Prussia, and was presented to the great Frede¬
rick, who received him at Potsdam with much affability
and respect, conversing with him for a long time on the
subject of the fine arts ; and, on his return, he had the ho¬
nour of spending two days with the brother of the king,
Prince Henry of Prussia, at Rhynsberg.
In 1785 Camper was chosen member of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, an honour which was the more
highly prized, as the number of foreigners on whom it was
conferred was limited to eight. In the same year he paid a
fourth visit to England, a country for which he had always
shown a strong partiality, and was again gratified with the
society of the numerous friends he had left there, and of
others whose acquaintance he then for the first time made.
His literary and philosophical occupations, numerous
and important as they were, did not preclude him from
taking an active part in the political concerns of his coun¬
try. In 1762 he was returned as deputy in the assembly of
the province of Friesland; and in 1776 he appeared there
as deputy for Idaarderadeel. He persuaded the assembly
to reject a proposal for the restoration of the maritime
dikes of that province. In 1783, on the recommendation
of the stadtholder, he was nominated one of the council
of state of the United Provinces, and was of course obliged
to reside at the Hague. During the revolution which
soon afterwards occurred in Holland, he remained faith¬
fully attached to the party of the stadtholder; without,
however, yielding his unqualified approbation to all their
measures. The triumph of his own party was even ac¬
companied with circumstances which gave him much con¬
cern, and embittered the latter period of his life. He Camper,
died of a violent pleurisy, on the 7th of April 1789; and '"■''Y''*
his remains were deposited in the tomb of his ancestors,
in the church of St Peter at Leyden.
To a mind enriched with vast stores of knowledge, and
adorned with a taste at once elegant and refined, Camper
united the most benevolent affections, and possessed all
the virtues of domestic and social life. His conduct in
the several relations of son, of husband, and of father, was
in all respects exemplary. His manners were remarkably
placid, and bespoke that habitual equanimity which formed
the characteristic quality of his temper, and which, amidst
strong sensibility to the affections of humanity, he con¬
stantly studied to preserve. Nature had bestowed upon
him a dignified and graceful form, and a remarkably ani¬
mated and expressive countenance. Flis voice, which was
sonorous and flexible, was excellently adapted for public
speaking. He had a singular facility in acquiring lan¬
guages ; and spoke fluently Latin, English, French, and
German; and had, besides, attained a competent know¬
ledge of Greek and of Italian.
Few men have received during their lives so many ho¬
nourable marks of literary distinction as Camper. Be¬
sides those which have been already mentioned, he was
chosen member of the academies of Petersburg, Berlin,
Edinburgh, Manchester, Toulouse, Gottingen, Haarlem,
Rotterdam, and Flushing; and was foreign associate of
the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris. He obtained the
prize of the academy of Haarlem, for his Memoir on the
Physical Education of Children. His Researches on Spe¬
cific Remedies gained him the prize of the Academy of
Sciences of Dijon; his Observations on Inoculation that of
the Academy of Toulouse ; and his Memoir on Chronic
Diseases of the Chest that of the Academy of Lyons. The
Royal Academy of Surgery voted him three prizes for his
Memoirs on the Influence of Different Circumstances in
Regimen on the Treatment of Surgical Diseases. To spe¬
cify in detail the several subjects on which he has written
would be to extend this article to too great a length. We
shall therefore content ourselves with enumerating those
works which are of most importance; and, instead of re¬
citing them in the order of their publication, shall arrange
them according to the subjects to which they relate. His
principal labours were bestowed on comparative anatomy
and physiology, and his discoveries in this wide field of
research are numerous and important. A posthumous col¬
lection of his works on these subjects appeared at Paris
in 1803, in 3 vols. 8vo, with a folio atlas of plates, under
the title of CEuvres de Pierre Camper, qui ont pour objet
l'Histoire Naturelle, la Physiologic, et VAnatomic Compa-
ree ; to which is prefixed an Essay on his Life and Writ¬
ings by his son, and two eulogiums, one by Vicq d’Azyr,
and the other by Condorcet. They contain his Dissec¬
tion and Natural History of the Orang-outang, and other
Species of Apes. He examines especially the peculiarities
in the structure of the organ of voice of those animals,
which deprive them of the power of uttering articulate
sounds, and which alone would place an immense interval
between them and the human species. His anatomical
description of the two-horned rhinoceros, of the rein-deer,
and of the elephant, are the subjects of separate disserta¬
tions ; as also his researches on the structure of the great
bones of birds, and the manner in which atmospherical air
is introduced into them (of which the discovery was made
by Camper prior to the time at which Hunter published
his observations on the same fact); on the structure of the
porpoise and the whale; on the classification of fishes ac¬
cording to the system of Linnaeus; on the anatomical
structure of the organs of hearing in fishes, and of the
blowing-holes of the cetacea ; on the dugon of Buffon, and
CAM
ampian. the sirena lacertina of Linnaeus, both of which he pro-
nounces to belong to the class of fishes ; on the generation
of the pipa or American toad ; on the croaking of the
male frog; on the petrifactions found in the mountain of
St Peter, near Maestricht, and the fossil bones offish and
other animals; on the analogies that may be traced be¬
tween the several parts of the atiimal kingdom, especially
in the structure of the human species, compared with
those of quadrupeds, birds, and fishes; on the alteration
of form in the human species produced by age; on the
diversity of features which characterize different nations,
and the mode of expressing these differences in delineat¬
ing the human figure; on the mode in which the passions
are indicated by the countenance; on the beau physique,
or the beauty of forms; and on the analogy between
plants and animals. In the practical branches of medi¬
cine he has written observations on the inoculation of the
small pox, founded on experiment; on the theory and
treatment of chronic diseases of the lungs, and a historical
inquiry into the principal methods of cure employed by
the ancients and moderns in these disorders; on the na¬
ture, employment, and mode of operation of remedies
termed specifics; on the nature, causes, and treatment of
dropsy, and the different indications of cure derived from
the symptoms; on the nature of cancer, and on the signs
denoting those of the breast that do not admit of cure ;
on the herniae incident to new-born children, &c.; on ul¬
cers in the urethra and prolapsus ani; on the fracture of
the patella; on the callus of fractured bones; on litho¬
tomy, and especially on the method of performing that
operation at two different times, according to the plan of
the celebrated Franco; on the construction of bandages
for herniae; on bandages in general; on the abuse of oint¬
ments and plasters in the treatment of ulcers, and on im¬
proved methods of managing them ; on the noxious effects
attending the admission of air into the body, and the in¬
fluence of this principle on the treatment of surgical dis¬
eases. In the department of midwifery he has written
a letter to Dr Van Gescher on the utility of the section of
the symphysis pubis in severe labours, and observations
on the use of the lever of Roonhuysen in difficult parturi¬
tion. Several memoirs on the subject of infanticide, and
the juridical questions connected with that subject, were
published by him at Leenwarden. (y.)
CAMPIAN, Edmund, an English Jesuit, was born at
London, of indigent parents, in the year 1540, and edu¬
cated at Christ’s Hospital, where he had the honour to
speak an oration before Queen Mary on her accession to
the throne. He was admitted as a scholar of St John’s
College in Oxford at its foundation, and took the degree
of master of arts in 1564. About the same time he was
ordained by a bishop of the church of England, and be¬
came an eloquent Protestant preacher. In 1566, when
Queen Elizabeth was entertained by the university of Ox¬
ford, he spoke an elegant oration before her majesty, and
was also respondent in the philosophy act in St Mary’s
Church. In 1568, he was junior proctor of the university.
In the following year he went over to Ireland, where he
wrote a history of that kingdom, and turned Papist; but
being found rather too assiduous in persuading others to
follow his example, he was in consequence committed to
prison. He, however, soon found means to make his es¬
cape, and landing in England in 1571, proceeded thence
to Douay in Flanders, where he publicly recanted his for¬
mer heresy, and was created bachelor of divinity. Soon
afterwards he went to Rome, where, in 1573, he was ad¬
mitted of the society of Jesus, and was sent by the gene¬
ral of that order to Vienna, where he wrote his tragedy
called Nectar et Ambrosia, which was acted before the
emperor with great applause.
CAM 51
From Vienna he went to Prague in Bohemia, where he Campi-
resided in the Jesuits’ College about six years, and then cursio
returned to Rome, whence, in 1580, he was sent by Pope II
Gregory XIII. with the celebrated Father Parsons, to Campitae.
convert the people of England. From Pitts we learn that, 'V"-''
some time before, several English priests had undertaken
to convert their countrymen; that eighty of these from
foreign seminaries, besides several others who had been
converted in England, were actually engaged in the pious
work with great success; and that some of them had suf¬
fered imprisonment, chains, tortures, and ignominious
death, with becoming constancy and resolution; but see¬
ing at last that the harvest was abundant, and the labour¬
ers few, they solicited the assistance of the Jesuits, re¬
questing, that though not early in the morning, they
would at least in the third, sixth, or ninth hour, send la¬
bourers into the Lord’s vineyard. In consequence of this
solicitation, the above two were sent to England. They
arrived at Dover in an evil hour for Campian; and were
next day joyfully received by their friends at London.
But he had not been long in England before Walsingham,
the secretary of state, being informed of his uncommon
assiduity in the cause of the church of Rome, used every
means in his power to have him apprehended, but for a
long time without success. However, he was at last seized
by one Elliot, who found him in the house of Edward
^ates, at Lyford, in Berkshire, and conducted him in
triumph to London, with a paper on his hat, on which was
written “ Campian the Jesuit.” He was imprisoned in the
Tower, where, Wood says, he underwent many examina¬
tions, abuses, wrackings, tortures, and, according to Pitts,
exquisitissimis cruciatibus tortus. It is to be hoped, for
the credit of our reformers, that this part of the story is
not true. The poor wretch, however, was condemned on
the statute 25 Ed. III. for high treason, and executed at
Tyburn, with two or three of his fraternity. However
criminal in the eye of the law might be the zeal of this
Jesuit for the salvation of the heretics of this kingdom,
biographers of both persuasions unite in giving him a
great and amiable character. “ All writers,” says Wood,
“ whether Protestant or Popish, say that he was a man
of admirable parts ; an elegant orator, a subtile philosopher
and disputant, and an exact preacher, whether in English
or the Latin tongue ; of a sweet disposition, and a well-
polished man.” Fuller, in his Church History, says, “ he
was of a sweet nature, constantly carrying about him the
charms of a plausible behaviour, of a fluent tongue, and
good parts.” His History of Ireland, in two books, was
written in 1570, and published, by Sir James Ware, from
a manuscript in the Cotton Library, Dublin, 1633, folio.
He wrote also Chronologia Universalis, a very learned
work ; and various other tracts.
CAMPICURSIO, in ancient military art, a march of
armed men for several miles, from and back again to the
camp, to instruct them in the military pace. This exer¬
cise was nearly akin to the decursio, from which it only
differed in this, that the latter was performed by horse¬
men, and the former by foot soldiers.
CAMPIDOCTORES, or Campiductores, in the Ro¬
man army, were officers who instructed the soldiery in the
discipline and exercise of war, and the art of handling their
weapons to advantage. They are also sometimes called
campigeni and armidoctores.
CAMPIDUCTOR, in the writers of the middle ages,
signifies the leader or commander of an army or party.
CAMPION, a town of the kingdom of Tangut, in Tar¬
tary. It was formerly remarkable for being a place through
which the caravans passed in the road from Bukharia to
China. Long. 104. 44. E. Lat. 40. 25. N.
CAMPIT/E, in Ecclesiastical History, an appellation
52 CAM
Campli given to the Donatists, on account of their assembling in
II the fields for want of churches. For a similar reason they
' iUnl)0" were also denominated Montenses and Rupitani.
CAMPLI, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
Abruzzo-Ulteriore, containing 6200 inhabitants, with a
bishop, whose diocese is united to that of Ortona.
CAMPOMANES, D. Pedro Rodrigues, Conde de,
a Spanish statesman, and writer of great celebrity, parti¬
cularly on subjects of political philosophy, was born in the
Asturias towards the year 1710. We learn from the Bio¬
graphic Universelle that he was appointed by Charles III.
fiscal of the royal and supreme council of Castile; that, on
the accession of Charles IV. in 1788, he was appointed pre¬
sident of this council, and afterwards minister of state; and
that he was expelled from the council, and deprived of all
his employments, when Count Florida Blanca came into
power. He was director of the Royal Academy of History,
and an honorary member of most of the other similar esta¬
blishments in Europe. He supported his expulsion from
office and power with firmness and dignity; and died at
Madrid, according to the Dictionnaire Utiiversel, in 1789,
but according to the Biographic Universelle, not till after
the commencement of the present century.
The number of his works, and the variety of subjects
which they embrace, show him to have been a man of un¬
common activity, as well as versatility of talent, while
some of them display such a depth of political knowledge,
and superiority to the prejudices of his country and age,
as have ranked him in the first class of modern writers on
political economy and legislation. The following list con¬
tains abridged titles of his principal works, all of which,
we believe, were published in the Spanish language, but
none of them, as far as we know, has ever yet appeared in
an English dress.
1. Historical Dissertations on the Order of the Knights
Templars. Madrid, 1747. 2. A Translation of the Pe-
riplus of Hanno, with Notes. 1756. This translation was
made from Hudson’s edition of the Periplus, and the notes
contain a refutation of the objections urged by Dodwell
against the authenticity of this celebrated journal, which
is now universally admitted to be one of the most curious
relics of antiquity. The learning and ability which he
displayed in support of it procured him an unsolicited
place among the corresponding members of the French
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres. 3. A Geo¬
graphical Account of the Kingdom of Portugal. 1762. 4.
Two Memorials relative to the means of regulating and
employing Gypsies and Vagrants. 1763-4. 5. A Memo¬
rial on the necessity of a Free Commerce in Grain. 1764.
6. Memorial on the provisioning of the city of Madrid,
drawn up and published by order of the supreme council.
1768, 2 vols. 8vo. 7. Discourse on the Protection of In¬
dustry. 1774, in 8vo. 8. Discourse on the Education of
Artisans, 8vo, 1775. In 1777 he gave to the world an
Appendix to this work, containing a view of the causes
which have led to the decline of arts and manufactures in
Spain, in 4 vols. 8vo. Of these two great works, the Dis-
curso sobre el fomento de la Industria popular, and Bis-
curso sobre la Educacion popular de los Artesanos, Dr Ro¬
bertson speaks as follows: “ Almost every point of im¬
portance with respect to interior police, taxation, agricul¬
ture, manufactures, and trade, domestic as well as foreign,
is examined in the course of them; and there are not
many authors, even in the nations most eminent for com¬
mercial knowledge, who have carried on their inquiries
with more thorough knowledge of those various subjects,
and a more perfect freedom from vulgar and national pre¬
judices, or who have united more happily the calm re¬
searches of philosophy with the ardent zeal of a public-
spirited citizen.”
CAM
The above seem to be the chief productions of the pen Campo.
of Campomanes ; but, besides these, he was author of se- bas3°
veral other pieces on historical and literary subjects; and £an^ro
he published a complete edition of the voluminous works ro^
of Feyjoo, to which he prefixed an account of the life of
that learned benedictine.
C AMPOBASSO, a city of Italy, the capital of the pro¬
vince Molise. It is situated on the ascent of a high moun¬
tain, and forms a kind of amphitheatre round it. It is for¬
tified, and contains two churches, and 7660 inhabitants,
who are employed chiefly in making cutlery ware. It is
in a fertile district, which supplies much corn to commerce.
CAMPO Formio, a town of Italy, in the delegation of
Udine, in Austrian Lombardy, containing 1500 inhabit¬
ants; where, in 1797, peace was concluded between France
and Austria.
CAMPO Mayor, a town of Portugal, on the frontiers
of Spain, in the province of Alentejo. It is about three
leagues from Elvas, the fortress opposed to the Spanish
frontier city of Badajos. It is on a barren soil, and pro¬
duces scarcely food sufficient for the inhabitants ; it pos¬
sesses two forts and a castle, and contains 243 houses.
CAMPRODON, a town of Spain, in the province of
Catalonia. It is situated on the western declivity of the
Pyrenees, and,being near the western entrance from France,
is fortified with considerable works, and usually contains a
small garrison. It contains 1500 inhabitants.
CAMPSIE, a village and parish of Scotland, in the
county of Stirling, situated on the banks of the Kelvin.
Bleaching, printing, and the manufacture of cotton, in which
machinery is employed on an extensive scale, are carried
on here. It is distant seven miles from Dumbarton, and
nine from Glasgow. The population of the village and
parish amounted in 1821 to 4927, and in 1831 to 5109.
CAMPUS, in antiquity, a field or plain in a city, not
built upon, but left vacant for shows, combats, exercises,
and other uses of the citizens.
Campus Mail, in ancient customs, an anniversary as¬
semblage of our ancestors held on May-day, when they
confederated together for the defence of the kingdom
against all its eMemies.
Campus Martins, a large plain in the suburbs of ancient
Rome, lying between the Quirinal and Capitoline Mounts
and the Tiber, and so called because it was consecrated
to the god Mars, and set apart for military sports and ex¬
ercises, as the use and handling of arms, and all manner
of feats of activity, to which the Roman youth were train¬
ed. Here races wrere run, either with chariots or single
horses ; and here also stood the villa publica, or palace for
the reception of ambassadors, who were not permitted to
enter the city. Many of the public comitia were held in
the same field, part of which was for that purpose canton¬
ed out. The place was also nobly decorated with statues,
arches, columns, porticoes, ami the like structures.
Campus Sceleratus, a place without the walls of ancient
Rome, where the vestals who had violated their vows of
virginity were buried alive.
C AMROOP. This country, which formerly constituted
an independent kingdom of the Hindoos, is 300 miles in
length by 100 in breadth. It lies to the north-east of
Bengal, and occupies both banks of the Brahmapootra
river, extending from the Candar Chokey in Ootrecole to
the province of Dehrung. Its capital is Kungamutty, on
the north side of the Brahmapootra. Part of this country
is now included in Bengal, and the remainder, 100 miles
in length by 40 in breadth, is reduced to a province of
Assam, the principal places of which are Cotta and Gow-
hattee. A military causeway, now in a state of decay,
extends from Cooch Bahar, to the north ol this and other
districts, to the utmost limits of Assam. This province
CAM
is well watered, being intersected in various directions by
rivers flowing from the mountains, and by the tributary
streams of the Brahmapootra.
This country was invaded and overrun by an army of
Mahommedans from Bengal in the year 1205; but after
advancing towards Bootan they were compelled to retreat,
and were so harassed that few of them escaped. They
were afterwards repulsed in various other attempts to sub¬
due the country; and they in consequence believe that
the inhabitants are endowed with supernatural powers for
their own defence. But they merely availed themselves
of the natural obstacles which the country presented to
the progress of an invading army, retiring with their fa¬
milies into the jungles, until the rains inundating the
country, and the pestilential nature of the climate, forced
the enemy to retreat. The English had been thirty-four
years in possession of Bengal before they were permitted
to enter into this country. In 1791 the rajah, being ter¬
rified by a serious rebellion, applied to the British for
military aid; after which a commercial treaty was con¬
cluded between Colonel Welsh and the Assam ministers
in September 1793, since which period a profitable com¬
mercial intercourse has been maintained from Bengal, and
large quantities of silk, with European commodities, have
been exported, in return for pepper, ivory, cotton, and
gold. The chief impediments to trade arise from the un¬
healthiness of the climate and the fear of robbers.
CAMUS, Charles Stephen Louis, a mathematician
and mechanician, born at Cressy en Brie, near Meaux,
the 25th August 1699, son of Stephen Camus, a surgeon
of that town, and Margaret Mail lard.
His taste for practical mechanics was very early de¬
monstrated by a singular ingenuity in the construction of
a variety of little machines, with which he amused him¬
self ; and he soon felt so strongly the value of mathema¬
tical studies, that he urged his parents to find the means
of sending him to a school where he might apply to them.
In compliance with his wishes, he was placed, when he
was little more than ten years old, at the College de Na¬
varre in Paris; and in two years he acquired knowledge
enough to become an instructor of others, and to relieve
his friends from all further expense in his education. He
was assisted, in the pursuit of the higher departments of
the mathematics, by the celebrated M. Yarignon ; and he
particularly applied himself to civil and military architec¬
ture, and to astronomy.
1. The first result of his studies that was destined for
the public eye, was an essay On the Masts of Ships, a sub¬
ject which had been proposed in 1727 as a prize question
by the Academy of Sciences. This essay was received
with considerable approbation, and was inserted in the se¬
cond volume of the Collection of Prize Memoirs. Shortly
after, the author was made an adjunct or sub-associate of
the academy, in the department of mechanics.
2. In 1728 he brought forward a memoir on the Living
.Force of bodies in motion, in which he concludes, from con¬
sidering the actions of springs, and other similar powers,
that its true measure is the product of the mass into the
square of the velocity, as Leibnitz maintained; this pro¬
duct being also proportional to that of the force into the
space through which it acts, while the momentum is pro¬
portional to the force and the time conjointly. In De¬
cember 1730 M. Camus was appointed professor of geo¬
metry to the Academy of Architecture, and a few years
afterwards he became secretary to the same body.
3. The Memoirs of the Academy for 1732 contain a short
paper on a Problem proposed by M. Cramer, respecting
the determination of two curves bearing a particular rela¬
tion to each other. It was the custom of the age to con¬
sider exercises of this sort as trials of strength, to which
CAM 53
it was incumbent on all geometricians to submit, for the Camus,
honour of the countries in which they lived, and of the
societies to which they belonged. The author was ele¬
vated in 1733 to the rank of an associate of the academy,
together with Clairaut, over whom he even obtained some
advantage in the ballot.
4. He communicated to the academy, in the same year,
a valuable paper on the Teeth of Wheels. La Hire had al¬
ready laid the foundation of the investigation on its true
basis, and had pointed out the use of different epicycloidal
curves for the forms of the teeth of wheels in different
circumstances; and M. Camus in this essay enters into
some further inquiries, particularly with regard to the best
proportions for the length of the teeth, and the compara¬
tive diameters of the wheels; a discussion for which his
intimate acquaintance with the art of the clock-maker
made him particularly well qualified. In 1736 he accom¬
panied Maupertuis and Clairaut in the expedition to Lap-
land, for the measurement of a degree of the meridian;
and he was enabled to render them very essential service,
not only as a geometrician and an astronomer, but also by
his skill in various departments of the mechanical arts,
which became particularly valuable in so remote a situa¬
tion.
5. M. Camus directed his attention in 1738 to the well
known but interesting mechanical phenomenon of a pistol
ball piercing an open door without causing any very sen¬
sible motion in the door, and published a paper on the
subject in the Memoirs of the Academy. He justly observes,
that the effect of any force depends, not only on its mag¬
nitude, but also on the time for which it operates; and
that though the impulse of the ball must tend to carry the
door before it, with a force paramount to the resistance
which it opposes to the ball, yet the time of the action of
this force is too short to produce a sensible effect on the
whole mass of the door. 6. 7. In 1739 he presented to
the academy two hydraulic memoirs, the one on Water
Buckets, the other on Pumps. In the latter he investigates
the diameter of a valve capable of transmitting the great¬
est quantity of water within a given barrel; a valve which
is too large not being at liberty to rise to a sufficient
height.
8. He inserted in the Memoirs fox 1740 a confutation of
a Mechanical Fallacy, which has misled many of the en¬
thusiasts who have bewildered themselves in the search
of a perpetual motion; demonstrating, that when a num¬
ber of weights are caused to descend, in any imaginable
paths, at a greater distance from the centre of a wheel
than they ascend, the number of the weights descending
at any one time must always be smaller than those of the
weights ascending, and in such a proportion as perfectly
to compensate for the mechanical advantage apparently
gained by the greater distance. In the following year he
was received into the number of the academicians in the
department of geometry, on occasion of the resignation of
M. Fontenelle. 9. He published also, in the Memoirs for
1741, an account of a Gauging Pule for measuring barrels
of different forms, by simple inspection of the logarithmic
scales engraved on it, observing only some easy rules for
their adjustment, according to the general nature of the
solid. 10. In 1746 he presented a report, in conjunction
with M. Hellot, on the Length of the Standard Ell, which
was thought worthy of being inserted in the collection of
the academy.
11. We find among the Memoirs for 1747 an essay of
M. Camus on the Tangents of Curves having several
branches crossing each other, which frequently require for
their determination the use of fluxions of the higher or¬
ders, the first fluxions of the absciss and ordinate vanishing
together. M. Saurin had before given a similar solution
54
CAN
CAN
Camus of the problem, but had not attempted to explain the me-
II taphysical ground upon which the apparent paradox is re-
Canaan. conci}e(j t0 t]ie general principles of the differential method.
\2. M. Camus also assisted in several determinations
and reports which were referred at various times to com¬
mittees of the academy; and particularly in the remea¬
surement of M. Picard’s base from Villejuif to Juvisy,
which was performed by eight members, and recorded in
the Memoirs for 1754*.
13. The latter years of his life were much occupied in
various engagements connected with the offices of exami¬
ner in the schools of the Royal Engineers and in that of
the Artillery, to which he was nominated by the king.
He undertook, for the advantage of the students in these
schools, the laborious task of reducing into a uniform sys¬
tem a complete course of mathematical study, in which
the geometrical method was as much as possible observed,
and which is considered as highly creditable to his talents
and exertions; it was entitled Cours des Mathematiques,
4 vols. 8vo. 14. He also published an Elementary work
on Arithmetic.
In person M. Camus was tall; his countenance was agree¬
able ; his manners were firm, and occasionally somewhat
warm ; but he was far from being either morose or vindic¬
tive. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal So¬
ciety of London in January 1764. He married, in 1733,
Mademoiselle M. A. M. Fourrier, and had four daughters,
the eldest of whom was married to M. Pagin ; the others
died young. His last illness was supposed to have origi¬
nated from a cold, taken in a professional journey during
the hard winter of 1766, and to have been aggravated by
affliction for the loss of his surviving daughter. He died a
few months after her, on the 4th of May 1768. He left a
variety of manuscripts, demonstrative of his habitual dili¬
gence, and of the extent of his researches; but not deemed
of sufficient importance to meet the hazards of posthumous
publication. (Hist. Acad. Par. 1768, p. 144.) (l. l.)
Camus, John Peter, bishop of Belley, was born at Paris
in 1582. He was author of a number of pious romances,
adapted to the taste of his time, and other theological
works, to the amount of about two hundred volumes. His
definition of politics is remarkable. Ars non tam regendi
qnam fallendi homines, The art not so much of governing
as of deceiving mankind. He was deficient in judgment,
but possessed a remarkable memory. He was also dis¬
tinguished for his zeal, and the fervour with which he at¬
tacked the abuses of his time. He died in 1652.
CANAAN, the fourth son of Ham, whose irreverence
towards his father Noah is recorded in the ninth chapter
of Genesis. Upon the occasion of his disrespectful con¬
duct, the patriarch cursed him in a branch of his posteri¬
ty, declaring that “ a servant of servants shall he be unto
his brethren.” This curse however being pronounced, not
against Ham the immediate transgressor, but against his
son, who does not appear, from the words of Moses, to
have been anywise concerned in the crime, has occasion¬
ed several conjectures; some believing that Noah cursed
Canaan because he could not well have cursed Ham him¬
self, whom God had not long before blessed; whilst others
think that the chief intent of Moses in recording this pre¬
diction was to raise the spirits of the Israelites, then en¬
tering on a terrible war with the children of Canaan, by the
assurance that that people were destined by God to be
subdued by them. The opinion of those who imagine that
all Ham’s race were here accursed, seems repugnant to
the plain words of Scripture, which confines the maledic¬
tion to Canaan and his posterity, and it is also contrary to
fact. Indeed the prophecy of Noah, that Canaan should
be a servant of servants to his brethren, seems to have
been wholly completed in him. It was completed with
regard to Shem, not only in a considerable part of the Land of ^
seven nations of the Canaanites being made slaves to the Canaan. ^
Israelites, when they took possession of their land, as part
of the remainder of them were afterwards enslaved by So¬
lomon, but also by the subsequent expeditions of the As¬
syrians and Persians, who were both descended from
Shem, and under whom the Canaanites suffered subjec¬
tion as well as the Israelites ; not to mention the conquest
of part of Canaan by the Elamites or Persians under Che-
dorlaomer, which preceded them. With regard to Japhet,
we find a completion of the prophecy, in the successive
conquests of the Greeks and Romans in Palestine and
Phoenicia, where the Canaanites were settled, and espe¬
cially in the total subversion of the Carthaginian power
by the Romans; besides some invasions of the northern
nations, in which many of them probably were carried
away captive. The posterity of Canaan were very nume¬
rous. His eldest son was Sidon, who founded and peopled
the city of Sidon, and was the father of the Sidonians and
Phoenicians; and he had, besides, ten sons, who were the
fathers of as many tribes, dwelling in Palestine and in
part of Syria, namely, the Hittites, the Jebusites, the
Amorites, the Girgasites, the Hivites, the Arkites, the
Sinites, the Arvadites, the Zemarites, and Hamathites.
Land of Canaan, the country so named from Canaan,
the sop of Ham. It lies between the Mediterranean Sea
and tlie mountains of Arabia, extending from Egypt to
Phoenicia, and is bounded to the east by the mountains
of Arabia; to the south by the wilderness of Paran, Idu¬
mea, and Egypt; to the west by the Mediterranean, called
in Hebrew the Great Sea; and to the north by the moun¬
tains of Libanus. Its length, from the city of Dan, after¬
wards called Caesarea Philippi, or Paneadis, to Beersheba,
is about seventy leagues ; and its breadth, from the Medi¬
terranean Sea to the eastern borders, is in some places
thirty. This country, which was first called Canaan, from
Canaan the son of Ham, whose posterity possessed it, was
afterwards called Palestine, from the people whom the
Hebrews call Philistines, and the Greeks and Romans cor¬
ruptly Palestines, who inhabited the sea coasts, and were
thus first known to them. It likewise had the name of
the Land of Promise, from the promise which God made to
Abraham of giving it to him; that of the Land of Israel,
from the Israelites having made themselves masters of it;
that of Judah, from the tribe of Judah, which was the most
considerable of the twelve ; and lastly, the ever memor¬
able fact of its having been sanctified by the presence, ac¬
tions, miracles, and death of Jesus Christ, has given it the
name of the Holy Land, which it still retains. The first
inhabitants of this land therefore were the Canaanites, who
were descended from Canaan, and the eleven sons of that
patriarch. Here they multiplied extremely. Trade and
war were their first occupations, and gave rise to their
riches, as well as to the several colonies scattered by them
over almost all the islands and maritime provinces of the
Mediterranean. The measure of their idolatry and abo¬
minations was completed when God delivered their coun¬
try into the hands of the Israelites. In St Athanasius’s
time the Africans still pretended they were descended
from the Canaanites; and it is said that the Punic tongue
was almost entirely the same with the Canaanitish and
Hebrew language. The colonies which Cadmus carried
into Thebes in Bceotia, and his brother Cilix into Cilicia,
appear to have sprung from the stock of Canaan ; and the
isles of Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca
and Minorca, Gades and Ebusus, are also supposed to
have been peopled by the Canaanites. Bochart, in his large
work entitled Canaan, has treated of these migrations and
settlements with great learning, though not without an
evident bias towards his favourite hypothesis.
CAN
anada. Many of the old inhabitants of the north-west of the
land of Canaan, however, particularly on the coast of Tyre
and Sidon, were not driven out by the children of Israel;
and hence this tract seems to have retained the name of
Canaan long after those other parts of the country which
were better inhabited by the Israelites had lost this deno¬
mination. The Greeks called the tract along the Medi¬
terranean, inhabited by the old Canaanites, Phoenicia; and
CAN
the more inland parts, inhabited partly by Canaanites and
partly by Syrians, Syrophcenicia; and hence the woman
said by St Matthew to be a woman of Canaan, whose daugh¬
ter Jesus cured, is said by St Mark to be a Syrophoenician
by nation as she was a Greek by religion and language.
CANABAC, an island which lies contiguous to Bulam,
on the western coast of Africa, and is inhabited by a fierce
and savage race of people.
55
Canada.
CANADA.
This extensive tract of country is situated in North
America, between the 42d and 51st degrees of north lati¬
tude, and between the 61st and 81st degrees of west longi¬
tude from London. It is computed to extend from east to
west about 1400 miles, and from north to south from 200
to 400 miles. In the year 1791 it was divided, by an act
of the British parliament, into the two provinces of Upper
and Lower Canada.
The province of Lower Canada lies between the 45th and
52d degrees of north latitude, and the 63d and 81st of west
longitude. It has on the north the desolate country of
the Esquimaux or New Britain, and Labrador, though it
is not separated from them by any definite boundary; and
as it does not extend on the north side of the St Lawrence
to the sea, it is also in this quarter bounded on the east
by Labrador and the Esquimaux country. On the east
it is bounded by the Gulf of St Lawrence, the river St
John, and part of the Labrador coast, now annexed to
the government of Newfoundland; on the south, by New
Brunswick and the territories of the United States, name¬
ly, the district of Maine, the province of New Hampshire, the
state of Vermont, and the state of New York ; on the west,
by a line which separates it from Upper Canada, commen¬
cing at a stone boundary on the north bank of the Lake St
Francis, in St Lawrence river, thence north to Ottawa
river, which it ascends to its source in Lake Temiscaming,
and from thence due north, as far as the boundary of the
province extends in this direction. Lower Canada is di¬
vided into the superior districts of Quebec, Montreal, and
Three Rivers, and the inferior districts of Gaspe and St
Francis. By the act of 1791 the province was divided
into the following twenty-one counties, viz.
Bedford. Hampshire. Northumberland.
Buckingham. Hertford. Orleans.
Cornwallis. Huntingdon. Quebec.
Devon. Kent. Richelieu.
Dorchester. Leinster. Surrey.
Eppingham. Montreal. Warwick.
Gaspe. St Maurice. York.
The provincial act of the 9th Geo. IV. subdivided the
counties, for the more equal representation of the inha¬
bitants, as follows, viz.
Gaspe. Stanstead. Two Mountains.
Bonaventure. Missiskoui. Terrebone.
Rimauski. Shefford. Lachenaie.
Kamauraska. Richelieu. L’Assomption.
LTslet. St Hyacinthe. Montreal.
Bellechasse. Rouville. Berthier.
Dorchester. Vercheres. St Maurice.
Beauce. Chambly. Champlain.
Megantick. Laprairie. Portneuf.
Lotbiniere. L’Acadie. Quebec.
Montmorency.
Saguenay.
Orleans.
Nicolet. Beauharnois.
Yamaska. Vaudreuil.
Drummond. Ottawa.
Sherbrooke.
The minor divisions are, 1st, The seignories, or the ori¬
ginal grants of the French government under the feudal
system, which, in the year 1721, were again partitioned
out into parishes. The limits of these last, however, have
not been very strictly adhered to, portions of ancient pa¬
rishes having been from time to time constituted into
new ones. 2d, The townships or grants of land made by
the English government, since the year 1796, in free and
common soccage.
The following are the boundaries of Upper Canada:
On the east it is bounded, since the year 1791, by Lower
Canada; on the north-east, by the Grand or Ottawa river,
which is the common boundary between it and the lower
province ; on the north, by the territories of the Hudson’s
Bay Company; on the south and south-east, by the Unit¬
ed States of America, although the common frontier be¬
tween these two states is far from being well defined. It
is merely an imaginary line, beginning at the village of St
Regis, on the St Lawrence, in the 45th degree of north
latitude, passing up the middle of this river, through Lake
Ontario, the Niagara river, and Lake Erie, and continuing
thence through the middle of the water communication,
into Lakes Huron and Superior, along the middle of the
chain of lakes which leads to the Lake of the Woods, and
from thence due west to the river Mississippi.1
The treaty of Ghent, issued in 1814, provides for the re¬
vision of this boundary line ; and commissioners were ac¬
cordingly appointed, on the part of Great Britain and the
United States, to determine, by a scientific survey, va¬
rious points in the circle of 45° north latitude. They
agreed in ascertaining these points in 1818, after which
this, with other questions respecting the boundaries of the
British colonies and the United States, was submitted to
the king of the Netherlands, who pronounced an award
in 1830, and proposed new astronomical observations on
the parallel of 45°, which was not thought necessary. The
question, therefore, remains undecided, and can only be
settled by mutual compromise and concession; and, con¬
sidering the little importance of the disputed territory, it
is not likely to raise any serious difference between the
two enlightened states who are parties in the controversy.
On the west and north-west no limits have been assigned
to this country; and it may be supposed, therefore, to ex¬
tend in this direction as far as the Pacific and Northern
Oceans.
Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts, namely,
Eastern. Midland. Niagara.
Ottawa. Newcastle. London.
1 This is the boundary fixed by the treaty of 1783, when the country was little known, and it is therefore erroneous, the Lake
of the Woods being to the north of the sources of the Mississippi. A line drawn due west from this lake would never strike the
Mississippi.
56
Canada.
CANADA.
Western.
Prescott.
Russel.
Glengary.
Stormont.
Dundas.
Grenville.
Leeds.
Lanark.
Carleton.
Halton.
Haldimond.
Durham.
Wentworth.
Lincoln.
Middlesex.
Kent.
Essex.
Johnstown. Home.
Bathurst. Gore.
These again are subdivided into twenty-six counties,
namely,
Brockville.
Frontenac.
Lennox.
Addington.
Prince Edward.
Hastings.
Northumberland.
York.
    Simcoe.
These contain 273 townships, exclusive of Indian lands,
and certain other portions that are reserved for the crown
and the maintenance of the Protestant clergy. The quan¬
tity of land in each township is computed by Bouchette,
in his valuable and elaborate work on Canada, to amount,
on an average, to 61,600 acres, making the whole amount
to 16,816,800 acres, of which 7,000,000 of acres are grant¬
ed in feu and common soccage, 4,805,400 are reserved for
the crown and clergy, and 5,011,400 still remain to be
granted.
The country of Canada is intersected by mountainous
ridges, which extend from the coast far into the interior,
and between these lie extensive valleys, which are gene¬
rally pleasant and fertile. On the southern shore of the
St Lawrence, a ridge of heights rises near the eastern ex¬
tremity of Lower Canada, which runs close to the river
for upwards of 100 miles, and forms its rugged banks as
far as Cape Tourment, about thirty miles below Quebec.
Here the ridge, taking a direction west-south-west, termi¬
nates on the river Ottawa, about thirty-eight leagues
above its confluence with the St Lawrence, extending
westward from Cape Tourment along the course of the
river about 300 miles. The tract of country lying between
it and the St Lawrence, which may be estimated at from
fifteen to thirty miles in breadth, is beautifully picturesque,
well watered, and level. Towards the west, more es¬
pecially, it may be considered, both in respect to popula¬
tion, soil, and skilful cultivation, as the choicest part of
the province.
That part of Canada which lies on the north side of
this ridge is comprehended within the Ottawa river on
the north-west, the 81st parallel of west longitude, and
the 52d of north latitude. It is intersected by another
and higher range of mountains, which runs into the inte¬
rior in a north-west direction, at the distance of about
200 miles from the former ridge, and which forms the
height of land by which the tributary streams of the St
Lawrence are divided from those that fall into Hudson s
Bay. Of this extensive wilderness, which has been but
imperfectly explored, all that we know is, that it is cover¬
ed with immense forests, whose dreary solitudes are only
interrupted by hunting parties of wandering savages.
On the south side of the river St Lawrence, a ridge
commences nearly 100 miles below Quebec, taking a south-
west direction; and opposite to this city it is about ten
leagues distant from the river. The intervening country
is a fertile and well-cultivated level, with several insulat¬
ed hills, or rather rocks, of a singular form, and thinly
covered with small trees near their summits. The same
chain, continuing in a south-west direction, crosses the
boundary line between Canada and the United States to
the west of Lake Memphremagog, and proceeds in the
same course until it meets with the Hudson river. The
tract between this ridge and the St Lawrence, with the
exception of some occasional ridges, is nearly level, and,
from the richness of its soil, is covered with populous and
flourishing settlements.
Beyond this ridge, at about the distance of fifty miles, Canada,
is another and a higher ridge, generally denominated the ^’‘V^
Land’s Height, as it divides the tributary streams of the
St Lawrence from those which flow towards the Atlantic
Ocean; and its summit is also supposed to constitute the
boundary line between the territories of Great Britain and
the United States. This range of mountains commences
near Cape Rosier, in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and, run¬
ning into the interior in a direction nearly parallel with
the course of the river, and with the former chain, it ter¬
minates upon the eastern branch of the Connecticut river,
being in length nearly 400 miles. The country lying be¬
tween these two ridges varies in its quality and fruitful¬
ness, according to its peculiar situation. From the 45th
degree of north latitude, which is the boundary line be¬
tween Canada and the United States, to the river Chau-
diere, within a few miles of Quebec, there is a tract of
excellent and fertile land, divided mostly into townships,
many of which are settled and under cultivation. This
part of the country, both from its luxuriant soil, and from
the great advantage of its being contiguous to the United
States, and its comprehending the main roads and princi¬
pal points of communication between the two territories,
will probably become the most flourishing portion of the
province. From the river Chaudiere eastward to Lake
Temiscouata the land is broken, irregular, and of an in¬
different quality, interspersed, however, with some good
and productive tracts, of which the returns would amply
repay the expenses of cultivation. From Lake Temis¬
couata eastward to Cape Rosier, in the Gulf of St Law¬
rence, the country has been but partially explored. But
it appears generally to be of a rugged and mountainous
character; and such parts of it as are known exhibit an
appearance of sterility which holds out no encouragement
to the labours of the farmer. On the banks of the St
Lawrence, however, some fertile spots are to be found, on
which settlements might be established with advantage.
On the south side of the ridge, down to the shores of Gas-
pe and Chaleur Bay, the country is generally barren and
mountainous, interspersed with occasional spots of excel¬
lent land, some of which, especially those on the shores ot
Chaleur Bay, are well settled. They contain about 3000
inhabitants, most of whom, being employed in the fisheries,
bestow comparatively little attention on agriculture.
That portion of Upper Canada which has been laid out
into townships extends from its eastern frontier along the
northern shore of the river St Lawrence, Lake Ontario,
Lake Erie, Lake St Clair, and the communication between it
and Lake Huron, in length about 570 miles; and its breadth
towards the north varies from forty to fifty miles. Through¬
out the whole of this tract the soil is excellent, and is not
exceeded by any other part of the American continent.
It generally consists of a fine dark loam, mixed with a rich
vegetable mould; but it is so happily varied as to present
situations adapted to every species of produce. For about
170 miles from the eastern frontier of the province, to the
head of the Bay of Quinte, on Lake Ontario, the land is
spread out into an almost uniform level of great beauty,
which rises only a few feet from the bank of the St Law¬
rence. It is well watered in almost every direction by
numerous streams, which are generally navigable for boats
and canoes, and which, at the same time, present the
most desirable situations for the erection of machinery.
From the Bay of Quinte, about forty miles from the east¬
ern shores of Lake Ontario, to its western extremity, runs
a longitudinal ridge of no great elevation, and of incon¬
siderable breadth. Another ridge, called the Queenstown
Heights, extends eastward along the southern shores of
Lake Ontario, between these and Lake Erie, into the state
of New York. This range never rises in any part more
CAN
Canada, than 160 yards above the level of the lake. The country
which lies between the two lakes of Ontario and Erie, and
which extends round the western extremity of Lake On¬
tario to the Bay of Quinte, comprehending the Newcastle,
the Home, and the Niagara districts, is watered by a num¬
ber both of large and small streams. The land through¬
out is uncommonly rich and fertile, and already contains
a number of flourishing settlements. A road leads from
York, near the western extremity of Lake Ontario, and
the capital of Upper Canada, to Lake Simcoe, which is
forty miles long and twelve broad; and along this road a
great number of emigrants have been settled.
The remaining part of the tract w^e have been describ¬
ing, which extends along the southern shores of Lake
Erie, from the river Ouse to the lake and river of St
Clair, is a complete level, abounding in the most advan¬
tageous situations for settlements ; and those places which
are already occupied and under tillage equal any part of
either province for the plentiful crops and thriving farms
with which they abound. That portion of the country
which lies between Lake Erie and Lake St Clair is per¬
haps the most delightful in the whole province. The fer¬
tility of the soil, the diversified and luxuriant scene which
everywhere opens to the view, the excellent fish which
abound in the rivers, and the profusion of game to be
found in the woods, combine to attract a continual supply
of new settlers to this highly favoured tract.
“ It may be observed of this extensive country,” says
Bouchette, “ bordering the north shore of the river St
Lawrence from Pointe-au-Baudet to Lake Ontario, the
southern side of that lake, and of Lake Erie up to Lake
St Clair, and of the communication between it and Lake
Huron, a distance little short of 570 miles, and stretching
northward from the water to a depth varying from fifty to
eighty miles, that it is composed of a soil which, for rich¬
ness, variety, and its fitness for all the purposes of agri¬
culture, may challenge competition with the choicest
tracts of the new world.” ' Mr Richards, also, who in
1830 was appointed commissioner by the British govern¬
ment to inquire into the state of the North American
provinces, makes the same report respecting Upper Ca¬
nada. He observes, that the general character of the
soil between Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, is chiefly
alluvial deposit, with less stone than elsewhere, and only
of inferior quality where swamps or sand predominate,
being in all other respects of as fine a quality as any in
America or in the world.1
This thriving portion of Canada presented, at the con¬
clusion of the last war, a vast and almost impenetrable fo¬
rest ; but a military road, with other roads branching off in
various directions, having been constructed, the lands were
rendered accessible; and they were soon afterwards oc¬
cupied by settlers, chiefly disbanded soldiers, and emigrants
from Scotland. These settlements, which were begun in
1815, are now flourishing; and the whole tract has been
laid out in townships about ten miles square, and contain¬
ing 61,600 acres each. The settlement of the country to
the westward of Port Talbot, nearly midway between
Niagara and Detroit, commenced in 1802, when it was an
uninhabited wilderness. Roads were laid out for about
eighty miles along the lake; and the land was let out in
farms of 200 acres, and is now densely filled with inhabit¬
ants. Settlements were soon after extended along the
roads opened through the wilderness of the Long Woods ;
ADA. 57
and the town of Amherstburgh, 785 miles above Quebec, Canada,
and 1100 from the mouth of the St Lawrence, arose on
the banks of the Detroit, which runs with an uninterrupt¬
ed navigation from Lake St Clair into Lake Erie. More
recently the settlements have extended northward to¬
wards Lake Huron; and the Canada Company, incorpo¬
rated in 1826, have contracted with government for a
large tract of country, commencing in north latitude 43°,
extending about sixty miles along its eastern shores, and
comprehending, with another portion, about 2,000,000 of
acres, payable in fifteen years, by yearly instalments of
L.15,000 each. By the activity and resources of this
company, the town of Guelph was founded in the wilder¬
ness, on the banks of the river Speed, a tributary of the
Ouse, and about sixty miles north-west of the extreme
point of Lake Ontario. In the course of a few years
seventy-six houses arose; the town has since greatly in¬
creased. The town lots, of one quarter of an acre each,
which sold at first for twenty, have since risen to forty
dollars, and the lands in the vicinity from 7s. 6d. to 10s.
6d. and 20s. per acre.2 This company have opened roads
in various directions through their lands. The town of
Goderich has been founded at the mouth of the river
Maitland, which falls into Lake Huron; and in the space
of six years has this territory, heretofore the haunt of
wild beasts, of Indians, and fur traders, been laid open
and settled by the energies and commanding resources of
this company, by which obstacles have been removed with
a rapidity which could never have been the result of in-
’ dividual exertion alone. The land in this tract is equal to
any in the province; it possesses numerous streams, cap¬
able of driving any given quantity of machinery, whether
for mill, manufactories, or farming purposes; and these
streams, running into Lake Huron, connect the country
with the great lakes, and the chain of internal navigation
which, at the distance of 1500 miles, terminates in the
estuary of the St Lawrence. Another advantage in this
far western district is, that there are no lands reserved by
the crown, or for the clergy, which, lying uncultivated for
years, seriously obstruct the general improvement of the
country, and the progress of settlers.3
Along the Ottawa river, which is the boundary of the
two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, settlements
are rapidly extending; and the land is in general remark¬
ably fertile, consisting, along the banks of the river, of rich
alluvial grounds, and of natural meadows extending in
luxuriant pastures, and rising as it recedes into gentle
ridges, with a dry soil. Settlements have now advanced
160 miles from Montreal, although in the townships be¬
yond Hull, which is 125 miles above that town, they are
few and thinly scattered. The remotest colony is situat¬
ed on the northern shore of Lac des Chats, which is
formed by the Ottawa; and, notwithstanding its distance
from the other flourishing settlements on the river banks,
its rapid prosperity is almost certain, from the richness
and fertility of the farms. Grenville, which is ninety-five
miles lower down, was settled in 1829; its inhabitants
already amount to 1858; and the progress of all those
settlements will be greatly accelerated by the improved
communications, which are now nearly completed, to the
remotest parts of this newly settled country. In 1828 a
liberal provision was made for this purpose by the legisla¬
ture ; and in 1819 a steam-boat began to ply on the Ot¬
tawa as far as Hull, which renders the communication with
1 See House of Commons Papers, Report of Mr Richards, colonial secretary, respecting the waste lands of the Canadas, and emigra¬
tion. Ordered 13th September 1831.
2 See J. Macgregor’s excellent work on British America, which contains abundant information respecting these interesting colonies.
See also Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada, by a Backwoodsman, an admirable work, abounding in lively description and accurate
details.
3 See Backwoodsman, p. 23.
VOL. VI.
H
58 CANADA.
Canada. Montreal easy and expeditious, and is of unspeakable ad-
vantage to those rising settlements.1
Beyond these cultivated tracts of Upper Canada, end¬
ing at the settlement of Goderich, with the exception
of one or two military stations, the posts of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, and the small settlements which have been
established by Lord Selkirk on Red River, the vast regions
from Lake Huron to the Pacific, and the extensive tracts
which stretch far to the northward, are covered with im¬
mense forests, the haunt of wild animals and of wandering
savages. But these regions, though they have never been
explored by the Europeans, are known to spread out into
valleys of a rich and fertile soil, more especially in the
country skirting the south-western shore of the Ottawa
river. They are also watered by many streams, some of
a large size, which flow both into Lake Huron and into
the Ottawa river. The course of these rivers is not,
however, sufficiently known to be traced with accuracy on
the map. In those unexplored countries all sorts of tim¬
ber are found in the greatest profusion. The oak, beech,
walnut, ash, hickery, maple, elm, pine, sycamore, birch,
and many other sorts, grow to the largest dimensions,
which is the best proof of the fertility and vigour of the
soil in which they have taken root.
The rivers and lakes of Canada are stamped with a pe¬
culiar character of grandeur. rIhe great river St Law¬
rence issues from Lake Superior, and, flowing successive¬
ly through Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, falls into the
ocean after a course of 2000 miles. Its course is through
a long and narrow valley, in which also are contained the
great lakes from which it derives its ample stream. This
valley seems to have taken the form of the immense col¬
lection of waters of which it is the depository : it is close¬
ly encompassed on every side, except on that through
which the river makes its way to the sea, by different
ranges of mountains, which completely encircle the great
lakes, at the distance, in some points, of not more than
sixty miles, and, shutting them up from the interior, form
the dividing ridge between the tributary streams of the
St Lawrence and those which flow north and south into
Hudson’s Bay and the Mississippi. The prodigious volume
of water which the St Lawrence rolls into the ocean, and
the extent to which it is navigable, give it the pre-emi¬
nence over all the other great rivers of North America.
Its breadth at its mouth may be reckoned ninety miles;
and at Saguenay river, 260 miles higher up, it is still
eighteen miles broad. It is navigable with safety for ships
of the line 400 miles from its mouth; and to Montreal,
160 miles farther up, with very little difficulty, for ships of
600 tons burden. For vessels of a larger size the naviga¬
tion is intricate and dangerous. The St Lawrence is di¬
versified by numerous islands, and its shores alternately
present the pleasing view of flourishing settlements, and
of sublime and picturesque scenery.
The ti'act of country which the St Lawrence drains of
its waters is confined, on the north, and more especially
on the south, by ranges of mountains which run along
its whole extent; so that there is no adequate space for
the formation of such immense tributary rivers as pour
their waters into the Amazons, the Plata, and the Missis¬
sippi. It will accordingly be found that the main stream
of the St Lawrence is not increased by such vast acces¬
sions from the tributary waters of the territory through
which it flows, as those last-mentioned rivers. The prin¬
cipal rivers which it receives from the north are the Ot¬
tawa, the Masquinonge, the St Maurice, the St Ann, the
Jacques Cartier, the Saguenay, and the Manicouagan.
From the south it receives the Salmon river, the Chateau- Canada,
gay, the Chambly or Richelieu, the Yamaska, the St Fran-
cis, the Becancour, the Du Chene, Chaudiere, and Du
Loup. Of these the Ottawa and Saguenay are important
rivers, and bring a great accession to the stream of the St
Lawrence. The Saguenay is a broad, deep, and uncom¬
monly rapid river. At its mouth it is only one mile broad,
but is said to be of unfathomable depth, attempts having
been made to find the bottom with 500 fathoms of line,
but without effect. About two miles higher it has been
found to be from 130 to 140 fathoms deep. The Ottawa
is also a large and important river. It has its rise from
several lakes in Upper Canada, and, rushing over a bed of
remarkable declivity, falls into the St Lawrence a few
miles above Montreal.
No country in the world contains such immense depo¬
sitories of fresh water as Canada. Its lakes are not only
numerous, but they are unequalled in magnitude by those
of any other country in the world. Lake Superior, which
is of a triangular form, is 480 miles long, 420 broad, and
it is remarkable for the transparency of its waters. The
southern and most valuable part of the north-western coasts
of this lake belong to the Americans ; the northern shores
are wild, rugged, and barren; but the regions which lie
westward in the parallel of Lake Superior abound in fer¬
tile and well-watered lands, in which are to be seen forests,
savannahs, prairies, and salt marshes. The passage to
Lake Huron is interrupted by the rapids or falls of St
Mary; but it is said that all obstructions would be easily
removed, and that at a small expense the navigation be¬
tween Lake Superior and the lower lakes could be laid
open. Lake Huron is 250 miles long and 120 broad,
without comprehending a branch of it called Georgia Bay,
which is 120 miles long and fifty miles broad. The Strait
of Mickillimackinnak affords a deep and safe navigation into
Lake Michigan, which is in the American territory; but
as it is connected with the great chain of the Canadian
lakes, it may be stated to be in length 400 miles, includ¬
ing Green Bay, a branch of it, and fifty broad. Lake
Erie, which is connected with Lake Huron by the river
Detroit, extends from South-west to north-west 231 miles.
It is sixty-three and a half in breadth where it is broadest;
and its breadth is in other parts from thirty to fifty-five
miles. From the north-eastern extremity of Lake Erie, the
communication to Lake Ontario is by the Niagara river,
and is thirty-six miles in length. The lake is about 180
miles in length, and forty to fifty broad. Both Lake Erie
and Lake Ontario are navigated by sloops, schooners, and
steam-boats, and other smaller craft, which frequently en¬
counter heavy seas, as on the ocean. On the former there
are at present (1832) 100 sail of American vessels, seven
steam-boats, and eight sail of British small vessels.2 These
lakes vary greatly in depth. Lake Superior is 900 feet
deep; Lake Huron 860; Lake Erie is only from sixty to
seventy feet deep; while Lake Ontario is 452 feet deep.
From this view of their various depths it follows that the
bottom of Lake Ontario is as low as most parts of the
Gulf of St Lawrence ; and that the bottoms of Lakes Huron
and Superior, from their vast depths, are on the same level
with that of Lake Ontario and the Gulf of St Lawrence.
There are, besides, the smaller lakes of St Clair and Sim-
coe, the first about thirty miles long, and nearly of the
same breadth; and the latter forty miles long and twelve
broad, and flowing by the river Severn into Lake Huron.
In the interior the country is covered with numerous
smaller lakes, which are so connected that, by the help
of short portages and other expedients, a navigable com-
1 See Bouchette’s Topographical and Statistical Description of the British Dominions in North America, vol. i. chap. ix.
a See Parliamentary Report, by Richards, p. C.
CANADA.
59
banada. munication, by means of canoes, is carried to the Lake of
the Woods, Lake Winnipeg, and onwards to the distance
of several thousand miles in the remote regions of the
north-west country.
The navigation of the river Niagara, which is about
thirty-two miles, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is in¬
terrupted in the middle by the falls, which have been cele¬
brated by all travellers as one of the greatest wonders of
nature. This great fall is occasioned by the configuration
of the country, which is one vast plain, extending from the
Ohio and Lake Erie westward beyond the Mississippi, and
eastward to the Allegany Mountains. This plain, after
passing Lake Erie for some distance to the north, rapidly
descends 340 feet to another plain, in the level of which
lies Lake Ontario, which is less elevated than Lake Erie by
330 feet; and it is from the higher level of Lake Erie that
the river Niagara is precipitated with such tremendous
violence into the plain below. The rock over which the
Niagara falls is in the form of an irregular semicircle,
about three quarters of a mile in extent. The river is here
divided into two by Goat Island, the extremity of which
is perpendicular, and in a line with the precipice over
which the water is precipitated. The cataract on the Ca¬
nada side is called the horse shoe, from its peculiar form,
or the Great Fall; and the other the American Fall. The
latter is 1140 feet wide, and 162 feet high ; the former
2100 feet broad, and, in consequence of the greater decli¬
vity of the bed of the river, eleven feet less in height. Se¬
veral miles above the fall, the river is from two miles sud¬
denly compressed within the breadth of a mile; the velo¬
city of the current is increased from three to eight miles
in the hour; and the bed of the river declines fifty feet in
half a mile; the current is fearfully accelerated until the
river reaches the fall, when the whole vast volume of
waters inclosed between lofty and rugged banks is hurled
over the perpendicular height into the vast and terrific
gulf beneath. The numerous travellers who have visited
Niagara have exhausted their fancy in attempting to con¬
vey, by appropriate images, an idea of the majesty and ter¬
rific grandeur of this great phenomenon of nature. But, as
Captain Hall remarks, “ all parts of Niagara are on a scale
which baffles every attempt of the imagination to paint,
and it w’ere ridiculous, therefore, to think of describing it.
The ordinary materials of description, I mean analogy,
and direct comparison, which are more accessible, fail
entirely in the case of that amazing cataract, which is al¬
together unique.” The falls are viewed from a jutting
shelf of the rock, called Table Rock, which is on a level
with the edge of the cataract; but the grandeur of the
spectacle is still more striking on the British side, below
' the falls, at the bottom, the descent to which is partly
down the less steep part of the bank, and partly by a spiral
ladder, from the bottom of which a kind of path leads,
among rocks and under the precipitous banks, to the crescent
or great Horse Shoe Fall. “ Here,” says Mr Macgregor, in
his late excellent work on British America, “ we have the
grand outlet of these great lakes, which contain nearly
half of all the fresh waters on our globe, thundering over
a terrific precipice, having for a short distance a smooth
green surface, but quickly raging in impetuous, broken,
foaming grandeur, as it hurls into the vast unfathomable
abyss below.” The precipice over which the cataract
rolls projects about fifty feet beyond its base, and hence
the waters descend in the form of a crescent, within
which it is customary for travellers to enter thirty or forty Canada,
yards. Mr Weld, who visited Niagara in 1796, was among
the first travellers who ventured under the cataract, and
to within six yards of the sheet of water which rushes into
the gulf below. Captain Hall also took his station under
the cataract; and both travellers experienced the great¬
est inconvenience, and even some risk, from the violent
tempest and whirlwind which always rages at the bottom
of the cataract, arising from the air carried down by the
cascade, and forced under the water, rising up again in
tremendous gusts, and driving upward incessant deluges
of the spray.1
It has been remarked by those who reside in the neigh¬
bourhood of the fall, that the rock over which the water is
projected is crumbling down, and that the fall is gradu¬
ally receding towards Lake Erie. It was stated to Captain
Hall, that within the last thirty or forty years it had gone
back forty or fifty yards. It was long supposed that this
effect was produced by the violent attrition of the waters
on the rocky bed of the river. But Captain Hall suggests
a different and more satisfactory explanation of the fact.
On examining the structure of the rock, he observed that
the different strata of which it is composed are laid hori¬
zontally on each other. The top stratum is a compact cal¬
careous rock, but downwards the strata become softer,
until, at about a hundred feet from the top, the rock crum¬
bles to pieces under the touch; and being rapidly worn
away under the action of those violent blasts which con¬
tinually rise from the roaring abyss beneath, the upper
part of the rock is gradually undermined, and at last breaks
down under the immense load of waters which it has to
sustain ; and thus it is conjectured, and with plausibility,
that the falls have been at one time much nearer Lake On¬
tario, that they have been travelling for centuries to their
present position, and that in the course of some thousands
of years they may reach Lake Erie. On the 30th De¬
cember 1828 a large portion of the rock fell, by which
the horse-shoe form of the falls was changed to an angu¬
lar form, though it remained fully as romantic as before.
The appearance of Niagara, and the surrounding country,
has been entirely changed by the progress of cultivation.
There are two excellent hotels near the falls, the win¬
dows of which command a view of the cataract, though
not the best. At the village, of Manchester, mills, forges,
trip-hammers, &c. are erected close to the rapids, which
turn the wheels of the mills and forges; and thus the
scenery has exchanged its original character of wildness
and grandeur for the tamer aspect of civilized life.
In Canada, the opposite extremes of heat and cold are Climate
felt in all their excess. The greatest heat experienced dur-and seasons,
ing the summer is from ninety-six to a hundred and two
degrees of Fahrenheit in the shade; but the usual sum¬
mer heat is about eighty or eighty-two. In the winter
the thermometer is sometimes sixty degrees of Fahren¬
heit below the freezing point, although it never continues
above one or two days at these extremes; and it is not
above once or twice in a season that this excessive cold is
felt. In the winter of 1790 the mercury was frozen at
Quebec.2 The medium temperature of winter may be
estimated in general to be from twenty degrees above to
twenty-five degrees below zero. The pure air and cloudless
sky which always accompany this intense frost make it
both pleasant and healthy, and render its effects on the
human body much less severe than when the atmosphere
1 For a more particular description of this fall, the reader is referred to Chateaubriand’s Recollections of America, p. 184; Volney’s
View of the Climate and Soil of America, &c. chap. vi. ; Weld’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 123-129 ; Heriot’s Travels ; Howison’s Sketches of Upper
Canada, Letter vii. p. 91; Captain Hall’s Travels in North America, vol. i. chap. vi. This last traveller’s account is more accurate and
detailed than descriptive.
2 Macgregor, vol. ii. chap. vi.
60
CANADA.
Canada.
is loaded with vapours. In the vicinity of the sea, towards
the eastern coast of Lower Canada, fogs are frequently
brought from the Gulf of St Lawrence by the easterly wind.
But to the westward they seldom prevail, and even at
Quebec they are almost unknown. In Canada, the spring,
summer, and autumn are comprehended in five months,
from May to September. The rest of the year may be
said to consist wholly of winter. In October frost be¬
gins to be felt, although during the day the rays of the
sun still keep the weather tolerably warm. In the suc¬
ceeding month of November the frost increases in rigour,
and one snow-storm succeeds another until the whole face
of the country is covered, and the eye looks in vain for
one solitary spot of verdure whereon to rest. These storms
are generally accompanied by a violent tempest of wind,
which, driving along the snow with immense velocity, ren¬
ders them tenfold more gloomy and terrific. Ihe most
severe snow-storms occur in November. They generally
come from the north-east, from the frozen regions of Hud¬
son’s Bay and Labrador. This gloomy and disagreeable
weather frequently continues to the middle or latter end
of December, when the atmosphere clears ; an intense
frost succeeds—the sky becomes serene, pure, and frosty,
and of a bright azure hue, and this cold and clear weather
generally lasts till the month of May. The snow covers
the ground to the depth of several feet, so that wheel-
carriages can no longer be used. Their place is supplied
by carioles, a sort of sledges, which, being placed on iron-
runners, resembling in their form the irons ot a pair of
skaits, pass over the hardened snow without sinking deep.
Those carriages are generally light open vehicles, drawn
by one horse, to which the snow, after it is trodden for
some time, and hardened by the frost, offers very little re¬
sistance. In these vehicles, the Canadians travel in the
most agreeable manner, and with inconceivable rapidity.
So light is the draught, that the same horse will go in one
day eighty, and sometimes ninety miles; and the inhabi¬
tants of this cold climate always take advantage of the
winter season, when they can travel so easily and expedi¬
tiously, to visit their friends who live at a distance. Co¬
vered carioles are sometimes used to protect the travel¬
lers from the weather; but, in general, open carriages
are preferred.
About the beginning of December all the small rivers
are completely frozen over and covered with snow. Even
the great river St Lawrence is arrested in its course, and
from the beginning of December till the middle of April
the navigable communication is interrupted by the frost.
During this period the river from Quebec to Kingston,
and between the great lakes, except the Niagara and the
Rapids, is wholly frozen over. The great lakes are never
entirely covered with ice ; but it usually shuts up all the
bays and inlets, and extends many miles towards the cen¬
tre of those inland seas. In Lake Superior, which is far¬
thest to the north, the ice extends seventy miles from
the shore. It is seldom that the river is frozen over be¬
low Quebec ; but the force of the tides is continually de¬
taching the ice from its shores, and those immense masses
are kept in such constant agitation that navigation is ren¬
dered quite impracticable. In some seasons, though rarely,
the river is frozen completely over below Quebec ; and
this happens when large masses of ice come in contact,
and fill the whole space between one side of the river and
the other, in consequence of which the whole becomes
stationary. If this takes place at neap tides, and in calm
weather, the intense frost gives it solidity before it can be
deranged by the rising tides; and when it has stood some
days, it remains firm and immovable, till it is dissolved
and broken up by the warmth of the April sun. When
the river is frozen over, it is of great advantage both to
the inhabitants of Quebec and to those of the adjacent Canada,
country, as it affords an easy mode of transporting into the
town all sorts of bulky commodities, such as fire-wood and
other produce. It thus reduces the price of those neces¬
sary articles in Quebec, while, by diminishing the price of
carriage, it opens to the produce of the most distant parts
of the country a quick and easy access to all the most
eligible markets.
The snow begins to melt in April, and the thaw is so
rapid that it is generally gone by the second or third week.
Vegetation then resumes its suspended powers ; the fields
are clothed with verdure, and spring can scarcely be said
to exist before summer is at hand. In Upper Canada the
winters are much shorter than in Lower Canada, nor is
the cold so intense. The spring opens, and the labours of
the farmer commence six weeks or two months earlier
than in the neighbourhood of Quebec. The climate is not
liable to the same extremes either of heat or cold, and
the weather in autumn is usually favourable for securing
all the late crops.
The wild animals of Canada are the same as are gene- Animals,
rally found in North America, and consist of the Ameri¬
can black bear, which, though occasionally feeding on
berries, at other times preys on the flocks and herds ;
buffaloes, stags, and elks; foxes, which are numerous, and
are smaller and of a more delicate form than those in Bri¬
tain; hares, martens, rabbits, wild cats, ferrets, weasels, and
large squirrels of a grayish hue. The marshes, lakes, and
pools swarm with otters, of which the white and the black
are highly valued; and the beaver is found in the deep
recesses of the wood: a curious animal, between a hare
and a rabbit, frequents the swamps. The wild animals in
the uncultivated parts of the country are still numerous ;
but they gradually diminish, and some of them finally disap¬
pear, with the progress of cultivation. The feathered races
are numerous, such as are common generally in North Ame¬
rica. Many species have never been classed, and many are
not distinctly known, although Rennaut, W ilson, and Au¬
dubon, have greatly extended our knowledge of American
ornithology. Among the principal birds in Canada may
be reckoned the vulture, the eagle, the hawk, the owl, all
of different species ; the wild turkey, the wild goose, the
wild duck, the swan, found near the most unfrequented
lakes and marshes; pelicans, cormorants, cranes, grouse,
ptarmagan, partridges, wood-peckers, pigeons, pheasants,
snipes, plovers, the bittern, the yellow bird, the magpie,
gulls in great variety, the martin, the American thrush,
with numerous species of singing birds. Rattle-snakes are
found in Canada, as in other parts of America, from four
to six feet in length ; water snakes, and others quite harm¬
less, with a variety of smaller serpents; also lizards and
land tortoises. Mosquitoes, sand flies, and other insects
and reptiles, are exceedingly annoying during the heat of
summer, especially in uncleared land, near marshes, or
among the woods. All the lakes and rivers abound in a
great variety of fish, such as salmon, eels, which are held
in great esteem, mackerel, herrings, shads, smelts, turbots,
sturgeons, trouts, mullets, carp, and cat-fish. I here are
many fish for which there is no European name, such as
the pipe pickerel, maskanonge, black and white and rock
bass, sucker, &c. But the pride of the Canadian waters
is the mackinaw trout, which seldom weighs less than
twenty, sometimes fifty, and in some rare instances ninety
pounds weight, and for richness and flavour far exceeds
any fish we know.
The soil of Canada is favourable to all the agricultural Produce,
productions of England, namely, wheat, oats, barley, flax,
hemp, &c. The average produce is from twenty-five to
thirty bushels an acre. In the western parts tobacco is
very commonly grown, and the produce of an acre is from
'rail*
CANADA.
61
anada. 1000 to 1200 pounds. The forests abound in the finest and
largest trees, adapted to all the purposes of ship-building
or carpentry. Among the principal timber trees, the
pines claim the first rank. Some species grow to the
height of 120 feet, and they afford squared logs of forty
solid feet. Besides these, the fir, the larch, the oak, the
cedar, the beech, the ash, the birch, the maple from which
sugar is made, the white walnut or hickery, and many
other varieties, are produced of an excellent quality and
of the largest dimensions. Many varieties of wild fruits
abound. Vines are to be found growing spontaneously.
Cranberries are plentiful, of a fine quality, and as large
as cherries; raspberries and strawberries are abundant;
also whortle berries and blue berries; and black and red
currants, gooseberries, juniper berries, and two or three
descriptions of cherries, grow wild. The climate of Upper
Canada is more mild than that of Lower Canada. To
the west of Niagara the finest apples, pears, prunes, nec¬
tarines, melons, grapes, and various other fruits, come to
perfection.
ade. The trade of Canada, whileit was in possession of France,
was inconsiderable, being confined chiefly to peltries. A
few ships were occasionally built; and seal oil, flour, and peas
in trifling quantities, were also exported. Ginseng, which
grows wild, was also sent to France, and thence to China,
to the annual value of about L.20,000. The following is
an account of the annual value of the exports prior to the
year 1759
Furs L.88,333
Seal oil, flour, and peas 20,832
Timber  6,250
L.115,415
The annual expenses of the government laid out chiefly
in the formation of a line of forts from Quebec to New
Orleans, to hem in the British settlements, increased from
L.16,663 in 1729, to one million sterling prior to 1759.
The principal trade was in furs, in pursuit of which the
woods and interior deserts were traversed by bands of re¬
solute adventurers, and agriculture was neglected and
despised. But after the conquest of Canada by the Eng¬
lish, the cultivation of the soil, the natural and most pro¬
fitable employment in a new colony, attracted the atten¬
tion of the settlers, and pulse, Indian corn, biscuit, oak
and pine timber, deals, masts, and bowsprits, spars of all
denominations, staves, wheat, flour, peas, pot and pearl
ashes, pork, beef, and butter, were exported to Great
Britain and the West Indies, in exchange for manufac¬
tured goods of every description, tea, rum, sugar, molasses,
coffee, tobacco, salt, and coals. With the extension of
cultivation and the increase of inhabitants the trade of
Canada gradually extended.
Exports in 1769.—Furs, oil, fish, &c L.355,000
Imports from Britain.—Manufactured goods! 070 ^nn
and West India produce 5
This trade employed seventy vessels belonging to Great
Britain, and her subjects in the different colonies of North
America. Not more than twelve vessels were engaged
at this period in the fisheries of the St Lawrence, and
about six were sent to the West Indies. In the course of
the next ten j^ears the trade appears to have greatly im¬
proved, and the number of vessels employed in 1775 was
increased to ninty-seven, containing 10,841 tons. In the
succeeding ten years the number of vessels which enter¬
ed the St Lawrence was diminished to fifty-seven. It is
likely, however, that there must be some inaccuracy in
this account, as the trade had increased in the mean
time.
Exports in 1786.—Furs and other colonial 1 T Aon nnn
produce, fish, lumber, &c J * ’
Imports from Britain, consisting of manufac-1 T Canada.
tured goods and West India produce J ’
In the course of another period of ten years, about the
year 1795, not less than 128 vessels were employed in the
commerce of Canada. This increase was occasioned by
the scarcity of grain which prevailed at that time in Bri¬
tain, and in other countries of Europe. To supply the aug¬
mented demands from thi^ quarter, there were exported
from Canada in that year 395,000 bushels of wheat, 18,000
barrels of flour, and 20,000 -cwts. of biscuit. The high
prices which were procured for those necessary articles
gave a powerful stimulus to industry in all its branches,
and, by increasing the capital of the colony, gave it the
means of carrying on a more extended commerce. The
following is an account of its exports and imports :
For 1797, from Quebec.—Furs and other produce, L.295,063
Wheat, biscuit, and flour  45,445
Oak and pine timber, planks, and staves  32,144
Pot and pearl ashes  29,866
Fish, lumber, oil, &c. from Labrador and Gaspe 88,900
L.491,418
Imports from England, of manufactured goods
and West India produce  338,214
In 1799 and the three following years large exporta¬
tions of grain took place. In 1802, 1,010,000 bushels of
wheat, 38,000 barrels of flour, and 32,000 cwts. of biscuit,
were sent abroad; and the number of vessels engaged in
the trade of the colony was 211, the aggregate burden of
which amounted to 36,000 tons. Agriculture in Canada
has since been greatly extended, and the surplus produce
has of course increased, so that we find the exports amount¬
ing for 1807 to L.813,900, and the imports to L.467,294.
In 1808 the exports had increased to L.1,156,060, and the
imports to L.610,000. Since this period the colony has
been progressively advancing, and its population has been
recruited by swarms of emigrants from Europe, to whom
these new colonies present a sure asylum from want. It is
estimated that 56,000 emigrants arrived in Canada in the
course of the year 1831. The value of imports of 1830
had increased to L.1,771,345, and that of the exports to
nearly a million.
The trade of Canada, from the period of its conquest
by Great Britain, was regulated by the strict maxims of
colonial monopoly. The 8t Lawrence was rigidly closed
against the entrance of all foreign vessels, nor was any
Canadian vessel allowed to enter a foreign port. But the
prosperity of the colony during its infancy was not ma¬
terially obstructed by these restrictions, as the mother
country offered at all times an ample and advantageous
outlet for its surplus produce. After the United States
had achieved their independence, their vessels were ex¬
cluded from the ports of the British colonies ; and Canada
was rewarded for its loyalty by the exclusive privilege of
supplying the West India islands with lumber, and pro¬
visions, namely wheat, flour, biscuits, beef, pork, &c. In
this manner, as the colony was originally injured for the
supposed benefit of the mother country, one colony was
by this enactment injured in order to benefit another
colony. The neighbouring country of America is the na¬
tural resort of the West Indies for lumber and provisions.
The voyage from New York or from New Orleans to Ja¬
maica is not above 1000 or 600 miles, while from Quebec
or Montreal the distance must be above 2000 miles; the
freight of lumber and provisions, which makes a great part
of the expense, must be greatly enhanced by the length of
the voyage from Quebec, and still more if the articles are
shipped from the United States to Canada, and thence re¬
shipped for the West Indies. The effect of this regulation
therefore is greatly to raise the price of these necessary
r?> CANADA.
Canada, articles to the West India planter, to increase the expenses
of sugar cultivation, and to lay the proprietors of Jamaica
under contribution for the profit of the Canadian husband¬
man or wood-cutter. The annual expense of these re¬
strictions to the West India planters is estimated by them¬
selves at L.1,392,353, which is, according to the same
estimate, 5s. 6^d. of additional cost on every hundredweight
of sugar; and thus the wisdom of monopoly cannot com¬
pass, nor does it indeed aim at, any higher end than to
benefit one part of the empire by injuring another. By
3 and 6 Geo. IV. these regulations were so far relaxed
that the wheat and lumber of the United States were
allowed to be imported directly into the West India
islands on payment of certain duties; and an act passed
in 1831 repealed all the import duties on provisions and
lumber imported from the United States into Canada, and
gave to these colonies all the advantages of a fiee trade.
It does not appear, however, that the Canadas ever had a
sufficient supply of lumber and provisions for the demands
of the West India islands. The natural intercourse between
these islands and the United States was indeed greatly
interrupted by those restrictions, and the countervailing
restrictions of the United States. Still considerable sup¬
plies have always been imported from the latter country.
Of late years, indeed, owing partly to the retaliations of
America, the trade was occasionally obstructed, and large
supplies of lumber and provisions are received from Ca¬
nada, to the benefit of the wood-cutters and husbandmen
of that country, and to the proportional injury of the West
India planter. .
With a view also to the improvement of her colonies,
the mother country consented to sacrifice an important
branch of her own trade with the north of Bui ope. Her
commerce with those countries, namely, Russia, Norway,
Sweden, and Denmark, consisted in the exchange of her
manufactures for their rude produce ; and among her im¬
ports from Norway, Sweden, and the countries contiguous
to the Baltic, timber was a staple article. rlhe exchange
was conducted on fair and liberal principles ; it was mu¬
tually advantageous to both countries, and gave rise to
an extensive and flourishing trade, which employed about
428,000 tons of British shipping. In 1809 the duties on
timber imported from our North American colonies were
entirely repealed; while the duties on timber impoited
from the north of Europe were largely increased, and, by
successive additions, were raised to L.3. 5s. per load.. The
repeal of this duty greatly augmented the importation of
Canada timber, and the general trade of the colony with
Great Britain.
But this extension of the colonial trade was purchased
by the sacrifice of the timber trade with the north of Eu¬
rope, which now almost entirely ceased, under the wither¬
ing influence of prohibitory duties.1 Canada profited in
this manner exactly as Great Britain was injured. For the
• supposed benefit of the colony, the mother country was
compelled to buy the inferior timber of a distant countiy,
at a high price, in place of the timber of Norway, of a bet¬
ter quality and at a lower price ; and thus, here as every¬
where else, we recognise the evil genius of monopoly stunt¬
ing the natural progress of trade,—swelling out certain
branches of it to an unnatural growth, and rooting up
others. It maybe also in this case doubted whether mono¬
poly has been even subservient to its own immediate ends,
and whether the undue encouragement given to the wood
trade of the Canadas did not tend to obstruct rather than
to promote the progress of the colony. In all newly settled
countries the great and the natural employment is agri¬
culture, which generally absorbs all the capital, and all Canada. Cans
the superfluous hands which can be procured. The con- ''■■'"Y'w' W
sequence is an ample and continually increasing supply of
subsistence; a great demand for labour, and high wages ;
and a constant and rapid increase of inhabitants. Thus
the colony advances in population and in wealth; cultiva¬
tion is spread over its desert wastes ; there is a great de¬
mand for labour, and ample means for its support; and all
classes of the community enjoy ease and comfort. But
there would be no demand for labour, nor any high wages,
unless the fund for paying these wages were previously pro¬
cured; for no one would seek to purchase if he had not where¬
withal to pay the price ; and hence it is evident that agri¬
culture, by providing the fund for the support of labour,
namely, a surplus supply of subsistence, is the spring of
all this prosperity; and that, the more abundantly its pro¬
duce increases, the greater will be the increase of in¬
habitants, and the more rapidly will the colony advance
to wealth and greatness. In this case, then, the undue en¬
couragement given by the British legislature to the wood
trade of the Canadas, by diverting the industry of the
country from agriculture to less beneficial objects, is cal¬
culated to retard the growth of the colony, and to render
it less rich and populous than it would have been under
a more free and liberal policy. The clearing of the coun¬
try is not aided, as might at first be supposed, by the ef¬
forts of the Canadian wood-cutter or lumberer. It is only
the tallest and the finest trees which he selects, and not
one in a thousand is esteemed suitable to his purpose;
while it is the practice of the farmer who clears the land
for cultivation to consume all the trees on the spot. The
author of the Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada (the
Backwoodsman), though he argues strongly in favour of
the existing monopoly, states, among the other pernicious
effects of the trade, that “ it draws the cultivators from
their legitimate occupations, and makes them neglect the
certainty of earning a competence by a steady perseverance
in their agricultural pursuits, for a vision of wealth never
to be realised.”2 Mr Macgregor, in his late valuable work
on the British colonies, though he is decidedly in favour
of the forced exportation of timber from Canada, observes
that “ the trees cut down for the timber of commerce are
not of the smallest importance in respect to clearing the
lands, although I have heard it urged in England as an
argument in favour of the timber trade.”3 In another
part of his work, which treats of Prince Edward’s Island,
he observes : “ The timber trade has been for many years
of some importance, by employing a number of ships and
men ; but as regards the prosperity of the colony, it must
be considered rather as an impediment to its improve¬
ment than an advantage, by diverting the inhabitants from
agriculture, demoralizing their habits, and from its ena¬
bling them to procure ardent spirits with little difficulty,
which in too many instances has led to drunkenness, po¬
verty, and loss of health.”4 It is a general remark, that
in all cases where the new settlers have been diverted
from agriculture by the timber trade, or the fisheries, or
any other object, the progress of the colony has been re¬
tarded, just as the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in
Brazil and Peru were impoverished by the mining specu¬
lations of the early settlers. It is agriculture which is
the true mine of wealth all over the world; and it can¬
not be neglected for other objects, however plausible,
without impairing the national prosperity.
The timber trade is attended with other disadvantages.
The wood-cutters are generally of dissolute habits, and
in every respect an inferior class to the quiet, industrious,
1 Edinburgh Review, No. Ixxxvi. State of the Timber Trade.
2 Backwoodsman, chap. vii.
3 Macgregor’s British America, vol. ii. chap. vi.
4 Ibid, vol- i. chap, iv.
CAN
miada. cultivator of the soil. Macgregor gives a very unfavour-
N able account of their morality and mode of life. “ After
selling and delivering up their rafts,” he observes, “ they
pass some weeks in idle indulgence, drinking, smoking,
and dashing off in a long coat, flashy waistcoat and trou¬
sers, Wellington or Hessian boots, a handkerchief of many
colours round the neck, a watch with a long tinsel chain
and numberless brass seals, and an umbrella.” After
squandering their money, they return to the woods before
winter to resume their laborious pursuits. The life of a
lumberer thus alternates between dissipation and extreme
hardship. He spends the winter in the depth of the forest,
under the imperfect shelter of his wooden habitation ; and
in the spring, when the rivers are enlarged by the melting
of the snows, he is engaged in floating the timber which
he has collected down the swelling stream. The water
at this time is extremely cold, yet he is day after day wet
in it up to the middle, from the time that the floating
commences, until the timber is delivered to the merchants,
which seldom occupies less than a month or six weeks.
This constant immersion of the body in those snow-water
floods undermines the constitution; it occasions severe
rheumatism and other disorders; and at last terminates
in general debility and premature old age. In no view,
therefore, in which it can be considered, is this trade de¬
serving of any especial favour.
Furs have been a staple article of the Canada trade
from the first settlement of the colony. These were pro¬
cured from the Indians by the coureurs des bois, who pe¬
netrated into the remote wilds of the interior, in exchange
for shot, brandy, red cloths, knives, hatchets, trinkets,
and a few other articles of European manufacture, and
were brought to Trois Rivieres and Montreal. The French
afterwards carried on this trade by means of licenses grant¬
ed to a limited number of gentlemen and old officers, and
any interference of others was forbidden on pain of death.
From twenty to thirty canoes, each carrying from six to
seven men, were employed in procuring supplies of furs;
and they were usually accompanied in their return by fifty
or more canoes of Hurons and Ottawais, who descended to
Montreal, in order to sell their cargoes to more advan¬
tage than at Michillimakinnak. The fur traders are ex¬
posed to many perils and hardships. It is only in bleak,
wild, and snowy deserts, which abound in animals re¬
quiring a thick covering to protect them from the incle¬
mency of the seasons, that furs of any value are to be
found; and the fur trader has to brave the dangers of sa¬
vage tribes, inland seas, deep and trackless forests, ca¬
taracts, and rapids. He has to make his way through the
ice and the snows of winter, and amid every species of
annoyance in summer from the attacks of musquitoes and
other varieties of tormenting insects. All these hardships
however are voluntarily endured by private adventurers,
by whom, after the conquest of Canada, the fur trade was
carried on, aided by the coureurs des bois. Among these
rude adventurers in the interior of the desert, and beyond
the reach of legal authority, jealousies and quarrels, fol¬
lowed by scenes of violence, frequently took place, until
they were at length associated, by the exertions of the late
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and formed into the famous
North West Company of Montreal. By this company the
fur trade has been prosecuted with extraordinary vigour;
and a spirit of enterprise has been infused into its numerous
servants, under the influence of which they have surmount¬
ed fatigue and danger, and penetrated to the remotest ex¬
tremities of the continent. The American expedition of
Captains Lewis and Clerk, who ascended the Mississippi,
and, crossing the Rocky Mountains, penetrated to the Pa¬
cific Ocean, has been already fully detailed by these enter¬
prising travellers. Since this period the bold adventurers
63
of the North West Company, eagerly embracing every op- Canada,
portunity to extend their trade, have established a line of
stations or forts from Canada to the mouth of the Columbia
on the Pacific Ocean. There is from Canada, in a north-west
direction, an imperfect water communication for about 1500
miles into the American wilderness to Cumberland House,
a fort and storehouse of the North West Company. This
communication is carried on from the St Lawrence, through
the great Lakes Erie, Huron, Superior, the Lake of the
Woods, Winnipeg Lake, and by intermediate rivers, occa¬
sionally interrupted by rapids, through which the light craft
employed in this service are pushed by the unrivalled skill
and courage of the Canadian boatmen, or by cataracts,
past which the boats must be carried for several miles.
At Cumberland House the river Athapescow, descending
from the Rocky Mountains, runs into one of this series of
lakes. This river is ascended to its source in small boats ;
and a land journey across the great mountainous barrier
which divides the streams that flow westerly into the Pa¬
cific from those that flow eastward into the Atlantic Ocean,
brings the travellers to the head waters of the Columbia,
on which they embark, and descend the stream to its
mouth in the Pacific Ocean. In this perilous journey, of
from 4000 to 5000 miles, they are exposed to many moving
accidents by flood and field in travelling between the dis¬
tant stations of the company, and frequently to the hos¬
tility of the savage tribes scattered over the desert. Cou¬
rage, calmness, and presence of mind, are qualities that
are greatly in request among the traders. They always
carry with them the formidable rifle, with which they
take a certain and deadly aim, depending on it as they do
both for safety and for food. They are thus equally prepar¬
ed to trade or to fight with their savage customers, and to
pay them for their furs either in gold or lead. After Lord
Selkirk established his colony on Red River, to which,
from the beginning, the North West Company showed an
inveterate hostility, long, obstinate, and bloody contests
took place between these rival traders. Regular hostili¬
ties were carried on, lives were lost and prisoners taken;
and in one encounter in the desert, far without the pre¬
cincts of legal authority, about twenty or thirty of Lord Sel¬
kirk’s men lost their lives. This violent opposition was
terminated in 1821, by the coalition of the rival compa¬
nies, namely, the Hudson’s Bay and the North West Com¬
pany.
The home trade of the Canadas daily increases with the Canals,
improvement of the interior, and it is greatly facilitated by
the continued water communication through the great
lakes and the St Lawrence to the ocean. The possession
of this great natural outlet presents also other advantages.
If it were duly improved by the construction of canals,
where it is interrupted by catai'acts or rapids, the route
from the interior to the sea by the St Lawrence would
be more expeditious and less expensive than either by the
Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, or by the Hudson to
New York, which are the other two main outlets of the
American continent to the ocean, as may be seen from the
map ; and both of which are now connected by canals with
the Ohio, a tributary of the Mississippi, and with the great
chain of northern lakes; and in this case Canada would
become a great depot for the produce of the interior, and
Quebec might in time rival New York or New Orleans
as an emporium of foreign trade. The navigation from
the ocean to the extremity of Lake Superior, a distance of
nearly 3000 miles, is only interrupted by the falls of St
Mary, between Lake Huron and Lake Superior; by the ca¬
taracts and rapids of Niagara ; and by numerous rapids on
the St Lawrence, above Montreal, which render the as¬
cent extremely laborious and difficult. The navigation
between Lakes Fluron and Superior is at present of no im-
A D A.
64
CANADA.
Canada, portance, the adjacent country being a desolate wilder-
ness, and the difficulties could besides be surmounted at
a very small expense. The navigable communication be¬
tween Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, interrupted by the falls
of Niagara, is i*estored by the Welland Canal, which con¬
nects the two lakes. This canal is forty-one miles and a half
in length, and is of a size to admit schooners of ninety or a
hundred and twenty tons burden, which are the largest
vessels that navigate the lakes.1 Lake Ontario is of a low¬
er level by three hundred and thirty feet than Lake Erie,
and the intervening height has been surmounted by a series
of thirty-seven locks. The locks are a hundred feet long
and twenty-two feet wide. Hie depth of water is not less
than eight feet, and can easily be augmented other two
feet. To obviate the obstructions in the St Lawrence
above Montreal, various canals have been completed, and
others are now in progress. The Lachine Canal, cut across
the south corner of Montreal Island, immediately above
Montreal, is nine miles long, twenty feet wide, and five
deep. It cost L.130,000, on which capital it yielded a re¬
turn of four percent, in 1830. Another canal, about forty
miles above Lachine, has been begun by government, that
will cost L.180,000. But of all the works for facilitating
internal intercourse in Canada, the Rideau Canal, so nam¬
ed from the river of this name, and undertaken at the ex¬
pense of Great Britain, is the most singular and expensive,
with the least likelihood of ever being useful. The dis¬
tance between Kingston, on the east end of lake Ontario,
and Montreal, by the St Lawrence, is about two hundred
miles, the route being almost a straight line ; but the navi¬
gation is rendered tedious and dangerous by rapids, though
it is not entirely interrupted. All that is wanted, there¬
fore, to perfect the communications between the two places,
is a ship canal, cut along the banks of the St Lawrence, round
the rapids which impede the navigation ; and this really
useful work could have been effected at a comparatively
moderate expense. But the object of the Rideau Canal
is not to improve this natural communication by the St
Lawrence ; it purposely avoids it; it goes out of the straight
course, and takes a new, circuitous, and much longer route
from Kingston, through the comparatively unfrequented
interior country, to the Ottawa river, about eighty-five
miles above its entrance into the St Lawrence ; and thence,
by other canals, where the Ottawa is interrupted by falls
and rapids, the communication is completed to Montreal;
the distance being from Kingston a hundred and thirty- Canada,
five miles to the Ottawa river, and onwards to Montreal by
this river a hundred and twenty-four miles ; altogether two
hundred and fifty-nine miles.2 The estimated cost of this
canal, and the other canals on the Ottawa river, necessary
to complete this roundabout route, is L.975,722; and a
farther sum of L.25,624 beyond the original estimate of
L.693,448 for the Rideau Canal was applied for in 1831
to the treasury; with other suggestions that the canal
should be made to pass in the rear of Montreal, at an ad¬
ditional expense of L.117,270. The lords of the treasury,
however, refused to sanction an estimate not submitted
to parliament, “ unless,” they add, “ the actual and indis¬
pensable necessity of such works should be made out more
clearly than at present.”3 The Rideau Canal, it appears,
goes fifty-nine miles out of the direct route, its object
being not so much to promote commerce, as to secure a
navigable communication between the upper and lower
pi'ovinces, for the transportation of troops and stores, in
the event of a war, when the route by the St Lawrence
would be interrupted by tbe hostility of the Americans ;4
and for this visionary project, which is confessedly of no
present utility, but is merely intended to guard a remote
colony against distant and uncertain evils, have the rulers
of Great Britain, with a profusion unexampled, laid out
a million sterling in the wilds of Canada. Is a war, how¬
ever, it may be asked, so probable an event as to justify
this lavish expenditure in precautions against it ? On the
contrary, no two nations can have fewer causes of differ¬
ence ; and the peace that now happily prevails between
them requires only to be followed up by a wise, prudent,
and friendly policy, to be cemented into a lasting union.
But these formidable preparationsforwar are not favourable
to the continuance of peace. They breathe a hostile spirit,
and are calculated to raise the alarm and jealousy of the
Americans, when they see their late enemies, the moment
they have brought one miserable contest to a close, busi¬
ly engaged in preparations for another. It is in vain, be¬
sides, for Great Britain to contend on the other side of the
Atlantic against the rising superiority of the American
power; and a new war with the United States, if such a
calamity should ever again befal the civilized world, would
unquestionably expose Canada to the danger of invasion and
conquest, though we were to expend the whole revenues
of Great Britain in precautions for its defence.5 The
1 Hall’s Travels in North America, vol. i. chap. vii. Macgregor’s British America.
2 See Bouchette’s .DMcripticm o/Canada, vol. i. Appendix, p. 498, Table of Distances of Post-towns.
3 See House of Commons Papers, copies of correspondence relative to the canal communications of Canada. Ordered to he printed
February 1831. Also correspondence relative to the same, laid before the House of Commons 3d February 1832. Ihe following is
an estimate of the expense of these works.
For llideau Canal   L.693,448
Grenville Canal, Carillon Canal, and the Chute a Blondeau  282,274
Further sum wanted.
L.975,722
.... 25,624
L.1,001,346
For other projected works  117,270
L.1,118,616
See also Report of a Committee of the House of Commons in 1832, discouraging any farther outlay of the public money in this scheme.
4 “• The Rideau Canal, it will be observed, purposely takes such a roundabout course, that there is little chance of its being used
for commercial purposes in time of peace, though in war it would become the great channel of intercourse.” (Hall s Travels, voi. i.
Ch^Vhere could not be a better commentary on the nature of this undertaking than Captain Hall’s exposition of its advantages.
“ This military canal,” he observes, “ will require a considerable sum of money; but probably there never was any expense better be-
stowed. For the cost of transporting ordnance and other stores by the direct route of the St Lawrence, up the Rapids, is so enormous,
that the saving of a few years in this item alone will repay the whole outlay.” Captain Hall’s notions of economy seem to be ra er
singular. He would lay out a million sterling at present for the mere chance of saving the same sum thirty or forty years hence, b or
eighteen years we have been at peace with the Americans, with whom, if wise counsels had ruled the country, we ought never to
have been at war; and there is not the slightest probability of any new quarrel. Is it wise therefore to make the people of Great
Britain, already so heavily burdened, contribute a million sterling to an undertaking which is only to turn to account m the event
of a war P We may add, that this canal was opened in May 1832.
CAN
mada. Rideau Can-al does by no means supersede the necessity of
'>-> a ship canal along the St Lawrence ; for, says Captain Hall,
the capitalists ofUpper Canada and Montreal will still “be
desirous of constructing a ship canal, by which they may
sail directly up and down the St Lawrence.” There is
no doubt that, with the increasing trade of the country, a
work of such obvious utility will yet be completed ; and in
this case the Rideau Canal, constructed at an expense of
about a million sterling, will be a sort of spare canal, to be
kept in reserve until it shall be brought into use by the
calamity of an American war.
Halation. For a long period after its original settlement the co¬
lony of Canada was neglected by the court of France, and
its administration was left in a great measure to the dis¬
cretion of individuals. In 1663 it was raised to the dig¬
nity of a royal government, and from this period its go¬
vernors were appointed by a regular commission from the
king. Its inhabitants amounted to about 7000, who, pos¬
sessing the advantages of a free trade and of regular go¬
vernment, began rapidly to increase; and in 1714 their
numbers had risen to 20,000. The colony would even
have increased more rapidly; but, by the rashness of its
governors, it was engaged in almost perpetual hostility
with the native tribes, by whose continued incursions the
attention of the settlers was diverted from agriculture
to w^ar. Under these disadvantages, however, its popula¬
tion had increased in 1759, when it was conquered by the
English, to 70,000. The conquest of a country must be
regarded as a serious evil, even in circumstances the most
favourable ; and the revolution which took place in conse¬
quence of this event in the government and political in¬
stitutions of Canada tended for some years to retard its
progress. The change of allegiance from one sovereign
to another was rendered as easy as possible to the inha¬
bitants, by the lenient measures of the conquerors. Their
laws were allowed to remain unaltered. They were se¬
cured in the undisturbed possession of their lands under
their ancient tenures, and in the free possession of their
religion. All religious property was respected, and every
concession was made by the British government in favour
of the peculiar customs and manners of its new subjects.
Under this judicious management the country soon began
to improve; and in the year 1775, its population, includ¬
ing the new settlers in Upper Canada, who could not
amount to above some thousands, had increased to 90,000.
In 1814, according to a regular census, the province of
Lower Canada contained 335,000 inhabitants. Of this
number 235,000 may be reckoned native Canadians, de¬
scendants of the original French settlers. The remainder
is composed of emigrants from various nations, chiefly
English, Scotch, Irish, and American. In 1825 the popu¬
lation amounted, according to a census taken at that time,
to 423,030; and this enumeration was rather under than
above the truth, as it was in many cases evaded by the
people, from a fear that it was preparatory to a poll tax,
or to the militia service or statute labour, which subjects
all males from sixteen to sixty years of age to certain
troublesome duties. Since this period the population has
received great accessions from emigration, as well as from
the increase of the inhabitants at home; and the popula¬
tion in 1832 cannot amount to less than between 500,000
and 600,000.
The following table, extracted from Bouchette’s elabo¬
rate work, shows the rapid progress of population in Lower
Canada at various times, from the year 1676 to 1825
inclusive, as taken from the authority of Charleroix, La
Potheraye, and public documents.
ADA.
65
1676,  8,415
1688,  11,249 increase in 12 years, 2,834
1700,  15,000 increase in 12 years, 3,751
1706,  20,000 increase in 6 years, 5,000
1714,  26,904 increase in 8 years, 6,904
1759,  65,000 increase in 45 years, 38,096
1784, 113,000 increase in 25 years, 48,000
1825, 450,000 increase in 41 years, 337,000
As far as we can judge from the imperfect enumerations
which we can obtain, the population of the province has
gone on increasing in a varying ratio, doubling itself at
some periods every twenty-five years, and at others every
twenty-nine or thirty-one years; but more recently in a
far shorter period. The chief cities of Lower Canada
are Quebec, containing 30,000 inhabitants; Montreal, con¬
taining 20,000; and Trois Rivieres, containing between
2000 and 3000.
Canada.
In the year 1783 the settlers of Upper Canada were
estimated at 10,000, of which the numerous frontier posts
and garrisons constituted by far the greater part. After
this period the number of settlers was augmented by a
great accession of loyalists and disbanded soldiers, and by
emigrants from the United States and from Great Bri¬
tain, so that in the year 1814 the inhabitants of the pro¬
vince bad increased, according to the most accurate re¬
turns, to 95,000, in 1824 to 152,000, in 1829 to 225,000;
to which, if we add the natural increase since that time,
with the additions made by emigration, the population of
Upper Canada, excluding the Indians, the coureurs des
hois, or wanderers in the woods, a lawless race, and the
bois brides, or half-breeds, may be estimated at nearly
300,000 souls.1 Since the year 1793 the progress of this
colony has been particularly rapid. In that year a solitary
Indian wigwam stood where the town of York, the capital
of Upper Canada, is now built. In the succeeding spring
the ground was marked out for the future metropolis of
the country, and it now contains 2500 inhabitants, and is
fast increasing. The other towns are Kingston, begun in
1784, possessing an excellent harbour, well adapted for a
naval depot, and containing between 4000 and 5000 inhabi¬
tants ; Johnstown, Cornwall, with several smaller villages.
The population of Lower Canada consists, first, of the
French, who constitute one half of the whole inhabitants ;
the other half consists of Scotch, Irish, English, Ameri¬
can loyalists, and Germans ; the first two, after the French,
being the most numerous, and forming probably three
eighths of the population. In Upper Canada the French
do not constitute any thing like the same proportion of
the inhabitants, who are mostly emigrants from the united
kingdom, English, Scotch, or Irish. There are besides
other native races in Upper Canada, such as the coureurs
des bois, already mentioned, who are seldom seen west
of the Lakes. They were originally a sort of pedlar fur
traders, outlaws from all the privileges of the church and
from civilized life, and of wandering and dissolute habits.
With them sprung up another race called the bois bru¬
tes, or half-breeds from Canadians and Europeans, and
Indian women. They are of very fierce habits, and are
capable of committing the most atrocious crimes. The
remnant of the Indian tribes scattered over the Cana¬
das are in a state of such deplorable wretchedness as
to claim the compassion of every feeling mind, and yet
it is difficult to suggest any plan for their relief. Their
misery seems to be the necessary result of causes over
which we have no control. The qualities which enable
the savage to gain a precarious subsistence amid woods
and wastes are of no use to him in crowded cities or
vol. vr.
‘ Macgregor, vol. ii. chap. xv.
I
66 CAN
Canada, amid cultivated fields, and all attempts to train him to
the industry and arts of civilized life have invariably
failed. He is selfish and indolent, and addicted to the
grossest vices; and hence, like some animal taken out of
its natural element, he is completely helpless in a com¬
munity of Europeans, and, sinking into poverty and want,
his race gradually decays. This consequence at least has
followed from the progress of cultivation in all parts of
America.
Manners, The European settlers, namely, the English, Scotch,
laws, and and Irish, import their native manners into Canada, and
state of retain most of their previous habits and ideas; modified,
property. }j0wever? by the new connections which they form, and by
the circumstances in which they are placed. The habitans,
or French peasantry, retain the customs and manners of
their ancestors in the mother country during the reign of
Louis XIV. They are a happy, contented, and rather
indolent race; frugal, but not enterprising; clumsy and
tardy in their modes of agriculture, and averse from all
improvements. “ Contented,” says Macgregor, “ to tread
in the path beaten by their forefathers, they in the same
manner till the ground; commit in the like way the same
kind of seeds to the earth ; and in a similar mode do they
gather their harvests, feed their cattle, and prepare and
cook their victuals. They rise, eat, and sleep at the same
hours, and, taking for truths all the priests tell them, ob¬
serve the same spirit in their devotions, with as ample a
portion of all the forms of the Catholic religion, as their
ancestors.” They are lively in their dispositions, being
fond of dancing, fiddling, and singing, in which, after ves¬
pers on Sunday, they think it no sin to indulge, but al¬
ways without disorder or drunkenness. They are polite
and courteous in their address, and never meet one an¬
other without putting a hand to their hat or bonnet rouge,
or moving the head. They are strict in their morality,
the women from natural modesty, and the men from cus¬
tom and a strong feeling of propriety; and are withal
very hospitable, more especially the wife of a Canadian,
who seems to anticipate the wishes of her guests; and, if
any thing is wanted, regrets it with such a good grace as
to delight those whom she entertains.
In the population of Upper Canada there is a much
larger intermixture of emigrants, not only from Europe,
but also from the United States; many of them the re¬
fuse of the country, who have fled for their crimes to the
adjacent colony of Canada. These licentious characters,
there is reason to believe, have brought the morals of the
Upper Canadians into disrepute, from the more frequent
occurrence of crime among them than among their neigh¬
bours in the lower country, though the general state of
morals cannot be fairly inferred from the crimes of law¬
less individuals. There cannot in general be a more in¬
dustrious race than the colonists of Upper Canada, whose
only motive in leaving their own country is to improve
their circumstances, and who trust entirely to economy
and industry for realizing their views. The wood-cutters
and boatmen have been reproached, and justly, for their
dissolute habits ; but many of these resident inhabitants of
the woods are now as correct in their conduct as the other
settlers. The Canadian boatman or voyageur is naturally
polite and cheerful; thoughtless in his way, and freely
spending his money, singing, smoking, and enjoying what¬
ever comes in his way, thanking “ Le Bon Dieu, la Vierge,
et les Saints,” for everything.
The laws of England, both civil and criminal, were intro¬
duced into Canada after its conquest in 1759 ; and the cri¬
minal code of Britain, which freed the Canadians from the
tyrannical modes of procedure to which they were former¬
ly exposed, was generally considered as a most important
improvement. But the civil code of England was not re-
A D A.
ceived with equal satisfaction. The inhabitants were at- Canada,
tached by habit and prejudice to the ancient system by 'S*,'"Y'W
which property was regulated; and by the act of 1774,
therefore, that system was restored. That act vested the
government of the country in a council composed of cer¬
tain individuals chosen by the sovereign. It also grant¬
ed a free toleration to the Roman Catholic religion, and
confirmed the right of the clergy to receive their accus¬
tomed dues and rights from such as professed that reli¬
gion, to the great scandal of the British Protestants, who,
in the true spirit of intolerance, termed this wise and en¬
lightened act of policy “ a wicked and abominable act,
that authorizes a bloody religion, which spreads around it
wherever it is propagated, impiety, murders, and rebellion.”
The toleration of the Roman Catholic religion was favour¬
able to the peace and improvement of the colony, as it
banished religious discord, by placing all parties upon an
equality, and giving to no dominant sect the power of op¬
pressing the others. Under this act the government of
Canada wras administered until the year 1791, when Mr
Pitt introduced a new act, commonly called the constitu¬
tional act, which extended to Canada the advantages of
the British constitution. By this act the country was
divided into two provinces, and each province into dis¬
tricts and counties. A constitutional government was
established, consisting of a governor with an executive
council; and a legislative council and a representative
assembly, corresponding to the upper and lower houses of
parliament in Great Britain. The legislative council of
Lower Canada is appointed by the king, and consists of
not fewer than fifteen members; the representative as¬
sembly consisted formerly of fifty members, which were
increased to eighty-four by an act of the provincial legis¬
lature passed in 1828. The lower province was by the
act of 1791 divided, as already mentioned, into twenty-
one counties, and afterwards, by the 9th Geo. IV., for
the more equal representation of its increased population,
into forty counties; and the first provincial parliament
elected according to the new scale of representation as¬
sembled in December 1830. The members of the legisla¬
tive council are appointed for life. Those of the assem¬
bly for the counties are elected by forty-shilling freehold¬
ers, or for the towns by five pound freeholders, or ten
pound annual renters. There exists no disqualification
for any office, or for the exercise of any political privilege,
on account of religious tenets. Some years ago a Jew was
elected a representative of one of the towns, and being
expelled by the illiberality of the assembly, was re-elect¬
ed, and again expelled. Bills passed by the two houses
become laws when agreed to by the governor, though in
certain cases the royal allowance is required, and in others
reference must be had to the imperial parliament. The
local legislature has the exclusive right of raising a reve¬
nue for the internal expenses of the colony. The finan¬
cial affairs of the province went on smoothly until the
year 1821, when a serious misunderstanding arose between
the executive and the legislative assembly, respecting the
appropriation of the provincial revenue, amounting to
L. 140,000 per annum. Of this sum the crown claimed
the right of distributing L.38,000 under the Quebec acts
of 1774 and 1791. This claim was resolutely opposed by
the provincial parliament, and the province was agitated
by a violent contest which arose on the subject during
the administration of Earl Dalhousie. It was at length
decided, by a parliamentary committee to whom the mat¬
ter was referred by tbe British ministers, that though the
legal right of appropriating the revenue might be vested in
the crown, yet, for the interests of the colony, it ought to be
placed under the control of the provincial assembly. The
concession of this and other points re-established the peace
CAN
nada. of the colony. The executive government consists of a
u, governor, who is generally a military officer and com¬
mander of the forces, a lieutenant-governor, and an exe¬
cutive council of seventeen members, appointed by the
king, and exercising an influence in the affairs of the pro¬
vince similar to that of the privy council in the affairs of
England. The governor has the power to prorogue and
to dissolve the assembly. The net revenue of Lower
Canada, derived from crown lands, import duties, &c. af¬
ter deducting L.34,597 payable to Upper Canada, amount¬
ed to L.109,294.1 The revenue of Upper Canada, arising
from crown lands, from public works, of which the revenue
is greater than the interest expended, from shares in the
bank of Upper Canada, from import duties, &c. is esti¬
mated for 1832 to amount to L.80,000; the expenditure
to about L.40,000, being L.40,000 for the redemption of
the public debt, which amounts to L.192,750.2 The consti¬
tution of the upper is on the same model as that of the
lower province. There is a legislative council consisting
of seventeen members, and a house of assembly consisting
of fifty members. The revenue arises from some trifling
duties levied under the 14th Geo. III., and from an allow¬
ance made for duties levied at Quebec on articles con¬
sumed in the upper province; and the appropriation of
this revenue was, as in Lower Canada, the cause of a
misunderstanding between the legislative and executive
branches of the government.
It was found impossible to change the existing laws and
customs of the country without occasioning serious evils
and great dissatisfaction to the Lrench inhabitants, who
were the most numerous. The feudal tenures, therefore,
by which property was held at the time of the con¬
quest, are confirmed; and the French laws, namely, the
code termed the Coutume de Paris as it existed in 1666,
and the edicts and declarations of the French governors
in Canada, affect all property, whether real or personal, in
the seigniories, or the lands which were appropriated at the
time of the conquest in 1759; and by the constitutional
act of 1791, even lands in the townships, granted in free
and common soccage, are subject to all the incidents of
the Coutume de Paris. The Canada tenure act of 1826
declares that “ the law of England is the rule by which
real property within the townships is to be hereafter re¬
gulated and administered.” The lands in Lower Canada
originally possessed by the French settlers (the seignio¬
ries, either held en fief or en roture) are still held accord¬
ing to the old feudatory system of the mother country, to
which the seigneurs, and the habitans or French "ten¬
ants, are most pertinaciously attached, and the English as
strongly opposed. Various attempts have been made in
the legislative assembly to set bounds to the privileges
of the seigneurs, but always without success, owing to the
ascendency possessed by the French party in that assem¬
bly. The seigneurs generally let their lands in lots of
about seventy acres, and are entitled to certain fines and
services from their vassals, from which they derive their
revenue. In the event of a sale, a sum of money equal
to a twelfth part of the price is payable to the seigneur;
and he has also the right, within forty days after the sale,
to take the property sold at the highest price offered; a
right, however, which is seldom exercised. In the event
of new lands being granted, a fifth part of the whole pur¬
chase-money is payable to the seigneur, which, if paid im¬
mediately, entitles the purchaser to a deduction of two
thirds of the fine. The vassals are also bound to grind
their corn at the lord’s mill; and this condition is found
on many occasions to be exceedingly irksome. The seig-
67
neur is entitled to receive a tithe of the produce of all the Canada,
fisheries which are established within the bounds of his
seigniory. He has also the privilege of felling the timber
which grows in any part of his seigniory, for the purpose
of erecting mills, repairing roads, or constructing new
ones, or for any other purpose of general utility. Many
proprietors of seigniories have acquired wealth from these
revenues, as the sales and transfers of landed property
have of late years become numerous. The king of France
was the feudal lord of the Canadian seigniories, and the
king of Great Britain succeeded to his privileges, several
of which, such as the fifth part of the purchase-money on
the sale of an estate, the committee of the House of Com¬
mons, in their report on the affairs of Canada in 1828, re¬
commended the crown to relinquish.
In Canada there is, properly speaking, no established Religion,
religion. But the Roman Catholic religion, which is pro¬
fessed by four fifths of the inhabitants, is fully protected in
all the immunities and privileges which it possessed under
the French government. All the lands which then be¬
longed to that establishment, and the twenty-sixth part of
the grain raised on farms cultivated by Catholics, are se¬
cured by law to the church. One seventh part of all the
lands in the townships are reserved in Lower as well as
in Upper Canada for the support of the Protestant esta¬
blishment. But the revenue derived from these tracts of
w'aste is of little consequence, and is at present totally
inadequate to its intended purposes. It would be wiser
policy to dispose of these lands to those who would culti¬
vate them, and to provide for the Protestant church from
another source. The 7th and 8th Geo. IV. accordingly
authorize a sale of these reserved church lands, not ex¬
ceeding in either province one fourth part of the revenues.
In Upper Canada these lands are reserved, according as
the act has been construed, exclusively for the use of the
Episcopal establishment, although by far the greater num¬
ber of the inhabitants are Scotch presbyterians, and are
supported by the voluntary subscriptions of their respec¬
tive hearers. But it is now intended to abandon this sys¬
tem, and to place on an equality all the different modes of
faith professed by the people. Education was for a long
time neglected in Canada; and among the French, or ha¬
bitans as they are called, few who have passed the middle
age of life can either read or write. But the spirit of im¬
provement is now general, and there are colleges and
schools both at Quebec and Montreal, at which instruction
is received in the higher as well as the elementary branches
of education. The Catholics have, besides, four other semi¬
naries ; and schools have been established in every parish,
and almost in every settlement of Lower Canada, which are
open to all, without any distinction of religious creed. In
Upper Canada there is a university, the rules of which
require every student on his admission to subscribe the
thirty-nine articles of the Church of England. And in
this case, as in that also of an Episcopal establishment
for a presbyterian population, the bigotry of the mother
country has marred the fair order of a rising community.
Grammar schools and elementary schools have been esta¬
blished in all the counties and settlements of Upper Ca¬
nada.
The Canadas form one of the great outlets to the over-Emigra-
flowing population of Europe; to which of late yearstion.
crowds of emigrants have been attracted by the demand
for labour which prevails in this, as in all other countries
with an abundance of waste land. But it ought to be well
understood, that it is only the labourers who will here find
an asylum from want. In the crowded communities of the
ADA.
1 Macgregor’s British America, chap. vii.
2 Backwoodsman, 117, 118.
68 C A N A D A.
Canada, old world the wages of labour can scarcely procure the
necessaries of life. In the new world labour is scarce,
and wages high ; and to the emigrant who has labour to
dispose of, the advantage of removing from the one coun¬
try to the other is obvious. But to the merchant a new
colony presents no peculiar advantages ; and the old world,
with all its varied accommodations and luxury, is the na¬
tural abode of the rich. A labourer in Canada always
earns more than will support his family; and if he is pru¬
dent and sober, he soon saves as much money as will pur¬
chase a farm. He then, after some years of toil, attains to
independence ; he is a proprietor of the soil, from which he
draws a sure supply of food, and the surplus he exchanges
for other comforts or luxuries. It is highly necessary that
the emigrant should acquire exact information respecting
the new country which is hereafter to be his home, and
that he should also be careful to make the best arrange¬
ments fot his voyage and his comfortable settlement in his
new country. There are many recent works on this subject
from which all these particulars are to be learned, and from
which we have thrown together the following brief hints.1
First, those who are wanted in Canada are mechanics
and artizans of almost all descriptions, millwrights, black¬
smiths, carpenters, masons, bricklayers, tailors, shoe¬
makers, tanners, millers, and all the ordinary trades that
are required in an agricultural, commercial, and a partial¬
ly ship-owning country.2 One great object of the emi¬
grant is to reach the colony as quickly and as cheaply as
possible; with this view he should go out in the months
of April or May, when he may expect a more favourable^
passage than in July or August. No heavy articles of
wooden furniture ought to be taken across the seas to
Canada, as articles of that description can be procured in
the back country for less than the cost of their transport
from Quebec and Montreal. “ Clothes,” says the Back¬
woodsman, “ more particularly coarse clothing, such as
slops and shooting jackets, bedding, shirts (made, for
making is very expensive here), cooking utensils, a clock
or time-piece, books packed in barrels, hoziery, and, above
all, boots and shoes (for what they call leather in this con¬
tinent is much more closely allied to hide than leather,
and one pair of English shoes will easily outstand three
such as we have here), are among the articles that will be
found most useful.” All sorts of ironmongery, as well as
gardening and the iron parts of farming tools, are found
of great use. Fishing and shooting tackle might also be
taken ; and small quantities of seeds, particularly those of
the rarer grasses, as lucern, trefoil, &c. which, if not used,
can be always sold at a high price. It is a great point
wuth the emigrant not to loiter about after he has landed,
but to proceed with all possible expedition^ to his destina¬
tion. He ought not, however, to be rash in choosing his
land, as he may be taken advantage of in many ways. It
is the practice for the older emigrants to sell cleared
lands at a high price; and the new emigrant discovers
when it is too late that these lands were quite exhausted,
and that it will cost him more to restore their fertility
than to reclaim the wilderness, from the inquiries of the
parliamentary committee on the subject of emigration, it
appears that adults may be sent to Canada at an expense
of LA ; persons under fourteen years of age for L.3. 10s.;
children under ten for L.2. 10s.; and under six for L.l. 10s.
In 1830 sixty-five able-bodied men emigrated from Milt-
shire, and, including 20s. or 30s. given them upon landing,
to defray their expenses up the country, where work is Canada, Cat
plentiful, their whole expense amounted on an average to I
about L.6 a head. In the great colonizing experiments
made under the orders of government in 1823 and 1825, ^
the average expense of transporting, locating, and support¬
ing the families for fifteen months, amounted to L.22. Is. 6d.
per head. These settlers, who were mostly Irish, “ from
being absolutely pennyless,” says the Backwoodsman,
“ are now in the most comfortable and independent, and
many of them in even what may be called affluent circum¬
stances.” Any future settlement of emigrants might, how¬
ever, be made at less expense ; and, if properly conducted, -
might be ultimately repaid with interest. On this well-
understood condition of repaying the expense incurred, the
lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada is at present settling
many townships with emigrants.3 We subjoin, from pa¬
pers laid before parliament, an account of the number of
emigrants to British America in the following years:—In
1828, 12,034 ; in 1829, 13,307 ; in 1830, 30,574 ; in 1831,
49,383. In 1832 the numbers in proportion have been
still greater.
The original discovery of Canada is involved in ob- History, t
scurity. It is ascribed by some to the Spaniards, who,
not finding the precious metals in the country, are said t»
have instantly quitted it in disgust. According to other
accounts, John and Sebastian Cabot visited this country
in 1497, and were followed by various other adventurers
in the beginning of the subsequent century. In 1534
Jacques Cartier arrived at Newfoundland and surveyed
the coast. He returned in the following year, and, enter¬
ing the St Lawrence, ascended the river to the spot where
Montreal now stands. It was not, however, till the year
1608 that a colony was established in this country by the
French, and that the foundation of Quebec was laid. From
this period the new settlement continued to maintain a
precarious existence, amid the complicated evils of mi¬
sery, want, and savage warfare. It wras supported by
supplies of provisions and of troops from France, until it
began to take root in the country, and to extend itself
higher up the river to Montreal. The colony, from the
period when it wras first established, had not been mana¬
ged on any just or fixed principles. Its administration
was chiefly committed to the discretion of trading com¬
panies, whose sole object was immediate gain, or to mili¬
tary governors, who involved the colonists in dangerous
wars with the savages. In the year 1663 this system was
changed. The colony was constituted a royal govern¬
ment, and its governors were appointed by the king. At
this time the European inhabitants amounted to only 7000.
Various causes, however, concurred to retard the progress
of the colony. By the continued inroads of the savages,
the settlers were kept in continual alarm, and the wars
between Great ^Britain and France extended their destruc¬
tive effects to their colonies. The treaty of Utrecht in
1712 gave peace to Canada, and enabled the governor,
M. de Vaudreuil, to direct his sole attention to the im¬
provement of the province, the trade and agriculture of
which continued to prosper under his wise, firm, and vigi¬
lant administration. But war again breaking out between
Great Britain and France, the colonies were involved in
hostilities. It had been the policy of France to hem in
the English settlements in North America by a chain of
forts continued from Canada through the interior as far
as Louisiana. The jealousy of the English being kindled
J See Maceregor. Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada, by a Backwoodsman ; in which we have, within the compass of 120 pages, a
brief, clear, comprehensive exposition of the subject of emigration, combined with an exact knowledge of detail. See also The Canadas,
bv Andrew Picken, containing the present state of the Canadas, from original documents furnished by John Calt, i.scp
2 statistical Sketches, by a Backwoodsman. 3 See Picken’s work on the Canadas.
CAN CAN 69
^anal by this and other circumstances, it was resolved, in the
|| course of the war, which was begun in 1755, to send an
nanore. overwhelming force to North America, for the purpose of
expelling the French from that quarter of the world. The
armv which was sent out was divided into three corps,
one of which, under General Wolfe, was to advance against
Quebec ; another, under General Amherst, the command¬
er-in-chief, was to attempt the reduction of the forts at
Crown Point and Ticonderago ; and a third that of Niagara.
General Wolfe landing above Quebec, carried the heights
of Abraham, and defeated the French under the Marquis
of Montcalm, who, along with Wolfe himself, was killed in
the action. Quebec submitted in a few days, and soon after¬
wards Montreal and the whole country, which was finally
ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1763. Its prosperity
was considerably retarded by this revolution, by the change
of its administration, and by the intolerance of its Protes¬
tant conquerors, who viewed the Catholic religion with jea¬
lousy and dislike. But wiser counsels prevailed at home.
The Catholic religion was confirmed in all its rights and pri¬
vileges ; the French laws were retained; the original in¬
habitants, thus conciliated, became the faithful subjects of
their new sovereign ; and when all the other American co¬
lonies rebelled against the tyranny of the mother country,
they submitted to the imposition of the stamp act, and even
took up arms to defend the country against an inroad of
the American forces under Generals Montgomery and
Arnold. Since this period the colony has advanced in an
even tenor of prosperity, with little worthy of notice in its
history, until the year 1812, when a new war broke out
between the United States and Great Britain, and the
frontier of Canada again became the scene of military
operations. In the summer of that year the American
forces under General Hall entered Upper Canada, and
were completely defeated, and the greater part made
prisoners, by General Brock. Another strong body of
American troops collecting on the Niagara frontier, passed
over into Canada in November, and were completely de¬
feated on the heights of Queenstown by General Brock,
who was unfortunately slain in the action. The Ameri- Cananore.
cans renewed their attempts on the Niagara frontier with
no better success than before, and at the same time the
British were repulsed in an attack on Sackett’s harbour.
In January 1813 General Winchester was made prisoner,
with 500 of his troops; whilst the British were defeated
at Ogdersburg; and in the end of April the Americans
burnt the town of York, and remained masters of the Nia¬
gara frontier. But they were soon afterwards defeated near
Burlington, and obliged to retreat. To counterbalance
these successes, an attack on Sackett’s harbour by Sir G.
Prevost completely failed; the American commodore cap¬
tured all the British vessels on Lake Erie; and General
Proctor was defeated near Detroit. The British were
consequently obliged to retreat towards Burlington, and
an American army advanced in three divisions towards
Montreal. One of these divisions, amounting to 7000
troops, was defeated by the Canadian militia; and an¬
other division being repulsed, the whole American army
fell back to Sackett’s harbour and Plattsburg, and finally
retreated within their own territory. The campaign of
1814; was decidedly favourable to the Americans. They
were repulsed at first in attempting to invade Canada.
But the capture of Fort Erie by General Brown was an
important success ; whilst Sir George Prevost, who attack¬
ed Plattsburg with a force of 11,000 men, was repulsed
with great loss; and the British squadron fitted out on
Lake Champlain was completely defeated by the Ameri¬
can force under Commodore Macdonough. The British
were making great exertions to recover their ascendency
both by sea and land, when the treaty of Ghent, signed in
December 1814, happily terminated the war. Since this
period no event has occurred to interrupt the tranquillity
of those countries. Under the administration of the Earl
of Dalhousie the disputes which arose between the exe¬
cutive and the legislative bodies gave rise to a temporary
agitation ; but by timely concession all ground of ofience
was entirely removed under the administration of Sir
James Kempt. (f.)
CANAL, an artificial cut in the ground, supplied with
wrater from rivers, springs, and the like, in order to form
a navigable communication betwixt one place and another.
(See Navigation, Inland.)
Canal, in Anatomy, a duct or passage through which
any of the juices flow.
Canal de Principe, a channel on the north-west coast
of North America, formed by Bank’s Island on the south¬
west, and Pitt’s Archipelago on the north-east. It was
first explored by Signior Camaano, a Spaniard, who repre¬
sented it as fair and navigable. It is about fourteen leagues
long. The southern shore is compact and nearly straight,
and has no soundings. The northern shore is much broken,
bounded by many rocks and islets, and affords soundings
in several places. Both sides of this canal are entirely
covered with pine trees; and the shores abound with sea-
otters.
CANALE, a town of Italy, in the province of Alba, of
the kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the river Borbo,
and contains 3200 inhabitants, who produce some good
wine. There is a mine of rock salt near it.
CANANORE, a town and small district of Hindustan,
on the sea coast of the province of Malabar. The town
is situated at the bottom of a small bay, which is one of
the best on the coast; and it is defended by a fortress si¬
tuated on the point that forms the bay, which, since the
province has been ceded to the East India Company, has
been strengthened with works after the European fashion,
and is now the head-quarters of the province. The town
contains several good houses that belong to Mahommedan
merchants; and although the exports have been dimi¬
nished by the prevailing disturbances of the country, it still
carries on a flourishing trade. The people have no com¬
munication with the Maldives, although the sultan and
the inhabitants of these islands are Mahommedans.
The small district around Cananore extends nowhere
more than two miles from the glacis of the fort. It con¬
sists of low hills, very bare, but not of a bad soil, inter¬
spersed with narrow valleys; and the whole is cultivated
once in three, six, or nine years, according to the quality
of the soil. A very small proportion of it consists of low
rice ground, which is well drained, and carefully supplied
with water.
The proper name of Cananore is Canura. The Portu¬
guese landed here in 1501, and were the first Europeans
who visited this coast. They built a fort, the walls of
which have been recently improved. The Portuguese
were expelled by the Dutch in 1664, who sold it to a
native family, now represented by a female sovereign, a
Mahommedan, who is also sovereign of the Laccadive
Islands, and who pays an annual tribute of 14,000 rupees
to the East India Company. The family were, prior to
this, of very little consequence, and entirely dependent on
the Cherical rajahs ; but having acquired a fortress which
was considered as impregnable, they became powerful, and
were looked up to as the head of all the Mussulmans of
70
CAN
CAN
Canara.
Malayala. This princess has but a very small territory,
and she could not support herself without the assistance
of trade. She possesses, accordingly, several vessels, that
sail to Arabia, Bengal, Sumatra, and Surat, whence
horses, almonds, piece goods, sugar, opium, silk, benzoin,
and camphor, are imported. The exports principally con¬
sist of pepper and cardamums, sandal wood, coir, and
shark’s fins. Cananore is fifteen miles north-east of fel-
licherry, and 100 west-south-west of Seringapatam. Long.
75. 25. E. Lat. 11. 51. N.
CANARA, a province of Hindustan, extending from the
twelfth to the fifteenth degree of north latitude. It is a
narrow strip of territory, running along the western coast
of India, 200 miles in length by thirty-five in breadth;
and is hemmed in on the east by the great ridge of the
Ghaut Mountains. It is bounded on the north by the pro¬
vince of Bejapoor, on the south by Malabar, on the east
by Mysore and the Balaghaut territories, and on the west
by the Indian Ocean.
Canara is a corruption of Karnata, the table-land above
the Ghaut Mountains. It is a rocky and uneven country,
where cattle are scarce, and where, even when they can
be procured, they cannot always be employed; where
every spot, before it can be cultivated, must be levelled
by the hand of man ; and where even the land that has been
brought under cultivation, if it be neglected for a few years,
is soon broken into deep gullies by the heavy torrents of
rain which fall during the monsoons. The land is di¬
vided into small properties, and the country flourishes
from the minute attention bestowed by each proprietor
on his own little spot. It is not likely that Canara will
ever become a manufacturing country, as it does not pro¬
duce the necessary materials, and also on account of the
heavy rains, wdiich oppose insurmountable obstacles to all
operations which require to be carried on under a clear
sky. But these same rains give it a never-failing succes¬
sion of rice crops, which are exported to Malabar, Goa,
Bombay, and Arabia. “ Canara,” says Sir Thomas Munro,1
“ produces nothing but rice and cocoa nuts; its dry lands
are totally unproductive, so that the little wheat or other
dry grain that is raised is sown in the paddy fields, where
the water has been insufficient for the rice. It produces
hardly any pepper. The sandal wood for exportation
comes all from Nuggar and Soonda. The soil is perhaps
the poorest in India. The eternal rains have long wash¬
ed away the rich parts, if ever it had any, and left nothing
but sand and gravel.” In another letter he observes,
“ there is hardly a spot in Canara where one can walk
with any satisfaction, for the country is the most broken and
rugged perhaps in the world. The few narrow plains that
are in it are under water at one season ot the year ; and
during the dry weather the numberless banks which di¬
vide them make it very disagreeable and fatiguing to walk
over them. There is hardly such a thing as a piece of
gently rising ground in the whole country. All the high
grounds start up at once in the shape of so many invert¬
ed tea-cups, and they are rocky, covered with wood, and
difficult of ascent, and so crowded together that they leave
very little room for valleys between.” It was in ancient
times in a very flourishing state, while it remained under
its Hindu sovereigns, principally owing to the moderate
land tax to which it was subjected. An increase was
made of fifty per cent, to this tax under the Bednore fa¬
mily, besides many smaller additions, making twenty per
cent. more. But all these taxes were easily paid by the
inhabitants; and the country, if it did not advance in po¬
pulation and wealth, fully mairitained the position to which
it had attained. Canara was conquered by Hyder in
1762 ; and at that time it was a highly improved country,
filled with industrious inhabitants, who enjoyed a greater
degree of prosperity, and were more moderately taxed,
than the subjects of any native power in India. But no
sooner was its conquest completed than Hyder ordered
an investigation into every source of revenue, for the pur¬
pose of augmenting it wherever it could be done. These
exactions were augmented by his son Tippoo, who was
determined to relinquish no part of his father’s revenue,
and whose policy it was to hold one part of the proprietors
and husbandmen liable for the deficiencies of their neigh¬
bours. The effect of these violent regulations was to hasten
the extinction of all the ancient proprietors of the soil,
and to deteriorate the value of the lands until they be¬
came unsaleable. In this manner the agriculture of the
country was heavily oppressed ; and Canara, when it came
into the possession of the British, had completely fallen
from its ancient prosperity. It is said, in the report of the
principal collector of Canara,2 “ the evils which have been
accumulating in the country since it became a province
of Mysore have destroyed a great part of its former po¬
pulation, and rendered its inhabitants as poor as those of
the neighbouring countries.” The value of landed proper¬
ty has been greatly reduced; and those lands which are
worth any thing are reduced to a very small portion, and
lie chiefly between the Cundapoor and Chundergherry
rivers, and within five miles of the sea. But it is only
here and there even in this tract that lands are to be
found which can be sold at any price. There is scarcely any
saleable land even on the sea-coast to the northward of
Cundapoor, or any where except on the banks of the Man¬
galore and some of the other great rivers. The inland tracts
near the Ghaut Mountains are generally waste and over¬
grown with wood. By the oppressions of its conquerors
the population of the country has been diminished about
one third ; and the value of property has been reduced in an
equal proportion. “ It may be said,” observes the princi¬
pal collector, in his report, “ that this change in the con¬
dition of the country was brought about by the invasion
of Hyder; by the four wars which have happened since
that event; by Tippoo himself destroying many of the
principal towns on the coast, and forcing their inhabitants
to remove to Jumalabad and other unhealthy stations
near the hills; by his seizing in one night all the Chris¬
tian men, women, and children, amounting to above
60,000, and sending them into captivity into Mysore; by
the prohibition of foreign trade; and by the general cor¬
ruption of his government in all its departments.” These
circumstances, according to the opinion of the collector,
accelerated the change; “ but they probably,” he adds,
“ did not contribute to it so much as the extraordinary
augmentation of the land rents.” “ Whole villages,” says
Colonel Munro, who after the conquest of the country
was appointed by the Company to survey it, and to re¬
claim it from its wild and unsettled state, “ have in some
places been abandoned by the owners, from the exorbi¬
tance of the assessment; in others they are barely able
to keep their ground and to subsist; in others the rent is
so moderate that the lands are saleable.3
When Canara was ceded to the British, it was placed
under the management of Colonel Munro, by whose vigi¬
lance and activity order was gradually restored in the
Canara,
1 See Life of Sir Thomas Munro, chap. iv. Letter dated Huldipore, 20th December 1799.
3 See Fifth Report of a Select Committee on India Affairs, Appendix, p; 808.
5 See Life of Sir Thomas Munro, containing his interesting Letters, giving an account of his proceedings in this country.
CAN
t: ara.
O.
country, which had long been distracted by the wars and
violence of the rajahs and petty chieftains; the people
rejoiced in the protection they received, and the land re¬
venue was punctually realized. A great improvement is
also said to have taken place in the condition of the peo¬
ple, which has been exhibited in the dress, in the mode of
living, and in an addition to their personal comforts. This
may possibly be true; and the British government, under
which law and order were maintained, must have im¬
proved the condition of the great majority of the inhabi¬
tants. But the greatest blessing which the British could
have conferred on the country would have been a re¬
mission of the heavy and ruinous taxes laid on it by Ry¬
der Ali and his son Tippoo Saib. Here, however, they
appear to have hesitated; for they have always been too
eager to raise a large revenue. Extortion has still been
the erroneous policy of their government; nor have they
ever been so intent on protecting the people as on tax¬
ing them. A permanent settlement of the land tax is
generally recommended by the Company’s revenue col¬
lectors, as the approved remedy for all the evils which
afflict the country. But the permanency of a tax, if it be
exorbitant, is its worst evil; and the first care of an en¬
lightened government ought to be to lower the tax to a mo¬
derate standard; that is, to exact from the country no more
than may be necessary for the support of its civil esta¬
blishments. But the Company have always evinced the
greatest reluctance to reduce taxation. Thus the collec¬
tor of Canara, in his report, states, that “ had such an as¬
sessment as that introduced by Ryder and Tippoo exist¬
ed in ancient times, Canara would long ago have been
converted into a desert.” Yet in the face of this observa¬
tion he says, “ However much I disapprove of the nume¬
rous additions made to the ancient land rent by Ryder
and Tippoo, I did not think myself at liberty to depart
widely from the system which I found established, as it is
the same which exists in all the provinces the Company
have acquired in the last and former war. I have made
no other reductions in the assessment of Tippoo Sultan
than such as were absolutely necessary in order to insure
the collection of the rest.” The high assessment is con¬
sidered by Colonel Munro, whose enlightened and com¬
prehensive mind qualified him to be the legislator of those
newly conquered countries, as the great check to popula¬
tion ; and he conceives that, under the system which he
proposed, “ cultivation and population would increase so
much that, in the course of twenty-five years, lands, for¬
merly cultivated, amounting to star pagodas 5,55,962
(yielding a tax of about L.222,000), would be retrieved
and occupied, together with a considerable portion of
waste never before occupied j”1 and it is observed,2 that if
the exigencies of government allowed of'so great a sacri¬
fice as the remission of twenty-five or even fifteen per cent,
on the existing tax, “ we should consider the measure
highly advisable, and calculated to produce great ulterior
advantage.” But it is added, “ if the exigencies of the
Company’s government do not permit them to make so
great a sacrifice, if they cannot afford to give up a share
of the landlord’s rent, they must be indulgent landlords.”
I he whole rent of the soil was thus absorbed by the go¬
vernment tax, under the effects of which great part of the
country lay desolate; yet it is doubted whether the exi¬
gencies of the government will allow of any remission of
this exorbitant exaction. In Canara, however, remissions
to a certain extent did take place, extorted partly by the
necessities of the country, and partly by the earnest re-
CAN 71
presentations of Colonel, afterwards Sir Thomas Munro; Canara.
and owing to this and the equal protection of the British go-
vernment, the country soon began to revive from the state
in which it had languished under its former tyrants. The
tax is still about sixty per cent, of the landlord’s rent, and
about one third of the gross produce; and it is clear that
such an exorbitant tax must impede the improvement of
the country, and confine cultivation within comparatively
narrow limits. The judicial and revenue system introdu¬
ced by Lord Cornwallis into Bengal was afterwards ex¬
tended to the ceded countries, and to Canara among
others, where it produced the usual effects that attend
every violent subversion of the existing order of things;
and was followed by disorder and misery, and a great in¬
crease of crimes. Strenuous exertions have been since
made to correct this error, and to bring back the country
to its former state.
The principal trading ports in the province are Man¬
galore, Ankala, Onore, Cundapoor, Barkoor, and Becul.
These were formerly flourishing places, but they have
fallen into decay with the ruin of the country. Several
of them contain only a few beggarly inhabitants. Ho-
naver, once the second town in trade after Mangalore, has
not a single house; and Mangalore itself is greatly de¬
cayed. The trade, of which Mangalore is the chief em¬
porium, is not extensive. It exports to Arabia cardamums,
coir, pepper, moories, poon spars, rice, sandal-wood, oil,
betel-nut, ghee, and iron; to Goa, and to the Mahratta
countries, in considerable quantities, rice, horn, grain, and
tobacco. The imports from Arabia are dates, brimstone,
salt, fish, and horses; from Bombay, brimstone, sugar,
horses; and from the Mahratta countries, horses, shawls,
blue cloths, &c. {Fifth Report of the Select Committee on
India Affairs, Appendix ; Reports of the Revenue Collec¬
tors, Munro, Thackeray, Lord W. Bentinck, and F. Bu¬
chanan; Travels in Mysore; Hamilton’s East India Ga¬
zetteer.) (f.)
Canara, North. This division of Canara is situated
between the thirteenth and the fifteenth degrees of north¬
ern latitude, and contains three smaller districts of Cun¬
dapoor, Onore, and Ancola. On leaving Devakara, in
North Canara, commences the country of Karnata, which
extends below the Ghauts, and occupies all the defiles
leading to the mountains. Here the Western Ghauts,
although steep and stony, are by no means rugged or
broken with rocks. On the contrary, the stones are bu¬
ried in a rich mould; and the sides of the mountains are
clothed with the most stately forests, in which are seen
the finest bamboos and the most stately palms. There is
no underwood or creepers to interrupt the passage through
these woods; but they are infested with numerous tigers,
and the climate is very unhealthy. The district of An¬
cola is larger than the other two, though, having suffered
more severely from the ravages of Mahratta warfare, it
does not yield above half the revenue of the other two.
North Canara produces sandal-wood, trees, sugar-canes,
teak, wild cinnamon, nutmegs, and pepper. About mid¬
way up the Ghauts the teak becomes very common. In
many parts, as in the western districts of Soonda, the cul¬
tivation of gardens is the chief object of the farmer. In
these gardens are raised promiscuously betel-nut and be¬
tel-leaf, black pepper, cardamums, and plantains. To¬
wards the eastern side of the province there are very few
gardens. The land-tax on these gardens was raised by
Tippoo, in consequence of which many of them are now
waste. Major Munro, after the country came into the
1 See Fifth Report of the Select Committee on India Affairs, Appendix, No. 30; Report of Board of Revenue, and Proceedings
of Madras Government as to the measure of establishing Triennial Village Leases in the unsettled Countries, &c.
* Ibid.
72 C A N
Canara. possession of the British, reduced the rent to the former
standard. But a greater indulgence was expected by the
people before they would begin to plant, io the east of
Soonda the great object of cultivation is rice; and al¬
though the rains are not so heavy as to the westward, yet
in cooling seasons, on a moist soil, they are sufficient to
bring to maturity a crop of rice that requires six months
to ripen. A few of the highest fields are cultivated with
a kind of rice that ripens in three months. To the north
of Battacolla a great portion of the soil is poor. About
Beiluru are many groves of the tree from the seeds or
which is expressed the common lamp-oil of the countiy.
The sea coast is chiefly occupied by villages of the
Brahmins. The interior belongs to other castes, who pur¬
sue, some of them agriculture, and others tiade. Some of
them, who are of the purest descent, are cultivators or
soldiers, and, as usual among this class of Hindoos, are
-strongly addicted to robbery; and by a long couise of li¬
centiousness during the anarchy which prevailed in Ca¬
nara, they have acquired habits of extraordinary cruelty,
and even compelled many Brahmins to follow their cus¬
toms, and to assume their caste. The principal towns in
North Canara are Battacolla, Ancola, Carwar, Mirjaow,
and Onore. The rivers by winch the country is watered,
from the short intervals between the country and the
sea, are of no great magnitude, being generally mountain
streams. (F0
Canara, South, is situated between the twelfth and
fourteenth degrees of northern latitude; and is separated
from the province of Malabar by a wide inlet of the sea.
It is called Tulava by the Hindus, and South Canara by
the British. It is a strip of land along the sea coast,
rising as it approaches the Ghaut Mountains; and the soil
becomes gradually less adapted for grain as it recedes from
the sea. ' The best in quality extends from Mangalore to
•Buntwalla. The banks of the river Mangalore, which in
the rainy season is very large, are very beautiful and rich ;
and the" whole country resembles that of Malabar, only
that the terraces on the sides of the hills have been formed
with less care than in Malabar. Much of the rice land
is so well watered by springs and rivulets, that it produces
a constant succession of crops of that grain, one crop being
sown as soon as the preceding one is cut. The soil which
is second in quality is that which extends from Buntwalla
to Punjalcutta, and the worst is that which extends from
this place to the hills. There the rains are so excessive
that they injure the crops of rice; but this inland portion
of the country is very favourable for plantations. About
Cavila, east of Mangalore, some of the hills are covered
with tall thick forests, in which the teak tree abounds.
From Urigara to Hopodurga the country near the sea is
low and sandy, and too poor to produce even cocoa-nuts.
This country has been dreadfully depopulated by the ra¬
vages of war. It suffered severely in its conquest by
Tippoo, and by subsequent tyranny. It had been pre¬
viously shared among petty princes and numerous feuda¬
tories, who were all forced to retire before the armies of
Tippoo, and to fly into the woods to avoid circumcision, a
rite which was invariably forced upon them, in order to
make them good Mahommedans; and it generally had this
effect, for after suffering such an infliction from Tippoo,
they lost their caste, and had therefore no alternative left.
The inner parts of the country are much overgrown with
woods, and very thinly inhabited.
The sugar-cane is cultivated on the low ground; but
very small quantities only are raised, and that entirely
by the native Christians. Between the rows of sugar¬
cane are raised some cucurbitaceous plants, and some
kitchen stuffs that soon come to maturity. On the high¬
est of rice land, where water may be had by digging to a
CAN
little depth, some people, chiefly Christians, cultivate cap- Canarie?
sicum. In the back gardens of the houses are cultivated
ginger, turmeric, capsicum, greens, roots, &c. The ex¬
ports by land consist chiefly of salt, salt-fish, betel-nut,
ginger, cocoa-nuts, cocoa-nut oil, and raw silk. Ihe im¬
ports by land are chiefly cloths, cotton, thread, blankets,
tobacco, and black cattle, with a small quantity of pepper
and sandal-wood.
The chief inhabitants are Moplays (Mahommedans), who
possess the sea coast, as the Nairs do the interior. It is
observed by Dr Buchanan, that the occupiers of land in
this district are richer than those of Malabar; but he adds,
that the universal cry of poverty which prevails all over
India, and the care with which, owing to long oppression,
every thing is concealed, render it extremely difficult to
know the real circumstances of the cultivator. He con¬
cludes, however, from the obstinate contest which takes
place for the possession of the land, that the cultivators
have still a considerable interest in the soil. It appears,
however, from the evidence of other collectors, that the
inhabitants manifest in this way their regard to their pa¬
ternal inheritance, for which they contend to the last;
and when their interest as proprietors is lost in the increase
of the assessment, they remain tilling the ground in the
humble capacity of cultivators. There is no doubt that
they never wrere so completely subdued by a foreign con¬
queror as the greater part of the Hindoos, and always re¬
tained the title to their lands, which their rulers were
never able entirely to take from them. When the province
accordingly was conquered by the British, they found the
landholders possessed of the clearest titles to their respec¬
tive properties, which were recognised by the lawr of the
country, as well as by immemorial usage. The chief towns
of South Canara are Barcelore, Mangalore, and Callianpoor.
A number of Christians, to the amount of about 800,000,
had been ordered to settle in this country by the ancient
Hindu princes, with whom they had been in great favour.
They were all of Concan descent, and retained their own
language, dress, and manners. They were educated in a
seminary at Goa, where they were instructed in the Por¬
tuguese and Latin languages, and in the doctrines of the
Roman church. About this period twenty-seven Chris¬
tian churches existed in Tulava, each ruled by a vicar,
and the whole under the control of a vicar-general, sub¬
ject to the archbishop of Goa. Tippoo, when he con¬
quered the country, proved himself to be the great perse¬
cutor of the Christian religion, throwing the priests into
dungeons, destroying the churches, and forcing the laity
to assume the Mahommedan creed. After the conquest of
the country by the British, many of these persecuted re¬
fugees returned and resumed their former faith; 15,000
came back to Mangalore and its vicinity; 10,000 made
their escape from Tippoo to Malabar, whence they also
have retired. These people are of quiet, sober, and in¬
dustrious habits, and their superiority is acknowledged
by the neighbouring Hindus. The Jain sect abound
more in this province than in any other throughout India,
and many of their temples are to be seen. Like other
Hindus, they are divided into many sects, which cannot
intermarry. (F. Buchanan’s Journey from Madras through
the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar.) (f.)
CANARIES, a group of fine islands situated at some
distance from the western coast of Africa, in the At¬
lantic Ocean. They are thirteen in all; but only three,
Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Fuerteventura, can be called
large; Palma, Lancerota, Gomera, and Ferro, are compa¬
ratively small; while Graciosa, Rocca, Allegranza, St
Clara, Inferno, and Lobos, are little more than rocks.
They lie between 29. 26. and 27. 39. north latitude, and
13. 20. and 18. 10. west longitude. This group was im-
CANA
anaries. perfectly known to the ancients, yet celebrated by them
under the appellation of “ the Fortunate Islands.” Ptole¬
my made them his first meridian, in which he has been
followed by many of the moderns. They were, however,
in a great measure forgotten, till, in 1344, Louis de la
Cerda, infant of Spain, procured a donation of them from
the Romish see; and several expeditions were sent to
take possession of them, but were for some time repuls¬
ed with loss. In 1402, however, John de Bethencourt, a
French nobleman, made himself master of Lancerota and
Ferro. In 1464 Herrera, a Castilian gentleman, who had
married the heiress of Bethencourt, landed with a larger
force on Canary and Teneriffe. Fresh reinforcements
were continually sent; and after a long and chequered
struggle with the Guanches, the brave native inhabitants,
the latter were completely subdued; and through the
combined action of the sword and the inquisition the race
was finally exterminated. M. Bory de St Vincent has
published his Essay on the Fortunate Islands, in which,
besides giving the result of his own observations, he has
collected, with great industry, all that is to be found in
the Spanish writers on the subject. M. de Humboldt, also,
who in his way to South America ascended the Peak of
Teneriffe, has communicated, in his Personal Narrative, a
number of learned and curious remarks,
ginal It is not proposed to follow M. Bory de St Vincent into
abi- his speculation concerning the ancient Atlantic continent,
lts" of which the Canaries appear to him to have composed a
fragment, because the whole theory seems to us destitute of
any solid foundation. He has collected, however, from the
early Spanish historians, a variety of particulars respecting
that singular people the Guanches. They appear to have
considerably surpassed in civilization both the inhabitants
of the West India islands and those of the opposite* conti¬
nent of Africa. The most remarkable of their customs,
and of which monuments still remain, was that of embalm¬
ing the bodies of their dead. This operation was perform¬
ed by extracting the intestines, washing the whole body
with salt water, and filling the large cavities with aroma¬
tic plants. The bodies were then dried in the heat of the
sun, or, if that was wanting, in a stove. Where this me¬
thod was too expensive, corrosive liquids, calculated to
destroy the intestines, were merely poured down the throat
previous to desiccation. The embalming was completed
usually in about fifteen days, after which the body was
sewed up in several folds of goat-skin, placed in a chest or
coffin cut out of a single piece of wood, and finally lodged
in a grotto excavated from the rock, the entrance of which
was carefully guarded. These mummies, or xaxos as they
are called, when found at the present day, are of a tan¬
ned colour, and usually of an agreeable odour. They are
often perfectly well preserved, particularly the hair; the
features are distinct, but drawn back; and the belly is
sunk. On being taken out of the goat-skins, and exposed
to the air, they fall gradually into dust.
The Spanish authors have translated some specimens of
the poetry of the Guanches, which display considerable
imagination and sensibility. The females appear to have
been treated with a respect very unusual among savage
tribes. In the island of Lancerota a plurality of husbands
is said to have prevailed, as in Thibet. There were a spe¬
cies of vestal priestesses, called Malgades, who were held
in the utmost veneration, and supposed to enjoy peculiar
communication with the divinity. The form of govern¬
ment was highly aristocratic. A tradition prevailed that
the nobles were created first, and had the property of the
earth and of all its productions vested in them; after which
a supplementary creation took place of beings destined
solely to perform the office of slaves. They had a king,
however, but of limited power. There are reports of the
VOL. VI.
R I E S. 73
existence among the Guanches of a race of giants; and Canaries,
the Spanish annals mention one chief who was nine, and
another who was fourteen feet in height; but these are
evidently fables, such as may be found in the early tradi¬
tions of every nation.
The Guanches have long been entirely extinct. They
made a vigorous resistance to the invaders ; but the sword
of the Spaniards, aided by a pestilential disorder, soon
swept entirely this ancient population from the face of
these islands.
The information furnished by Humboldt relates chiefly
to the physical aspect and present state of the Canaries.
In ascending the Peak of Teneriffe he found five zones of
vegetation. The first was that of vines, rising about two
or three hundred toises above the sea, and forming the only
part of the island which is much inhabited or carefully
cultivated. Here corn, the vine, the olive, the fruit trees
of Europe, the date, the plantain, the Indian fig, the arum
colocasia, are found in a flourishing state. The bread-fruit,
cinnamon, coffee, and cocoa, have been tried with success.
The second zone, or that of the laurels, contains the
wooded part of Teneriffe. It contains four species of
laurel, an oak resembling the quercus Turneri of Thibet,
a native olive, the largest tree of this zone, and several
species of myrtle. The third zone, beginning at the height
of 900 toises, and extending 400 upwards, consists entire¬
ly of a vast pine forest. The tree resembled the Scotch
fir; but M. Humboldt not having an opportunity of exa¬
mining the fructification, could not determine whether
there was any thing peculiar in the species. The fourth and
fifth zones, called those of the Retama and the Gramina,
consist of an immense plain, or rather sea, of sand, covered
with pumice stones and large blocks of obsidian. In its
lower part are scattered tufts of the retama (spartiumnu-
higenum of Aiton), a beautiful plant, whose odoriferous
flowers render delicious the flesh of the goats who feed
upon them. At the upper end of the plain grasses and
lichens faintly struggle against the volcanic matter. At
1530 toises above the sea they reached a station common¬
ly called the English Halt, consisting of a cavern inclosed
between two rocks. Here they spent the night, suffering
considerably from cold. Next morning, after two hours’
walk, they came to a small plain called Alta Vista, where
persons called Neueros were collecting snow for the use
of the inhabitants of the coast. Here commence the Mal-
pays, a tract entirely destitute of mould, and covered with
fragments of lava, which, sinking beneath the feet, render¬
ed the ascent very laborious. The guides now earnestly
dissuaded them from proceeding farther, and were found,
on examination, never to have themselves reached the
summit. At the extremity of the Malpays, however, the
travellers came to a small plain, whence they saw rising
the cone of the piton. This hillock is extremely steep, and
is so covered with volcanic ashes and fragments of pumice
stone, as to render the ascent scarcely possible. They
succeeded only by following a current of old lava, the
wrecks of which formed a wall of scorious rocks, by grasp¬
ing the points of which, in half an hour, they reached the
top. This volcano appeared to Humboldt the most diffi¬
cult to ascend of any he had seen, except that of Jorullo
in Mexico.
On arriving at the summit, our traveller was surprised
to find scarcely room to sit down. The crater was in¬
closed with a small circular wall of porphyritic lava, with
a basis of pitchstone. This wall, at a little distance, has
the appearance of a small cylinder or a truncated cone.
It would have entirely blocked up the approach to the
crater, had there not been a breach on the east side,
through which they descended into the funnel. They
found it of an elliptic form, 300 feet in length and 200 in
K
74 CANA
Canaries, breadth. It is remarkable that these dimensions are
onty a fifth part of those of the crater of Vesuvius. In
fact, very lofty volcanoes usually throw out the matter by
lateral openings, so that some of the greatest among the
Andes have very small apertures at the summit. I he in¬
side of the funnel indicated the appearance of a crater
which had not thrown out fire for thousands of years.
There were none of those layers of scoriae and ashes which
mark recent volcanic action; the floor was strewed with
fragments of stony lavas, which the action of time had de¬
tached from the sides. The strata along the edges were
very irregularly piled over each other, exhibiting various
grotesque ramifications. The inclosing wall is snow white
at its surface, owing to the action of sulphuric acid gas
on pitchstone porphyry. The aspect ot the whole is ra¬
ther curious than awful. “ The majesty of the site con¬
sists in its elevation above the level of the ocean, in the
profound solitude of those lofty regions, and the immense
space over which the eye ranges.”
The view from this point is described by Humboldt as
interesting in a very peculiar manner. He observes,
“ Travellers have learnt by experience, that views from
the summit of very lofty mountains are neither so beauti¬
ful, picturesque, nor varied, as those from the summit of
heights which do not exceed that of Vesuvius, Riga, or
Puy-de-Dome. Colossal mountains, such as Chimborazo,
Antisana, or Mount Rosa, compose so large a mass, that
the plains, covered with rich vegetation, are seen only in
the immensity of distance, where a blue and vapoury tint
is uniformly spread over the landscape. The Peak of
Teneriffe, from its slender form and local position, unites
the advantages of less lofty summits to those which rise
from very great heights. We not only discover from its
top a vast expanse of sea, hut we see also the forests of
Teneriffe, and the inhabited part of the coasts, in a proxi¬
mity fitted to produce the most beautiful contrasts of form
and colouring. The volcano seems as if it crushed with
its mass the little isle which serves for its basis, and shoots
up from the bosom of the waters to a height three times
loftier than the region where the clouds float in the sum¬
mer.” The remarkable transparency of the atmosphere
increases greatly the apparent proximity in which the
hamlets, vineyards, and gardens on the coast are beheld.
The Peak appeared to Humboldt to be composed en¬
tirely of volcanic products, without any mixture of primi¬
tive rocks. It is peculiarly distinguished by the vast
quantity of obsidian, a substance not found in the imme¬
diate vicinity of almost any other volcano. It alternates
with, and passes into pumice, in a manner which convin¬
ced our traveller that pumice was merely tumefied obsi¬
dian. These two rocks, together with a porphyry consist¬
ing of vitreous lava in a basis of pitchstone, composed the
whole upper part of the Peak. Although the crater was
entirely silent, yet, near the summit, vapour, which con¬
densed into pure water, issued from different spiracles,
called the Nostrils of the Peak.
The active volcanoes of Teneriffe are considered by
Humboldt as merely lateral eruptions of the great vol¬
cano. The only one recently in operation is the volcano
of Cahorra, situated on the west side of the Peak. After
a long silence, it began its discharge on the night of the
8th of June 1798. A hollow and stifled sound was first
heard, like that of distant thunder; then a louder noise,
like that of matter in violent ebullition ; after which ano¬
ther sound, which resembled a great discharge of artillery.
A short interval still elapsed, till the liquefied substances
began to ascend. Four mouths were opened, of which
the two highest threw up only red-hot stones. The third
poured out lava, but slowly; and it is fortunately surround¬
ed by a rampart of rocks, the interval between which
R I E S.
and the volcano must be filled up before the stream could Canariesu
reach the cultivated fields.
Humboldt observed the other islands merely by sailing
along their coasts. Lancerota exhibited every mark of
having been recently overwhelmed by volcanic agency.
This appears to have taken place in 1730, when nine vil¬
lages were entirely destroyed. The summit of its great
volcano did not appear to exceed 300 toises. The coast
of Graciosa is distinguished by rocks of basalt 500 or 600
feet in height, which frown in perpendicular walls over the
ocean, like the ruins of vast edifices. One of them so ex¬
actly resembled a castle, that the French captain saluted
it, and sent a boat on shore to make some inquiries of the
governor.
All the rocks which Humboldt observed were thus either
volcanic or of very recent trap formation. M. Brousson-
net, however, who spent a long time upon these islands,
stated that Gomera was composed of the primitive rocks
of granite and mica slate. The Grand Canary has never
been explored; but it struck Humboldt as wearing a dif¬
ferent aspect from the rest, its mountains being disposed
in parallel chains.
The eastern side of the island of Teneriffe is entirely
naked and barren, but the northern and western sides are
beautiful and fertile. It does not produce two thirds of
the corn necessary for its own consumption, but is sup¬
plied from the other islands. Santa Cruz, the Capital, is
situated on the eastern side, the convenience of the har¬
bour and situation compensating for the barrenness of the
surrounding country. It supports itself by trade, forming
as it were a great caravanserai between Spain and the In¬
dies. English ships often touch at this port for fresh pro¬
visions, which are obtained of excellent quality, though
chiefly from the neighbouring island of Canary. The ap¬
pearance of this city, which exhibits houses of dazzling
whiteness, with flat roofs, and windows without glass,
stuck against a perpendicular wall of basaltic rocks, ap¬
peared very unpleasing to Humboldt. The streets, how¬
ever, are neat, with foot-walks on each side. The houses
within are remarkably spacious; the halls and galleries
so extensive as, in M. Bory de St Vincent’s opinion, to
exclude the comfortable feeling of a house, and rather to
suggest that of an open space. The roadstead is excel¬
lent, and forms the chief recommendation of Santa Cruz.
The harbour is well built, but the landing difficult, and
even dangerous. The population is estimated at about
8000 souls.
Laguna is, the nominal capital of Teneriffe, and contains
the tribunals belonging to the island; but since the vol¬
cano of 1706 destroyed its port of Garachico, then the
finest on the island, its commerce has been supplanted by
that of Santa Cruz, and it has been in a state of rapid de¬
cline. It still, however, contains 9000 inhabitants. The
situation is beautiful, about 350 toises higher than that of
Santa Cruz, and crowned by a wood of laurel, myrtle, and
arbutus, which maintains a delightful coolness. The situa¬
tion of Orotova is still finer, and it is refreshed by nume¬
rous rivulets passing even through the streets. Its aspect,
however, is gloomy and deserted, and it is chiefly inha¬
bited by a haughty race of nobility. The population
amounts to 7000, with 3000 in its port of Santa Cruz. The
road is bad.
The other islands have been very little examined. The
Grand Canary is said to surpass Teneriffe in fertility, but
has been much neglected. Its chief town, Ciudad de las
Palmas, contains upwards of 9000 inhabitants, and is the
ecclesiastical capital of the islands. Lancerota and Fuer-
teventura are the most arid, and their soil so nearly re¬
sembles that of the African continent, that the camel has
been introduced with success.
lancar
I' II
'ancer.
CAN
CAN
75
The following statement is given by Humboldt of the
progressive population of the dilferent islands :—
Teneriffe  
Grand Canary.
Palma 
Lancerota 
Fuerteventura.
Gomera 
Ferro 
Total.
^ FL
O)
73
60
27
26
63
14
7
POPULATION IN
1678. 1745. 1768. 1790.
49,112
20,458
13,892
4,373
3,297
270
60,218
33,864
17,580
7,210
7,382
6,251
3,687
66,354
41,082
19,195
9,705
8,863
6,645
4,022
70,000
50,000
22,600
10,000
9,000
7,400
5,000
136,192 155,866 174,000
Hassel reckons 181,000; but Tarrente (Geografia Uni¬
versal, 1828) states the result of the last census to be
196,517. He does not, however, give the distribution of
this number among the different islands.
The inhabitants are said to be of an active and indus¬
trious disposition. They have emigrated in great num¬
bers to the different parts of South America, where they
are supposed to be as numerous as in their native islands.
They are fond of considering these as a portion of Euro¬
pean Spain, to whose literature they have made some not
unimportant additions, by the labours of Clavijo, Vieyra,
Yrairte, and Betancourt. A most formidable list of pro¬
hibited books is exhibited at Laguna, but this only whets
their avidity for these forbidden treasures.
The chief article of export is wine, of which the average
produce in Teneriffe is estimated by M. Bory de St Vincent
at 22,000 pipes. Lord Macartney reckons 25,000, and Mr
Anderson (in Cook’s Third Voyage) 40,000; but this last
amount is doubtless greatly exaggerated. A large propor¬
tion is consumed in the island; the export, chiefly to Bri¬
tain and America, amounts to 8000 or 9000 pipes. The
other exports are brandy, raw silk, soda, and some fruits,
which, however, are not equal in quality to those of Por¬
tugal. The revenue amounts to 242,000 piastres, (e.)
Canary-Bird. See Ornithology.
CANCAR, Cancao, Ponthiames, a sea-port of Cam¬
bodia, situated on a river which discharges itself into the
sea, on the eastern coast of Siam. It was attacked by
the Siamese in 1717, and since that period it has fallen
into decay. There still reside here many Chinese, who
export betel-nut, various valuable kinds of wood, metals,
cotton, and other articles, and import tea, cutlery, wear¬
ing apparel, and other manufactures. Long. 104. 5. E.
Lat. 10. 5. N.
C ANCELLI, a term used to denote latticed windows, or
those made of cross bars disposed latticewise. It is also
used for rails or balusters inclosing the communion-table,
a court of justice, or the like, ancLfor the net-work in the
inside of hollow bones.
CANCER, in Astronomy, one of the twelve signs, re¬
presented on the globe in the form of a crab, and thus
marked (05) in books. The reason generally assigned for
its name, as well as figure, is a supposed resemblance which
the sun’s motion in this sign bears to that of the crab-fish.
As the latter walks backwards, so the former, in this part
of his course, begins to go backwards, or recede from us ;
though the disposition of stars in this sign is by others sup¬
posed to have given the first hint of the representation of
a crab.
Tropic of Cancer, in Astronomy, a lesser circle of the
sphere parallel to the equator, and passing through the
beginning of the sign Cancer.
CANCERRE, an arrondissement of the department of
the Cher, in France. It is eight hundred and sixteen
square miles in extent, and is divided into eight cantons,
and these into seventy-five communes. The inhabitants
are 64,100. The chief place is a city near the river Loire,
with only 2500 inhabitants. Long. 2. 45. 15. E. Lat. 47.
16. 53. N.
Cancer
li
Candahar.
CANCHERIZANTE, or Cancherizato, in the Ita¬
lian music, a term signifying a piece of music that begins
at the end, being the retrograde motion from the end of a
song, or other composition, to the beginning.
CANCON, a market-town of the department of the Lot
and Garonne, in France, with 2212 inhabitants.
C AND A, a town of Italy, in the delegation of Polesina,
in the Austrian dominions. It is situated on the river
Castagnaro, near its junction with the Tartaro, and the
canal Bianco. It contains 3200 inhabitants, who carry on
a great trade in flax.
CANDAHAR, or Kandahar, an extensive province of
Afghanistan, situated between the 31st and 34th degrees
of north latitude, and between the 64th and 68th degrees
of east longitude. To the north it is bounded by the coun¬
try of Balk, to the south by Beloochistan, and on the
east it has Sinde and Beloochistan ; and on the west a
sandy desert of various breadth divides it from the pro¬
vince of Seistan, in Persia. Part of this province consists
of mountains, and part of arid and uncultivated plains,
crossed by ranges of hills running westward from the Pa-
ropamisan Mountains. But though the general appearance
of the country be waste and barren, most parts of it sup¬
ply water and forage to the pastoral hordes by whom it is
frequented; and it is not destitute of many well-water¬
ed and pleasant valleys, and some fertile plains, surround¬
ed by mountains. The western part of this tract is by no
means so mountainous as the northern ; and in former
times it was a fertile and well-inhabited region, as appears
from many magnificent ruins that are scattered over it.
From Candahar a tract ofvery considerable extent stretches
westward for upwards of two hundred miles. Its general
breadth is a hundred miles. This tract is very imperfect¬
ly defined, the hills on the north sometimes running into
the plain, and the southern parts of the inhabited country
not being easily distinguished from the desert on which
they border. The aspect of this country approaches to
that of a desert. Scarce a tree is to be found in the whole
region ; the plains are covered merely with low bushes.
Through this arid region many various streams diffuse oc¬
casional fertility. The banks of the Furrah, the Khaush,
and other streams, are well cultivated, and produce wheat,
barley, pulse, and abundance of excellent melons. Even
at a distance from the streams some patches of cultivation
are to be found, which are artificially watered. There are
villages among the cultivated lands; but the mass of the
inhabitants are scattered over the face of the country in
tents. The banks of the Helmund must, however, bd ex¬
cepted from the general unproductive character of the
country, along which a fertile strip extends about two
miles in breadth, beyond which the sandy desert begins,
and stretches out for many days journey. To the north¬
ward of this desert tract is a hilly region, dependent on
the Paropamisan range, which includes fertile plains, that
are well watered, and produce abundance of wheat, bar¬
ley, and rice, together with madder and artificial grasses.
On these plains grow the tamarisk and the mulberry,
and a few willows and poplars; and the orchards con¬
tain all the fruit trees of Europe. The country around
the city of Candahar is level, of tolerable fertility, irriga-
76 CAN CAN
Candahar. ted both by water courses from the rivers and springs, and
most industriously cultivated. It abounds in grain, good
vegetables, excellent fruit; in madder, assafcetida, lucern,
clover, and tobacco, which is in great repute.
The wild animals of this country are leopards, bears,
wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, deer, hares, boars, and the
wild ass. The tame animals are camels, horses, cattle,
mules, asses, sheep, goats, dogs, &c. They have also a
few buffaloes. The country produces no metals, nor has
it any peculiar manufactures. But as the road between
India and Persia passes through it, it has a considerable
transit trade. Besides the Dooraunees, one of the chief
tribes of the Afghan country, there are in Candahar Hin¬
dus, Persians, Belooches, and Taujiks. The Taujiks ge¬
nerally inhabit towns, and follow different trades. The
bankers and shop-keepers are all Hindus.
Candahar, the capital of the above province, and a
large and populous city. Its form is that of an oblong
square; and as it was built at once on a fixed plan, it has
the advantage of great regularity. All the four great
streets or bazars in the city meet in a central point, where
there is a circular space of about forty or fifty yards in
diameter, covered with a dome. This place is called the
Chaursoo. It is surrounded with shops, and may be con¬
sidered as the public market-place, where proclamations
are made, and where the bodies of criminals are exposed
to the view of the populace. The four streets are each
about fifty yards broad. The sides consist of shops of the
same size and plan, all one story in height, with the lofty
houses of the town overlooking them from behind ; and in
front runs an uniform veranda, along the whole length of
the street. There are gates at the entrance of the streets,
with the exception of the northern one, where stands the
king’s palace facing the Chaursoo. All the other streets
run from these four; and though they are narrow, they
are all straight, and almost all cross each other at right
angles. This city, however, though it is more regular in
its plan than most of the cities of Asia, has but a mean
appearance, being built for the most part of brick, often
with no other cement than mud. It is divided into vari¬
ous quarters, which are attached to the respective tribes
and nations which form the inhabitants of the city. Al¬
most all the great nobles of the Dooraunee tribe have
houses in Candahar, and some of them are said to be
large and elegant. Among the common people the Hin¬
dus have the best houses, which they are in the practice
of building very high. There are many caravanserais and
mosques ; but of the latter, one only near the palace is
said to be handsome. The palace is not remarkable ; but
it contains several courts, many buildings, and a private
garden. Near the palace stands the tomb of Ahmed Shah,
which is not a large building, but has a handsome cupola,
and is elegantly painted, gilt, and otherwise ornamented
within. It is held in high veneration, and is a sure asylum,
from which the king does not even venture to drag his
enemies. It is also common for any of the great lords
who are discontented with the world, to retire to this
tomb, and to spend the remainder of their lives in prayer.
The city is well watered by two large canals from the river
Urghundaub, which are crossed in different places by small
bridges. From these canals small water-courses run to
almost every street in the town, which are in some parts
open, and in others are under ground. Candahar is a
place of great trade and resort; its streets are crowded
from noon till evening; all sorts of trades are carried on in
it; and all articles of manufacture from the west are in
much greater plenty and perfection than at Peshawer.
The Turcoman merchants from Buckharia and Samarcand
^ frequent the markets of Candahar, whence they transport
into their own country a considerable quantity of indigo
and other commodities. Candahar so far differs from the Candia.
other cities in Afghanistan, that the greater part of the
inhabitants are Afghans, and of these the greater number
of the Dooraunee tribe. But the rude institutions and
manners of the Afghans are here superseded by regular
government and an efficient police. (See Afghanistan.)
The other inhabitants are the same as those in the province,
being an assemblage from the different nations of the East.
Candahar is surrounded with gardens and orchards, and
many places of worship, which are more frequently scenes
of pleasure than of devotion. About two miles to the north
of the city stands the fortress of Candahar, on the top of
a precipitous rock, which, before the introduction of can¬
non, was considered impregnable. This fortress was in
very early times the residence of a Hindu prince. In the
beginning of the eleventh century it was in possession of
the Afghan tribes, from whom it was taken by Sultan Mah¬
moud of Ghizne. It was afterwards captured by the troops
of Ghenghis Khan in the beginning of the thirteenth cen¬
tury, and by those of Timour in the fourteenth. In 1507 it
was taken by the Emperor Baber, but was soon afterwards
recovered by the Afghans. In 1521 Baber again got posses¬
sion of it, after a long siege. Homayon, the son of Baber,
when he was expelled from the throne of Hindustan, agreed
to make over the fort and district of Candahar to thePei’sian
monarch, in return for the aid which he gave him. But re¬
penting of his promise, he again got possession of the for¬
tress, which by its strength defied all the efforts of the
Persians to reduce it, and it remained an appendage of
Hindustan until the year 1625, when it was taken by Shah
Abbas the Great, and being surrendered by treachery, was
recovered in 1649, and was successfully defended against
Aurungzebe with an army of 50,000 men. Three years
after, he was again compelled to retreat from it with dis¬
grace. It remained in possession of Persia till 1709, when
it was taken by an Afghan tribe. It was retaken by Nadir
Shah, after a siege of two years; and on his assassina¬
tion, it was taken in 1747 by Ahmed, the chief of the Ab-
dallies, who thereby laid the foundation of the Afghan
power. We have no information as to the population.
Elphinstone, to whom we are indebted for the preceding
account, says, “ I am utterly at a loss to fix the extent of
Candahar, or the number of inhabitants which it con¬
tains.” The travelling distance from Delhi by Cabul is
1071 miles ; from Calcutta, 2047 miles. (Foster’s Journey
from Bengal to England; Rennell’s Memoir of a May
of Hindustan ; Elphinstone’s Account of the Kingdom of
Cabul.) (f.)
CANDESH. See Khandesh.
CANDIA, a city, the capital of the island and pro¬
vince of the same name, in the Mediterranean. It is the
residence of a pasha, and of the Greek archbishop, who
is called Archbishop of Gortyna, and primate of Kirid
or Candia. It stands on a point of land in a bay, before
which the island of Sandia is a protection to the harbour,
which, though formerly good, is now nearly choked with
mud. It is fortified with high walls, deep ditches, and
several outworks, which are kept in good order. The
streets are regular and level, and the houses well built.
There are fourteen mosques, a Greek cathedral and
church, an Arminian church, and a Catholic monastery,
with its chapel. The inhabitants consist of about 12,000
Turks, 3000 Greeks, and 1000 other persons. The prin¬
cipal fabric is soap, the preparation of which consumes the
greater part of the oil which the island yields. There are,
besides, some silk and cotton goods made; much rosin
is prepared here; and there are several distilleries for
brandy.
Candia, an island in the Mediterranean, south from
the Grecian Archipelago, the ancient Crete. It is situat-
andia
II
indidati.
CAN
ed between the longitude 22. 45. and 26. 50. E. and the
latitude 34. 50. and 35. 55. N., and extends over 3130
square miles, or 2,003,200 English acres. According to
Olivier, the inhabitants were 240,000 individuals, half
Greeks and half Turks; but Savary estimates the Turks
at 200,000, and the Greeks at 150,000. It is probable that
the first calculation is nearest the truth, although in an¬
cient times the population must have been much more
dense.
The island is for the most part mountainous. A lofty
ridge runs from east to west, in the centre of which are
the highest peaks, some upwards of 7000 feet in height, in
certain parts of which snow is always to be found, as is ge¬
nerally the case at Mount Ida, now called Psiloriti. Be¬
tween the mountains are some most delightful valleys, of
great natural fertility, but ill cultivated, and producing
less than is sufficient for the wants of its scanty popula¬
tion. Candia commonly draws a part of its corn from Sa-
lonica, the Morea, or Egypt. For raising wheat the land
is merely once scratched with the plough; and barley
is sown on the wheat stubble without ploughing. The land
produces abundance of esculent vegetables and choice
fruits ; but the chief production is oil, by the exportation of
which, and of the soap made wdth it, the inhabitants are
enabled to procure commodities of various kinds from
other countries. There are none but domestic manufac¬
tures. The island is governed by a pasha of three tails,
and is divided into three districts, viz. Candia, Retimo,
and Canea, each of which is ruled by a pasha of two tails.
Candia, a town of Italy, in the province of Ivrea, and
kingdom of Sardinia, with 2650 inhabitants.
CANDIAC, John Louis, a premature genius, born at
Candiac, in the diocese of Nismes in France, in 171^. In
the cradle he distinguished the letters of the alphabet; at
thirteen months old he knew them perfectly; at three years
of age he read Latin, either printed or in manuscript; at
four he translated from that tongue ; at six he read Greek
and Hebrew^, knew the principles of arithmetic, history,
geography, heraldry, and the science of medals, and had
read the best authors on almost every branch of literature.
Candiac attracted the attention of the learned at Nismes,
Montpellier, Grenoble, Lyons, and Paris; and it was for
his benefit that the typographic board was contrived by
M. Dumas, who devoted himself to the instruction of this
young prodigy. He died of a complication of disorders,
at Paris, in 1726.
CANDIDATE, a person who aspires to some public
office. In the Roman commonwealth candidates were
obliged to wear a white gown during the two years spent
by them in soliciting a place. This garment, according to
Plutarch, they wore without any other clothes, that the
people might not suspect them of concealing money
for purchasing votes, and also that they might the more
easily show to the people the scars of those wounds which
they had received when fighting in defence of the com¬
monwealth. The candidates usually declared their pre¬
tensions a year before the time of election, which they
spent in making interest and gaining friends. Various
arts of popularity were practised for this purpose, and
frequent circuits made round the city, and visits and com¬
pliments paid to all sorts of persons; and this was called
ambitus.
CANDIDATI Milites, an order of soldiers among the
Romans, who served as the emperor’s body-guards, to de¬
fend him in battle. They were the tallest and strongest
of the whole army, and the most proper to inspire terror
by their appearance. They were called candidati, because
clothed in white, either that they might be more conspi¬
cuous, or because they were considered as in the way of
preferment.
CAN
CANDLE, a small taper of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, Candle,
the wick of which is commonly of several threads of cot-
ton, spun and twisted together.
A tallow-candle, to be good, must be half sheep’s and
half bullock’s tallow; for hog’s tallow makes the candle
gutter, and always gives an offensive smell, with a thick
black smoke. The wick ought to be pure, sufficiently dry,
and properly twisted, otherwise the candle will emit an
inconstant, vibratory flame, which is both prejudicial to
the eyes and insufficient for the distinct illumination of
objects.
There are two sorts of tallow-candles; the one dipped,
and the other moulded. The former are the common
candles ; the latter are the invention of the Sieur le Brege
at Paris.
As to the method of making candles in general, after
the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the due pro¬
portions, it is cut into very small pieces, that it may melt
the sooner; for the tallow' in lumps, as it comes from the
butchers, would be in danger of burning or turning black
if it were left too long over the fire. Being perfectly melt¬
ed and skimmed, a certain quantity of water, proportionable
to the quantity of tallow, is poured into it. This serves
to precipitate to the bottom of the vessel the impurities
of the tallow which may have escaped the skimmer. No
water, however, must be thrown into the tallow designed
for the three first dips, because the wick, being still quite
dry, would imbibe the water, which makes the candles
crackle in burning, and renders them bad in use. The tal¬
low, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a coarse
sieve of horse hair, to purify it still more, and may be used
after having stood three hours. It will continue fit for
use twenty-four hours in summer and fifteen in winter.
The wicks are made of spun cotton, which the tallow-
chandlers buy in skains, and which they wind up into bot¬
toms or clues; whence they are cut out, with an instru¬
ment contrived on purpose, into pieces of the length of
the candle required ; then put on the sticks or broaches,
or else placed in the moulds, as the candles are intended
to be either dipped or moulded.
Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen wick, slight¬
ly twisted, and covered with white or yellow wax. Of
these there are several kinds; some of a conical figure,
used to illuminate churches, and in processions, funeral
ceremonies, &c. (see Taper) ; others of a cylindrical form,
used on ordinary occasions. The first are either made
with a ladle or the hand. 1. To make wax-candles with
the ladle : the wicks being prepared, a dozen of them
are tied by the neck, at equal distances, round an iron
circle, suspended over a large basin of copper tinned, and
full of melted wax. A large ladle full of this wax is poured
gently on the tops of the wicks one after another, and the
operation is continued till the candle arrives at its destined
size; with this precaution, that the three first ladles are
poured on at the top of the wick, the fourth at the height
of three fourths, the fifth at one half, and the sixth at one
fourth, in order to give the candle its pyramidal form.
Then the candles are taken down, kept warm, and rolled
and smoothed upon a walnut-tree table, with a long square
instrument of box, smooth at the bottom. 2. As to the
manner of making wax-candles by the hand, candle-makers
begin to soften the wax by w'orking it several times in hot
water contained in a narrow but deep caldron. A piece
of the wax is then taken out, and disposed by little and
little around the wick, which is hung on a hook in the
wall, by the extremity opposite to the neck; so that they
begin with the big end, diminishing still as they descend
towards the neck. In other respects the method is nearly
the same as in the former case. However, it must be ob¬
served that, in the former case, water is always used to
78
Candle.
CAN
CAN
moisten the several instruments, to prevent the wax from
' sticking; and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard, is used for
the hands, &c. The cylindrical wax-candles are either
made as the former, with a ladle, or they are drawn. \\ ax-
candles drawn are so called because they are actually
drawn in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers
of wood, turned by a handle, which turning backwards and
forwards several times, pass the wick through melted wax
•contained in a brass basin, and at the same time through
the holes of an instrument like that used for drawing wire
fastened at one side of the basin.
The Roman candles were at first little strings dipt in
pitch, or surrounded with wax, though afterwards they
were made of the papyrus, covered likewise with wax;
and sometimes also of rushes, by stripping off the outer
rind, and only retaining the pith. For religious offices
wax-candles were used; for vulgar uses, those of tallow.
A few years ago Dr Ure of Glasgow made a set of ex¬
periments of the relative intensities of light and duration
of different candles, the result of which is contained in
the following table.
Garni \
§Ph
z
10 Mould 5h,
10 Dipped 4
8 Mould 6
6 Do  7
4 Do  9
Argandoil
flame...
9m.
36
31
2-|
38“
682
672
856
1160
1787
s-c-a
132
150
132
163
186
512
as
c
12i
13
101
14-|
201
69-4
62
O •GO
§3
68
651
591
66
80
100
!§'
5- 7
5 25
6- 6
5-0
3-5
A Scotch mutchkin, or one eighth of a gallon, of good seal
oil, weighs 6010 grains, or thirteen and one tenth ounces,
avoirdupois, and lasts in a bright argand lamp eleven hours
and forty-four minutes. The weight of oil it consumes per
hour is equal to four times the weight of tallow in candles
eight to the pound, and three and one seventh times the
weight of tallow in candles six to the pound. But its
light being equal to that of five of the latter candles, it
appears from the above table, that two pounds weight of
oil, value ninepence, in an argand, are equivalent in ifiu-
minating power to three pounds of tallow candles, which
cost about two shillings. The larger the flame in the above
candles, the greater the economy of light.
Candle. Sale or auction by inch of candle, is when a
small piece of candle is lighted, and the byestanders are
allowed to bid for the merchandise that is selling as long
as it lasts; but the moment the candle is out the commo¬
dity is adjudged to the last bidder.
There is also an excommunication by inch of candle,
when the sinner is allowed to come to repentance while a
handle continues burning; but after it is consumed, he re¬
mains excommunicated to all intents and purposes.
Candle is also a term of medicine, and is reckoned
among the instruments of surgery. Thus the candela fu-
malis, or the candela pro mffitu odorata, is a mass of an
oblong form, consisting of odoriferous pow^ders, mixed up
with a third or more of the charcoal of willow or lime-tree,
and reduced to a proper consistence with a mucilage of
gum tragacanth, labdanum, or turpentine. It is intended
to excite a grateful smell without any flame, to correct the
air, to fortify the brain, and to excite the spirits.
Candle-2?oot5s, a name given to small glass bubbles,
having a neck about an inch long, with a very slender bore,
by means of which a small quantity of water is introduced
into them, and the orifice afterwards closed up. This
stalk being put through the wick of a burning candle, Candlem;
the vicinity of the flame soon rarefies the water into steam, 11
by the elasticity of which the glass is broken with a loud
crack.
Medicated Candle is the same with Bougie.
Rush Candles, used in different parts of England, are
made of the pith of a sort of rushes, peeled or stripped of
the skin, except on one side, and dipped in melted grease.
CANDLEMAS, a feast of the church held on the second
day of February, in honour of the purification of the \ ir-
gin Mary. It is borrowed from the practice of the ancient
Christians, who on that day used abundance of lights both
in their churches and processions, in memory, as is sup¬
posed, of our Saviour’s being on that day declared by
Simon to be a light to lighten the Gentiles. In imitation
of this custom, the Roman Catholics on this day conse¬
crate all the tapers and candles which they use in their
churches during the whole year. At Rome, the pope
performs that ceremony himself, and distributes wax-can¬
dles to the cardinals and others, who carry them in pro¬
cession through the great hall of the popes palace. I his
ceremony was prohibited in England by an oidei of coun¬
cil in 1548. . n , r
Candlemas, the second of February, is one of the tour
terms of the year for paying or receiving rents or bor¬
rowed money, and the like. In the courts of law Candle¬
mas term begins 15th January and ends 3d February.
CANDLESTICK, an instrument to hold a candle, made
in different forms and of all sorts of materials.
The golden candlestick was one of the sacred utensils
which Moses caused to be placed in the Jewish tabernacle.
It was made of hammered gold, a talent in weight, and
consisted of seven branches, adorned at equal distances
with six flowers like lilies, and with as many bowls and
knobs placed alternately, and it was supported by a base or
foot-stand. Upon the stock and six branches of the can¬
dlestick were the golden lamps, which were immovable,
and filled with oil and cotton.
These seven lamps were lighted every evening, and ex¬
tinguished every morning. The lamps had their tongs or
snuffers with which to draw the cotton in or out, and dishes
underneath them to receive the sparks or droppings of tlm
oil. This candlestick was placed in the antichamber of
the sanctuary, on the south side, and served to illuminate
the altar of perfume and the tabernacle of the shew-bread.
When Solomon had built the temple of the Lord, he placed
in it ten golden candlesticks of the same form as that de¬
scribed by Moses, five on the north and five on the south
side of the holy of holies; but after the Babylonish cap¬
tivity, the golden candlestick w^as again placed in the tem¬
ple, as it had been before in the tabernacle by Moses.
Upon the destruction of the temple by the Romans, this
sacred utensil was lodged in the temple of Peace built by
Vespasian; and the representation of it is still to be seen
on the triumphal arch at the foot of Mount Palatine, on
which Vespasian’s triumph is delineated.
CANDY, a kingdom of Ceylon, which occupies the cen¬
tral parts of the island. It is mountainous in its surface;
is watered by several small lakes, some rivers of consider¬
able size, and torrents pouring down the ravines. Owing
to the damps and noxious exhalations which prevail, the
air is extremely adverse to the constitutions of Europeans.
The inhabitants are native Cingalese, who have attained
to a certain degree of civilization. They manufacture a
coarse soft sort of paper from the bark of trees ; and make
gold chains, rings, and other ornaments. They also paint
bows and arrows neatly, and give them a high varnish.
The Candians were governed by a despotic monarch ; and
within the recesses of their impenetrable country they ge¬
nerally set at defiance the Europeans, with whom they
C ‘ A N
CAN
79
:aitdy were frequently at war. Their plan of defence was to cut
|| ' down trees across the narrow defiles which led to their
'anea. country, to harass the enemy’s flank, to cut off all the strag-
glers, and, finally, to trust that the deleterious effect of
the climate would destroy those whom the sword had
spared. The Dutch, with 8000 men, gained possession of
their capital, from which, after maintaining themselves in
it for nine months, they retreated with great loss, only a
small portion of their force reaching the coast. The Eng¬
lish having expelled the Dutch from Ceylon, were in 1802
engaged in hostilities with the king of Candy, and occu¬
pied his capital with an army, which, being gradually di¬
minished to an inconsiderable detachment, the town was
invested by the Candians, and was surrendered by Major
Davie, on condition of being allowed to march to Trinco-
malee. Contrary to this treaty, the troops, being artfully
deprived of their arms, were, along with the sick and
wounded, cruelly massacred in cold blood; and Major
Davie was detained in captivity, where he died. The ca¬
pital was again taken possession of by the British in 181.5 ;
the sovereign, who had rendered himself odious by his
bloody excesses, was deposed from his throne; and the
kingdom of Candy annexed to the British dominions.
Candy, the capital of the above kingdom, is situated
near the river Mahavilla-Gonga, in a plain, amid moun¬
tains covered with wood. It consists of one principal
street, with many lanes branching off. Some of the houses
are tiled and white-washed, though they are in general
poor and mean, being chiefly built of mud, and thatched
with straw and leaves. The only buildings of any impor¬
tance which the town contains are temples dedicated to
Boodh. The royal palace consists of two squares, one
within the other, the interior containing the royal apart¬
ments. It is built of white cement, and has numerous
chambers grotesquely painted, the vralls of some of them
being covered with pier glasses. In the great hall the king
was wont to give audience on a throne covered with pure
gold, studded with precious stones, and of beautiful work¬
manship. It is 103 miles from Colombo, and 142 from
Trincomalee. Long. 80. 47. E. Lat. 7. 23. N.
Candy, or Sugar Candy, a preparation of sugar made
by melting and crystallizing it six or seven times over, to
render it hard or transparent. It is of three kinds, white,
yellow, and red. The white comes from the loaf-sugar,
the yellow from the casonado, and the red from the mus¬
covado.
CANDYING, the act of preserving simples in substance,
by boiling them in sugar. The performance of this ori¬
ginally belonged to the apothecaries, but it has now be¬
come a part of the business of the confectioner.
CANE denotes a walking stick. It is, or rather was,
customary to adorn it with a head of gold, silver, agate,
or other substances. Some are without knots, and very
smooth and even; others are full of knots about two
inches distant from one another, and have but little elas¬
ticity.
Canes of Bengal are the most beautiful of those brought
into Europe. Some of them are so fine, that people work
them into bowls or vessels, which being varnished over in
the inside with black or yellow lacca, are capable of con¬
taining liquors as well as glass or china ware, and the In¬
dians use them for that purpose.
Cane, a small river of Hindustan, which has its source
on the north side of the Vendhya Mountains, in the pro¬
vince of Malwah, and, after a winding course of about 250
miles, falls into the Jumna in the district of Currah.
CANEA, one of the circles into which the island of
Candia is divided, comprehending the western part of the
island. Though hilly, the plains yield oil, flax, honey, corn,
silk, and much fruit. The chief city, of the same name,
is situated on the north const of the island, is fortified with Canelli
strong walls and deep ditches, has several mosques and II
churches, and contains 4000 Turks, 3000 Greeks, and
several Jew and Frank inhabitants. Among the latter
are respectable mercantile houses, who carry on much
commerce with Trieste, Venice, and other places, in oil,
soap, and other articles. The harbour has a mole, defended
by a fort, but is only adapted to the reception of small
vessels.
CANELLI, a town of Italy, in the province of Asti, of
the kingdom of Sardinia, containing 3200 inhabitants, who
produce some excellent wine.
CANEPHO RAL, in Grecian Antiquity, virgins who,
when they became marriageable, presented certain baskets
full of little curiosities to Diana, in order to procure leave
to quit her train, and change their state of life.
CANEPHORIA, in Grecian Antiquity, a ceremony
which formed part of a feast celebrated by the Athenian
virgins on the eve of their marriage-day. At Athens the
canephoria consisted in this, that the maid, conducted by
her father and mother, went to the temple of Minerva,
carrying with her a basket full of presents, to engage the
goddess to make the married state happy ; or, as the scho¬
liast of Theocritus has it, the basket was intended as a
kind of honourable amends made to that goddess, the pro-
tectrix of virginity, for abandoning her party; or, per¬
haps, as a ceremony to appease her wrath. Suidas calls
it a festival in honour of Diana.
Canephoria is also the name of a festival in honour
of Bacchus, celebrated particularly by the Athenians, on
which occasion the young maids carried golden baskets
full of fruit, and covered, to conceal the mystery from the
uninitiated.
CANES, otherwise called Khans, in Egypt and other
eastern countries, a poor sort of buildings for the reception
of strangers and travellers. People are accommodated in
these with a room at a small price, but with no other ne¬
cessaries ; so that, excepting the room, there are no greater
accommodations in these houses than in the deserts, only
that there is a market near.
Canes and Canches, a province of Peru, bounded on
the east by the province of Cardbaya, on the south-east
by that of Lampa, on the south by Cailloma, and on the
west by Chumbivilca. It is thirty leagues in length from
north to south, and fifteen in breadth; and being on an
elevated situation, and containing numerous ridges cover¬
ed with snow, its climate is cold. Its inhabitants amount
to about 18,000.
Canes Venatici, in Astronomy, the Greyhounds, two
constellations, first established by Hevelius, between the
tail of the Great Bear and Bootes’s arms, above the Coma
Berenices. The first is called asterion, being that next
the Bear’s tail; the other chara.
CANET de Mar, a Spanish sea-port town, in the pro¬
vince of Catalonia, with 2800 inhabitants, many of whom
are employed in the fisheries. Long. 2.30. E. Lat. 41.36. N.
CANETO, a market-towm of Italy, in the Austrian de¬
legation of Mantua. It is built on the river Oglio, and
contains 3160 inhabitants.
CANEVA, a town of Italy, in the delegation Udine of
Austrian Lombardy, with 2590 inhabitants.
CANGE, Charles du Fresne, Sieur du, one of the
most learned writers of his time, was born at Amiens on
the 18th December 1610. His father, who was royal pro¬
vost of Beauquesne, sent him at an early age to the Je¬
suits’ College in Amiens, where he soon distinguished him¬
self by his application and quickness of apprehension. Hav¬
ing completed the usual course at this seminary, he ap¬
plied himself to the study of law at Orleans, and afterwards
went to Paris, where he was received as advocate before
80 CAN
Du Cange, the parliament in August 1631. He frequented the courts
for some time ; but meeting with little or no success as a
barrister, he returned to his native country, where he ap¬
plied himself to the study of history in all its branches.
After the death of his father, Du Cange married, on 19th
July 1638, Catherine Du Bos, daughter of a treasurer of
France, at Amiens; and seven years afterwards, in 1647,
he purchased the same office, the duties of which in no
degree interfered with or retarded the great literary works
in which he had engaged. The plague, which in 1668 de¬
solated the city, forced him to leave Amiens, and go to
establish himself at Paris, where he was enabled to con¬
sult charters, diplomas, titles, manuscripts, and a multi¬
tude of printed documents, which were not to be met with
elsewhere. M. d’Heronval, his friend, procured for him
many curious pieces, and often aided him in his researches.
In 1688 he was seized with stranguary, and died of the
effects of that malady on the 23d October the same year.
To the attributes of a good son, a good husband, and a
good father, Du Cange united those of extreme gentleness,
affability, and modesty. His industry was exemplary and
unremitting ; and notwithstanding the length to which his
career extended, the number of his literary works would
be incredible, if the originals, all written in his own hand,
were not still extant. In his productions are united the
characters of a consummate historian, an exact geogra¬
pher, a profound jurist, an enlightened genealogist, a learn¬
ed antiquary, and one deeply versed in the science of me¬
dals and inscriptions. He knew almost all languages, pos¬
sessed a thorough acquaintance with the belles-lettres,
and from a vast number of manuscripts and original docu¬
ments drew much curious information respecting the man¬
ners and customs of the darkest ages. The learned pre¬
faces of his glossaries afford ample proofs of his philoso¬
phical genius, and are, of their kind, models in point both
of matter and of style. “ Where,” said Bayle, “ is the learn¬
ed man among the nations most distinguished for their
perseverance in labour, and the patience necessary for
copying and making extracts, who does not admire the
talents of Du Cange in this respect, and consider him as
unrivalled in the pursuits to which he devoted himself?
If any one has doubts on the subject, it is only necessary
to send him ad pcenam libri; let him turn over the leaves
of these dictionaries, and, be he ever so little learned, he
will see that they could not have been composed, except
by one of the most laborious and most patient men the
world ever produced.” Du Cange published the following
works: 1. Histoire de 1’Empire de Constantinople sous les
Empereurs Francois. Paris, 1657, folio. 2. Traite Histo-
rique du Chef de S. Jean-Baptiste. Paris, 1666, 4to. 3.
Histoire de S. Louis, Roi de France, ecrite par Jean, sire
de Joinville. Paris, 1668, folio. 4. Joannis Cinnami His-
toriarum de rebus gestis a Joanne et Manuele Comnenis
Libri VI., Graece et Latine, cum Notis historicis et philo-
logicis. Paris, 1670, folio. 5. Memoire sur le projet
d’un nouveau Recueildes Historiensde France, avec le plan
general de ce Recueil, inserted in the Bibliotheque Histo-
rique de la France, by Pere Lelong. 6. Glossarium ad Scrip-
tores mediae et infimae Latinitatis. Paris, 1678, 3 vols. fol.
7. Lettre du Sieur N. Conseiller du Roi, a son ami M. Ant.
Wion d’Heronval, au sujet des Libelles qui de temps en
temps se publient en Flandres contre les RR. PP. Hen-
schenius et Papebroch, Jesuites. Paris, 1682, 4to. 8.
Historia Byzantina duplici Commentario illustrata. Paris,
1680, fol. 9. Joannis Zonarae Annales ab exordio Mundi
ad mortem Alexii Comneni, Graece et Latine, cum Notis.
Paris 1686, 2 vols. fol. 10. Glossarium ad Scriptores me¬
diae et infimae Graecitatis. Paris, 2 vols. fol. 11. Chroni-
con Paschale a Mundo condito ad Heraclii Imperatoris
annum vigesimum. Paris, 1689, fol. This last work was
CAN
passing through the press when Du Cange died; and, on Cangk
his demise, it was edited by Baluze, who published it with ||
an eloge of the author prefixed. After the death of this ^ang«
remarkable man, his manuscript autographs, and his exten- , nia'
sive and valuable library, passed to his eldest son, Philip
du Fresne, a man of information, but who died, unmar¬
ried, four years after his father. Francis du Fresne, the
second son, and two sisters, then received the succession
and sold the library, when the greater part of the manu¬
scripts was purchased by the Abbe du Champs, who made
no use of them, but handed them over to a bookseller call¬
ed Mariette, who re-sold part of them to Baron Hohen-
dorf. The remaining part was acquired by D’Hozier, the
genealogist. But the French government, sensible of the
importance of all the writings of Du Cange, succeeded,
after much trouble, in collecting the greater portion of the
manuscript autographs of this eminent scholar; and al¬
though they had been scattered in Paris, Amiens, and
Vienna, very few of them were lost. Among these manu¬
scripts was one, entitled Gallia, a work of incredible eru¬
dition, being a history of France, divided into seven epochs,
with a number of dissertations, the greater part of which
are finished and ready for the press, whilst, in regard to
those which are not so, abundant materials have been pro¬
vided for completing the author’s design. (a.)
CANGI, Ceangi, or Cangani, anciently a people of
Britain, concerning whose situations antiquaries have been
much perplexed. These various names indicate the same
people. Camden discovered some traces of them in many
different and distant places, as in Somersetshire, Wales,
Derbyshire, and Cheshire ; and he might have found as
plain vestiges of them in Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Essex,
Wiltshire, &c. Mr Horsley and others are perplexed and
undetermined in their opinions on this subject. But Mr
Baxter seems to have discovered the true cause of their per¬
plexity, by observing that the Cangi or Ceangi were not a
distinct nation seated in one particular place, but such of
the youth of many different nations as were employed in
pasturage, in feeding the flocks and herds of their respec¬
tive tribes. Almost all the ancient nations of Britain had
their ceangi, then pastoritia pubes, the keepers of their flocks
and herds, who ranged about the country in great num¬
bers, as they were invited by the season and plenty of
pasture for their cattle. This is the reason that, vestiges
of their name are to be found in so many different parts
of Britain, but chiefly in those parts which are most fit
for pasturage. These ceangi of the different British na¬
tions, naturally brave, and rendered still more hardy by
their way of life, were constantly armed for the protection
of their flocks from wild beasts ; and these arms they oc¬
casionally employed in the defence of their country and
their liberty.
CANGIAGIO, or Cambiasi, Ludovico, one of the
most eminent of the Genoese painters, was born in 1527.
His works at Genoa are very numerous; and he was em¬
ployed by the king of Spain to adorn part of the Escurial.
He died in 1585.
CANGOZIMA, or Cangoxuma, a town of Japan, in
the southern extremity of the island of Ximio. It is wa¬
tered by a river which descends into an artificial canal,
and is afterwards discharged with great rapidity into the
sea. On the side of the river stands a custom-house, a
fine edifice, at which passengers pay a second duty in ad¬
dition to that levied from them in passing a strong castle
at the entrance of the port. At the mouth of the harbour,
on a very high rock, stands a square light-house, which is
visible at the distance of twenty miles. The harbour it¬
self is protected by a bulwark with a stone rampart breast-
high, covered with copper ; at one end of which is a guard-
liouse, where five hundred men keep constant watch.
CAN
anicatti This is considered an important station. Long. 132.15. E.
(| ' Lat. 32. 10. N. ^ ,
Janitz. CANICATTI, a city of the intendancy of Calatamset-
ta, in the island of Sicily. It is finely situated on the de¬
clivity of a hill, in a healthy situation, and contains 16,455
inhabitants, who mostly subsist on agriculture, and by
trading in corn, wine, figs, almonds, and the other produc¬
tions of the fertile environs.
CANICULA is a name proper to one of the stars of
the constellation Canis Major, called also simply the dog
star; by the Greeks Sog/o;, Sirius. It is situated in the
mouth of the constellation, and is of the first magnitude,
being the largest and brightest of all the stars in the hea¬
vens? From the rising of this star not cosmically, or with
the sun, but heliacally, that is, its emersion from the sun’s
rays, which now happens about the 15th day ot August,
the ancients reckoned their dies caniculares, or dog days.
The Egyptians and Ethiopians began their year at the ris¬
ing of the canicula, reckoning to its rise again the next
year, which is called annus canarius, or canicular year.
This year consisted ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth
year of 366, by which it was accommodated to the civil
year. The reason of their choice of the canicula rather
than the other stars to compute their time by, was not only
the superior brightness of that star, but because its helia¬
cal rising was in Egypt a time of singular note, as falling
on the greatest augmentation of the Nile, the reputed fa¬
ther of Esjypt. Hephaestion adds, that from the aspect and
colour of the canicula, the Egyptians drew prognostics
concerning the rise of the Nile, and, according to Florus,
predicted'the future state of the year; so that the first
rising of this star was annually observed with great atten¬
tion.
CAN1CULUM, or Caniculus, in the Byzantine anti¬
quities, a golden standish or ink vessel, decorated with
precious stones, in which was kept the sacred encaustum,
or red ink, wherewith the emperors signed their decrees,
letters, &c. The wmrd is by some derived from canis, or
caniculus ; alluding to the figure of a dog which it repre¬
sented, or rather because it w'as supported by the figures
of dogs. The caniculum was under the care of a particu¬
lar officer of state.
CANINE Madness. See Medicine.
CANIN1, John Angelo and Makc Anthony, brothers
and Romans, celebrated for their love of antiquities. John
excelled in designs for engraving on stones, particularly
heads, and Marc engraved them. They were encouraged by
Colbert to publish a succession of heads of the heroes and
great men of antiquity, designed from medals, antique
stones, and other ancient remains; but John died at Rome
soon after the work was begun. Marc Anthony, however,
procured assistance, finished, and published it in Italian
in 1669. The cuts of this edition were engraved by Ca-
nini, Picard, and Valet; and a curious explanation is given,
which discovers the skill of the Caninis in history and my¬
thology. The French edition ot Amsterdam, in 1731, is
spurious.
CANIS, or Dog. See Mammalia.
Canis Major, the Great Dog, in Astronomy, a constel¬
lation of the southern hemisphere, below Orion s feet,
though somewhat to the westward of him.
Canis 31inor, the Little Dog, in Astronomy, a constel¬
lation of the northern hemisphere; called also by the Greeks
Procyon, and by the Latins Antecanis and Canicula.
CANIS1US, Henry, a native of Nimeguen, and one of
the most learned men of his time, was professor of canon
law at Ingoldstadt, and wrote a number of books, the
principal of which are, 1. Summa Juris Canonici; 2. An-
tiquce Lectiones, a very valuable work. He died in 1609.
CANITZ, the Baron of, a German poetand statesman,
VOL. VI.
CAN 81
was of an ancient and illustrious family in Brandenburg, Canker,
and born at Berlin in 1654, five months after his father’s II
death. Having completed his early studies, he travelled Canning,
into France, Italy, Holland, and England; and, upon his
return to his native country, was charged with important
negociations by Frederic II. Frederic III. also employed
him. Canitz united the statesman with the poet; and was
conversant in many languages, dead as well as living. His
German poems were published for the tenth time in 1750,
in 8vo. He is said to have taken Horace for his model, and
to have written purely and delicately. But he did not
content himself with barely cultivating the fine arts him¬
self : he gave all the encouragement he could to others to
follow' the same pursuit. He died at Berlin in 1699, privy
counsellor of state, aged forty-five.
CANKER, a disease incident to trees, proceeding chiefly
from the nature of the soil. It makes the bark rot and fall.
CANNiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia, on
the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Aufidus, rendered
famous by a terrible overthrow which the Romans here
received from the Carthaginians under Hannibal. See
Rome.
CANNE, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
Bari. It is celebrated as the field of battle between Han¬
nibal and the Romans, and even to this day weapons and
other things belonging to the combatants are dug up.
CANNEQUINS, in commerce, wdiite cotton cloths
brought from the East Indies. They are a proper com¬
modity for trading in upon the coast of Guinea, particu¬
larly about the rivers Senegal and Gambia. These linens
are folded in a square form, and are about eight ells long. •
CANNEL Coal. See Mineralogy.
CANNES, a maritime city of the department of the
Var, in France, containing 600 houses, and 2804 inhabit¬
ants, whose subsistence depends chiefly on the fishery for
anchovies and sardinias. The country around it is fruit¬
ful in oranges, olives, citrons, grapes, and figs. Long. 6.
55. 9. E. Lat. 43. 32. 58. N.
CANNIBAL, a modern term for an anthropophagus or
man-eater, more especially in the West Indies.
CANNING, George, a celebrated statesman and ora¬
tor, wTas born in London on the 11th of April 1770. His
father by an imprudent marriage had drawm down upon
himself the displeasure of his parents, and was by them
cut off with the scanty pittance of L.150 per annum. The
youth, thus discarded by his family, wdio possessed consi¬
derable property in Ireland, left that country, and repair¬
ed with his wife to London. His efforts to extend the
means of their subsistence were, however, unavailing; and
exactly twelve months after the birth of his son he died,
the victim, it is said, of a broken heart. The mother of
Canning, thus left comparatively destitute, attempted the
stage, but without success. Of her alter history little is
know n, except that she w'as twice married, and to the day
of her death experienced the tender regards of her illus¬
trious son, whose success she lived long enough to witness.
The education of Canning, however, was not neglected.
By the liberality of an uncle he was placed at Eton,
where he greatly distinguished himself, not only in his
scholastic exercises, but also as a literary aspirant. At the
age of sixteen we find him editor of a periodical miscel¬
lany entitled the Microcosm, which was got up amongst his
school associates. To this work he contributed a variety
of papers, distinguished for their elegance and taste, and
also for a playful humour, which afterwards became so for¬
midable a weapon in his hands. To this period likewise is
assigned the composition of a poem entitled The Slavery
of Greece, which displays a glowing fancy, and a rare ma¬
turity of thought, whilst it breathes the warmest senti¬
ments of freedom. This was a happy presage. For he
L
& Pi N N I' N G.
82
canning, afterwards rose to a situation which enabled him to nil-
ttgate the destiny he thus early and feelingly deplored;
and it is pleasing to add, that the fervour of the youthful
bard was never altogether quenched in the after Calcula¬
tions of the statesrhan. In the year 1787 he left Eton for
Christ Chbreh, Oxford^ Where lid-rabidly rose to distinc¬
tion. He gained several prices for*his Latin essays, and
attracted considerable notice by htedrations. The gene¬
ral impression of his compeers appears to have been, that
he was destined to excel, and would rise to the head of
whatever profession he Chose to adopt. Amongst his fellow
collegians was the Honourable Charle’s Jeokinson, with
whom he contracted an intimacy which was afterwards of
great advantage to him. It became necessary for him, how¬
ever, to think of a profession, and he fixed upon the law as
that most likelv to afford scope for his talents. He accord¬
ingly quitted Oxford for Lincoln’s Inn, whither his fame
had preceded him. It may be doubted whether he was as
laborious a student of law as Jie had been of learning.
His disposition was highly sociable, and his wit was the
theme of general admiration. HenCe his society became
courted by a numeixms and rapidly extending circle of
friends; and he also began to attend debating clubs,
where he frequently spoke. These trials of skill gave
him confidence as a public speaker, and tact and acute¬
ness as a debater, whilst at the same time they exer¬
cised his powers of elocution ; thus preparing him for con¬
tending with more powerful and expert antagonists in a
more exalted arena. At this period his principles were li¬
beral. He had long been in familiar intercourse with She¬
ridan, by whom he was introduced to Fox, Burke, Grey,
and the other leading Whigs of the time, who looked upon
him as the future champion of their cause, and advised
him to turn his thoughts from the bar to the senate ; and
this he accordingly determined upon. But a change soon
came over the spirit of his politics. What motives induced
him to’ abandon the creed in which he had hitherto be¬
lieved, it is difficult to conjecture. Probably he felt that
even genius like his would not rise to the full growth of
its ambition on the opposition benches, or that the interests
of his country would be better served if he could infuse
into* the measures of his new associates a portion of that
liberality which distinguished those of his old. But what¬
ever may have determined the choice of the young poli¬
tician, certain it is, that after a friendly and candid expla¬
nation to Sheridan, he entered- into terms with Pitt, and
in 1793 took his seat in parliament under the auspices of
that minister. But it was not until 1794 that he ventured
to address the house. The occasion was by no means au¬
spicious ; it was in support of a large subsidy to the king
of Sardinia for prosecuting the war. He was brought into
immediate collision with Fox, whom he ventured to treat
with a considerable degree of levity; and it did not reflect
much credit on Pitt, that he thus subjected his great and
generous rival to the flippant attack of a man so young
and so arrogant as Canning. Apart from this circumstance,
the speech displayed considerable tact and dexterity in the
management of an argument. From this period his support
of the premier was close and undeviating, and he gradual¬
ly rose to distinction amongst the party to which he had
allied himself. In 1796 he was appointed one of the un¬
der secretaries of State, and for the first two years during
which he held the situation he principally confined him¬
self to the laborious duties connected with it. In 1798 he
recorded his sentiments on the subject of the slave-trade,
. being favourable to abolition; and in the same year he
electrified the house on a motion of Mr Tierney’s respect¬
ing a peace with the French republic. It was a speech of
masterly skill and eloquence, and fully justified the pre¬
sage of his youth and the partiality of his master. The
same year his consequence was materially increased by Canning,
his union with Miss Joan Scott, one of the daughters and‘vw
ch-heiresses of General Scott. Miss Scott’s two sisters
were married to noblemen; and Canning’s parliamentary
interests were thus not only powerfully strengthened, but
he was furnished with a respectable independence.
In 1800 we find him discussing in parliament the over¬
tures of peace made by the consular government of France,
the habeas corpus suspension bill, subsidies to the Empe¬
ror of Getmahy, and the state of the nation,—subjects on
all of which he supported the minister, and in regard to
some of which he displayed more devotedness as a par¬
tisan than wisdom as a statesman. Out of doors also he
employed the formidable weapon of the press in the same
warfare. In conjunction with his friends Mr Frere and
Mr Ellis, he brought out the Antijacobin Examiner, a
weekly paper, alike distinguished for its wit and talent
and for its satire and ribaldry. The poetical compositions
of Canning formed the attic salt of this print; and, keep¬
ing out of view their malignant invective and personality,
they are unquestionably full of wit.
The resignation of Pitt in 1801 deprived Canning of his
situation ; and the ministry which succeeded he took every
opportunity of strenuously opposing. The return of the
former to power in 1804 again restored him to office as
treasurer of the navy. From this period till the death of
Pitt nothing remarkable occurred to call forth his ener¬
gies, cfxcept the impeachment of Lord Melville, whose
cause he warmly espoused. By the demise in 1806 ot
his illustrious preceptor in politics, Canning was again re¬
moved from office; and during the reign of the ministry
which succeeded, he conducted himself in the same man¬
ner as he had done upon a like occasion before; strenu¬
ously opposing all measures except those which he con¬
sidered as sanctified by the authority of Pitt. Nothing
can more forcibly exhibit the influence of party spirit over
his mind, than the manner in which he allowed the ques¬
tion of the abolition of the slave-trade to be carried in
parliament.1 Under other administrations it had received
his powerful advocacy, and all the resources of his genius
were arrayed on the side of humanity ; but now he scarce¬
ly lifted his voice upon the occasion. What he did say
was cold and petulant. On a great moral question touch¬
ing the rights of human nature he could not subdue ex¬
pressions of hostility to the existing ministry. The lat¬
ter having abandoned office, the lory party came again
into power, and Canning received the seals ot the foreign
department.
The office of a minister of foreign affairs at the com¬
mencement of the Portland administration was any thing
but an enviable post. With the exception of the short
interval of the peace of Amiens, England had been en¬
gaged in a war of fifteen years’ duration. Most of the
continental powers, formerly her allies, were now either
leagued against her, or condemned to an inglorious neu¬
trality. The nation, which previously divided its belief be¬
tween the two great leaders now no more, looked in vain
for one sufficiently prominent to command its confidence.
The mantle of either prophet appeared to liave ascended
along with him; for as yet Canning had not gathered all
his fame, and was looked upon by the country as a light
and harassing skirmisher rather than a heavy man-at-arms.
The administration just dissolved presented a formidable
opposition ; and a number of the members of it, indeed,
Canning had made personal enemies of by his caustic rail¬
lery in parliament, and his reckless satire out of doors. In
circumstances of such difficulty the new ministry found
themselves placed. It was on Mr Ponsonby’s motion rela¬
tive to theV'expedition to Copenhagen that their strength
was first properly put to trial. This attack could not be
<5 * A N N I N .Gj ' 83
inning, justified on any principle of justice. Canning, however,
fearlessly threw himself into the arena, and delivered a de¬
fence of the conduct of ministers, at least remarkable for its
ability and eloquence. Both friends and opponents regard¬
ed him with admiration. The former saw the value of the
acquisition they had made, and the latter the formidable
talent with which they had to contend. From this period
Canning continued to rise in importance and increase in
fame. He was the most able and strenuous supporter of
the administration to which he belonged. In 1809 a po¬
litical misunderstanding with Lord Castlereagh led to a
duel, in which Canning was wounded. Both secretaries
resigned, and the consequence was a dissolution of the
ministry. >,, >■ fddsbirmo’loril beyohrms
During the two years which followed this event, Can¬
ning seldom appeared in the stormy arena of debate.
Two speeches, however, on the resumption of cash pay¬
ments by the bank of England, belong to this period, but
are numbered amongst his least successful exertions. In
the beginning of 1812 he advocated the claims of the Ca¬
tholics to civil power, which he invariably supported, not
as an abstract question of right, but as a matter of expe¬
diency. On the assassination of Mr Percival, overtures
were made to him to accept a place in the cabinet; but
his favourite measure of Catholic emancipation forming
no part of their arrangements, he declined taking office.
In this year he was chosen as representative for Liver¬
pool, winch also returned him to other three successive
parliaments. In 1814 he accepted the situation of am¬
bassador to Lisbon, and continued there till 1816, when
he returned, and soon afterwards joined the ministry
as president of the board of control. During the last
two years great events had taken place, in bringing
about which Canning had no inconsiderable share. “ If
there was any part of his political life/’ he declared on
one occasion, “ in which he gloried, it was, that in the
face of every difficulty, discouragement, and prophecy of
failure, his had been the hand which had committed
England in an alliance with Spain.” “ Never,” said he
on another occasion, “ ought we to relinquish our hold
of the Peninsula. The ruler of France has one grand ob¬
ject to which he stands pledged^—the establishment of his
dominion there. If he fail in this, his defeat will be most
signal.” The result realized his prediction. By British
policy and valour, which he animated and encouraged,
the tide of military despotism which had overflowed the
Continent was repelled beyond the Pyrenees, and the
ancient landmarks of nations re-appeared above the sub¬
siding wave.
As a member of the cabinet from 1816 till 1820, Can¬
ning was a strenuous supporter of its measures. The ce¬
lebrated six acts called forth all the resources of his elo¬
quence to prove their necessity, and to lessen the abhor¬
rence with which a large proportion of the community con¬
templated them. The manner in which he treated the
case of one Ogden, who was incarcerated for sedition un¬
der the suspension of the habeas corpus act, was aggra¬
vated by opponents into a serious crime, and in any view
evinced a reckless and unfeeling levity, which it is easy to
palliate but impossible to justify.
On the demise of George III. in 1820, parliament was
dissolved, and Canning, at the next election, was for the
fourth time returned for Liverpool. On this occasion he
put forth all his strength in vindication of the proceedings
of ministers. During his speech he also took an opportu¬
nity of expressing his unmeasured hostility to all parlia¬
mentary reform, which he afterwards reiterated in parlia¬
ment in 1822, in one of his most finished orations. On the
return of Queen Caroline to share the throne of her hus¬
band, Canning, who had formerly been on terms of great
intimacy with hey, felt constrained to absent himself from Canning.
England during the progress of the proceedings which V'-y-w
were instituted against hen On his return from the Con¬
tinent he resigned the presidency of the board of con¬
trol, and on Ids retirement received the most flattering
testimony from the Court of Directors of the; East India
Company, of the value which they attached to his ser¬
vices. The golden opinions which the members of that
influential body entertained .of his character, and the uni¬
versal conviction that no man w'a$> better qualified or en¬
titled to occupy the highest official situation which they
had it in their power to bestow, induced them ultimately
to confer upon him the appointment of governor-general
of India. But just as he was preparing to quit England,
the Marquis of Londonderry died; and a vacancy having
thus been created in the cabinet, Canning was invited by
his sovereign to resume the situation of .secretary for fo¬
reign affairs. He accepted the offer, and though second
in office, in public opinion and in real efficiency he was
considered as the first* This took place- in 1822.
During the remainder of Canning’s life his history be¬
comes so closely interwoven with that of his country,
that a minute detail is unnecessary. He .infused into the
counsels of the cabinet a degree of liberality whieffi for
a long period, had not characterized them* The spell of
the holy alliance it was his studious endeavour to break;
and without altogether alienating the continental powers
from Britain,' he aimed at placing her in a situation
where,.untrammelled, she might exercise her own free will.
It was his desire that his country should occupy a neu¬
tral station, and assume the character of mediator, not
only between conflicting kingdoms, but between the hos¬
tile factions .of individual nations. He strongly counte¬
nanced, both in theory and practice, that amelioration in
regard to commerce, navigation, and manufactures, which
the force of circumstances and the progress of information
had rendered imperative. In June 1824 the cabinet deter¬
mined on recognizing the independence of Mexico, Colom¬
bia, and Buenos Ayres. This measure was principally
brought about by the exertions of Canning, and in one of
his speeches he claims the merit of it. In answer to the
argument that ministers had sanctioned the attack on Por¬
tugal, by having permitted the occupation of Spain by
France, he said, “ Was it necessary that we should block¬
ade Cadiz? No. I looked another way. I resolved that
if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the In¬
dies. I called the new world into existence to redress
the balance of the old.” In the autumn of 1826 he went
to Paris, and was received with great distinction. The
treaty with France and Russia respecting Greece, and
the events at Navarino which followed closely after it,
throw light upon the object and intent of his visit. His
highest powers were also called forth on the occasion of
the aggression of Spain upon Portugal. He warmly main¬
tained the necessity of England’s interference upon the
occasion ; and the demonstrations which were made pro¬
duced the desired results. These are the three measures
on which the fame of Canning, for liberal policy, princi¬
pally rests;
In the beginning of 1827, at the funeral of the Duke of
York, he caught a severe cold, from the effects of which
he never altogether recovered. Shortly after this the Earl
of Liverpool, then prime minister, was seized with para¬
lysis; and though he rallied afterwards, he was politically
dead from the moment he was struck. Canning was ulti¬
mately appointed first lord of the treasury. Considerable
opposition followed this appointment, and six members
of the former cabinet resigned. The new premier, how¬
ever, struggled manfully against this rather unexpected
opposition, and with great celerity completed the com-
84
CAN
CAN
Canning
II
Cannon.
plement of the cabinet. But the harassing contest which
he had to maintain against a virulent opposition visibly
affected his health. Towards the latter end of July
1827 he was invited to the seat of the Duke of Devon¬
shire at Chiswick, in hopes that the change of air might
renovate his constitution; and he did recover so far as to
be able again to transact business in Downing Street; but
his malady, which was an inflammation of the kidneys, re¬
turned, and he expired on the 8th of August, at the age
of fifty-seven. His remains were interred in Westminster
Abbey, near to those of his great preceptor Pitt, on the
16th of the same month. The funeral, though private,
was attended by the Duke of Clarence, now William IV.,
and a number of noble and other friends.
The death of Canning was a circumstance rarely paral¬
leled in interest amongst civilized nations. In his foreign
policy he had identified himself with the march of inde¬
pendence. From Lima to Athens the effects of his friend¬
ly interposition had been felt, and a sorrow corresponding
to the benefits he had conferred was expressed when he
fell. He was cut oft’ in the midst of designs of high enter¬
prise, and before all his plans were completed; and thus
his system, and much of his fame, was left at the mercy
of his successors. The great events which have taken
place since his death have also tended in some measure
to eclipse his popularity. His accomplishments as an ora¬
tor were of the highest order. His form was command¬
ing, and his features handsome and impressive. His voice
was richly toned and highly musical, and his attitudes were
elegant and striking. His delivery was manly, and for the
most part he was in complete possession of himself. These
qualities and accomplishments set off to double advantage
the more exalted gifts of intellect with which he was so
richly endowed. His diction was splendid, his reasoning
acute and refined. He exercised a sovereign command
over language, and it flowed from him with classic elegance
and ease. His style, strictly speaking, was not ornate. Wit
was an ingredient with which he frequently seasoned his
oratory, thereby imparting to it a high relish. The vein
wras peculiarly his own ; it was lively and playful, and cal¬
culated more to ridicule than to lacerate. His poetical
powers may be ranked among his elegant accomplish¬
ments ; and, for the most part, the productions which re¬
sulted from them are the least worthy of his fame—not
that they want the requisite talent, but that they are in
general disfigured by scurrility and invective. “ He was,”
says Sir James Mackintosh, “ a man of fine and brilliant
genius, of warm affections, of high and generous spirit; a
statesman who at home converted most of his opponents
into warm supporters, who abroad was the sole hope and
trust of all who sought an orderly and legal liberty, and
who was cut off in the midst of vigorous and splendid mea¬
sures, which, if executed by himself, or with his own spirit,
promised to place his name in the first class of rulers,
among the founders of lasting peace, and the guardians of
human improvement.”
CANNON, a military engine for throwing balls, &c. by
the help of Gunpowder.
The invention of brass cannon is by Laney ascribed to
J. Owen. He says that they were first known in England
in the year 1535; but he yet acknowledges that, in 1316,
there were four pieces of cannon in the English army at
the battle of Cressy, and that these were the first that were
known in France. And Mezeray relates, that by means of
five or six pieces of cannon, King Edward struck terror in¬
to the French army, it being the first time they had seen
any of these thundering machines; though others affirm
that cannon were known also in France at the same time,
but that the French king, in his hurry to attack the Eng¬
lish, and in confidence of victory, left all his cannon be¬
hind him as useless encumbrances. The Germans carry Cannon,
the invention farther back, and attribute it to Albertus
Magnus, a Dominican monk, about the year 1250. Vossius
rejects all these opinions, and finds cannon in China almost
1700 years ago. According to him, they were invented
by the Emperor Kitey in the year of Christ 85. See Ar¬
tillery and Gunnery.
Cannon, the Art of Casting. Formerly the mould
for casting cannon was of loam, but now it is usually
made of dry sand. Loam for making moulds is a compo¬
sition consisting principally of an earth that contains a
good deal of clay. This earth is passed through sieves,
and then mixed, whilst wet, with horse dung, cow’s hair,
chopped straw, or tow cut short; the loam being mixed up
with one of these substances, they are well beaten up to¬
gether on a wooden board with an iron bar. By this addi¬
tion the loam becomes susceptible of being dried rapidly
without cracking. The most attenuated loam is used for
the surface of the mould that is to come in contact with
the metal, to the end that the surface may come off smooth.
The loam moulders are a particular class of workmen, dif¬
ferent from the common sand moulders. The business to
which they are bred consists in making, of loam and of
dry sand, the moulds for steam-engine cylinders, pipes for
conveying water, boilers, guns, and other large articles.
Formerly on a tapering wooden spindle, entwined with Old me-
straw ropes, a model was made of loam, copied exactly thod of
from the pattern gun. This model was painted over with
a coat of wood ashes mixed with water. By means of|noul(js>
this coat no adhesion took place between the convex
model and the loam which was afterwards applied. Over
this coat of ashes successive coats of loam were applied,
each being dried by fire before the next was laid on ; and
the whole was bound externally with longitudinal iron bars,
and with hoops transversely. Over this carcass of iron a
coat of plaster of Paris was applied. This was dried, and
then the spindle and its envelope of straw was taken out.
The interior convex model being thus deprived of its core
and support, fell to pieces and was picked out; and then
a hollow mould of the gun remained. In this way the
mould for the body of the piece was formed ; the moulds
for the breech and head were made separately; and these
three parts were joined together so as to form a com¬
plete mould. This method of moulding guns required the
construction of a new convex model for every gun that
was moulded; and it was used in the French government
founderies of Douai, Ruelle near Paris, and Strasburg, in
1794.
The following method of constructing the loam-mould Another
is an improvement on that just mentioned. A model of method,
wood, or, to prevent change of form by moisture, a model
of brass or pewter, is made and formed on the turning
lathe, with its exterior surface exactly resembling that of
the gun, with its head and the square piece at the casca-
bel; if the model is of metal, it is made hollow for the
sake of lightness. This model is laid with its longitudinal
axis horizonal, and one half immersed in a bed of sand.
Upon that part of the model which projects above the
sand successive coats of loam are applied and pressed on
the model. When the first layer is dried by fire, a second
layer is applied and dried, and so on till the model is co¬
vered with a coat of loam four or five inches thick. Over
this an iron carcass is applied, and over the carcass ano-
tiier coat of loam. The mould with the model in it is now
turned, so that the half already covered with loam shall
be lowermost. The plain surface of the loam which had
been in contact with the sand is painted over with a coat
of blacking, composed of finely powdered charcoal mixed
with clayed water; this prevents the adhesion of the flat
surface with the loam that is to be laid on it. A layer of
0
Pr
1
CAN
nnon. loam is applied upon the naked half of the model. This
is dried, and several more layers are applied successively.
A carcass is put over the loam corresponding to the car¬
cass of the first half, so that these two carcasses can be
bound together with bolts and wedge-formed keys, with
screw-bolts and nuts, or tied with iron-wire. When the
loam is dry, the upper half of the mould is lifted off, the
model is taken out, and the interior surfaces of both parts
of the mould are painted over with blacking; this pre¬
vents the loam from being melted, and from adhering to
the hot metal. The two halves of the mould are then put
together, and the carcasses are firmly connected by their
bolts ; the whole is thoroughly dried by fire. When dried,
the mould is placed vertically in the pit of the casting
house, with the breech lowermost; sand is beat round it
for support, and the metal is poured in at the top of the
head. This method was practised in the Arsenal of Paris
in 1794.
I r sand The most approved method of constructing the mould
n .tiding. 0f a gun is in dry sand, and this is the method now prac¬
tised in Britain. Guns cast in loam do not come from the
mould with a surface so correctly resembling that of the
model as those cast in dry sand; and in order to render
the surface correct, and to remedy defects, it was always
necessary to subject them to the process of turning. In
guns carefully cast in dry sand, the process of turning
might be dispensed with ; the gun would then be strength¬
ened by the outer skin of metal, which, having cooled
more rapidly than the other parts, is the hardest. This
outer skin is also less liable to rust than the surface laid
bare by turning. The mould of a gun in dry sand, at the
same time that it is more accurate, is also sooner made
and dried, than a loam-mould. Dry sand moulding is a
part of the business of the loam-moulder.
The sand for dry sand mouldings is made by mixing a
quantity of sharp refractory sand with w^ater in which clay
has been diluted. After the mixture is thoroughly made,
if a handful is grasped, and on opening the hand the sand
retains the form given it, then the consistence of the mix¬
ture is good. The sand should have the following quali¬
ties :—ls£, It should not be fusible by the heat of melted
cast-iron; if it were, it would adhere to the metal, and
make the surface of the gun rough. 2dly, It must be
sharp, and composed of angular particles; if the particles
of the sand were round, it would not hold together on
taking out the model. 3t%, It must not contain too much
clay, for in that case it would crack in drying, kthly, It
must contain a certain proportion of clay, to retain the
form that the model impresses on it.
'll;model. For dry sand moulding, a pattern of wood may be used,
turned exactly to the form of the gun ; or, to avoid expan¬
sion from humidity, the model, or pattern as it is termed
in the founderies, may be of metal. Brass or pewter are
preferable to iron for making patterns, as a smooth sur¬
face may be more easily given them, so that they may
leave a correct impression, and may come cut well from
the sand. The metallic pattern is hollow, that it may be
lighter and more easily handled: it is also in different
pieces; and each piece fits into the adjacent piece by a
rabbet.
The length of each piece of the model should be a very
little greater than the given length of the corresponding
part of the gun, because the length of the mould is the
length of the gun whilst hot, and this is longer than the
length of the gun when it comes to the temperature of
the atmosphere, at which temperature the dimensions of
the guns are given. It has been estimated that some
kinds of cast iron contract six hundredths of an inch in a
foot in passing from the liquid state to the temperature
of the atmosphere. This contraction is not considerable
NON. 85
enough to be taken into consideration in the diameter of Cannon,
the pattern. The shrinking of the sand in drying, though
not considerable, tends likewise to make the piece shorter,
and is another motive for making the pattern a little longer
than the dimensions taken from a gun at the usual tem¬
perature. The patterns of the trunions are attached to
the pattern of the second reinforce by screws, so as to be
unscrewed and separated when the pattern is to be lifted
out of the sand.
The gun-box, in which the dry
sand mould is to be formed, is of
cast iron, and cast in sand. It con¬
sists of several portions ; each of
these portions has flanges, by which
it is fixed to the others, and the
whole, when connected together,
form the gun-box. In the flanges
are holes through which bolts are
passed; the bolts are secured by
wedge-formed keys ; thus the dif¬
ferent parts of the box are firmly
held together. The two portions
of the gun-box which contain the
breech-ring and cascabel are single,
not being divided longitudinally.
Each of the other five transverse
portions is divided longitudinally
into two. A handle is fixed to
each portion of the box, for the
purpose of moving it. The upper
transverse portion AA contains the
gun-head. In each of the two por¬
tions BB, which contain the second
reinforce, there is a lateral projec¬
tion for the trunnions. The figure
represents the gun-box with the
breech lowermost, in the position
in which it is placed when the me¬
tal is poured in.
To make the mould, the pattern of the breech is first Forming
placed on a board, and the corresponding portion of the die mould,
gun-box is put over it, and sand is rammed between the
pattern and the box. The flat exposed surface of the sand
is painted over with blacking, which consists of charcoal
and clayed water, that there may be no adhesion with the
sand of the next portion of the mould. The pattern of
the first reinforce is now fitted into the pattern of the
breech, and the corresponding portions of the first rein¬
force box adjusted on the flange of the breech box. Sand
is well rammed, in small quantities at a time, between the
pattern and the box; and the upper flat surface of the
sand is painted over with blacking. The mould is com¬
pleted by adding the remaining pieces of the model and of
the box, one above another, ramming the sand, and paint¬
ing the transverse surface of the sand at the top of each
division of the box with blacking. The sand must be
strongly and equably rammed, that every part of its sur¬
face may be able to resist the pressure of the liquid me¬
tal. Three little wedges are interposed between the two
adjacent transverse portions of the box, that the sand may
project a little, so that after it is dry it may be flush with
the box ; if this were not done, there would be an inter¬
val between the adjacent surfaces of the sand, through
which the metal would pass and form a fin.
When every part is moulded, the box is taken to pieces, Drying
and the parts of the pattern are carefully taken out of the stoves,
sand, for which purpose they are first struck with a wrood-
en mallet. Each part of the mould is then carried sepa¬
rately to the stove to dry. The stove is a room twelve or'
fifteen feet square, with large iron doors on one side; the
Gun-boxes-
86
C A N. N O N.
Cannon, fire is made in a large conical grate placed on the middle
of the floor ; the smoke issues by an aperture in the brick
ceiling. The heat in this stove is considerable, but it must
not be so great as to make the boxes red hot; for then, by
the expansion of the iron, the mould would be injured;
the moulds take about fifteen hours to dry ip this situation.
When the moulds are taken out of the stove, their inte¬
rior surface is painted over with a coat of blacking* that
there may be no adhesion between the mould and the
metal.
Putting to- The pieces of the gun-box containing the mould are
gether the then taken to the pit, and being carefully placed the one
mould. Up0n ^ ot]ier by t{ie Crane, they are put together, and
secured by their bolts. 1 he mould is placed with the
breech undermost; the axis of the mould is made perpen¬
dicular to the horizon by a plumb-line, that the weight of
melted metal may press equably, and not more on one side
of the mould than on another. It is not necessary that
sand should be rammed round the mould, the box being
strong, and its parts firmly bound together, so as to re¬
quire no additional support. The mould is now in a posi¬
tion for the metal to flow into it through its open end,
which is the extremity of the head. Whether the gun is
to be of cast iron or brass, the construction qf the mould
is the same. p .0in rjgiuf jb jsniniaJnojj (bdhifi)dh
Air-fur- The pig-iron from which the gun is to be made is melt-
imee. e(j ‘m a furnaCe, called an air-furnace in the iron founde-
ries, and termed by some authors a reyerberatory furnace.
The flame of pit-coal is carried by a current of air so as
to play upon the pig-iron. The stack ol the chimney is
forty feet high. By the pressure of the unrarefied exter¬
nal air on the lower part of the rarefied columa of air in
the furnace and chimney, the current of air through the
furnace is produced. The grate G is larger than any other
transverse section of the furnace. (See figure next column.)
The furnace has three openings, one, C, for introducing the
coals; the second, P, which has a sliding brick door, with
a counterpoise, serves for introducing the pig-iron. The
third, I, is for the purpose of stirring the metal, and taking
out the melted iron for small castings by iron ladles coat¬
ed with clay, and made red hot. This third opening has
a door of fire-brick; the joints between the door and the
door-frame are luted. In the middle of the door is a hole,
through which the state of the melted metal may be seen.
There is likewise a smaller opening, I, for letting out the
melted metal. ,
The furnace and stack are of brick. The interior of
the furnace is a coating of fire-brick, nine inches thick,
detached and separate from the outer coat and the other
parts of the building, in order that the hegt may not melt
the common brick of which the outer parts are composed.
The fire-brick is made of refractory clay, which, contain¬
ing little iron, and little or no calcareous matter, burns
white, and sustains a great heat without molting. These
bricks are made of Stourbridge clay, or of a light bluish
gray stratified clay found in the strata that accompany
coal in some of the collieries in Scotland. The clay is
first ground, the pieces of ironstone picked out, and then
made into bricks. In making the interior coating of the
furnace, the bricks must be built with xnoistened fire-clay,
and not with lime mortar. The quantity of metal put into
the furnace should be equal to the weight of the solid un¬
bored gun with its head, and something roorp in case of
need. It requires a large air-furnace to contain metal
enough for one large gun.
Quality of The pig-iron for guns should be gray, that kind having
the iron. most tenacity; white pig-iron is too brittle, and so hard
Charm™ that the head cannot be cut off, nor the gun bored.
■ •' h A bed of sand, N, is made in the furnace, on which the
pig-iron is to be laid. The furnace is heated to a white
heat, till the sand is vitrified, which is known to have taken Cannon
place by touching the surface of the sand with an iron
ringard. The brick door is then lifted up, and the pig-iron
is laid on the bed of sand. The heat should be applied Fusion
so as to produce a speedy fusion ; for if the iron is long ex- should bo
posed to heat before melting, a portion of its carbonaceous1’^-
matter is burnt, and it passes from the state of gray cast
iron to that of white. In situations where pit-coal cannot
be had, wood may be used in the air-furnace; but the heat
given by wood is not so great as that produced by pit-coal.
To obtain the utmost heat that the wood is capable of af¬
fording, it should be well dried, cut into small logs, and
the logs should be placed with their end upon the grate.
The pig-iron melted by the flame playing on it, flows
down into a cavity, L, which has a hole, T, opening out¬
wardly, and stopped with clay. When the hole is forced
open hy a workman, the metal issues and is conveyed by
a gutter formed of sand to the gun-mould, into which the
melted metal falls through the open end of the head. The
sand forming the gutter should be in a proper state of
moisture. If it is too dry, some pieces of it will be carried
away by the metal. Across the gutter is a dam compos¬
ed of an iron plate luted, and dipping a little below the
surface of the metal to retain the scorise. This dam is
driven down to stop the current of metal when the mould
is full. The metal is also skimmed, as it passes along, by a
skimmer, composed of a rod of iron terminated by a flat
semi-elliptical piece luted and made red hot. It is sometimes
the practice to plunge a piece of green wood for a short
time into the head whilst liquid. This is with a view to
prevent honeycombs, and its action may be to metallize
any oxidated particles of the metal, and that the vapour
from the gi’een wood, rising to the surface of the metal,
may carry with it small air bubbles, or other extraneous
bodies that would, if they remained, occasion cavities in
the metal.
The figure is a transverse section of the air-furnace. C Explana.
is the opening through which the coals are introduced. P, ^,on of 111
the opening at which the pig-iron is thrown in. T, the holetlsure'
through which the metal is let out. The metal flows into
the casting-house. O, the floor of the casting-house. In
this floor is the pit in which the moulds of large goods are
sunk, that the metal may flow down into them. I, the door,
with a hole in it, for seeing the state of the melted metal.
Bte
If
8
nace.
C A N N 0: N.
87
r non. leading to A, the ash-pit. N, bottom of the furnace, lined
J with sand. H, chimney; the height of the stack is forty
feet from the surface of the ground. The stack is strength-
I! ened in different places by iron bars, X. F is the mass
of building which forms the foundation built below the sur¬
face of the ground to support the weight of the furnace
and stack. R, the surface of the ground out of doors. C
P N L H is the course that the flame takes.
a n._ It is better to cast the guns from the air-furnace than
a [prefe- from the blast-furnace ; for in the blast-furnace, where the
ilt for ironstone is smelted, the quality of the metal is uncertain,
wp and it may vary from one cast to another, by causes either
unknown, or not under the control of the iron-master. On
the other hand, in the air-furnace, pig-iron of a quality
proper for making guns is put in, and the quality of the
iron is not materially altered by the process of melting.
'1 head. The head of the gun is like the jet (gate or geet of the
workmen) of any other casting. Whilst the whole is
liquid, the head is a column of liquid metal that acts by
its height, exerting pressure on the metal that forms the
body of the gun. The metal subjected to this pressure
whilst liquid is less subject to porosity when cooled. The
head also furnishes metal to fill up the cavities that occur
in the piece by the contraction and crystallization of the
metal whilst it is passing to the solid state. All the
great contractions and crystallizations are thus transfer¬
red to the surface of the head, which is found to be com¬
posed of large cavities, sometimes containing cast iron
crystallized in a fern-leafed shape. The head also serves
to receive any impurities that may have escaped the at¬
tention of those appointed to skim the iron as it flows
along the gutter.
In ten or twelve hours, the piece is sufficiently cool to
be removed. It is then stripped of the mould, and taken
to the boring-mill, to undergo the operations described
under our article Boring of Cannon. Mortars, howit¬
zers, and carronades are moulded, cast, and bored in the
same way as long guns.
The English Board of Ordnance is supplied with iron
guns by contract. The contractors are those iron-master^
who offer the guns at the lowest price, and the guns are
cast at their works in the country. The guns are sent
to Woolwich to be examined in respect to their dimen¬
sions, the coincidence of the axis of the bore with that of
the piece, the position of the touch-hole, and to undergo
a proof by powder. It is also tried whether water can be
forced through the substance of the gun. If any cavities
called honey-combs be found in the bore, the piece is re¬
jected. The proofs are at the risk of the contractors,
who generally examine and prove the guns at their works
before sending them to Woolwich. Unserviceable guns
are taken to the triangle, where a large mass of cast iron
is let fall upon the gun, from a height of forty or fifty feet.
The gun is thus brokeri into pieces of a size fit for being
introduced into the air furnace to be re-cast. Some brass
guns are cast and bored in the foundery of the Board of
Ordnance at Woolwichl
guns. Cast-iron guns have the advantage of not suffering any
injurious alteration from the heat,of repeated firing. Brass
guns when fired rapidly in succession droop at the muzzle.
Cast-iron guns ajlone are used on board British ships; brass
guns are now principally used for fietd-piecef. Brass guns,
in strict and precise language, might bp called bronze
guns, as the word brass, is most commbhly used to denote
a composition of copper and zinc, whereas, in gun-metal,
there is generally little zinc, and often none. Copper alone
is too soft, so that the guns that have been made of it
were cut and furrowed by the ball in firing. Use is made,
therefore, of a mixture of copper and tin, this Composi¬
tion being harder than copper. Copper and tin separate¬
ly are soft and malleable; when combined they form a Cannon
composition that is bdrd and brittle ; and these two quali-
ties are increased bp augmenting the relative quantity of
tin. Diffieffexrt fffdportions have been employed for guns;
ted parts, by Weight, of copper, and one of tin, is apropor-
tidn that is found to give the requisite hardness, and not
too much, nor too great brittleness. The copper is first
melted; and the tin is added. If the tin were melted first,
and thd' copperr added, much of the tin would be oxidated
before the combination took place ; the metal, during the
process, is stirred with a rod of green wood.
BeH-feetkl is a combination of copper and tin in other
proportions. It is made hard by means of tin, in order
that it may be sonorods. It contains twenty-five per cent,
of tin, and is too brittle and too hard for making guns. In
the year 1794 the revolutionary government of France ob¬
tained gun-metal by depriving bell-metal of a part of its
tin. Bell-metal was heated with the contact of air, and
stirred to oxidate the tin; the bell-metal was thus redu¬
ced to the state of a coarse powder; this powder was thrown
into another quantity of bell-metal in fusion ; the metallic
and oxidated copper in the powder melted, and was mixed
vjr'ith the already fused bell-metal; the oxide of tin of the
powder remained on the surface. A melted mass was thus
obtained, containing a larger proportion of copper than the
bell-metal, and fit for making guns. nou-giq 9J
The mould for brass guns is formed of dry sand, in the
same way as the mould for cast-iron guns already describ¬
ed. The furnace for melting brass for guns is a reverbera¬
tory fbrnace, the metal being exposed to the flame. It
has no high cbimney like the air-furnace for melting iron,
the h$at required not being so great as that for melting
cast iron. 10 9uJ ^ymunidD pnB doamui
Brass guns are subject to melt at the interior extremity
of the touch-hole, by the heat of quick firing; and the
melted parts are driven out by the explosion, so as to ren¬
der the touch-hole too wide. To prevent this, there is
sometimes a bush of copper inserted, and in this bush the
touch-hole is drilled. The copper being less fusible than
the brass, is not melted by the heat of firing the piece.
To form the bush, a cylindrical piece of copper is hammer¬
ed cold, and made into the form of a male screw. A hole
is then bored, reaching from the surface of the gun into
its bore ; the diameter of this cylindrical hale is equal to
the diameter of the cylinder of copper measured from the
bottom of the threads of the screw. The piece of copper
is then screwed into the cylindrical hole, and the toiieh-
hdfe'*^ dieted1 ^ond-ain io gnilnoa B ei nnsmui ail
The improvements in casting cannon, as in other arts, Progress
have been gradual. Formerly cannon were cast with aofthe art
core, and this was practised in some founderies in Flanders,0* casting
even in the year 1794 ; but they are now always castcanno11"
solid, experience having shown that guns cast solid are
stronger, and less liable to burst, and the bore is freer from
honeycombs, and more likely to have the same axis with
the piece. The Second of these qualities is still more cer¬
tainly attained by the practice now in use of making the
gun itself revolve whilst boring; in this way, as long as
the boring bar remains unmoved, the axis is right; but
if the boring bar lias a conical motion, then the point
of the bit is out of the axis; when the boring bar was
made to revolve, the bore might deviate greatly from the
axis. The irtiprovements in the casting of cannon have
kept pace with the improvements in the manufacture of
cast iron.
The art of casting iron was known to the ancients, as
appears from a small antique statue of Hercules, of cast
iron, dug up at Rome. In China it appears to be practis¬
ed with a dexterity visible in the Chinese specimens of
many other arts. In modern Europe it has grown with
88 CAN
Cannon, the general advancement of society, and has latterly at-
tained to a high degree of improvement in this island,
where individuals having the command of capital, and the
power of making advances for the salaries of workmen and
the construction of buildings, were induced to form large
establishments for the smelting of ironstone, and for the
manufacture of cast iron. In France cast iron is little
used; many of the articles which in England are of cast
iron being there of wrought iron, copper, earthemyare, or
wood. In the Prussian dominions the art of casting sta¬
tues and small medals in cast iron is successfully prac¬
tised. But in none of the other countries of Europe is
cast iron so generally used, and nowhere is it manufactur¬
ed on so large a scale, and with the employment of so
much capital, as in Britain.
Extended Pit-coal has been the main instrument in this extensive
by the use manufacture. As it gives a better heat for the melting of
of pit-coal. cast ;ronj an(i saves the great extent of ground required
for rearing wood, the greater part of the cast iron in Bri¬
tain is now extracted from the ironstone, and made into
castings by pit-coal. Pit-coal began to be used in the
smelting of ironstone in 1619. This first operation was
performed in Worcestershire by Dudley, who describes his
process in a book entitled MetaUum Martis. The manu¬
facture of cast iron was not much advanced one hundred
years afterwards; for in the first half of the eighteenth
century cast-iron goods w-ere imported into some part of
Britain from Holland ; and the Dutch chimney-backs, with
the figure of a parrot, are to be seen in old country houses
in Scotland to this day.
Two kinds of mineral are smelted- for iron in Britain.
The first is the haematites of Ulverstone and the neigh¬
bourhood of Whitehaven, which, as it contains much iron
(60 per cent.), is carried by sea to smelting furnaces in
different parts of Britain. The second is the argillaceous
ironstone, which constitutes some of the strata that accom¬
pany pit-coal. This is more generally used than the hae¬
matites. And it is in the vicinity of the masses of strati¬
fied minerals which yield coal and ironstone that the prin¬
cipal iron-works in Britain are set down. These strata are
found in various parts of the island, and are portions of
that class of depositions called by geologists the coal for¬
mation. A stratum of coal or of ironstone of consider¬
able extent is termed by the coal and iron masters a coal
field, or an ironstone field.
NON.
Pit-coal cannot be employed entire in the blast-furnace; Canno;:
the bituminous part would be conglutinated by the heat, ''-—yx
and the furnace would be choked, and the materials would
no longer descend gradually as they ought to do. The
coal is therefore burnt to drive off its bitumen, and it is
then in a state of cinder, and called coak. It requires a
larger mass of coak than of charcoal to smelt ironstone.
Hence the coak blast-furnaces are large, and the machines
employed to blow them are more powerful than the wooden
spring bellows invented in Germany in 1620, and which
continue to be employed in the charcoal iron furnaces in
Germany and France. Bellows connected by leather,
and worked by water, were used to blow the blast-furnaces
at Carron at the commencement of that establishment in
1760. Some time after, these bellows gave place to blow¬
ing machines, composed of pistons working in iron cylin¬
ders, constructed by the celebrated Smeaton, and describ¬
ed in his reports. The blowing machines of the blast¬
furnaces in Britain are now always composed ol pistons
moving in iron cylinders. The improvements in the steam-
engine have rendered practicable the working of blast¬
furnaces in situations where there is no fall of water; and,
on the other hand, the manufacture of the various parts of
numerous steam-engines has called forth the abilities and
ingenuity of the iron founder.
In consequence of the advanced state of the English
cast-iron manufacture, several foreign nations have been
desirous of introducing the English method, and have
procured English workmen for that pui’pose. In this way
iron-works on the English plan were erected in Russia
about 1780, in Silesia in 1790; and in France, at Creusot,
twelve miles south of Autun, there were three English
coak blast-furnaces begun about 1790, under the direction
of William Wilkinson.
The strength of guns depends on the strength of the Strength
metal of which the gun is composed, and on the quantity caliber,
of metal and the manner in which it is disposed. TsionsoT;
subject will be considered in the article Gunnery, fhe cant]0!i
nature of the subject does not admit of determining with
precision the best weight and length that can be given
to a gun fitted for exploding a ball of a given weight.
Guns of the same caliber are consequently made of differ¬
ent dimensions even in the same country, ffhe four tables
that follow contain the weight, length, and other dimen¬
sions of British and of French guns.
1.—Table of the Length, Weight, Caliber, and Charges of British Government Iron Guns.
42 Pounder
32 Pounder
24 Pounder
18 Pounder
12 Pounder
9 Pounder
Pounder
Pounder
Pounder
Pounder
Pounder
Pounder
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
gun
Length.
F. In.
10 0
10 0
10 0
9 6
9 6
9 6
9 0
6 0
Weight.
Cwt. lb.
67 0
58 0
52 0
42 0
34 0
30 1
24 0
12 1
7 1
Diameter
of the
Bore.
Inches.
7-018
6-410
5-824
5-292
4-623
4-20
3-668
3-204
2-913
2-544
2-019
1-602
Diameter
of the Shot.
Inches.
6-684
6-105
.5-547
5-040
4-403
4-000
3-498
3-053
2-775
2-423
1-293
1-526
Diameter
of the Shot
Gauge.
Inches.
6-795
6-207
5-639
5-124
4-476
4-066
3-552
3-104
2-820
2-463
1-955
1-551
Charge.
Proof.
lb.
25-0
21-8
18-0
15-0
12-0
9-0
6-0
4-0
3-0
2-0
1-0
0-8
Service
lb.
14-0
10-11
8-0
6-0
4-0
3-0
2-0
1-5
1*0
0-11
0*6
0-3
CAN
annon II.— Table of the Length, Weight, and Caliber of Iron
I! Ordnance used on Board British Merchant Ships in
,anoe', 1811.
9 Pounder gun
6 Pounder gun..
4 Pounder gun..
12 Pounder car-
ronade 
9 Pounder car-
ronade 
9 Pounder car-
ronade light.
6 Pounder car-
ronade 
Length from
Base-ring to
Muzzle-end.
Feet. In.
5 0
Weight.
Cwt. lb. oz.
14 2 0
9 1 17
6 3 21
10 1 0
8 1 23
6 2 21
6 0 8
Diameter of
Bore.
Inches.
4-2
3-668
3- 204
4- 52
4-11
4-11
3-6
III.— Table of the Length and Weight of Iron Gmis used
in the French Navy in 1794.
36 Pounder gun..
24 Pounder gun
18 Pounder gun..
12 Pounder gun..
8 Pounder gun
long 
8 Pounder gun
short   
6 Pounder
long...,
4 Pounder,
gum
Length from
the extremity
of the Pommel
to extremity of
Muzzle.
Pietls.
10
9
8
8
8
7
7
6
Ponces.
0
10*
2*
710
' 12
510
°12
7*
0*
Length of the
Head with
which the Gun
is cast.
Pieds. Ponces.
3 0
Weight
of the
Gun.
Lbs.
7190
5116
4212
2995
2382
2056
1733
IV.— Table of the Weight of Brass Guns used in the
French Land Service in 1794, and the Weight of the
Mead with which they are Cast.
24 Founder^
16 Pounder f
12 Pounder
8 Pounder
12 Pounder
8 Pounder
4 Pounder
1 Pounder |
Battering
guns
Garrison
guns
Field
pieces
For light
troops
Length from
the extremity
of Pommel to
extremity of
Muzzle.
Pieds. Ponces.
r
10
9
8
7
6
4
10-^-
43
3 2
Q_l_
V12
9JL
3 l 2
ft 7
UT2
1-JL
11 2
10A
'12
3 10
Weight
of the
Gun.
Lbs.
5628
4111
3184
2175
1808
1186
590
266
Weight
of the
Head.
Lbs.
3100
2600
1800
1200
1235
950
550
250
(b. b.)
CANNONADE, the application of artillery to the pur¬
poses of war, or the direction of its efforts against some
distant object intended to be seized or destroyed, as a
ship, battery, or fortress. See Gunnery and War.
CANO. See Kano.
CANOE, a sort of Indian boat or vessel, formed of the
VOL. VI.
CAN
89
trunk of a tree hollowed, and sometimes of several pieces Canon,
of the bark put together.
Canoes are of various sizes, according to the uses for
which they may be designed, or the countries in which
they are formed. The largest are made of the cotton tree ;
and some of them will carry between twenty and thirty
hogsheads of sugar or molasses. Others are made to carry
sail, and for this purpose are steeped in water till they be¬
come pliant, after which their sides are extended, and
strong beams placed between them, on which a deck is
afterwards laid that serves to support their sides. The
other sorts very rarely carry sail, unless when going be¬
fore the wind; their sails are made of a sort of short silk
grass or rushes. They are commonly rowed with paddles,
which are pieces of light wood somewhat resembling a
corn shovel; and, instead of rowing with it horizontally
like an oar, they manage it perpendicularly. The small
canoes are very narrow, having only room for one person
in breadth, and seven or eight lengthwise. The rowers,
who are generally American savages, are very expert in
managing their paddles uniformly, and in balancing the
canoes with their bodies, which would be difficult for a
stranger to do, how well accustomed soever to the con¬
ducting of European boats, because the canoes are ex¬
tremely light, and liable to be overturned. The Ameri¬
can Indians, when they are under the necessity of landing
to avoid a water-fall, or of crossing the land from one river
to another, carry their canoes on their heads till they ar¬
rive at a place where they can launch them again. This
is the general construction of canoes, and method of ma¬
naging them; but some nations have vessels, under the
name of canoes, which differ considerably from the above,
as the inhabitants of Greenland, Hudson’s Bay, Otaheite,
and other places.
CANON, a person who possesses a prebend, or revenue
allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathe¬
dral or collegiate church.
Canons are of no great antiquity. Paschier observes,
that the name canon w-as not known before Charlemagne;
at least the first we hear of are in Gregory de Tours, who
mentions a college of canons instituted by Baldwin XVI.
archbishop of that city, in the time of Clotharius I. The
common opinion attributes the institution of this order to
Chrodegangus, bishop of Metz, about the middle of the
eighth century.
Originally canons were only priests, or inferior ecclesi¬
astics, who lived in community, residing by the cathedral
church to assist the bishop, depending entirely on his will,
supported by the revenues of the bishopric, and living
in the same house as his domestics or counsellors. They
even inherited his movables till the year 817, when this
was prohibited by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a
new rule substituted in the place of that which had been
appointed by Chrodegangus, and which was observed for
the most part in the west till the twelfth century. By
degrees these communities of priests, shaking off their
dependence, formed separate bodies, of which the bishops,
however, were still heads. In the tenth century there
were communities or congregations of the same kind es¬
tablished even in cities w here there were no bishops ; and
these were called collegiates, as they used the terms con¬
gregation and college indifferently ; the name chapter, now
given to these bodies, being much more modern. Under
the second race of the French kings, the Canonical or col¬
legiate life had spread itself all over the country; and each
cathedral had its chapter distinct from the rest of the
clergy. They had the name canon from the Greek xavuv,
which signifies three different things; a rule, a pension or
fixed revenue to live on, and a catalogue or matricula, all
which are applicable to them.
M
90 CAN C A N
Canon. In time, the canons freed themselves from their rules, general councils. The Greek canons in this second col- Canou
the observance relaxed, and at length they ceased to live lection end with those of the council of Chalcedon; to yv
in community; yet they still formed bodies, pretending which are subjoined those of the council of Sardica, and
to other functions besides the celebration of the common the African councils. The fourth and last collection comes
office in the church, assuming the rights of the rest of down as low as the second council of Nice; and it is on
the clergy, making themselves necessary as a council of this that Balsamon and Zonaras have commented,
the bishop, taking upon them the administration of a see Apostolical Canons are those which have been usually
during a vacancy, and the election of a bishop to supply ascribed to St Clement. Bellarmin, Baronius, and others,
it. There are even some chapters exempt from the juris- will have them to be genuine canons of the apostles. Ca-
diction of the bishop, and owning no head but their dean, telerius observes that they cannot be ascribed totheapostles
From the example of cathedral chapters, collegiate ones or Clement, because they are not received with other books
also continued to form bodies after they had abandoned of Scripture, are not quoted by the writers of the first
living in community. ages, and contain many things not agreeable to the apos-
Canons are of various kinds ; as, tolical times. Hincmar, de Marca, Beveridge, and others,
Cardinal Canons, who were those attached, and, as the believe them to have been framed by the bishops who were
Latins call it, incardinati, to a church, as a priest is to a the apostles’ disciples in the second or third century; S.
parish • Basnage is of opinion that they were collected by an anony-
Domicellary Canons, young canons, who, not being in mous writer in the fifth century, but Daille and others
orders, had no right in any particular chapters. maintain them to have been forged by some heretic in the
Expectative Canons, or such as, without having any re- sixth century; and S. Basnage conjectures that some of
venue or prebend, had the title and dignities of canons, a them are ancient, and others not older than the seventh
voice in the chapter, and a place in the choir, till such century. The Greek church allows eighty-five of them,
tim^ as a prebend should become vacant. and the Latin only fifty; though there are eighty-four in
Foreign Canons, or such as did not officiate in the ca- the edition given of them in the Corpus Juris Canomci.
nonries to which they belonged. To these were oppos- Canon is also used for the authorized catalogue of the
ed mansionary canons, or canons residentiary. sacred writings. See Bible.
Lag or Honorary Canons, who are those among the laity The ancient canon, or catalogue of the books of the
who have been admitted, out of honour and respect, into Old Testament, was made by the Jews, and is ordinarily
some chapter of canons. attributed to Ezra, who is said to have distributed them
Regular Canons, who are canons that still live in com- into the law, the prophets, and the hagiographa, to which
munity, and, like religious, have in process of time added our Saviour refers, Luke, chap. xxiv. ver. 44. Ihe same
the solemn profession of vows to the practice of their division is also mentioned by Josephus (Cord. Appion.)
rules. They are called regulars, to distinguish them from This is the canon allowed to have been followed by
those secular canons who abandon living in community, the primitive church till the council of Carthage;
and at the same time the observance of the canons made according to St Jerome, it consisted of no more than
as the rule of the clergy for the maintenance of the an- twenty-two books, answering to the number of the He-
cient discipline. The canons subsisted in their simpli- brew alphabet, though at present they are classed into
city till the eleventh or twelfth century, wdien some of twenty-four divisions, containing Genesis, Exodus, Levi-
them, separating from the community, took with them the ticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
name of canons, or acephalous priests, because they de- Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the twelve minor pro-
clined to live in community with the bishop; and those phets, the Psalms, the Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth,
who were left thenceforth acquired the denomination of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, compre-
canons regular, and adopted most of the professions of bending the book of Nehemiah and the Chronicles. How-
the rule of St Augustin. This order of regular canons ever, this order is not universally observed either among
of St Augustin was brought into England by Adelwald, Jews or Christians ; nor were all the books above enumerat-
confessor ^o Henry L, who erected a priory at Nostel in ed admitted into the canon in Ezra’s time. It is most likely,
Yorkshire, and obtained for them the church of Carlisle says Dr Prideaux, that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra,
as an episcopal see, with the privilege of choosing their Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi, were added in the time
own bishop. They were singularly protected and encou- of Simon the Just, when the canon was completed. But
raged by Henry I. who gave them the priory of Dunsta- that council enlarged the canon very considerably, taking
ble in 1107; and by Queen Maud, who, in the following into it the books which we call apocryphal ; which the
year, gave them the priory of the Holy Trinity in London, council of Trent has further enforced, enjoining all these
It appears that under the reign of Edward I. they had to be received as books of Holy Scripture, upon pain of
fifty-three priories. anathema, and being attainted of heiesy. 4 he Koman-
Tertiary Canons, or those who had only the third part of ists, in defence of this canon, say that it is the same with
the revenues of the canonicate. that of the council of Hippo, held in and with that
Canon, in an ecclesiastical sense, is a law or rule, either of the third council of Carthage, in 397, at which weie
of doctrine or discipline, enacted especially by a council, present forty-six bishops, and among the rest fet Augus-
and confirmed by the authority of the sovereign. tin, who declared that they had received it from their fa-
Canons are properly decisions of matters of religion ; or thers.
regulations of the policy and discipline of a church, made Their canon of the New Testament perfectly agrees
by councils, either general, national, or provincial. Such with ours. It consists of books that are well known, and
are the canons of the councils of Nice, Trent, &c. some of which have been universally acknowledged, such as
There have been various collections of the canons of the the Gospels, and acts of the Apostles, thirteen Epistles of
eastern councils; but there are four principal ones, each am- St Paul, one Epistle of St Peter, and one Epistle of St
pier than the preceding. The first, according to Usher, a. n. John; and others, concerning which doubts were enter-
380, containing only those of the first ecumenical council, tained, but which were afterwards received as genuine,
and the first provincial ones; they were only 164 in num- such as the Epistle to the Hebrews, that of James, the
her. To these, Dionysius Exiguus, in the year 520, add- second of Peter, the second and third of John, that of
ed the fifty canons of the apostles, and those of the other Jude, and the Revelation. These books were written at
C A N
non. different times; and they are authenticated, not by the
v|,decrees of councils, or infallible authority, but by such
kind of evidence as is thought sufficient in the case of any
other ancient writings. They were very extensively dif¬
fused; they were read in every Christian society; they
were valued and preserved with care by the first Christians;
they were cited by Christian writers of the second, third,
and fourth centuries, as by Irenaeus, Clement the Alex¬
andrian, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, and others; and their
genuineness is proved by the testimony of those who were
contemporary with the apostles themselves, and by tradi¬
tion. The four Gospels, and most of the other books of
the New Testament, were collected either by one of the
apostles, or some of their disciples and successors, before
the end of the first century. The catalogue of canonical
books furnished by the more ancient Christian writers, as
Origen about the year 210, Eusebius and Athanasius in
315, Epiphanius in 370, Jerome in 382, Austin in 394,
and many others, agrees with that which is now received
among Christians.
Some of the fathers distinguish the inspired writings
into three classes ; proto-canonical, deutero-canonlcal, and
apocryphal.
Paschal Canon, a table of the movable feasts, showing
the day of Easter, and the other feasts depending on it,
for a cycle of nineteen years.
The paschal canon is supposed to be the calculation of
Eusebius of Caesarea, and to have been done by order of
the council of Nice.
Canon, in monastic orders, a book in which the religious
of every convent have a fair transcript of the rules of their
order, frequently read among them as their local statutes.
This is also called regula, as containing the rule and in¬
stitution of their order. The canon differs from the missale,
martyrologium, and necrologium.
Canon, again, is used for the catalogue of saints ac¬
knowledged and canonized in the Romish church.
Canon is also used, by way of excellence, in the Ro¬
mish church, for the secret words of the mass, from the
preface to the Pater; in the middle of which the priest
consecrates the host. The common opinion is, that the
canon of the mass commences with Te igitur, &c. The
people are to be on their knees, hearing the canon, and
are to rehearse it to themselves so as not to be heard.
Canon, in the ancient music, is a rule or mode of de¬
termining the intervals of notes. Ptolemy, rejecting the
Aristoxenian way of measuring the intervals in music, by
the magnitude of a tone, which was supposed to be form¬
ed by the difference between a diapente and a diatessa-
ron, thought that musical intervals should be distinguish¬
ed according to the ratios or proportions which the sounds
terminating those intervals bear to one another, when
considered according to their degree of acuteness or gra¬
vity, which, before Aristoxenus, was the old Pythagorean
way. He therefore made the diapason consist in a dou¬
ble ratio, the diapente in a sesquialterate, the diatessa-
ron in a sesquitertian, and the tone itself in a sesqui-
octave, and all the other intervals according to the pro¬
portion of the sounds that terminate them; wherefore
taking the canon, as it is called, for a determinate line of
any length, he shows how this canon is to be cut accord¬
ingly, so that it may represent the respective intervals;
and this method answers exactly to experiment, in the
different lengths of musical chords. From this canon
CAN 91
Ptolemy and his followers have been called Canonici, as Canon
those of Aristoxenus were called Musici. Law.
Canon, in modern music, is a kind of fugue which they v—
call a perpetual fugue, because the different parts begin¬
ning one after another repeat incessantly the same air.
See Music.
Canon, in Geometry and Algebra, a general rule for the
solution of all cases of a similar nature to that from which
it is primarily deduced. Thus every last step of an equa¬
tion is a canon ; and, if turned into words, becomes a rule to
solve all questions of the same nature with that proposed.
CANON LAW is a term used to denote the ecclesias¬
tical law sanctioned by the church of Rome, and possessing
more or less direct influence in all countries which ac¬
knowledge the authority of the pope. The word xavaji/
signifies a rule, and this word was not at first considered
as too feeble to express the claims of the church to the
obedience of her children; but, in the progress of priest¬
ly usurpation, the successor of St Peter began to arrogate
a more ample and definite jurisdiction, and to extend his
regulations to many causes which are not strictly ecclesi¬
astical. The stupendous fabric of papal dominion attain¬
ed its full height in the eleventh century, under the aus¬
pices of Hildebrand, who was elected in the year 1073,
and assumed the name of Gregory VII. It was one of
his dictates, that the church of Rome has never erred,
and, according to the testimony of Scripture, never shall
err;1 and after this maxim was fully admitted, nothing
remained to obstruct the progress of spiritual arrogance.
What had formerly been described as a rule, was now dig¬
nified with the name of law; and from this period, a pe¬
riod of the deepest ignorance and superstition, the canon
law obtained great influence in most countries of Europe.
After the foundation of those seminaries of learning which
we denominate universities, it acquired a distinguished
place among the other faculties ; and a knowledge of the
canon law became a common road to the highest honours.
It is a maxim of the commentators, that a Doctor of the
Canon Law is to be preferred to a Doctor of Divinity in
such dioceses as do not contain many heretics.2 3
The canon law is derived from many different sources.
The authority of the Scriptures cannot be entirely disre¬
garded ; but the writings of the fathers and doctors of the
church, the decrees of councils, and the decretals of popes,
are much better adapted to the general views of the ca¬
nonists. The canon is to a great extent to be consider¬
ed as the spurious offspring of the civil law : what is most
valuable it has derived from the Roman jurisprudence;
and its own peculiar maxims and rules have all the same
general tendency towards the power and aggrandizement
of churchmen.
The Greek church has bequeathed various reliques, which
cannot be safely neglected by those who investigate the
history of the canon law, as well as the general history of
the church. Its Codex Canonunfi is confirmed by the 131
Novel of Justinian, and is therefore considered as a por¬
tion of the civil law. From this collection the emperor
borrowed those ecclesiastical constitutions which occur in
the Code and Novels. We cannot however pursue this
branch of enquiry, but shall merely direct the reader’s at¬
tention to two very elaborate publications. The first of
these is the “ Bibliotheca Juris Canonici veteris: ex an-
tiquis codicibus MSS. bibliothecae Christophori Justelli,
opera et studio Gulielmi Voelli et Henrici Justelli.” Lu-
1 Mastricht Historia Juris Ecclesiastici et Pontificii, p. 297- Amst. 1G8G, 8vo.
2 Lancelotti Institutiones Juris Canonici, tom. i. p. 232. edit. Doujat. Paris. 1G85, 2 tom. 12mo.
3 Codex Canonum Ecclesiae universae, a Justiniano confirmatus. Christophorus Justellus, J. C. nunc primum restituit, ex Gne-
cis codicibus editis et MSS. collegit et emendavit, Latinum fecit, et notis illustravit. Paris. 1610, 8vo.
92 C A N O N L A W.
Canon, tetiae Paris. 1661, 2 tom. fol. For the other we are in-
debted to Dr Beveridge, the very learned bishop of St
Asaph: “ Zwobixov, sive Pandect® Canonum SS. Aposto-
lorum, et Conciliorum ab Ecclesia Graeca receptorum;
nec non canonicarum SS. Patrum Epistolarum: una cum
scholiis antiquorum singulis eorum annexis, et scriptis aliis
hue spectantibus.” Oxonii, 1672, 2 tom. fol. Ibis publica¬
tion was followed by his “ Codex Canonum Ecclesiae pri-
mitiv® vindicatus et illustratus.” Lond. 1678, 4to. Nor
must we here neglect to mention a very recent work by
Professor Biener of Berlin : “ De Collectionibus Canonum
Ecclesi® Gr®c® Schediasma litterarium.” Berolini, 1827,
8vo.
Of the rules or laws received by the Latin church, there
were many ancient collections. Dionysius Exiguus, an
abbot who flourished about the beginning of the sixth
century, formed two different compilations, one of the
canons of the church, another of the decretals of the
bishop of Rome; and this was the earliest collection of
decretals. These were followed by the collections of Ful-
gentius Ferrandus, who flourished soon afterwards ; of
Isidorus Hispalensis, who was bishop of Seville from 595
to 636 ; of Cresconius, who flourished about the year 690;
of Isidorus Mercator, otherwise called Peccator, who
wrote about the year 800, and is described as “ impostor
nequissimusand of various other compilers, whose la¬
bours we have not at present an opportunity of reviewing.
Burchardus, who was bishop of Worms from 996 to 1025,
formed a compilation of the canon law, described as
“ Magnum Decretorum Volumen,” and divided into twen¬
ty books. Ivo Carnotensis, bishop of Chartres from 1092
to 1115, was the author of a similar compilation, which
bears the title of Decretum ; and to him is ascribed ano¬
ther work on the canon law, sometimes called Pannomia,
and sometimes Pannormia. Both these works have been
repeatedly printed.
Ivo was followed by Gratian, whose Decretum forms the
first and most ample part of the Corpus Juris Canonici.
He was a native of Clusium, or Chiusi, near Florence, and,
according to a very improbable account, was the brother
of Petrus Lombardus and Petrus Comestor. One of these
three individuals was a native of Tuscany, another, as his
name denotes, of Lombardy, and the third of France;
but, in order to remove the difficulty which arises from
this variety in the places of their nativity, some writers
do their mother the honour of supposing that her three
distinguished sons were the fruit of her unlawful inter¬
course with three different fathers, at different periods,
and in different places. Gratian was a Benedictine monk
of the monastery of St Felix and St Nabor at Bologna.
His work has long been commonly known by the. title of
Decretum, but is more correctly described as “ Decreto¬
rum Collectaneaand it is remarked by the very learn¬
ed archbishop of Tarragona, that the old manuscripts
scarcely ever bear the former title, but generally that of
“ Concordia discordantium Canonum.”1 According to the
usual account, it was compiled in the year 1151: this may
indeed have been the period of its completion, but it evi¬
dently was not the labour of a single year. Cardinal
Bellarmin has endeavoured to reconcile two conflicting
authorities, by supposing that Gratian commenced his Canon
work in 1127, and completed it in 1151, thus allowing a ^
period of twenty-four years for its composition.2 The De¬
cretum was presented to his holiness Eugenius III., who
is said to have testified his approbation by conferring upon
him the bishopric of Chiusi.3 It never obtained the for¬
mal sanction of the pope ; but although it is thus to be re¬
garded as the work of a private individual, it speedily se¬
cured, and has ever since maintained, a degree of autho¬
rity which makes a near approach to that which belongs to
written law.4 The principal sources from which his com¬
pilation is derived, are the sacred Scriptures, the spurious
work described as the Apostolical Canons, the decisions of
ecumenical and local councils, the decretal epistles, part¬
ly genuine and partly spurious, of seventy-eight Roman
pontiffs, the works of the Greek and Latin fathers and
other ecclesiastical writers, the Theodosian Code and the
Corpus Juris Civilis, the capitularies of kings of France
and the rescripts of emperors. It is divided into three
parts; of which the first and third are subdivided into
distinctions, and the second into causes and questions.5
Gratian, who wrote in an unenlightened age, is chargeable
with many errors of ignorance or inadvertence, which the
canonists have not scrupled to detect and expose. Au¬
gustinus has composed a series of dialogues De Emenda-
tione Gratiani, in which the reader will find much learned
and curious disquisition; and many other writers, editors
as well as commentators, have endeavoured to rectify er¬
rors and supply defects. “ To the compilations of Isidore
and Gratian,” says a catholic lawyer, “ one of the greatest
misfortunes of the church, the claim of the popes to tem¬
poral power by divine right, may in some measure be
attributed. That a claim so unfounded and so impious,
so detrimental to religion, and so hostile to the peace of
the world, should have been made, is strange—stranger
yet is the success it met with.”6
The second collection which appears in the body of the
canon law is entitled Decretalium D. Gregorii Papce IX.
Compilatio. It was formed under the direction and au¬
thority of this pontiff, who filled the chair of St Peter
from 1237 to 1241. He is himself commended for his
skill in jurisprudence, and in the execution of this plan he
employed Raymundus de Penyafort, a learned Spaniard,
who was afterwards enrolled in the catalogue of saints.?
The work is divided into five books, and each book into
various titles. “ Epistol® decretales” are rescripts of the
popes, in answer to prelates or other individuals by wdiom
they have been consulted. They are sometimes called
Decretalia, but commonly Decretales, the words Rescrip-
ta and Epistol® being respectively understood. The work
however is not strictly conformable to- its title ; for al¬
though the greater part of it is composed of decretals, the
compiler has had recourse to various other authorities.
Gregory’s decretals are followed by Liber sextus Decre¬
talium D. Donifacii Papce VIII. which, notwithstanding
the general title, is divided into five books. It was in¬
tended as supplementary to the other collection, and was
compiled under the authority of Boniface, whose pontifi¬
cate extended from 1294 to 1303. Besides the decretals
of Boniface himself, and of preceding popes, ascending
1 Augustinus de Emendatione Gratiani, p. 3, edit. Baluzii. Paris. 1672, 8vo.
2 Bellanninus de Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, p. 187. edit. Colon. 1684, 4to.
3 Pancirolus de Claris Legum Interpretibus, p 317. edit. Hoffinanni. Lipsise, 1721, 4to.
4 Mastricht, p. 332. Doujat, Histoire du Droit Canonique, p. 92. Paris, 1677, 12mo. Doujat, Prsenotionum Canonicarum libri
quinque, p. 547- edit. Paris. 1687, 4to.
5 Of the usual method of quoting the Decretum and other portions of the canon law, the reader will find an account in Bishop
Hallifax’s Analysis of the Roman Civil Law, p 2.
6 Butler’s Horse Juridicse subsecivse, p. 170.
i Antonii Bibliotheca Hispana vetus, tom. ii. p. 67. edit. Bayerii.
V
CANON LAW.
93
to Gregory IX., it includes decrees of the two general
councils held at Lyons in 1245 and 1274.
The next work in the series bears the title of Constitu-
tiones dementis Papce V. in Concilio Vienensi editce, and
is likewise divided into five books. Clement, whose resi¬
dence was at Avignon, presided in the council of Vienne
in the year 1312; and in addition to the constitutions
there enacted, his collection comprehends some other
constitutions and decretals which he himself divulged be¬
fore or after the holding of that council. After his death,
these dementince were promulgated in the year 1317 by
his successor John the Twenty-first, otherwise called John
the Twenty-second.
Of the same pope, who likewise resided at Avignon,
there is a collection of twenty consitutions, which bear
the name of Extravagantes Joannis XXII. They were
so called, because for some time they wandered beyond
the limits of the collection which contained the works al¬
ready enumerated as belonging to the body of the canon
law. The next work, which is entitled Extravagantes
Communes, and is divided into five books, comprehends
the constitutions of various popes, concluding with Sixtus
IV. whose pontificate extended from 1471 to 1484.
These are all the different compilations which consti¬
tute what is denominated the body of the canon law. It
may be proper to add that the best edition bears this ti¬
tle : “ Corpus Juris Canonic!, Gregorii XIII. Pont. Max.jussu
editum : a Petro Pithceo et Francisco fratre, Jurisconsultis,
ad veteres codices manuscriptos restitutum, et notis illus-
tratum.” Parishs, 1687, 2 tom. fol. Of a more recent as
well as more early date, there are many other editions
which we cannot here enumerate; and we shall only men¬
tion another, which was published by a protestant profes¬
sor : “ Corpus Juris Canonici: Justus Henningius Boehmer,
J. C. recensuit, cum codicibus veteribus manuscriptis aliis-
que editionibus contulit, variantes lectiones adjecit, notis il-
lustravit.” Halae Magdeburg. 1747, 2 tom. 4to.
The Institutes of Jo. Paulus Lancelottus, divided into
four books, are inserted in different editions of the Cor¬
pus; and this circumstance has led some individuals, su¬
perficially acquainted with the subject, to suppose that
they form an essential part of the authorized collection.
They are however the production of a private law¬
yer, and having never received the sanction of the pope,
they possess no authority beyond that which belongs to
the character of the author as an able interpreter of the
canon law. This work was undertaken with the approba¬
tion of Paul IV.: fifteen years elapsed before its comple¬
tion ; and Lancelottus, having at length submitted it to
the papal censors, and lingered two years in Rome, was
compelled to abandon the hope of obtaining the sanction
of his holiness Pius IV. The book was published in 1563,
a few months before the dissolution of the council of
Trent. The only favour which the author could obtain
was that his Institutes might be added to the Corpus, but
without any confirmation of their authority. They are
sometimes inserted, and sometimes omitted; nor do they
occur in that edition which we have already mentioned as
the best. As they do not include the changes and modi¬
fications introduced by the council of Trent, they require
the aid of a perpetual commentary. The Institutes of
Lancelottus are closely modelled upon those of Justinian.
His subject does not easily admit of any high degree of
classical purity, but the work is at least written with much
neatness and perspicuity. The notes of Doujat form a
very important addition : they evidently proceed from a
man of ability and learning, and are generally composed
in a style of pregnant brevity.
The subsequent progress of the canon law, together
with the more recent method of expounding it, must be
learned from other writers. The most distinguished ca¬
nonist of the last century was Dr Van Espen, professor of
the canon law in the university of Louvain, whose works ex¬
tend to five volumes in folio. His Jus Ecclesiasticum uni-
versum Mr Butler has described as “ a work which, for
depth and extent of research, clearness of method, and
perspicuity of style, equals any work of jurisprudence
which has issued from the press: but which, in some
places, where the author’s dreary Jansenism prevails, must
be read with disgust.”1 The life of the learned and con¬
scientious author, it may be proper to state, has been ela¬
borately written by Bellegarde.”2 There are other two
recent works on the canon law which we must recommend
to the student’s notice. “ Caroli Sebastiani Berardi Com-
mentaria in Jus Ecclesiasticum universum.” Venetiis,
1789, 4 tom. 4to. “ Joannis Devoti Institutionum Cano-
nicarum libri IV.” Florentiae, 1816-7, 4 tom. 8vo. Nei¬
ther of these is the earliest edition. Those who have any
wish to ascertain how the canon law is now taught by the
catholics of Germany, may consult the following works.
“ Mauri de Schenkl Institutiones Juris Ecclesiastici com¬
munis : editio emendata et valde adaucta a Josepho
Scheill.” Landishuti in Bavaria, 1830, 2 tom. 8vo. “ Fun-
damenta Juris Ecclesiastici Catholicorum : in usus scho-
lasticos conscripsit Jos. Anton. Sauter.” Rotwilae, 1825-6,
2 tom. 8vo. The canon law was ably illustrated by some
of the German protestants, particularly by Ziegler, Tho-
masius, and Bbhmer. Such was the reputation enjoyed
by the last of these individuals, that difficult and intricate
processes were frequently transmitted from Italy, to be
decided by the law-faculty of the university of Halle,
during the period when Bdhmer was dean. Nor is this
study neglected by the protestants of our own age. Dr
Walter, professor of law in the university of Bonn, is the
author of a work, published for the fourth time, under the
title of “ Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts aller Christlichen
Confessionen.” Bonn, 1829, 8vo. And a similar work
has more recently been published by Eichhorn of Gottin¬
gen, well known for his history of the German law.
While the papal power was yet in its meridian height,
this system of jurisprudence could only claim the proper
force of law within the papal dominions. It maintained a
very powerful and direct influence in every other country
which acknowledged the bishop of Rome’s supremacy;
but its dictates were controlled by the legislative autho¬
rity, and modified by the practice of the courts, in each
of the countries where it found admission. Thus the
canon law of France differed in many respects from that
of Spain, and the canon law of England from that of
Austria. “ All the strength,” says Sir Matthew Hale,
“ that either the papal or imperial laws have obtained in
this kingdom, is only because they have been received
and admitted either by the consent of parliament, and so
are part of the statute laws of the kingdom, or else by
immemorial usage and custom in some particular cases
in courts, and no otherwise, and therefore so far as such
laws are received and allowed here, so far they obtain,
and no further; and the authority and force they have
here is not founded on, or derived from themselves; for
so they bind no more with us than our laws bind in Rome
or Italy.”3 These remarks, written in protestant times,
were equally applicable during the times of popery.
Canon.
1 Butler's Horse Juridicse subsecivse, p. 184.
2 Vie de M. Van Espen, Docteur es Droits, et Professeur des Saints Canons dans I’Universite de Louvain; oil I’on trouve des
dclaircissemens historiques sur tous les Ecrits ci-devant imprimis de ce Docteur. Louvain, 1767, 8vo.
3 Hale’s Hist, of the Common Law of England, p. 27.
94
Canoness
II
Canonica.
CAN
The influence of the canon law in countries which have
long abjured the authority of the pope, renders it even
there a study of occasional importance to lawyers. “ So
deep,” says Lord Stair, “ hath this canon law been root¬
ed, that even where the pope’s authority is rejected, yet
consideration must be had to these laws, not only as those
by which church benefices have been erected and ordered,
but as likewise containing many equitable and profitable
laws, which, because of their weighty matter, and their
beino- once received, may more fitly be retained than re¬
jected.”1 We cannot refrain from adding, that some know¬
ledge of the canon law, at least of its history and external
form, is of no small consequence to those who wish to un¬
derstand the history and literature of the middle ages. This
remark we shall endeavour to confirm by one or two ex¬
amples. Winton, the venerable prior of Lochleven, after
having mentioned the irregular manner in which Walter
Danielstoun took possession of "the see of St Andrews, sub¬
joins this observation:
Yeit be this electioune
He dyd all ministratioune
In jurisdictioune spirituale,
And in all thingis temporale.
All that quhile, rycht as he —'
Had had lauchful autorite,
• Pretendand ay for his resown
Nichil de electione.2
This passage, which to most readers must appear suffi¬
ciently obscure, the very accurate and intelligent editor,
Macpherson, has left without explanation or conjecture.
It bears an allusion to the Decretales Gregorii IX. lib. i.
tit. vi. cap. xliv. § 2. Nihil is the first word of the chap¬
ter, and de electione denotes the subject of the title, or
subdivision of the book. Danielstoun, whose election
had not been confirmed by the pope, evidently relied on
the authority of the subsequent passage: “ Ita quod in¬
terim valde remoti, videlicet ultra Italiam constituti, si
electi fuerint in concordia, dispensative propter necessi¬
tates ecclesiarum et utilitates, in spiritualibus et tempo-
ralibus administrent, sic tamen ut de rebus ecclesiasticis
nihil penitus alienent.”
Sir David Lindsay, another Scotish poet, makes the fol¬
lowing allusion to the inordinate pretensions of the pope :
His style at lenth gif thow wald knaw,
Thow moste ga luke the cannon law :
Eaith in the Sext and Clementene
His staitlie style thair may be sene.3
His editor, Mr George Chalmers, who was guilty of a
radical error when he supposed himself to be a man of
learning, has subjoined this curious annotation. “ The
allusion is to the works of Pomponius Sextus, the great
jurist of the third century.” It is first to be remarked
that Pomponius did not flourish in the third, but in the
second century;4 but if this “ great jurist,” of whom he
speaks so familiarly, had actually written in the third cen¬
tury, how could he have illustrated the temporal power
and splendour of the pope before Christianity was esta¬
blished in the Roman empire? The Sext to which Lind¬
say refers is manifestly the “ Liber sextus Decretalium
and the other authority which he appropriately quotes are
the Clementince, or constitutions of Clement V. (x.)
CANONESS, in the Romish church, a woman who en¬
joys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to maids, with¬
out their being obliged to renounce the world, or make
any vows.
CANONICA, in philosophical history, an appellation
given by Epicurus to his doctrine of logic. It was called
CAN
canonica, as consisting of a few canons or rules for direct- Canonic-,
ing the understanding in the pursuit and knowledge of ||
truth. The canonica of Epicurus is represented as a very Canonic
slight and insufficient logic by several of the ancients, who lte^
put a great value on his ethics and physics. Laertius even
assures us that the Epicureans rejected logic as a super¬
fluous science; and Plutarch complains that Epicurus
made an unskilful and preposterous use of syllogisms.
But these censures seem too severe. Epicurus was not
averse to the study of logic, but even gave better rules in
this art than those philosophers who aimed at no glory
but that of being thought logicians. He only seems to
have rejected the dialectics of the Stoics, as full of vain
subtilties and deceits, and fitted rather for parade and
disputation than real use. The stress of Epicurus’s cano¬
nica consists in his doctrine of the criteria of truth. All
questions in philosophy are either concerning words or
things : concerning things, we seek their truth ; concern¬
ing words, their signification: things are either natural or
moral; and the former are either perceived by sense or by
the understanding. Hence, according to Epicurus, arise
three criteria of truth, namely, sense, anticipation or prseno-
tion, and passion. The great canon or principle of Epicu¬
rus’s logic is, that the senses are never deceived; and
therefore, that every sensation or perception of an appear¬
ance is true.
CANONICAL, something that belongs to, or partakes
of, the nature of a rule or canon.
Canonical Hours are certain stated times of the day,
consigned, more especially by the Romish church, to the
offices of prayer and devotion. Such are matins, lauds,
sixth and ninth vespers. In our country the canonical hours
are from eight to twelve in the forenoon, before or after
which marriage cannot be legally performed in any parish
church.
Canonical Obedience is that submission which, by the
ecclesiastical laws, the inferior clergy are bound to pay to
their bishops, and religious persons to their superiors.
Canonical Sins, in the ancient church, those which
were deemed capital or mortal. Such especially were
idolatry, murder, adultery, heresy, and schism.
Canonical Punishments are those which the church
may inflict; such as excommunication, degradation, and
penance, in Roman Catholic countries; also fasting, alms,
whipping, and the like.
Canonical Life, the method or rule of living prescrib¬
ed by the ancient clergy who lived in community. The
canonical life was a kind of medium between the monastic
and clerical lives. Originally the orders of monks and
clerks were entirely distinct; but pious persons, in pro¬
cess of time, instituted colleges of priests and canons,
where clerks, brought up for the ministry, as well as others
already engaged therein, might live under a fixed rule,
which, though somewhat more easy than the monastic,
wras yet more restrained than the secular. This was call¬
ed the canonical life, and those who embraced it canons.
Authors are divided about the founder of the canonical
life. Some wdll have it to be founded by the apostles;
others ascribe it to Pope Urban I. about the year 1230,
who is said to have ordered bishops to provide such of
their clergy as were willing to live in community, with
necessaries out of the revenues of their churches. The
generality attribute it to St Augustin, who, having ga¬
thered a number of clerks to devote themselves to reli¬
gion, instituted a monastery within the episcopal palace,
where he lived in community w ith them. Onuphrius Pan-
1 Stair’s Institutions of the Law of Scotland, b. i. tit. i. § 14.
2 Winton’s Cronykil of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 398. * Lindsay’s Works, vol. iii. p. 89.
4 Guil. Grotii Vitse Jurisconsultorum, p. 150. Bachii Hist. Jurisprudentue Romanse, p. 477.
nonical
setters
II
:inopus.
rr**'
CAN.
vinus brings the institution somewhat lower; according
to him, Pope Gelasius I. about the year 495, placed the
first regular canons of St Augustin in the Lateran church.
Canonical Letters, in the ancient church, were a sort
of testimonials of the orthodox faith, which the bishops
and clergy sent each other, to keep up the Catholic com¬
munion, and distinguish orthodox Christians from Arians
and other heretics. They were denominated canonical,
either as being composed according to a certain rule or form,
or because they were given to the canonici, that is, those
comprehended in the canon or catalogue of their church.
When they had occasion to travel into other dioceses or
countries, dimissory and recommendatory letters, also let¬
ters of peace, and the like, were so many species of cano¬
nical letters.
Canonical is also an appellation given to those epistles
in the New Testament, more frequently called catholic or
general epistles.
CANONICUM, in a general sense, denotes a tax or
tribute.
Canonicum is more particularly used in the Greek
church for a fee paid by the clergy to bishops, archbishops,
and metropolitans, for degrees and promotions.
Canonicum also denotes a due of first fruits, paid by
the Greek laity to their bishops, or, according to Du
Cange, to their priests. The canonicum is affected ac¬
cording to the number of houses or chimneys in a place.
The emperor Isaac Comnenus framed a constitution for
regulating the canonicum of bishops, which was confirmed
by another made in 1086, by his nephew Alexis Comne¬
nas. A village containing thirty fires was to pay for its
canonicum one piece of gold, two of silver, one sheep, six
bushels of barley, six of wheat flour, six measures of wine,
and thirty hens.
CANONIST, a person skilled in, or who makes profes¬
sion of, the study and practice of the canon law. Canonists
and civilians are usually combined in the same persons ;
and hence the title of juris utriusque doctor, or legum doc¬
tor, usually expressed in abbreviature, J. U. D. or LL.D.
CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the Romish church,
by which persons deceased are ranked in the catalogue of
the saints. It succeeds beatification.
Before a beatified person is canonized, the qualifications
of the candidate are strictly examined into, in consistories
held for that purpose ; after which, one of the consistorial
advocates, in the presence of the pope and cardinals, pro¬
nounces the panegyric of the person who is to be proclaim¬
ed as a saint, and gives a particular detail of his life and
miracles; which being done, the holy father decrees his
canonization, and appoints the day.
On the day of canonization the pope officiates in white,
and their eminences are dressed in the same colour. St
Peter’s church is hung with rich tapestry, upon which the
arms of the pope, and of the prince or state requiring the
canonization, are embroidered in gold and silver. An in¬
finite number of lights blaze all round the church, which
is crowded with pious souls, who wait with devout impa¬
tience till the new saint has made his public entry as it
were into paradise, that they may offer up their petitions
to him without danger of being rejected.
CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It differs
from a prebend, in that the prebend may subsist without
the canonicate, whereas the canonicate is inseparable from
the prebend; again, the right of suffrages, and other pri¬
vileges, are annexed to the canonicate, and not to the pre¬
bend.
CANOPUS, in Astronomy, a star of the first magnitude,
in the rudder of Argo, a constellation of the southern he¬
misphere.
Canopus, in Pagan Mythology, one of the deities of
CAN
95
Canova.
the ancient Egyptians, and, according to some, the god of Canopus
water. It is said that the Chaldeans, who worshipped
fire, carried their fancied deity through other countries to
try its powers, in order that, if it obtained the victory
over the other gods, it might be acknowledged as the
true object of worship; and it having easily subdued the
gods of wood, stone, brass, silver, and gold, its priests de¬
clared that all gods did it homage. This the priest of
Canopus hearing, and finding that the Chaldeans had
brought their god to contend with Canopus, they took a
large earthen vessel, in which they bored several holes,
which they afterwards stopped with wax, and having fill¬
ed the vessel with water, painted it of several colours, and
fitting the head of an idol to it, brought it out in order to
contend with the Chaldean deity. The Chaldeans ac¬
cordingly kindled their fire all round it; but the heat
having melted the wax, the water gushed out through the
holes and extinguished the fire ; and thus Canopus con¬
quered the god of the Chaldeans.
Canopus, or Canobus, according to Strabo, was Mene-
laus’s pilot, and had a temple erected to him in a town
called Canopus, near one of the mouths of the Nile.
Canopus, or Canobus, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Lower Egypt, on the Mediterranean, a hundred and twenty
stadia, or fifteen miles, to the east of Alexandria.
CANOPY, in Architecture and Sculpture, a magnificent
kind of decoration, serving to cover and crown an altar,
throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like. The word is
formed from the barbarous Latin canopeum, of -/Mvoi-iruo'j,
a net spread over a bed to keep off the gnats, from a
gnat.
Canopies are also borne over the head in processions of
state, after the manner of umbrellas. The canopy of an
altar is more peculiarly called ciborium.
The Roman grandees had their canopies, or spread
veils, called thensce, over their chairs ; and similar cover¬
ings were also placed, in temples, over the statues of their
gods. The modern cardinals still retain the use of canopies.
CANOS A, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of
Bari, on the eastern side of the river Ofanto, with 4064
inhabitants. It was the ancient Greek city Canusium.
CANOVA, Antonio, one of the greatest sculptors
of modern times, was born on the 1st of November 1757,
at Passagno, an obscure village situated amid the recesses
of the hills of Asolano, where these form the last undula¬
tions of the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains
of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was deprived
of both parents. Their loss, however, was compensated
by the tender solicitude and care of his grandfather and
grandmother, the latter of whom lived to experience in
her turn the kindest personal attention from her grandson,
who, when the efforts of successful genius had afforded him
the means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome.
The father and grandfather of our artist followed the oc¬
cupation of stone-cutters; and it is said that their family
had for several ages supplied Passagno with members of
that profession. As soon as Canova’s hand could hold a
pencil, he was initiated into the principles of drawing by
his affectionate grandfather Pasino, who was acquainted
with the subject. He also possessed some knowledge
of architecture, designed well, and showed considerable
taste in the execution of ornamental works, lo his art
he was attached with fond partiality; and upon his young
charge he looked as one who was designed not only to
perpetuate the family name, but also the family profession.
The object of his hopes and instructions may be said to
have done so; but his works were destined to be known
far beyond the period of his life, or the circle of his na¬
tive hills.
The early years of Canova were passed in study. The
06 CAN
Canova. bias of his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afford-
ed for the gratification of this predilection in the workshop
of his grandfather were eagerly improved. In his ninth
year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble,
which are still extant. Soon after this period he ap¬
pears to have been constantly employed under his grand¬
father. Amongst those who patronized the old man was
the patrician family Faliero of Venice, and by this means
young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that
name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron.
Between the younger son, Giuseppe Faliero, and the artist,
a friendship commenced, which terminated only with life.
From the interest which was excited in this family for
Canova, Signor Faliero was induced to receive him under
his immediate protection. It has been related by an Ita¬
lian writer, and since repeated by several biographers,
that Canova was indebted to a fortuitous circumstance,
the moulding of a lion in butter, for the warm interest
which the senator took in his welfare. The anecdote may
be true; but it does not appear to rest on authority suffi¬
ciently strong to warrant our stating it as authentic. By
his kind patron Canova was placed under Bernard!, or, as he
is generally called by filiation, Toretto, a sculptor of con¬
siderable eminence, who had taken up a temporary resi¬
dence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity of the sena¬
tor’s mansion. This took place whilst he was in his thir¬
teenth year; and with Toretto he continued about two
years, making in many respects considerable progress.
This master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards
died; but by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil
to Faliero, the latter was induced to bring the young artist
to Venice, where he accordingly went, and was placed un¬
der a nephew of Toretto. With this master he continued
about a year, studying with the utmost assiduity. After
the termination of this engagement he began to work on
his own account, and received from his patron an order for
a group on the subject of Orpheus and Eurydice. The first
figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke
in the act of leaving the infernal realms, was completed
towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly
esteemed by his patron and friends, and the artist was now
considered as qualified to appear before a public tribunal.
The kindness of some monks supplied him with his first
work-shop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery.
Here for nearly four years he laboured with the greatest
perseverance and industry. He was also regular in his
attendance at the academy, where he carried off several
prizes. But he did not confine himself to these exercises
alone. He resolved to begin where the art itself began,
in the study and imitation of nature. From his contem¬
poraries he could learn nothing, for their style was vici¬
ous. From their works, therefore, he reverted to living
models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. A large
portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which
science was regarded by him as “ the secret of the art.”
He also frequented places of public amusement, where
he carefully studied the expressions and attitudes of the
performers. Not a day was allowed to pass without his
making some visible advances in his profession. He form¬
ed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for seve¬
ral years, never to close his e}res without producing some
design. Whatever was likely to forward his advancement
in sculpture, he studied with ardour. On archaiological
pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With an¬
cient and modern history he rendered himself well ac¬
quainted, and he also began to acquire several of the con¬
tinental languages. When we view such industry, in¬
spired and directed by such a genius as that of Canova, it
scarcely appears matter of wonder that the result should
be a new era in the art.
OVA.
Three years had now elapsed without any production Canov;
coming from his chisel. He began, therefore, to com- 'w'Y'v
plete the group for his patron, and the Orpheus which
followed evinced the great advances he had made in his
profession. The work was universally applauded, and laid
the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded
this performance, amongst which was that of Daedalus and
Icarus, the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The
simplicity of style and the faithful imitation of nature
which characterized them called forth the warmest admi¬
ration. But there was still wanting in his productions
that elevation and ideal beauty which he afterwards at¬
tained to, and which rather carried nature to its highest
perfection than went beyond it. His merits and reputa¬
tion being now generally recognised, he began to turn his
attention from the shores of the Adriatic to the more clas¬
sic banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the com¬
mencement of his twenty-third year.
Previous to his departure for Rome, his friends had ap¬
plied to the Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him
without embarrassment to pursue his studies. The appli¬
cation was ultimately successful. It amounted to three
hundred ducats, about sixty pounds per annum, and was
limited to three years. Our artist had obtained letters of
introduction to the Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere
Zuliani, an enlightened and generous protector of the arts,
and was received in the most gracious and hospitable man¬
ner. Canova’s arrival in the “ eternal city” marks a new
era in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself, by
a study of the most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put
his talents to the severest test by a competition with the
greatest living masters of the art. The result was equal
to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his
friends. The work which first established his fame at
Rome was Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur. The figures
are of the heroic size, that is, larger than life. The victo¬
rious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body
of the monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades
his whole frame proves the terrible nature of the conflict
in which he had been engaged, while at the same time it
evinces the genius of the sculptor. Simplicity and purity
of natural expression had hitherto characterized his style;
but with these were now united more exalted conceptions
of grandeur and of truth. By those who were capable of
appreciating the beauties of the Theseus, it was regarded
with rapturous enthusiasm, as worthy of the best days of
sculpture in a land where sculpture was unrivalled ; and
it formed a noble presage of future glory and yet more
splendid achievements.
Flis next undertaking was a monument in honour of
Clement XIV.; but before he proceeded with it, he deem¬
ed it necessary to request permission from the Venetian
senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in con¬
sideration of the pension. This he solicited in person,
and it was granted in the most handsome manner. He re¬
turned immediately to Rome, and opened that studio in the
Strada Babbuino, which was soon to be one of the proudest
boasts of Italy, and to which the ardent devotees of the art
from every nation of Europe were to perform pilgrimage.
He spent about two years of unremitting toil in arranging
the design and composing the models for the tomb of the
pontiff. After these were completed, other two years were
employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally
opened to public inspection in 1787. Expectation had
been highly excited, and never was it more amply grati¬
fied. The work, in the opinion of the best judges, stamp¬
ed the author as the first artist of modern times. After
five years of incessant labour, he completed another ceno¬
taph to the memory of Clement XIII. of which it is suffi¬
cient praise to say, that it raised still higher the fame of
C A N O V A. 97
iova. the author. Works came now so rapidly from his chisel,
that it will be impossible to enumerate any but the most
conspicuous. Amongst those which belong to the period
in question is Psyche with a butterfly, which is placed on
the left hand, and held by the wings with the right. This
beautiful figure, which is intended as a personification of
man’s immaterial part, is considered as in almost every
respect the most faultless and classical of Canova’s works.
In two different groups, and with opposite expression, the
sculptor has represented Cupid with his bride; in the one
they are standing, in the other recumbent, and both are of
superlative excellence. These and other proofs of lofty
genius raised his reputation so high, that the most flatter¬
ing offers were sent him from the Russian court to induce
him to remove to St Petersburg ; but these were declined.
“ Italy,” says he, in writing of the occurrence to a friend,
“ Italy is my country—is the country and native soil of
the arts. I cannot leave it; my infancy was nurtured
here, and if my poor talents can be useful in any other,
they must be of some utility to this ; and ought not hers
to be preferred to all others ?” Genius never appears so
truly great as when it is united with a disinterested love
of country. In this respect Canova will ever command
admiration. The powers of his mind scarcely surpassed
the virtues of his heart.
Numerous works were produced during the years 1795-
6-7, of which several were repetitions of previous produc¬
tions. It is only necessary to notice the celebrated group
representing the parting of Venus and Adonis. The youth
is gazing tenderly upon the goddess. With his left arm he
encircles her waist, while his right grasps a hunting spear.
She, on the other hand, by the most endearing yet chaste
caresses, endeavours to avert his resolution of departing.
This famous production was sent to Naples; and, out of
respect to the artist, the king ordered every tax which
attended its importation to be remitted. As a more sub¬
stantial mark of approbation, he decorated the sculptor
with the insignia of the order of the Two Sicilies. The
French revolution was now extending its ravages over Italy;
and the pure and peaceful spirit of Canova, shrinking from
scenes of contention and blood, sought obscurity and repose
in the bosom of his native Passagno. Thither he retired in
1798, and continued about a year, principally employed in
the sister art of painting, in which also he w7as no ordinary
proficient. One of his productions in this department of art
is a picture representing the dead body of the Saviour just
removed from the cross, surrounded by the three Marys,
the beloved disciple, Joseph of Arimathea, and, somewhat
in the back ground, Nicodemus. Above appears the per¬
sonification of the Father, with the mystic dove in the
centre of a glory, and surrounded by a circle of cherubs.
This admirable composition, which was greatly applauded,
he presented to the parochial church of his native place.
Events in the political world having come to a temporary
crisis, he returned to Rome; but his health, from ardu¬
ous application, having been impaired, he took a journey
through a part of Germany, in company with his friend
Prince Rezzonica. He returned from his travels much
improved, and again commenced his labours with renewed
vigour and enthusiasm.
Canova’s sculptures have been distributed under three
heads : 1. Heroic compositions ; 2. Compositions of grace
and elegance; and 3. Sepulchral monuments and relievos.
In noticing the works which fall under each of these divi¬
sions, it will be impossible to maintain a strict chronological
order, but perhaps a better idea of his productions may
thus be obtained. Their vast number, however, prevents
their being all enumerated.
Soon after his return appeared his Perseus with the
head of Medusa. The moment of representation is when
VOL. VI.
the hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the Canova.
“ snaky Gorgon,” whilst the right hand grasps a sword of v—
singular device. By a public decree, this great triumph
of art was placed in one of the stanze of the Vatican, hi¬
therto reserved only for the most precious works of anti¬
quity. In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Ca¬
nova repaired to Paris to model a bust of the first con¬
sul. The artist was entertained with munificence, and
various honours were conferred upon him. The statue,
which is colossal, was not finished till six years after. On
the fall of the living original, the French king presented
this statue to the British government, by whom it was af¬
terwards given to the Duke of Wellington. Palamedes,
Creugas, and Damoxenus, the combat of Theseus and the
Centaur, and Hercules and Lychas, all displaying great
and varied excellence, may close the class of heroic com¬
positions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the
enumeration of various others, such as Hector and Ajax,
the statues of Washington, Ferdinand, and others. The
group of Hercules and Lychas is considered as the most
terrible conception of Canova’s mind, and in its peculiar
style as scarcely to be excelled.
Under the second head, namely, compositions of grace
and elegance, the statue of Hebe takes the first place in
point of time. Four times has the artist embodied in stone
the goddess of youth, and each time with some varia¬
tion. The only material improvement, however, is the
substitution of a support more suitable to the simplicity
of the art. The invention merits the title of originality,
and the figure in each of the statues is, in all its details, in
expression, attitude, elegance, and delicacy of finish, per¬
fect in beauty. The Dancing Nymphs maintain a charac¬
ter similar to that of the Hebe. The Graces and the Ve¬
nus are more elevated, as combining dignity with elegance.
The Awakened Nymph is another work of extraordinary
beauty, a term indeed which may be applied to all his
productions indiscriminately. The mother of Napoleon,
Maria Louisa, to model whom the author made a second
journey to Paris in 1810, the Princess Esterhazy, and the
muse Polyhymnia, take their place in this class; as do the
ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, and Bea¬
trice. In these the artist combined reality with fancy;
all are representations of celebrated females, and he has
endeavoured to realize the glowing descriptions of poesy,
or the more veracious traits of history, according to his
own refined conceptions of character. Living models sup¬
plied the contour and the features, but these were kindled
up with the soul of passion and expression by the sculp¬
tor’s hand. Belonging to this class of composition the
most glowing portraiture of female loveliness is the Helen
of Troy.
The cenotaphs and funeral monuments fall next to be
noticed. Of these the most splendid is the monument to
the Arch-Duchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting
of nine figures. It is considered as a chef-dceuvre in this de¬
partment of art. Besides the two for the Roman pontiffs,
already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for
Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph
for Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental re¬
lievos.
The events which marked the life of the artist during
the first fifteen years of the period in which he was en¬
gaged on the above-mentioned works, are of so little im¬
portance as scarcely to merit notice. His mind was en¬
tirely absorbed in the labours of his studio, and, with the
exception of his two journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and
a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts
of Italy, he never quitted Rome. In his own words, “ his
statues were the sole proofs of his civil existence.” There
was, however, another proof, which modesty forbade him
N
98 CAN
Canova. to mention, an ever active benevolence, especially towards
artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to
superintend the transmission from Paris, of those works
of art which had formerly been conveyed there under the
direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions, for
there were many conflicting interests to reconcile, he
adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his
judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn
of this year he gratified a wish he had long entertained,
of visiting the British metropolis, where he was graciously
received by the prince regent, and honoured with the
highest tokens of esteem. He returned to Rome in the
beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his coun¬
try’s genius. Immediately after, he received several marks
of distinction : by the hand of the pope himself his name
was inscribed in “ the golden volume of the capitol,” and
he received the title of Marquis of Ischia, with an annual
pension of 3000 crowns, about L.625.
He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of
Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration : the
marble was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to
be applied to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the
site, or some other cause, deprived the world of the project¬
ed work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warm¬
est sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance,
he resolved to consecrate a shrine to the cause, at once
worthy of himself and of the religion to which he was devot¬
ed. In his native village he began to make preparations for
erecting a temple, which was to contain not only the above
statue, but other works of his own; and within its precincts
also were to repose the ashes of the founder. Accordingly, in
prosecution of this design, he repaired to Passagno in 1819.
At a sumptuous entertainment which he gave to his work¬
men, there occurred an incident which it is impossible to
overlook in any life of Canova, however circumscribed.
When the festivities of the day had terminated, he re¬
quested the shepherdesses and peasant girls of the adja¬
cent hamlets to pass in review before him, and to each he
made a present, expending on the occasion about L.400. W e
need not therefore be surprised, that, a few years after¬
wards, when the remains of the donor came to be deposit¬
ed in their last asylum, the grief which the surrounding
peasantry evinced was in natural expression so intense and
irrepressible, as totally to eclipse all the studied solemnity
of more pompous mourning.
After the foundation stone of this edifice had been laid,
Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he
continued to visit Passagno, in order to direct the workmen,
and encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals. In
the mean time the vast expenditure exhausted his resources,
and compelled him to labour with unceasing assiduity,
when age and disease had set their seal upon his frame.
During the period which intervened between commencing
operations at Passagno, and his decease, he executed or
finished some of his most splendid works. Amongst these
were the group Mars and Venus, the colossal figure of Pius
VI., the Pieta, the St John, the recumbent Magdalen, and
others of scarcely inferior excellence. The last perfor¬
mance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust
of his friend the Count Cicognava. In May 1822 he paid
a visit to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax-
moulds for an equestrian statue of Ferdinand. This jour¬
ney materially injured his health, but he rallied again on
his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year
he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he
experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and ex¬
pired there on the 13th of October 1822, at the age of sixty-
five. The most distinguished funeral honours were paid to
his remains, which were deposited in the temple at Pas¬
sagno on the 25th of the same month.
CAN
. : (iiii
Canova is allowed to rank above every other master, Canso
from the age of Nicholas of Pisa. He renovated the art || 0
in Italy, and brought it back to the standard from which Cantu, ml
it had declined. His style in youth displayed the utmost ^
simplicity ; but as he proceeded in his career, he evinced
the true poetic feeling which spiritualizes and exalts nature
into ideal beauty and grandeur—that power which give/3
to marble features an expression apparently resulting from
the workings of an inherent and active intelligence; in a
word, he stamped them with the impress of the soul. His
finishing was excessively refined, and he had a method of
giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble, hither¬
to unattempted. He formed his models of the same size
as the work he designed was intended to be, which was,
undoubtedly, a great improvement in the art. Of his
moral character, a generous and unwearied benevolence
formed the most prominent feature. Of the vast fortune
realized by his works, the greater part was distributed in
acts of this description. To artists in particular, his hand
was “ open as day to melting charity.” He established
prizes for them, and endowed all the academies of Rome.
The aged and unfortunate were also objects of his peculiar
solicitude. His titles were numerous. He was enrolled
amongst the nobility of several states, decorated with vari¬
ous orders of knighthood, and associated in the highest
professional honours. (See the Life of Canova by Memes,
one vol.; by Missinini, four vols.; also the Biografia, by
the Count Cicognava.)
CANSO, or Canceau, an island, cape, and small fish¬
ing bank, on the south-east coast of is ova Scotia, about
forty leagues east by north of Halifax. ihe island is
small, but has a good harbour. The Gut of Canso forms
the passage from the Atlantic into the Gulf of St Law¬
rence, between Cape Breton Island and Nova Scotia. Lat.
45. 20. N.
CANSTADT, a city of the circle of the Neckar, in
the kingdom of Wirtemberg. It is surrounded with walls,
and contains 384 houses and 3219 inhabitants. Cotton mills
are established, and some silks and satins are manufac¬
tured. It has some trade by the navigable river Neckar
to the Rhine.
CANT, a quaint affected manner of speaking, adapted
chiefly to the lower orders. Skinner racks his invention for
the origin of this word, which he successively deduces
from the German, Flemish, and Saxon tongues. According
to the general opinion, Cant was originally the proper name
of a Cameronian preacher in Scotland, who by exercise
had attained the faculty of talking in the pulpit in such a
tone and dialect as was understood by none but his own
congregation. Since Andrew Cant’s time the word has
been extended to signify all sudden exclamations and
whining unmusical tones, especially in praying and preach¬
ing. But this origin of the w ord has been disputed by
some; and perhaps the true derivation is from the Latin
cantare, to sing, in which sense cant would be synony¬
mous with sing-song.
Cant is also applied to words and phrases affected by
particular persons or professions for low ends, and not
authorized by the established language. The difference
between cant and technical seems to be this: the former
is restricted to words introduced out of folly, affectation,
or imposture; the latter is applied to such as are intro¬
duced for the sake of clearness, precision, and significancy.
Cant is also used to denote a sale by auction. The
origin of the word in this sense ’is doubtful. It may be
derived, according to some, from quantum^ how much ; ac¬
cording to others, from cantare, to sing or cry aloud;
agreeably to which, the Americans sometimes call an auc¬
tion an out-cry.
CANT A, a province and government of Peru, bounded
CAN
3 abria on the north-east and east by Tarma, on the west by
"uj Chancay, and on the south by Huarochiri. It is twenty-
(pta- four leagues in length from north to south, and thirty-five
M 'i'ius- jn width from east to west. The territory is mountainous,
fbeing generally situated in the Cordillera. The pastures,
which are rich and extensive, are grazed by large herds
of cattle ; and the lama or Peruvian sheep, with the vicuna
or wild goat, are to be found in great numbers in the
mountainous parts. The capital, which is of the same
name, is situated in lat. 11. 10. S.
CANTABRIA, in Ancient Geography, a district of Tar-
raconensis, on the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay ;
now Biscay. The inhabitants were famous for their war¬
like character. Dr Wallis seems to make the Cantabrian
the ancient language of Spain; and it, according to him,
like the Gaulish, gave way to a kind of broken Latin call¬
ed romance or romansh, which by degrees was refined into
the Castilian or present Spanish. But we can hardly sup¬
pose that so large a country, inhabited by such a variety
of people, all spoke the same language. The ancient
Cantabrian, in effect, is still found to subsist in the more
barren and mountainous parts of the provinces of Biscay,
Asturias, and Navarre, as far as Bayonne, much as the
British, does in Wales; but the people only talk it, while
in writing they use either the Spanish or French, as they
happen to live under the one or the other nation. Some
attribute this to a jealousy of foreigners learning the mys¬
teries of their language, others to a poverty of words and
expressions. The Cantabrian does not appear to have any
marked affinity with other languages, except that some
Spanish words have been adopted in it to express things
the use of which the Biscayans were anciently unacquaint¬
ed with. Its pronunciation is not disagreeable.
CANTABRUM, in Antiquity, a large kind of flag used
by the Roman emperors, distinguished by its peculiar co ¬
lour, and bearing on it some word or motto of good omen,
to encourage the soldiers.
CANTACUZENUS, Johannes, of Constantinople, a
celebrated statesman, general, and historian, was born in
that city, and descended of a very ancient and noble family.
He was bred to letters and to arms, and admitted to the
highest offices in the state. The emperor Andronicus load¬
ed him with wealth and honour, made him generalissimo of
his forces, and was desirous of associating him in the go¬
vernment, but this he refused. Andronicus dying in 1341,
left to Cantacuzenus the care of the empire till his son
John Palaeologus, who was then but nine years of age, should
be fit to take it upon himself. This trust he faithfully
discharged, till the empress-dowager and her faction form¬
ing a party against him, declared him a traitor. On this
the principal nobility and the army besought him to ascend
the throne ; and accordingly he was crowned on the 21st
of May 1342. This was followed by a civil war, which
lasted five years, when he admitted John as a partner v/ith
him in the empire, and their union was confirmed by his
giving him his daughter in marriage. Suspicions and en¬
mities, however, soon arising, the war broke out again,
and continued till John took Constantinople in 1355. A
few days after, Cantacuzenus, unwilling to continue the
effusion of blood, abdicated his share ot the empire, and
retiring to a monastery, took the habit of a monk, and the
name of Joasaphas. His wife also retired to a nunnery,
and changed her name of Irene for that ot Eugenia. In this
retirement he lived till the year 1411, when he was upwards
of a hundred years of age. Here he wrote a histoiy of
his own times, a Latin translation of which, from the Greek
manuscript, was published by Pontanus at Ingolstadt in
1603; and a splendid edition was printed at Paris in 1645,
in three volumes folio, of the original Greek, and the La¬
tin version of Pontanus. He also wrote an apology for
CAN 99
the Christian religion against that of Mahommed, under Cantal
the name of Christodulus. II
CANTAL, a department of the south-east part 0f Cantera,r‘
France, formed out of the ancient province of Upper Au-
vergne. It is bounded on the north by the department
Puy de Dome, on the east by the Upper Loire, on the
south-east by Lozere, on the south by Aveiron, and on the
west by Lot and Correze. Its extent is 2332 square miles,
or 574,081 hectares. It is divided into four arrondisse-
ments, twenty-three cantons, and 270 communes, and con¬
tains 250,930 inhabitants. The face of the country is
generally mountainous, and the interior is occupied with
volcanoes long since extinguished, consisting ot lava and
basalt, some of which are from 5000 to 6000 feet in height.
The soil is naturally better adapted for pasture than for
agriculture. The climate is raw and cold, though not un¬
healthy; but, on the more elevated spots, the winter is of
eight months duration. The animals are the common
domesticated cattle, sheep, cows, swine, and goats. Some
wheat is grown, but more of buck wheat; and potatoes, but
especially chestnuts, are the common substitutes for bread
corn. From the poverty of the soil, great numbers of the
people repair to the surrounding provinces and to Spain to
procure employment. There are manufactories of linen
and woollen goods, of leather, paper, thread-lace, and cop¬
per articles of furniture, but all on a very contracted scale.
The chief town is Aurillac.
CANTARINI, Simon, a famous painter, called the
Pesarese, from his being born at Pesaro, was the disciple
of Guido, and copied the manner of his master so happily
that it is often difficult to distinguish between their works.
He died at Verona in 1648.
CANTATA, in Music, a song or composition, intermix¬
ed with recitatives, airs, and different movements, chiefly
intended for a single voice, with a thorough bass, though
sometimes for other instruments. It was first used in
Italy, then in France, whence it passed to us.
CANTELEU, a town of the department of the Lower
Seine, in France, near to Rouen, with 2842 inhabitants.
It is celebrated for its excellent cider.
CANTEMIR, Demetrius, son of a prince of Moldavia.
Disappointed in not succeeding his father in that dignity,
which was held under the Ottoman Porte, he went over with
his army to the Czar Peter the Great, against whom he had
been sent by the Grand Signior. He signalized himself
in the czar’s service, and in the republic of letters by a
Latin history of the origin and decline of the Ottoman
empire. He died in 1723.
Cantemir, Antiochus, esteemed the founder of the Rus¬
sian poetry, was the youngest son of the preceding. Under
the most ingenious professors, whom the czar had invited _
to Petersburg, he learned mathematics, physic, history,
moral philosophy, and polite literature, without neglect¬
ing the study of the Holy Scriptures, to which he had a
great inclination. Scarce had he finished his academic
course, when he printed a Concordance ot the Psalms in
the Russian language, and was elected member-of the aca¬
demy. The affairs of state in which he was soon afterwards
engaged did not make him neglect his literary pursuits.
To render himself useful to his fellow-citizens, he compos¬
ed his satires, in order to ridicule certain prejudices which
had got footing among them. When only twenty-four years
of age he was nominated as minister to the court of Great
Britain, and his dexterity in the management of public
affairs was as much admired as his taste for the sciences.
He had the same reputation in France, whither he went
in 1738 in quality of minister plenipotentiary; and, soon
afterwards, he was invested with the character of ambas¬
sador extraordinary. Thewise and prudentmanner inwhich
he conducted himself during the different revolutions which
100
CAN
CAN
Canter¬
bury
Canticles.
happened in Russia during his absence, gained him the
confidence and esteem of three successive princes. He
died of a dropsy, at Paris, in 1744, aged forty-four. Be¬
sides the pieces already mentioned, he wrote, 1. Some
Fables and Odes ; 2. A translation of Horace’s Epistles
into Russian verse ; 3. A prose translation of Fontenelle’s
Plurality of Worlds; and, 4. Algarotti’s Dialogues on Sight.
The Abbe Guasco has written his life in French, and trans¬
lated his satires into that language.
CANTERBURY, a city in the hundred of Bridge and
Petham, in the county of Kent, fifty-five and a half miles
from London. It is the metropolitan see of all England.
The situation is fine, in a valley surrounded by hills of
easy elevation, and watered by the river Stour, whose va¬
rious branches form between them several islands, on one
of which the city has been built. The streets are some¬
what narrow, and the houses in general neither large nor
modern, except some which have been recently erected
in the suburbs. The chief object of attraction is the mag¬
nificent cathedral, with a fine choir, an altar-piece de¬
signed by Sir James Burrough, a most remarkable painted
window, and the shrine of St Thomas a Becket. It was
begun in 1174, and not finished till the reign of Henry V.
Under the cathedral is a church for French Protestants, a
colony of whom hereafter settled the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, and established the silk manufacture,
which, though it has declined, still continues, and is the
only kind of fabric of the city. The chief trade consists
in corn and hops, which ax-e shipped at Whitstable for the
London market. Besides the cathedral, there are nine
churches. There are two markets weekly, on Wednesday
and Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to
10,200, in 1821 to 12,745, and in 1831 to 14,463.
CANTERUS, William, an eminent linguist and phi-
lologer, who was born at Utrecht in 1541. He studied
at Louvain and Paris, and gave surprising proofs of his
progress in Greek and Latin literature. He afterwards
visited the several universities of Germany and Italy, and
died at Louvain in 1575, aged thirty-three. He under¬
stood six languages besides that of his native country;
and, notwithstanding his dying so young, wrote several
philological and critical works, among which are, Notce,
Scholce, Emendaiiones, et Explicationes, in Euripidem, So-
phoclem, Eschylum, Ciceronem, Propertium, Ausonium, &c.
and many translations of Greek authors.
CANTHARIDES, in the Materia Medica, flies which
are employed to produce blisters on the skin.
CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Testament,
otherwise called the Song of Solomon, and by the Jews
the Cdnticum Canticorum, or Song of Songs. The book of
Canticles is usually supposed to be an epithalamium com¬
posed by Solomon on occasion of his marriage with the
king of Egypt’s daughter; but those who penetrate fur¬
ther into the mystery find in it the marriage of Jesus
Christ with human nature, the church, and good men.
On this principle the Canticles is held to be a continued
allegory, in which, under the terms of a common wedding,
a divine and spiritual marriage is expressed. This song
contains the adventures of seven days and seven nights,
the exact time allowed for the celebration of marriage
among the Hebrews. The Jews themselves, apprehend¬
ing the book liable to be understood in a gross and carnal
manner, prohibited the reading of it before the age of
thirty; and the same usage anciently obtained in the Chris¬
tian church. Among the ancients, Theodore Mopsueta-
nus rejected the book of Canticles as not divine. Divers
rabbin have also questioned its being written by inspira¬
tion. It is alleged that the name of God is not once found
in it. Mr Whiston has a discourse expressly to prove that
the Canticles is not a sacred book of the Old Testament.
He alleges indeed that it was written by King Solomon Cantima.
the son of David; but asserts that it was composed at rons
the time when that prince, blinded by his concubines, II
was sunk in lust and idolatry. This he chiefly infers from ^anton.
the general character of vanity and dissoluteness which
reigns throughout the Canticles ; in which there is not, ac¬
cording to Whiston, one thought that leads the mind to¬
wards religion, but all is worldly and carnal, to say no
worse. As to the alleged mystic sense, he asserts that it is
without foundation ; and that the book is not cited as ca¬
nonical by any writer before the destruction of Jerusalem.
Mr Whiston will have it to have been taken into the ca¬
non between the years seventy-seven and a hundred and
twenty-eight, when allegories came into vogue, and the
rabbin began to corrupt the text of Scripture. Grotius,
Nierembergius, the Dutch divines who criticised F. Si¬
mon, Menetrier, Basnage, and some others, seem also to con¬
sider the Canticles as a profane composition, on a footing
with the love pieces of Catullus or Ovid. But this opi¬
nion is refuted by Michaelis, Majus, Witsius, Nat. Alex¬
ander, Outrein, Francius, and others. Mr Whiston’s ar¬
guments have been particularly considered by Itchener,
and also by Dr Gill. R. Akiba finds the book of Can¬
ticles more divine than the rest; the whole world, accord¬
ing to this rabbi, is not worth that day when the Can¬
ticles was given to Israel; for, whereas all the hagiogra-
phers are holy, the Canticles is the holy of holies.
CANTIMARONS, Catimarons, or Catamarans, a
kind of floats or rafts, used by the inhabitants of the coast
of Coromandel to go a fishing in, and to trade along the
coast. They are made of three or four small canoes, or
trunks of trees dug hollow, and tied together with cacao
ropes, with a triangular sail in the middle, made of mats.
The persons who manage them are almost half in the wa¬
ter, there being only a place in the middle a little raised,
to hold their merchandise ; which last particular is only
to be understood of the trading catamarans, and not of
those that go a fishing.
CANTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Britain, literally denoting a headland; giving name to a
territory called Cantium, now Kent; and to a people call¬
ed Cantii, commended for their great humanity and po¬
liteness.
CANTO denotes a part or division of a poem, answer¬
ing to what is otherwise called a booh. The word is Ita¬
lian, and properly signifies song. Tasso, Ariosto, and
several other Italians, have divided their longer or heroic
poems into cantos. In imitation of them, Scarron has also
divided his Gigantomachia, and Boileau his Lutrin, into
chants or songs. The like usage has been adopted by
some English writers, as Butler, who divides his Hudi-
bras, and Dr Garth his Dispensary, into cantos. A mo¬
dern translator of part of Virgil’s fEneidhRS even subdivid¬
ed a book of Virgil into several cantos.
Canto, in the Italian music, signifies a song; hence
canto simplice is where all the notes or figures are equal,
and called also canto sermo ; while canto figurato is where
the figures are unequal, and express different motions.
Canto also signifies the treble part of a song; hence
canto concertante, the treble of the little chorus, and canto
repieno, the treble of the grand chorus, or that which sings
only now and then in particular places. Canto signifies
the first treble, unless some other word be added to it, as
secondo ; in which case it denotes the second treble.
CANTON denotes a small district or country consti¬
tuting a distinct government. Such are the cantons of
Switzerland.
Canton, Quang-tong, or Koanton, one of the southern
provinces of China, bounded on the north-east by Fokien,
on the north by Kiang-si, on the west by Quang-si and
5 %
CANTON.
101
the kingdom of Tonking, and everywhere else by the sea.
The country is diversified with hills and plains, and the
soil is in general so fertile that it produces two crops an¬
nually. See China.
Canton, a large commercial and populous city of Chi¬
na, in the province of Quang-tong, situated on the east¬
ern bank of the Pekiang river, which at Canton is some¬
what broader than the Thames at London Bridge, and is
navigable 300 miles farther into the interior. It has an
additional course of eighty miles to the sea, near its junc¬
tion with which it takes among foreigners the name of
Bocca Tigris, or the mouth of the Tigris, from the ap¬
pearance of one of the islands at its entrance. The town
stretches about five miles along the side of the river, and
nearly three miles in an opposite direction. It is defend¬
ed towards the water by two high walls, having cannon
mounted, and two strong castles built on two islands in
the river; on the land side it has a strong wall and three
forts. The wall of the city is about five miles in circum¬
ference, with a broad and deep ditch close to it, and se¬
veral gates, within each of which is a guard-house ; and
no European is permitted, without the order of a mandarin,
to enter the Tartar city, all foreigners being confined en¬
tirely to the suburbs. With a view to defence, however,
these fortifications would be totally unavailing; and their
only utility consists in preventing the intrusion of stran¬
gers. The Chinese portion of the city, in its building and
exterior appearance, entirely resembles the suburbs; and
in these the streets are long, straight, and very narrow,
some of the principal not exceeding fifteen or twenty feet
in breadth ; but they are clean, and well paved with little
round stones, and flagged close to the sides of the houses,
which are in general small, seldom consisting of more
than two stories, the lower story serving as a shop in which
goods are exhibited for sale, and the rest of the house,
with the court behind, being used as a warehouse. Par¬
ticular streets are allotted for the supply of strangers,
others to particular classes of artizans. The principal
street appropriated to Europeans is denominated China
Street. Here are to be found the productions of every
quarter of the globe; and the merchants are in general
extremely attentive and civil. The Chinese are remark¬
ably expert men of business, and of the most assiduous
habits, and one of them is always seen sitting on his coun¬
ter, and using every effort to attract the attention of the
British seamen, who are in the habit of frequenting this
quarter of Canton. They have an English name painted
on the outside of their shops, besides a number of adver¬
tisements composed for them by the sailors in their pecu¬
liar idiom. They contrive in this manner to draw the sea¬
men into their shops, and occasionally to impose upon
them by their specious manners and command of temper.
Ihe factories of the different European powers who are
permitted to trade here extend a considerable distance
along the banks of the river, fronting the city at about
a hundred yards from the water. They consist of large
and handsome houses, on which are hoisted the respec¬
tive flags of the different nations. These factories are
named by the Chinese, hongs, and resemble long courts
without a thoroughfare, which generally contain four or
five separate houses. They are built on a fine quay, and
a broad parade extends along the river in front of the Canton,
factories, whither the European merchants, commanders,
and officers of ships resort to enjoy the cool of the even¬
ing. The British factory far surpasses all others in ele¬
gance and extent. It has a large verandah, reaching
nearly down to the water’s edge, raised on handsome pil¬
lars, and paved with marble, and commanding an exten¬
sive view along the river banks. There are spacious
warehouses in the neighbourhood for the reception of
goods, and dwellings of the Chinese, which are hired out
to merchants who visit Canton. For the sp'ace of four or
five miles opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged
parallel to each other in such close order that it resem¬
bles a floating city; and these marine dwellings are oc¬
cupied by numerous families, who reside almost constant¬
ly on the water. In the middle of the river lie the Chi¬
nese junks, which trade to the eastern islands and Bata¬
via, and which are moored head and stern, some of them
of the burden of 600, and even of 1000 tons.
Canton, from the number and size of the vessels in the
river, the variety and decorations of the boats, the superior
architecture of the European factories, and the general
bustle of a numerous and busy population, has all the ap¬
pearance of a great commercial city; and Mr Ellis1 ex¬
presses his belief that “ in the wealth of the inhabitants
at large, the skill of the artificers, and the variety of the
manufactures, it yields not, with the exception of the capi¬
tal, to any city in the empire.” The suburbs are frequent¬
ed by foreigners from all parts of the world; and from
their various languages, dresses, and deportment, a stranger
would be at a loss to say to which nation the town belong¬
ed. Canton carries on a very extensive commerce, and,
with the exception of the port of Amoy, in the province of
Fokien, to which the Spaniards have still the privilege of
trading, though they make no use of it, is the only port in
the Chinese dominions which is open to the ships of Euro¬
peans. According to the policy of the Chinese government,
it is only a limited number of merchants, who are called the
hong or security merchants, that are allowed to trade with
foreigners. Their number formerly amounted to eight,
and sometimes to twelve; but from bankruptcies among
them, they are now reduced to seven.2 They are com¬
monly men of large property, and are famed for integrity
in their transactions. All foreign cargoes pass through
the hands of these merchants, and by them also the return
cargoes are furnished. They become security for the
payment of duties, and it is treason for any other mer¬
chant to engage in the trade with foreigners. This severe
law, however, it appears, has from time immemorial been
evaded ; for other merchants, called “ outside merchants,”
who carry on their transactions outside of the harbour of
Canton, or shopmen, are in the practice of dealing with
foreigners, either through the medium of the hong mer¬
chants, under whose pass the goods are imported or ex¬
ported, or clandestinely; and more recently the trade has
been sanctioned by the Chinese authorities. In 1828 a
proclamation was issued, specifying a list of twenty-four
articles of export, in which alone the hongs were to deal;
and an additional list of fifty-three articles of import,
which were left free to all other merchants.3 A great con¬
traband trade is besides carried on in Canton, or among the
1 See Journal of an Embassy to China.
1 Minutes of Evidence on the Affairs of the East India Company, before a Select Committee of the House of Commons, 1830, p. 00.
3 We subjoin these lists. List of the twenty-four articles of export, confined to the hongs.—All sorts of teas, raw silk, silk prepared for
weaving, Canton raw silk, all sorts of cloth, native cassia, cassia buds, sugar candy, sugar, tutenague, alum, cloves, nutmeg or mace,
quicksilver, China camphor, rhubarb, galangal, China root, vermillion, gamboge, damar, star anniseed, pearl shells, cochineal. List of
the fifty-three articles of import.—Worleys, Dutch camlets, long ells, broad cloth, cuttings of cloth, sorts of camlets, florentines, ginseng,
sandal-wood, birds’ nests, cloves, nutmegs, putchuck, olibanum, Malay camphor, elephants’ teeth, pepper, foreign tin, lead, copper, steel,
cotton, rattans, betel nut, smalts, Prussian blue, biche de mer, fish maws, sharks’ fins, materials for glass, ebony, sapan wood, cochi-
neal, gum kine, myrrh, physic, assafbetida, physic oil, quicksilver, foreign iron, wax, cutch, pearl shells, sago, undressed nests, flints,
borax, amber, gold and silver thread, all sorts of skins, mace.
-o
i)
<
;0
102
CANTON.
Canton.
islands at the mouth of the river, often under the eye of
the' custom-house officers, who are either bribed, or who
have not a sufficient force to put it down. 1 he inconsi¬
derable marine force possessed by the Chinese is totally
inadequate to check the contraband trade m opium.
Canton is about fifteen miles above Whampoa, and in
this distance are five custom-houses or chops where boats
are examined. There is a custom-house officer named the
hoppo, whose business it is to regulate the duties which
are paid by the hong merchant, the importer remaining
entirely ignorant of their amount. Accounts are kept m
tales, mace, candarines, and cashten cash being one can-
darine, ten candarines one mace, ten mace one tale, which
last is converted into English money at 6s. bd., though it is
intrinsically worth only 6s. There is but one kind of G n-
nese money called cash, which is of base metal, cast, not
coined, and very brittle. It is of small value, and varies
accordingly in the market from 750 to 1000 cash for a tale.
Its chief use is in making small payments among the lower
classes. Spanish and other silver coins are current, and
are estimated by their weight; every merchant carrying
scales and weights with him. All the dollars that pass
through the hands of the hong merchants bear their stamp,
and when they lose their weight in the course of circula¬
tion they are cut in pieces for small change. The duties
are paid to government in sycee, or pure silver, which is
taken by weight. In delivering a cargo, English weights
and scales are used, which are afterwards reduced to
Chinese catties and peculs. A pecul weighs 1331 pounds
English, and a catty 11 pound. Gold and silver are also
weighed by the tale and catty, 100 tales being reckoned
equal to 120 ounces 16 pennyweights troy. All goods
are sold by weight in China, even articles ot food, such as
fowls, hogs, and the like.
The foreign trade of Canton is very extensive ; but the
great article of export is tea, the demand for which, in
Europe, has been increasing for more than a century past.
This article is monopolized in Britain by the East India
Company; and from their accounts it appears that they
import annually into this country about thirty millions of
lbs. From papers laid before parliament, their annual
sales of tea bring a return of between two and three mil¬
lions sterling, though the article is burdened, in addition to
the exorbitant price charged by the Company, with the
enormous duty of 96 per cent, on all teas under two shil¬
lings per lb. and of 100 per cent, on all above that price.
We have no exact data for estimating the total quantity
of tea exported from Canton. The quantity taken away
by the Americans amounted, on an average of six years
from the year 1827, to 11,066,666 lbs. Tea is not very
generally used on the Continent ol Europe. The annual
importation of tea into Holland, on an average of ten years,
was 14,814 chests.1 2 In France it is by no means in com¬
mon use; and, estimating the consumption of the Conti¬
nent at seven or eight millions of pounds, the total amount
of tea exported from Canton may be stated at about fifty
millions of pounds. The other articles of export are China
ware, gold in bars, sugar, sugar candy, rhubarb, China root,
snake root, sarsaparilla, leather, tutenague, Japan copper,
varnished and lacquered ware, drugs, leaf gold, utensils
of white and red copper, cast iron, raw and wrought silk,
thread, nankeens, mother of pearl, gamboge, quicksilver,
alum, dammer red lead, vermillion, furniture, toys, a great
variety of drugs, and dollars of sycee or pure silver, and
also of Peruvian silver. The Canton junks bring to Sin¬
gapore coarse earthenware for the use of the Chinese set¬
tlers, some raw silk, nankeens, tobacco, sacrificial paper,
&c. The imports from Bombay and the Malabar coast Canta
consist chiefly of cotton, pepper, sandal wood, putchuck,
shai'ks’ fins, olibanum, elephants’ teeth, rhinoceros horns,
pearls, cornelians, and beads. With the eastern islands,
namely the Philippines, the Soo-loo islands, Celebes, the
Moluccas, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Singapore, the east coast
of the Malayan peninsula, Siam, Cochin-China, Cambodia,
Tonquin, and Japan, Canton carries on trade by means
of junks ; and the imports from these countiies are tin,
ivory, pepper, betel nut, rattans, sea-slug or biche de mer,
a variety of drugs, edible bird-nests, a favouiite luxury at
the Chinese tables, spices, &c. The principal articles im¬
ported by the East India Company are woollen clothes,
long ells, camlets, lead, tin, and iron ; cotton from Bengal,
Madras, and Bombay. The following is a statement of
the British trade to and from Canton in 1828 ; first, of the
Company’s trade ; and secondly, of the piivate trade .
IMPORTS.
Company's Trade.
Broad cloth yards 431,816
Long ells pieces 100,060
Worleys  6,000
Camlets  4,700
Mohair camlets  ^ 15
British calicoes  15,300
Blankets and scarfs  71
British iron peculs 30,261
Lead  30,246
Cottons 176,206
Sandal wood billets 32,654 Dollars.
  4,518,957 L.901,791
Private Trade.
On private account, cotton (chief¬
ly from Calcutta and Bombay),
to the amount of  3,480,083
Opium smuggled to the amount of 11,243,496
Other articles, such as pepper,
rattans, broad cloth, to the
amount of 34,467 dollars, cot¬
ton goods 66,487, tin 60,380,
iron 10,470, and lead 12,504... 1,122,064
15,845,643 3,169,128
EXPORTS.
Company's Trade.
Teas on account of Company 8,765,165 1,753.033
Private Trade.
Private account  692,767
Raw silk, Nankin, 825,300 dollars
Canton, 319,920
  1,145,220
Nankeen cloth  649,898
Sugar candy 113,040 dollars, soft
sugar 204,834, wrought silk,
silk piece-goods, crapes, scarfs,
200,925, &c   1,074,236
Dollars, Sycee and Peruvian silver, 6,094,646 8,964,00u
Disbursements on ships  500,000 500,000
10,156,767 L.2,031,353
1 See Evidence of C. Marjoribanks, Esq. given before the Select Committee, 18th February 1830.
2 See Parliamentary Papers relating to the Trade and Finances of India.
CAN
nton. From this statement it appears, that the extent of the
private trade, both to and from Canton, greatly exceeds
that of the East India Company, notwithstanding the ad¬
vantage of the monopoly of tea; the imports of the Com¬
pany only amounting in value to L.901,791, and those of
the private trader, including the contraband trade in opium,
to L.3,169,128; and the exports by the Company to
U ,753,033, while those of the private trader exceed two
millions.
The Americans carry on an extensive trade with Can¬
ton, which appears to fluctuate greatly, though it has on
the whole been decidedly on the increase since its com¬
mencement, about the year 1785. Inl826-7, owing to over¬
trading, the American merchants engaged in this trade
sustained heavy losses, and a serious stagnation followed,
which, however, was not of long duration, the exports
having increased the following year to nearly their ave¬
rage amount. We subjoin, from parliamentary papers, the
following account of the American trade to Canton at
different periods:
Amount of Amount of
No. of Ships employed. Imports. Exports.
1804)-5  34 L.800,058 L.864,450
1808- 9   8  107,966  181,800
1809- 10 37  1,292,535  1,285,875
1818-19 47  2,220,121  2,037,848
1825-26 42  1,749,667  2,013,651
1827-28 20  1,403,726  1,475,983
The American imports into Canton are chiefly bullion;
but furs, opium, and ginseng, which is not esteemed by
the Chinese equal to that which they procure from Tar¬
tary, and of which the emperor has a monopoly, are also
imported; and within these twelve or thirteen years they
have carried out British woollen manufactures and cotton
stuffs, iron, copper, quicksilver, cochineal, opium, linens,
watches, and tin plates ; and it is singular, nay a complete
illustration of the nature of monopoly, that at the time the
export of woollens by the East India Company was attend¬
ed with loss, and had in consequence fallen off, private
traders exported these articles with a profit, and have con¬
sequently continued the trade.
The intercourse carried on with Canton by the other
nations of Europe, namely, the Portuguese, the Spaniards,
French, Swedes, Danes, and Dutch, is inconsiderable and
fluctuating; and is not nearly equal to that of the British
or the Americans.
The Chinese are, according to all accounts, an indus¬
trious and trading people ; and ready on every occasion, as
far as they can, to counteract the barbarous and anti-com¬
mercial spirit of the government. All the different traders
who have frequented the port of Canton agree that great
facilities are given for the dispatch of business, and that
no trader has the least difficulty in disposing of his goods,
and in procuring a return cargo. There are certain port
duties to which all vessels are liable, in proportion to the
Chinese measurement of its tonnage, which is from the
centre of the fore mast to the centre of the mizzen mast
for the length, and close abaft the main mast from the
outside, taking the extreme, for the breadth. The length
is then multiplied by the breadth, and divided by ten,
which is their mode of ascertaining the mensuration of a
ship. At the custom-house ships are classed under three
denominations, namely, first, second, and third rates,
which last rate must be paid by all ships, however small,
as there is no lower rate ; and in like manner no higher rate
is ever paid on any ship of the first class, however large.
The first rates are seventy-four cubits long and twenty-
three broad; and they pay per cubit seven tales, seven
mace, seven candarines, and seven cash. The second are
seventy-one to seventy-four cubits, and from twenty-two
T O N. ]03
to twenty-three broad; and they pay seven tales, one mace, Canton,
four candarines, and two cash. The third rates, which -w'
are sixty-five to seventy-one cubits, and from twenty to
twenty-two broad, pay five tales. Ships are besides liable
to the kumshaw, which is an imposition under the name
of a present to the great mandarins, and which is now
regularly claimed along with all the other port-dues: on
British vessels it is 1950 tales. The duties on ships of
the smallest class amount on an average to about 4000
dollars, and ships of larger dimensions do not pay a great
deal more. Small country ships frequently lie off about
Dinting Fora, or Large Bay, until some of the large China
ships from Europe come in sight, when they shift their
cargoes on board of them, which are then usually carried
up to Canton for one per cent.; and in this manner the
duties, customs, and measurement of the ship, are saved,
as well as the emperor’s present.
The establishment of the East India Company at Can¬
ton consists of twelve supercargoes and twelve writers,
who transact the Company’s business with the hong mer¬
chants. They are politically the representatives of the Bri¬
tish authority at Canton. They are paid by a double com¬
mission of two per cent, on the price of the goods import¬
ed into Canton by the Company, and on the price of tea at
the Company’s sales in London ; and three per cent, com¬
mission defrays the whole annual expense of the establish¬
ment, amounting to about L. 150,000. The writers have
a fixed salary and a free table, and they succeed by ro¬
tation to the situations of supercargoes, who have also a
free table, and annually divide among them, in shares pro¬
portioned to their seniority, a sum of from L.50,000 to
L.80,000 sterling. The three senior supercargoes consti¬
tute the select committee, the chief of which has gene¬
rally an income of L.8000 per annum ; the second and
third members L.7100 ; and the income of the junior mem¬
bers declines in a graduated proportion to L.1500 per an¬
num. They have besides a free house and table, and their
services given in return are not certainly laborious in pro¬
portion. Their duty is to reside four months of the year
at Canton, during the season when they have to transact
business with the hong merchants ; after which they re¬
tire to Macao for the rest of the year, having little or no
occupation, and no society except among themselves. It
is to pay for such expensive establishments, and for other
modes of wasteful management, as the useless size and
cost of their ships, and their extravagant outfit, that the
people of Great Britain are taxed in the monopoly price of
tea, an article in universal use, and now considered as a
necessary, and by no means therefore a fit subject for an
exorbitant tax.
Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant at
Canton, and in general are excellent in quality and mo¬
derate in price. It is a singular fact, that the Chinese
make no use of milk, either in its natural state, or in the
form of butter or cheese. Among the delicacies of a
Chinese market, are to be seen horse-flesh, dogs, cats,
hawks, owls, and edible bird-nests, which are so much
sought after that they sell for their weight in silver. The
Chinese, however, who are settled in Batavia and Singa¬
pore show no aversion to European luxuries ; and are par¬
ticularly fond of spirits and wine. The business at Can¬
ton is generally transacted in a jargon of broken English,
the Chinese being extremely ready in acquiring such a
smattering of English words as to render themselves in¬
telligible ; and the lower classes of them are frequently
hired as servants by the Europeans.
The intercourse between China and Europe by the way
of the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel,
king of Portugal, sent a fleet of eight ships, with an ambas¬
sador, who was conveyed to Pekin, and who obtained the
104 C, A N CAN
Canton, sanction of the emperor to establish a trade at Canton. It
was in 1596, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the
English first attempted with two ships to open an inter¬
course with China; but they were lost in the outward
voyage. About 1634 several English ships visited Can¬
ton ; but a misunderstanding having occurred with the
Chinese authorities, by the treachery of the Portuguese,
a rupture and a battle took place, and it was with diffi¬
culty that this misunderstanding was rectified. China was
again visited in 1673 by an English ship that was refused
admission into Japan. In 1677 a factory was established
at Amoy; but in 1680 the factory was destroyed by an ir¬
ruption of the Tartars, and it was not till 1685 that the em¬
peror permitted any trade with the Europeans. Upon the
union of the two East India Companies in London, an im¬
perial edict was issued, restricting the European commerce
to the port of Canton. Tea was first imported about the
year 1667. The commerce with Canton has in the course
of the last century progressively increased, though it has
occasionally met with interruptions ; as in 1784, and in
1801 when two of the Chinese were killed by shots from
British vessels; and in 1806, when Macao was occupied
by British troops. At that time the trade was stopped ;
but the troops being withdrawn, harmony was restored,
and the trade placed on its former footing. Disagree¬
ments have also occasionally taken place between the se¬
lect committee and the Chinese functionaries ; but no
material interruption to the trade has ever arisen from
this source. The Europeans in Canton know little of the
interior, being rigidly excluded from all intercourse with
the inhabitants. A great number of troops are said to
be quartered in the province of Canton, as a precaution
against any danger from the great influx of foreigners. The
sea-coast has been so much infested with pirates, as to
threaten the almost total extinction of the Chinese coast¬
ing trade. No correct estimate of the population of Can¬
ton has ever been obtained ; but it is known to be very
great, probably equal to Calcutta, or any other of the great
cities of the East. Long. 113. 14. E. Eat. 23. 7. N. (Mil-
burn’s Oriental Commerce; Barrow’s Travels in China ;
Ellis’s Journal of the Proceedings of the late Embassy to
China ; Staunton’s Embassy to China ; Hamilton’s East
India Gazetteer.) (f.)
Canton, John, an ingenious natural philosopher, was
born at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, in 1718. Among those
with whom he became acquainted in early life was Dr
Henry Miles of Tooting, a learned and respectable mem¬
ber of the Royal Society, and of approved eminence in
natural knowledge. This gentleman perceiving that Mr
Canton possessed abilities too promising to be confined
within the narrow limits of a country town, prevailed on
his father to permit him to go to London. According¬
ly he arrived at the metropolis in March 1737, and re¬
sided with Dr Miles at Tooting till the 6th of May fol¬
lowing, when he articled himself for the term of five
years as a clerk to Mr Samuel Watkins, master of the
academy in Spital Square. In this situation his inge¬
nuity, diligence, and good conduct were so well displayed,
that on the expiration of his clerkship in May 1742 he
was taken into partnership with Mr Watkins for three
years; which gentleman he afterwards succeeded in Spi¬
tal Square, and there continued during his whole life. In
1744 he married Penelope, the eldest daughter of Mr
Thomas Colbrooke, and niece to James Colbrooke, Esq.
banker in London.
Towards the end of 1745, electricity, which seems early
to have engaged Mr Canton’s notice, received a very capi¬
tal improvement by the discovery of the Leyden phial.
This event turned the thoughts of most of the philo¬
sophers of Europe to that branch of natural philosophy;
and our author, who was one of the first to repeat and to Cantor
pursue the experiment, found his assiduity and attention ''—’Yv
rewarded by many valuable discoveries. Towards the end
of 1749 he was concerned with his friend, Mr Benjamin
Robins, in making experiments in order to determine to
what height rockets may be made to ascend, and at what
distance their light may be seen. In 1750 was read at
the Royal Society Mr Canton’s “ method of making arti¬
ficial Magnets, without the use of, and yet far superior to,
any natural ones.” This paper procured him the honour of
being elected a member of the society, and the present of
their gold medal. The same year he was complimented
with the degree of M. A. by the University of Aberdeen,
and in 1751 he was chosen one of the council of the Royal
Society.
In 1752 Mr Canton was so fortunate as to be the first
person in England who, by attracting the electric fire from
the clouds during a thunder storm, verified Dr Franklin’s
hypothesis of the similarity of lightning and electricity.
Next year his paper entitled “ Electrical Experiments,
with an attempt to account for their several phenomena,”
was read at the Royal Society. In the same paper Mr
Canton mentioned his having discovered, by a great num¬
ber of experiments, that some clouds were in a positive,
and some in a negative, state of electricity. Dr Franklin,
much about the same time, made a similar discovery in
America. This circumstance, together with our author’s
constant defence of the doctor’s hypothesis, induced that
excellent philosopher, immediately on his arrival in Eng¬
land, to pay Mr Canton a visit, and gave rise to a friend¬
ship which ever afterwards continued without interruption
or diminution. In the Lady’s Diary for 1756 our author an¬
swered the prize question that had been proposed in the
preceding year. The question was, “ how can what we
call the shooting of stars be best accounted for ; what is
the substance of this phenomenon ; and in what state of the
atmosphere doth it most frequently show itself?” and the
solution, though anonymous, proved so satisfactory to his
friend, Mr Thomas Simpson, who then conducted that
work, that he sent Mr Canton the prize, accompanied
with a note, in which he said, he was sure that he was not
mistaken in the author of it, as no one besides, that he
knew of, could have answered the question. Our philo¬
sopher’s next communication to the public was a letter
in the “ Gentleman’s Magazine for September 1759,” on
the electrical properties of the tourmalin, in which the
laws of that wonderful stone are laid down in a very con¬
cise and elegant manner. On the 13th December, in the
same year, was read at the Royal Society, “ An attempt to
account for the regular diurnal variation of the Horizontal
Magnetic Needle ; and also for its irregular variation at
the time of an Aurora Borealis.” A complete year’s ob¬
servations of the diurnal variations of the needle are annex¬
ed to the paper. On the 5th November 1761, our author
communicated to the Royal Society an account of the
Transit of Venus, 6th June 1761, observed in Spital Square.
M. Canton’s next communication to the Society was a let¬
ter addressed to Dr Benjamin Franklin, and read in Febru¬
ary 1762, containing some remarks on Mr Delaval’s elec¬
trical experiments. On the 16th December in the same
year another curious addition was made by him to philoso¬
phical knowledge, in a paper entitled “ Experiments to
prove that water is not incompressible.” These experi¬
ments are a complete refutation of the famous Florentine ex¬
periments, which so many philosophers have mentioned as
a proof of the incompressibility of water. On St Andrew’s
day 1763 our author was for the third time elected one of
the council of the Royal Society; and, on the 8th November
in the following year, were read before that learned body
his further “ Experiments and observations on the com-
CAN
oning pressibility of water and some other fluids.” The esta-
|| blishment of this fact, in opposition to the received opi-
nvass. nion, formed on the hasty decision of the Florentine Aca-
flemy, was thought to be deserving of the society’s gold
medal. It was accordingly moved for in the council of
1764; and after several invidious delays, which terminat¬
ed much to the honour of Mr Canton, it was presented to
him on the 30th November 1766.
The next communication of our ingenious author to the
Royal Society was made in December 1763, being “ An
easy method of making a phosphorus that will imbibe and
emit light like the Bolognian stone ; with experiments and
observations.” When he first showed to Dr Franklin the
instantaneous light acquired by some of this phosphorus
from the near discharge of an electrified bottle, the doctor
immediately exclaimed, “ And God said, let there be light,
and there was light.” The dean and chapter of St Paul’s
having, in a letter to the president, dated 5th March 1769,
requested the opinions of the Royal Society relative to
the best and most effectual method of fixing electrical
conductors to preserve that cathedral from damage by
lightning, Mr Canton was one of the committee appointed
to take the letter into consideration, and to report their
opinion upon it. The gentlemen joined with him in this
business were, Dr Watson, Dr Franklin, Mr Delaval, and
Mr Wilson. Their report was made on the 8th of June
following, and the method recommended by them has been
carried into execution. The last paper of our author’s
which was read before the Royal Society was on the 21st
December 1769, and contained “ Experiments to prove
that the Luminousness of the Sea arises from the putrefac¬
tion of its animal substances.” In the account now given
of his communications to the public, we have chiefly con¬
fined ourselves to such as were the most important, and
which threw new and unexpected light on various ob¬
jects in the philosophical world. Besides these, he wrote
a number of papers both in earlier and in later life, which
appeared in several publications, and particularly in the
Gentleman’s Magazine.
The close and sedentary life of Mr Canton, arising from
an unremitted attention to the duties of his profession,
and to the prosecution of his philosophical inquiries and
experiments, probably contributed to shorten his days.
The disorder into which he fell, and which carried him
off, was a dropsy. His death happened on the 22d of
March 1772, in the fifty-fourth year of his age.
CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting dis¬
tinct and separate quarters to each regiment; the town
where they are quartered being divided into as many can¬
tons as there are regiments.
CANTRED, or Cantreth, signifies a hundred villa¬
ges. It is a British word, compounded of the adjective
cant, meaning hundred; and tref, a towm or village. In
Wales some of the counties are divided into cantreds, as in
England into hundreds.
CANTYRE, from Cantierre, signifying a “ headland,”
the southern division of the county of Argyle in Scotland.
Mull of Cantyre, the south cape or promontory of the
peninsula.
CANVASS, a very clear unbleached cloth, of hemp or
flax, wove regularly in little squares. It is used for work¬
ing tapestry with the needle, by passing the threads of
gold, silver, silk, or wool, through the intervals or squares.
Canvass is also a coarse cloth of hemp, unbleached,
and somewhat clear, which serves to cover women’s stays,
to stiffen men’s clothes, and also to make some other wear¬
ing apparel.
Canvass is also used among the French for the model
or first words on which an air or piece of music is com¬
posed, and given to a poet to regulate and finish. The
VOL. VI.
CAN 105
canvass of a song contains certain notes of the composer, Canute,
which show the poet the measure of the verses he is to
make. Thus Du Lot says, he has canvass for ten sonnets
against the Muses.
Canvass is also the name of a cloth made of hemp, and
used for ships’ sails.*
Canvass, among painters, is the cloth on which they
usually draw their pictures. The canvass being smoothed
over with a slick stone, then sized, and afterwards whited
over, makes what the painters call their primeo cloth, on
which they draw their first sketches with coal or chalk,
and afterwards finish with colours.
CANUSIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia,
on the right or south side of the Aufidus, to the west of
Cannae, whither the Romans fled after the defeat sustain¬
ed there. It was famous for its red shining wool, whence
those who wore clothes made of it were called Canusinati.
Now called Canosa.
Canute, the first Danish king of England after Iron¬
side. He married Emma, widow of King Ethelred, and
put to death several persons of quality who stood in his
way to the crown. Having thus settled his power in Eng¬
land, he made a voyage to his other kingdom of Denmark,
in order to resist the attacks of the king of Sweden; and
he carried along with him a great body of the English un¬
der the command of the Earl of Godwin. This nobleman
had there an opportunity of performing a service by which
he both reconciled the king’s mind to the English nation,
and, gaining to himself the friendship of his sovereign,
laid the foundation of that immense fortune which he ac¬
quired to his family. He was stationed next to the Swe¬
dish camp; and observing a favourable opportunity, which
he was obliged suddenly to seize, he attacked the enemy in
the night, drove them suddenly from their trenches, threw
them into disorder, pursued his advantage, and obtained
a decisive victory over them. Next morning, Canute,
seeing the English camp entirely abandoned, imagined
that these disaffected troops had deserted to the enemy ;
but he was agreeably surprised to learn that they were at
that time engaged in pursuit of the discomfited Swedes.
Fie was so pleased with this success, and the manner of
obtaining it, that he bestowed his daughter in marriage
upon Godwin, and treated him ever after with the most
entire confidence and regard.
In another voyage which he afterwards made to Den¬
mark, Canute attacked Norway, and expelled the just but
unwarlike Olaus from his kingdom, of which he kept pos¬
session till the death of that prince. He had now by his
conquests and valour attained the utmost height ot his
ambition, and having leisure from wars and intrigues, he
felt the unsatisfactory nature of all human enjoyments;
and equally weary of the glory and turmoils of this life,
he began to cast his view towards that future existence,
which it is so natural for the human mind, whether satiat¬
ed by prosperity or disgusted with adversity, to make the
object of its attention. Unfortunately the spirit which
prevailed in that age gave a wrong direction to his devo¬
tion ; and, instead of making atonement to those whom
he had formerly injured by his acts of violence, he en¬
tirely employed himself in those exercises of piety which
the monks represented as most meritorious. He built
churches, he endowed monasteries, he enriched ecclesias¬
tics, and bestowed revenues for the support of chantries
at Assington and other places, where he appointed pray¬
ers to be said for the souls of those who had there fallen
in battle against him. He even undertook a pilgrimage
to Rome, where he sojourned a considerable time; and,
besides obtaining from the pope some privileges for the
English school erected there, he engaged all the princes
through whose dominions he was obliged to pass to de-
o
106
Cany
II
Caout¬
chouc.
C A O
sist from those heavy impositions and tolls which they
were accustomed to exact from the English pilgrims, by
this spirit of devotion, no less than by his equitable and
politic administration, he gained in a good measure the at-
fections of his subjects.
Canute, who was the greatest and most powerful prince
of his time, being sovereign of Denmark and Norway as well
as of England, could not fail to meet with adulation from
his courtiers ; a tribute which is liberally Pl even to the
meanest and weakest of princes. _ Some of his flatterers
breaking out one day in admiration of his grandeur, ex¬
claimed that every thing was possible for him ; upon which
the monarch, it is said, ordered a chair to be set on the
sea shore while the tide was flowing; and as the waters
approached, he commanded them to retire, and obey t ic
voice of him who was lord of the ocean. He feigned to
sit some time in expectation of their submission ; but when
the sea still advanced towards him, and began to wash
him with its billows, he turned to his courtiers, and re¬
marked to them, that every creature in the universe was
feeble and impotent, and that power resided with one
Being alone, in whose hands were all the elements of na¬
ture,"who could say to the ocean, “ Thus far shalt thou
go and no farther,” and who could level with his nod the
most towering piles of human pride and ambition, rrcnn
that time, it is said, he never would wear a crown, lie
died in the twentieth year of his reign,^and was interred
at Winchester, in the old monastery. * .
CANY, a town of the department of the Lower Seine,
in France, with 240 houses and 1434 inhabitants.
CANZONE, in Music, signifies, in general, a song
where some little figures are introduced; but it is some¬
times used for a sort of Italian poem, usually pretty long,
for which music may be composed in the style of a cantata.
If this term be added to a piece of instrumental music, it
signifies much the same as cantata; if placed in any part
of a sonata, it implies the same as allegro, and only de¬
notes that the part to which it is prefixed is to be played
or sung in a brisk and lively manner.
CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, denoting a
little short song. The canzonette Neapolitane have two
strains, each of which is sung twice over, as the vaude¬
villes of the French. The canzonetta Siciliana is a spe¬
cies of jig, the measure of which is usually twelve eighths,
and six eighths, and sometimes both, as rondeaus.
CAORLO, a small island in the Gulf of Venice, on the
coast of Friuli, twenty miles south-west of Aquileia ; sub¬
ject to Venice. It possesses a small town of the same
name.
CAOUTCHOUG, Elastic Resin, or India Rubber, a
substance produced from the syringe tree of Cayenne and
other parts of South America, and possessed of singular
properties. No substance is yet known which is so plia¬
ble, and at the same time so elastic; and it is further a
matter of curiosity, as being capable of resisting the action
of very powerful menstrua. From the account of M. de
la Condamine, we learn that this substance oozes out, un¬
der the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions made in
the tree; and that it is gathered chiefly in time of rain,
because, though it may be collected at all times, it then
flows most abundantly. The means employed to inspissate
and indurate it, M. de Laborde says, are kept a profound
secret. M. Bomare and others affirm that it thickens and
hardens gradually by being exposed to the air; and that
as soon as it acquires a solid consistence it manifests a
very extraordinary degree of flexibility and elasticity.
Accordingly the Indians make boots of it which water
cannot penetrate, and which, when smoked, have the ap¬
pearance of real leather. Bottles are also made of it, to
the necks of which are fastened hollow reeds, so that the
C A O
liquor contained in them may be squirted through the Caout.
reeds or pipes by pressure. One of these filled with water chouc,
is always presented to each of the guests at their enter- '' J—
tainments, who never fails to make use of it before eating.
This whimsical custom led the Portuguese in that coun¬
try to call the tree that produced the resin pao di xirrin-
ga ; and hence the name of seringat is given both to the
tree and to its resinous production. There are likewise
made of this resin, flambeaux, an inch and a half in dia¬
meter, and two feet long, which give a beautiful light,
have no bad smell, and burn twelve hours. A kind of
cloth is also prepared from it, which the inhabitants of
Quito apply to the same purpose as our oil-cloth and sail¬
cloth. Lastly, it is formed, by means of moulds, into a
variety of figures for use or ornament. The process is
said to be this: The juice, which is obtained by incision,
is spread over pieces of clay formed into the desired shape ;
and as fast as one layer is dry, another is added, till the
vessel be of the proper thickness. The whole is then held
over a strong smoke of vegetables on fire, by which means
it hardens into the texture and appearance of leather;
and before the finishing, while yet soft, is capable of re¬
ceiving any impression, which remains for ever afterwards.
When the whole is finished, the inside mould is picked
0llt‘ . • • i
Since this resin has been known in Europe, its chemical
qualities and other interesting properties have been very
diligently investigated. In particular, chemists have en¬
deavoured to discover some method of dissolving it in
such a manner that it would assume different figures, with
equal ease as when in its original fluid state. In the me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1768, we have an
account of several attempts of this kind, with information
how the object desired may be effected. The state of ve¬
getable milk in which the caoutchouc resin is found when it
comes from the tree, led M. Macquer to imagine that it was
composed of an oil and a watery matter. From its wanting
aromatic flavour, from its having little volatility, and from
its being incapable of solution in spirits of wine, he conclud¬
ed that the oil which entered into its composition was not
an essential, but a fatty one. Hence he thought it probable
that it passed from a fluid to a solid form by the evapora¬
tion of the watery part, and that the oily solvents would
reduce it to a soft state. "The first trials he made for dis¬
solving it were with linseed oil, essence of turpentine, and
several others. But all he could obtain by means of these
menstrua was a viscid substance, incapable of being hai-
dened, and totally void of elasticity. The rectified essen¬
tial oil of turpentine was employed, apparently with great¬
er success. To separate from this menstruum the caout¬
chouc which it had dissolved, M. Macquer added spirits
of wine; but the consequence was, that part only of the
oil united with the spirit, whilst the rest remained obsti¬
nately attached to the resin which it had dissolved, and
thus prevented it from assuming a solid consistence. The
author next endeavoured to dissolve it by means of heat
in Papin’s digester. But neither water nor spirits of wine,
although in this way capable of dissolving the hardest
bones, could produce any other effect upon it than to ren¬
der it more firm than before. After this he tried what
effect the milky juice of other vegetables would produce
upon it. He used several kinds, particularly that of the
fig; but in this way he could obtain no solution. From the
great volatility of ether, he was next induced to try it
as a menstruum ; and accordingly he prepared some with
great attention. The caoutchouc, cut into little bits, and
put into a proper vessel with as much ether as was suffi¬
cient to cover it, was perfectly dissolved without any other
heat than that of the atmosphere. This solution was trans¬
parent and of an amber colour. It still preserved the
C A O
€ A O
107
iut- smell of ether, but mixed with the disagreeable odour of
uc- the caoutchouc, and was a little less fluid than pure ether.
Upon its being thrown into water, no milky liquor was pro¬
duced ; but there arose to the surface a solid membrane,
which possessed the elasticity and other peculiar properties
of the caoutchouc. He observes, however, that two pints
of the best ether, obtained by rectifying eight or ten pints
of the common ether by a gentle heat, must be used, in
order to insure the success of the operation. The distin¬
guishing properties of this substance, its solidity, flexibili¬
ty, and elasticity, and its quality of resisting the action of
aqueous, spirituous, saline, oily, and other common sol¬
vents, render it extremely fit for the construction of tubes,
catheters, and other instruments in which these proper¬
ties are wanted. In order to form this resin into small
tubes, M. Macquer prepared a solid cylindrical mould of
wax, of the desired size and shape ; and then dipping a
pencil into the ethereal solution of the resin, daubed the
mould with it, till he had covered it over with a coat of
resin of a sufficient thickness. The whole piece was then
thrown into boiling water, by the heat of which the wax
was soon melted, and rose to the surface, leaving the resin¬
ous tube completely formed behind.
Grossart informs us that he succeeded very well in em¬
ploying the essential oils of turpentine and lavender as
a solvent for the elastic gum, and thus forming it into
tubes, or giving it any shape that was wanted. When the
elastic tube is prepared with oil of lavender, the latter may
be separated by immersing the tube in alcohol, which
charges itself with oil, and becomes a good lavender wa¬
ter. Alcohol serves another purpose besides taking up
the essential oil. It accelerates very much the drying of
caoutchouc instruments which are thus formed. Oil of
turpentine appeared always to have a kind of stickiness ;
and the smell, which could not be got rid of by any means
yet discovered, was another inconvenience.
Grossart proposes another solvent, which is easily pro¬
cured, and is not liable to the inconvenience just men¬
tioned. This solvent is water. “ I conceive,’’ says he,
“ it will appear strange to mention water as a solvent of
elastic gum, that liquid having been always supposed to
have no action upon it. I myself resisted the idea; but
reflecting that ether, by being saturated with water, is the
better enabled to act on caoutchouc, and that this gum,
when plunged into boiling water, becomes more transpa¬
rent at the edges, I presumed that this effect was not due
simply to the dilatation of its volume by the heat. I
thought that at that temperature some action might take
place, and that a long-continued ebullition might produce
more sensible effects. I was not disappointed in my ex¬
pectations, and one of those tubes was prepared without
any other solvent than water and heat. I proceeded in
the same manner as with ether. The elastic gum dilates
but very little in boiling water; it becomes whitish, but
recovers its colour again by drying it in the air and light.
It is sufficiently prepared for use when it has been a quar¬
ter of an hour in boiling water : by this time its edges are
somewhat transparent. It is to be turned spirally round
the mould, in the manner we described before, and re¬
plunged frequently into the boiling water during the time
that is employed in forming the tube, to the end that the
edges may be disposed to unite together. When the
whole is bound with packthread, it is to be kept some
hours in boiling water; after which it is to be dried, still
keeping on the binding.
“ If we wish to be more certain that the connection is
perfect, the spiral may be doubled; but we must always
avoid placing the exterior surfaces of the slips one upon
the other, as those surfaces are the parts which most re¬
sist the action of solvents. This precaution is less neces¬
sary when ether is employed, on account of its great ac¬
tion upon the caoutchouc.
“ It might be feared that the action of water upon caout¬
chouc would deprive us of the advantages which might
otherwise be expected; but these fears will be removed
if we consider that the affinities differ according to the
temperatures; that it is only at a very high temperature
that water exercises any sensible action upon caoutchouc.
I can affirm that at 120 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer
(302 degrees of Fahrenheit) this affinity is not such as
that the water can give a liquid form to caoutchouc ; and
it does not appear that we have any thing to fear in prac¬
tice from a combination between these two bodies, which,
though it really is a true solution, does not take place in
any sensible degree but at a high temperature. It is
therefore at present easy to make of caoutchouc whatever
instruments it may be advantageous to have of a flexible,
supple, and elastic substance, which is impermeable to wa¬
ter at the temperature of our atmosphere, and resists the
action of acids as well as that of most other solvents. As
to the durability of these instruments, few substances pro¬
mise more than this, because it may be soldered afresh in
a damaged part. Any woven substance may be covered
with it; it is only required that the substance should be
of a nature not to be acted upon during the preparation,
either by ether or by boiling water ; for these two agents
are those which appear to me to merit the preference.
Artists will frequently find an advantage in employing
ether, as it requires less time; so that a person may make
in a single day any tube he may have occasion for. The
expense of ether is very little, since it is needful only to
dispose the caoutchouc to adhere ; and being brought into
that state, the caoutchouc may be kept in a vessel perfect¬
ly well closed. It would also diminish the expense of the
ether, if, instead of washing it with a large quantity of
water, there should be added to it only as much water as
it can take up.” (Annales de Chitnie, vol. xi. p. 149.)
A resin similar to this was some years ago discovered
by M. Poivre, in the Isle of France; and there are various
milky juices extracted from trees in America and else¬
where, which by previous mixtures and preparations are
formed into an elastic resin, but of an inferior quality to
that of Cayenne. Such, for instance, are the juices ob¬
tained from the Cecropia peltatu, the Ficus religiosa and
Indica, and from other trees.
Of the genuine trees, those growing along the banks of
the river of the Amazons are described by M. Condamine
as attaining a very great height, being at the same time
perfectly straight, and having no branches except at top,
which is but small, covering no more than a circumference
of ten feet. Its leaves bear some resemblance to those of
the manioc; they are green on the upper part, and white
beneath. The seeds are three in number, being contained
in a pod consisting of three cells, not unlike those of the
ricinus or palma Christi; and in each of these there is a
kernal, which being stripped and boiled in water, produces
a thick oil or fat, answering the purpose of butter in the
cookery of that country.
A method of dissolving this elastic gum without ether,
for the purposes of a varnish or the like, is as follows :
Take one pound of the spirit of turpentine, and a pound of
the gum cut into very small pieces; pour the turpentine
into a long-necked matrass, which must be placed in a
sand-bath; throw in the gum, not all at once, but by lit¬
tle and little, according as it is perceived to dissolve; when
it is entirely dissolved, pour into the matrass a pint of nut
or linseed oil, or oil of poppies, rendered desiccative in the
usual manner with litharge; then let the whole boil for a
quarter of an hour, and the preparation is finished. This
would make an excellent varnish for air balloons, were it
Caout¬
chouc.
108
Caout¬
chouc.
C A O
not so expensive on account of the price of the gum.
Another method, invented by Mr Baldwin, is as follows :
Take any quantity of the caoutchouc, as two ounces avon-
dupois; cut it into small bits with a pair of scissors. Put
a strong iron ladle, such as plumbers and glaziers me t
their lead in, over a common pit-coal or other fire. Ihe
fire must be gentle, glowing, and without smoke.. When
the ladle is hot, much below a red heat, put a single bit
into the ladle. If black smoke issues it will presently
flame and disappear, or it will evaporate without flame ;
the ladle is then too hot. When the ladle is less hot, put
in a second bit, which will produce a white smoke. I his
white smoke will continue during the operation, and eva¬
porate the caoutchouc ; therefore no time is to be lost, but
little bits are to be put in, a few at a time, till the whole
are melted. It should be continually and gently stirred
with an iron or brass spoon. Two pounds, or one quart,
of the best drying oil (or of raw linseed oil, which, to¬
gether with a few drops of neat’s foot oil, has stood a
month, or not so long, on a lump of quicklime, to make it
more or less drying) is to be put into the melted caout¬
chouc, and stirred till hot, and the whole poured into a
glazed vessel through a coarse gauze or fine sieve. When
settled and clear, which it will be in a few minutes, it is fit
for use, either hot or cold.
The Abbe Clavigero informs us, that the elastic gum is
called by the Mexicans Ollin or Dili, and by the Spa¬
niards of that kingdom Ule ; that it distils from the olqua-
huitl, which is a tree of moderate size, the trunk of which
is smooth and yellowish, the leaves pretty large, the flow¬
ers white, and the fruit yellow and rather round, but an¬
gular, and within which there are kernels as large as fil¬
berts, and white, but covered with a yellowish pellicle;
that the kernel has a bitter taste, and the fruit always
grows attached to the bark of the tree ; and that when the
trunk is cut, the ule which distils from it is white, liquid,
and viscous, but afterwards becomes yellow, and lastly of
a leaden colour, though rather blacker, which it always
retains. The tree, he adds, is very common in the king¬
dom of Guatimala,
Different trees, it would appear, yield the elastic gum.
Aublet, in his Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane (p. 871),
describes the tree, the fruit, and manner of collecting the
juice ; but he never saw the flower. He calls it, however,
Hevea Guianensis. In Jacquin’s America it is called
Echites Corymbosa. The younger Linnaeus, in his Sup-
plementum Plantarum (p. 422), names it Jatropha Elas-
tica; but acknowledges that he only gives it this name
from the structure of the fruit having most resemblance
to that genus, his dry species wanting the flowers.
CAP, a part of dress made to cover the head. The
origin of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449, the
first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of
Charles VII. into Rouen; but from that time they began
to take place of the hoods, or chaperoons, which had until
then been used. When the cap was of velvet they called
it mortier, when of wool simply bonnet. None but kings,
princes, and knights, were allowed the use of the mortier.
The cap was the head-dress of the clergy and graduates.
Pasquier says that it was anciently a part of the hood worn
by the people of the robe, the skirts of which being cut off
as an encumbrance, left the round cap an easy and com¬
modious cover for the head; which round cap being after¬
wards assumed by the people, those of the gown changed
it for a square one, first invented by a Frenchman called
Patrouillet. He adds, that the giving of the cap to the
students in the universities denoted that they had acquir¬
ed full liberty, and were no longer subject to the rod of
their superiors; in imitation of the ancient Romans, who
gave a. pileus or cap to their slaves, in the ceremony of
CAP
making them free; and hence the proverb, Vocare servos Cap 11
ad pileum. Hence, also, on medals, the cap is the symbol ||
of Liberty, whom they represent as holding in her right
hand a cap by the point. wy>-
The Romans were many ages without any regular co¬
vering for the head. When either the rain or sun proved
troublesome, the lappet of the gown was thrown over the
head; and hence it is that all the ancient statues appear
bareheaded, excepting sometimes a wreath or the like.
And the same usage obtained among the Greeks, at least
during the heroic age, when no caps were known. The
sort of caps or covers of the head in use among the Ro¬
mans, on divers occasions, were the pitra, pileus, cucullus,
galerus, and palliolum ; the differences between which are
often confounded by ancient as well as modern writers.
The French clergy wear a shallow kind of Cap called
calotte, which only covers the top of the head, and is made
of leather, satin, worsted, or other stuff*. The red cap is
a mark of dignity, allowed only to those who are raised to
the dignity of cardinal. The secular clergy are distinguish^
ed by black leathern caps, the regulars by knit and worst¬
ed ones.
Churchmen, and the members of universities, students
in law, physic, and others, as well as graduates, wear
square caps. In most universities doctors are distinguish¬
ed by peculiar caps, which are given them on assuming
their degree. WicklifF calls the canons of his time bifur-
cati, from their caps. Pasquier observes that in his time
the caps worn by the churchmen and others were called
square caps, though in effect they were round yellow caps.
The cap is sometimes used as a mark of infamy. In Ita¬
ly generally the Jews are distinguished by a yellow cap,
but at Lucca by an orange one. In France, those who
had been bankrupts were obliged ever after to wear a green
cap, to prevent people from being imposed on by them in
any future transaction. By several arrets in 1584, 1622,
1628, and 1688, it was decreed, that if they were at any
time found without their green cap, their protection should
be null, and their creditors empowered to cast them into
prison; but the sentence is not now executed.
Cap of Maintenance, one of the regalia, or ornaments of
state, belonging to the kings of England, before whom it
was carried at the coronation and other great solemnities.
Caps of maintenance are also carried before the mayors of
the several cities in England.
Cap and Button Isles, two small islands in the Straits
of Sunda, which are supposed to be of volcanic origin.
They are round in their figure, and their sides are steep
and have a naked appearance. One of them, the Cap, is
penetrated by two large caverns running horizontally into
the rock, which are famous for producing the edible bird-
nests so highly prized by the Chinese, and which consti¬
tute a great article of traffic. Long. 105. 48. E. Lat. 5.
49. S. ■
CAPACITY, in a general sense, an aptitude or dispo¬
sition to hold or retain any thing.
Capacity, in Geometry, is the solid contents of any
body; also our hollow measures for wine, bear, corn, salt,
&c. are called measures of capacity.
CAPALUAN, one of the smaller Philippine Islands,
fourteen miles in length by five in average breadth. It
lies about four miles south of the island of Luzon. Long.
121. 48. E. Lat. 13. 50. N.
CAPARASON, or Caparison, the covering or cloth¬
ing laid over a horse, especially a sumpter horse, or horse
of state. The word is Spanish, caparazon, being probably
an augmentative of capa, a cloak. Anciently the capara-
sons were a kind of iron armour, wherewith horses were
covered in battle.
CAPE, a high land running out with a point into the
CAP
CAP
109
sea, as Cape Nord, Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope,
&c.
Cape Breton. See Breton.
Cape Coast Castle. See Coast.
Cape of Good Hope. See Good Hope.
Cape Verd. See Verd.
CAPELL, Edward, a gentleman well known by his
indefatigable attention to the works of Shakspeare, was a
native of the county of Suffolk, and received his education
at the school of St Edmund's Bury. In the dedication
of his edition of Shakspeare, in 1768, to the Dt[ke of
Grafton, he observes that “ his father and the grand¬
father of his grace were friends, and to the patronage of
the deceased nobleman he owed the leisure which ena¬
bled him to bestow the attention of twenty years on that
work.’' The office which his grace bestowed on Mr Capell
was that of deputy-inspector of the plays, to which a sa¬
lary was annexed of L.200 a year. As early as the year
1745, Mr Capell, shocked at the licentiousness of Han-
mer’s plan, first projected an edition of Shakspeare, of the
strictest accuracy, to be collated and published in due
time, ex fide codicurn. Accordingly, he proceeded to col¬
lect and compare the oldest and scarcest copies, noting
the original excellencies and defects of the rarest quartos,
and distinguishing the improvements or variations of the
first, second, and third folios ; and after many years labour
produced a very beautiful small octavo in ten volumes,
with an “ Introduction.” There is not, as the authors of a
monthly periodical have observed, a more singular literary
composition than that “ Introduction.” In style and man¬
ner it is more obsolete and antique than the age of which
he treats. It is Lord Herbert of Cherbury walking the new
pavement in all the trappings of romance; but, like Lord
Herbert, it displays many valuable qualities accompanying
this air of extravagance, much sound sense, and appropriate
erudition. In the title-page of “ Mr William Shakspeare,
his Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies,” it was announced
“ Whereunto will be added, in some other volumes, notes
critical and explanatory, and a body of various readings
entire.” “ The Introduction” likewise declared that these
“ notes and various i-eadings” would be accompanied with
another work, disclosing the sources from which Shak¬
speare “ drew the greater part of his knowledge in mytho¬
logical and classical matters, his fable, his history, and
even the seeming peculiarities of his language, to which,”
says Mr Capell, “ we have given for title, The School of
Shakspeare.” Nothing surely could be more properly
conceived than such designs; nor have we ever met with
any thing better grounded on the subject of “ the learning
of Shakspeare,” than what may be found in the long note
to this part of Mr Capell’s Introduction. It is more solid
than even the popular “ Essay” on this topic. Certain
quaintnesses of style, and peculiarities of printing and
punctuation, attended the whole of this publication. The
outline, however, was correct; and the critic, with unre¬
mitting toil, succeeded in his undertaking. But while he
was diving into the classics of Caxton, and working his way
under ground, like the river Mole, in order to emerge in all
his glory,—while he was looking forward to his triumphs,
—certain other active spirits went to work upon his plan,
and, digging out the promised treasures, laid them prema¬
turely before the public, defeating the effect of our critic’s
discoveries by anticipation. Steevens, Malone, Farmer,
Percy, Reed, and a whole host of literary ferrets, burrow¬
ed into every hole and corner of the warren of modern an¬
tiquity, and overran all the country, whose map had been
delineated by Edward Capell. Such a contingency nearly
staggered the steady and unshaken perseverance of our
critic on the very eve of the completion of his labours ; and,
as his editor informs us—for, unhappily, at the end of near
forty years the publication was posthumous, and the critic Capella
himself no more—he was almost determined to lay the II
work wholly aside. By the encouragement of some noble Caperolans.
and worthy persons, however, he persevered; and to such
their encouragement, and his perseverance, the public
was, in 1783, indebted for three large volumes in 4to, un¬
der the title of “ Notes and various readings of Shak¬
speare ; together with the School of Shakspeare, or Ex¬
tracts from divers English Books that were in print in the
Author’s time ; evidently showing from whence his several
Fables were taken, and some parcel of his Dialogue. Also
farther extracts, which contribute to a due understanding
of his Writings, or give a light to the History of his Life,
or to the Dramatic History of his Time. By Edward
Capell.” Besides the works already mentioned, Mr Capell
was the editor of a volume of ancient poems called “ Pro¬
lusions and the alteration of “ Anthony and Cleopatra,”
as acted at Drury Lane in 1758. He died on the 24th
January 1781.
CAPELLA, in Astronomy, a bright fixed star in the
left shoulder of the constellation Auriga.
CAPELLUS, Lewis, an eminent French Protestant
divine, born at Sedan in Champagne about the year 1579.
He was the author of some learned works, but is chiefly
known from the controversy he engaged in with the
younger Buxtorf concerning the antiquity of the Hebrew
points or Masora, which Capellus undertook to disprove.
His Critica Sacra was also an elaborate work, and excited
some disputes. He died in 1658, having made an abridg¬
ment of his life in his work De Gente Capellori.
CAPERNAUM, a city celebrated in the Gospels, being
the place where Jesus usually resided during the time of
his ministry. This city is nowhere mentioned in the Old
Testament under this or any other name like it; and
therefore it is not improbable that it was one of those
towns which the Jews built after their return from the
Babylonish captivity. It stood on the sea-coast, that is, on
the coast of the sea of Galilee, on the borders of Zebulon
and Naphtalim (Matt. iv. 15), and consequently towards
the upper part thereof. It took its name no doubt from
an adjacent spring, of great repute for its clear and limpid
water, and which, according to Josephus, was by the na¬
tives called Capernaum. As this spring might be some
inducement to the building of the town in the place where
it stood, so its being a convenient place of transport from
Galilee to any part on the other side of the sea might be
some motive to our Lord for his moving from Nazareth,
and making this the place of his most constant residence.
Upon this account Capernaum was highly honoured, and
said by our Lord himself to be “ exalted unto heaven
but because it made no right use of this signal favour, it
drew from him the severe denunciation, that it should “ be
brought down to hell” (Matt. xi. 23), which has certainly
been verified; for, as Dr Wells observes, so far is it from
being the metropolis of all Galilee, as it once was, that it
consisted long since of no more than six poor fishermen’s
huts, and may perhaps be now totally desolate.
CAPEROLANS, a congregation of religious in Italy,
so called from Peter Caperole their founder, in the 15th
century.
The Milanese and Venetians being at war, the enmity
thereby occasioned spread itself to the very cloisters. The
superiors of minor brothers in the province of Milan,
which extended itself as far as the territories of the re¬
public of Venice, carried it so haughtily over the Vene¬
tians, that those of the convent of Brescia resolved to
shake off a yoke which had grown insupportable to them.
The superiors, informed of this, drove out of the province
those whom they considered as the authors of this de¬
sign, the principal of whom were Peter Caperole, Mat-
110 CAP
Caph thew de Tharvillo, and Bonaventure of Brescia. Peter
il Caperole, a man of an enterprising genius, found means to
Capillaiy separate the convents of Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona,
Ait.on. ^ province of Milan, and subject them to the con-
' ventuals. This occasioned a law-suit between the vicai-
general and these convents, which was determined in
favour of the latter; and the convents, in 1475, by the
authority of Pope Sextus IY., were erected into a distinct
vicarate, under the title of that of Brescia. But this not
satisfying the ambition of Caperole, he obtained, by the in¬
terposition of the doge of Venice, that this vicarate might
be erected into a congregation, which from him was called
Caperolans. This congregation still supsists in Italy, and
is composed of twenty-four convents, situated in Ciescia,
Bergamo, and Cremasco.
CAPH, a Jewish measure of capacity for things, esti¬
mated by Komchi at the thirtieth part of the log, by Ar-
buthnot at the sixteenth part of the hin or thirty-second
of the seah, amounting to five eighths of an English pint.
The caph does not occur in Scripture as the name of any
measure.
CAPHTOR, in Ancient Geography, a town or district
of Upper Egypt; and hence the people called Caphtorim
or Caphtorei.
CAPI-Aga, or Capi-Agassi, a Turkish officer who is
governor of the gates of the seraglio, or grand master of
the seraglio. The capi-aga is the first dignity among the
white eunuchs ; he is always near the person of the grand
signior; he introduces ambassadors to public audiences;
and nobody enters or goes out of the grand signior’s apart¬
ment but by his means. His office gives him the.privilege
of wearing the turban in the seraglio, and of going every¬
where on horseback. He accompanies the grand signior
to the apartment of the sultanas, but stops at the door
without entering. His appointment is very moderate:
the grand signior bears the expense of his table, and al¬
lows him at the rate of about sixty French livres per day;
but his office brings him abundance of presents, no affair
of consequence coming to the emperor’s knowledge with-
CAP
out passing through his hand. The capi-aga cannot be- Capias
come pasha when he quits his post. II
CAPIAS, in Law, a writ of two sorts ; one before judg- ^pillan
ment in an action, and the other after. That before judg-
ment is called capias ad respondendum, where an original
is issued out, to take the defendant, and make him answer
the plaintiff. That after judgment is of divers kinds ; as,
Capias ad Satisfaciendum, a writ of execution, that
issues on a judgment obtained, and lies where any person
recovers in a personal action, as for debt, damages, and
the like ; in which cases this writ issues to the sheriff,
commanding him to take the body of him against whom
the debt is recovered, who is to be kept in prison till he
makes satisfaction.
Capias pro Fine is a writ lying where a person is fined
to the king, for some offence committed against a statute,
and he does not discharge the fine according to the judg¬
ment ; therefore his body shall be taken by this writ, and
committed to jail till the fine be paid.
Capias ut Legatum, a writ which lies against any one out¬
lawed, upon any action personal or criminal, by which the
sheriff is ordered to apprehend the party outlawed, for not
appearing on the exigent, and keep him in safe custody
till the day of return, when he is ordered to present him
to the court, to be there further ordered for his contempt.
Capias in Withernam, a writ that lies for cattle in wi¬
thernam ; that is, where a distress taken is driven out of
the county, so that the sheriff cannot make deliverance
upon a replevin; then this writ issues, commanding the
sheriff to take as many beasts of the distrainer, &c.
CAPIGI, or Capidji, a porter or door-keeper of the
Turkish seraglio. The word, in its original, signifies gate.
CAPILL AMENT, in a general sense, signifies a hair;
and hence the word is applied to several things which,
on account of their length or their fineness, resemble
hairs; as,
CAPILLARY, in a general sense, an appellation given
to things on account of their extreme fineness, or resem¬
bling hair.
i
i
CAPILLARY ACTION.
1. When a solid body is partially plunged in a fluid, the
level surface near it is disturbed, and the fluid is observ¬
ed either to ascend or descend, so as to form a ring round
the part immersed. If a tube of glass be inserted in a
vessel containing water, the liquid will rise in a concave
ring, both on the outside and the inside; and if the tube
be small enough, the cylinder of water within it will be
elevated above the general level, and the elevation will
be greater nearly in the same proportion that the bore is
less. On the other hand, if the tube be plunged in mer¬
cury, the fluid in contact with the glass will be depressed,
forming a hollow ring with the convexity upward; and
when the diameter is very small, the cylinder of mercury
in the inside will sink below the level on the outside. In
all these appearances the physical cause is the same, and
it has received the name of Capillary Action, because its
effects are most remarkable in the case of tubes with ex¬
tremely minute diameters.
No part of natural philosophy has been the subject of
a greater variety of researches than capillary action. It
has been viewed in almost every possible light, and it
would be difficult to suggest a new principle that has not
been proposed by some philosopher in order to account
for the observed appearances. One advantage has result¬
ed from repeated discussion ; for by this means the true
cause of the phenomena is no longer doubtful, although
there is still considerable difference of opinion with regard
to the manner in which the effects are produced. It is
now universally allowed, that the suspension of fluids in
capillary tubes is to be ascribed to the attraction observed
to take place between the elementary particles of which
bodies are composed. We shall not stop to detail the dif¬
ferent experiments which prove the reality of this attrac¬
tive force, and we shall at once assume that the two fol¬
lowing facts, which are the fundamental principles of this
theory, are fully established; namely, that glass and other
solid bodies attract the particles of fluids with which they
are in contact, and that the particles of fluids attract
one another. Admitting these two kinds of attraction, it
remains to investigate the consequences that flow from
them.
2. Corpuscular attraction acts with great intensity in Law 0f (
contact, or at the nearest distances, but it decreases very corpusculf j
rapidly as the distance increases, and, on the whole, is con-attraction „
fined within a very small range. Clairaut supposed that
the sides of a capillary tube extend their action to the
central parts of the contained cylinder of fluid. But in
this opinion he is singular. All other philosophers confine
the sphere of attraction within much narrower limits.
They suppose that the corpuscular force has produced its
full effect, and has become evanescent, at a distance so
small that it cannot be appreciated by the senses. But
CAPILLAR
( illary from this we are not to conclude that a particle attracts
;ion. those only which are quite contiguous to it; its action, al-
„Lyw' though confined within a sphere of a very small radius,
nevertheless extends to some distance, and reaches to the
particles beyond the nearest.
As corpuscular attraction extends its influence to a dis¬
tance, it must vary, within the sphere of its action, ac¬
cording to some law, which is unknown, and in all proba¬
bility will never be discovered. But a knowledge of this
law is not necessary to explain the capillary phenomena;
for these are caused by the accumulated action of the
force in its whole range, and are independent of the inter¬
mediate variations of intensity which it may undergo. In
this respect capillary action resembles the attraction by
which transparent bodies refract the rays of light. In both
cases, what we observe is the total effect of the attractive
energy, which may remain the same, although the inter¬
mediate degrees of intensity be infinitely varied.
A -action 3. Conceive a fluid mass (Plate CXLV. fig. 1), the par-
0- fluid tides of which attract one another, but which is subjected
n 5 on its to the action of no other forces, not even to that of gra-
o parti- yity; and let an imaginary surface be traced through the
c^' fluid, having at every part a depth equal to the utmost
range of the corpuscular force. Then a particle placed
within the imaginary surface may be considered as occu¬
pying the centre of a sphere of the fluid, described with a
radius equal to the greatest distance to which attraction
reaches; whence it is manifest that the particle will be
urged with equal forces in all opposite directions. If the
particle be placed between the boundaries of the super¬
ficial stratum or film, the sphere of which it is the centre
will extend above the fluid’s surface; and, on account of
the defect of matter, the particle will be less attracted
outward than inward. Let N be a particle so situated,
and suppose that n is another particle as much elevated
above the fluid’s surface as N is immersed below it; and
trace the surface PQ in the fluid as far below N as that
particle itself is below the outer boundary of the fluid
mass. Then the particle N will be in equilibrium with
regard to the attraction of all the fluid above PQ; but it
will be urged inward by the force with which it is attract¬
ed by the fluid below PQ; and as the particles at N and
n are similarly situated with regard to the wdiole fluid
mass, and the part of it below the surface PQ, it is mani¬
fest that the attraction of the whole mass upon the particle
at n is equal to the force which urges the particle at N in¬
ward. From this it follows, that all particles placed in a
stratum which is everywhere at the same depth below
the fluid’s surface, are drawn inward with the same force,
equal to that with which the whole mass attracts a par¬
ticle placed at an equal height above the fluid’s surface.
If now we conceive a canal passing through the interior
of the fluid, and terminating both ways in the surface, it
follows, from what has been said, that the attraction of the
whole mass upon the superficial drops placed at the two
orifices will propagate equal pressures in opposite direc¬
tions through the canal. In order to estimate the force
of compression, we may denote by K the pressure in¬
ward, caused by the attraction of the whole fluid upon a
square inch of the superficial film; then a portion of the
fluid within the canal will be compressed by the equal
forces, K, acting in opposite directions. This is true of
all portions of the fluid within the superficial stratum;
between the boundaries of that stratum the compressive
force is less, being always of the same intensity at the
same depth, but decreasing rapidly in approaching the
surface, where it is evanescent.
We may now conceive a fluid mass, whatever be its
figure, to consist of a central part, surrounded by an inde¬
finite number of thin beds or strata, placed at equal depths
Y ACTION. Ill
below the surface ; and it will follow, from what has been Capillary
proved, that the compression is constant in all the central Action,
part; and likewise that it is uniformly of the same inten-
sity throughout every superficial stratum, varying from
one stratum to another, and decreasing very rapidly near
the surface. Such a body of fluid will therefore be in
equilibrium whatever be its figure; in other words, the
corpuscular attraction will oppose no resistance to a
change of figure in the fluid, nor obstruct, in any degree,
the perfect mobility of the particles among one another.
It must be observed, however, that the conclusion just
obtained is exact only when wre confine our attention to
the direct action of the attractive forces, as is done in the
theory of the figure of the earth. But there is another ef¬
fect caused by the direct attraction of the particles of a
fluid, to be afterwards considered, which takes place only
at the surface, and from which this consequence results,
that a body of fluid subjected to no forces but the attrac¬
tion of its own particles will no longer be indifferent to
any figure, but will arrange itself in a perfect sphere.
A change in the temperature of a fluid mass will pro- Effect of
duce an alteration in the cohesive force; but it appears tempera-
very difficult, if not impossible, to estimate,- in any satis-ture-
factory manner, the effect arising from this cause.
A variation of temperature will affect the attraction of
the particles of a fluid by the change of density which it
induces. When two portions of a fluid attract one another,
if we conceive one of them to have its density changed,
while that of the other remains unaltered, it is evident
that their cohesion will be proportional to the number of
particles of the first portion placed within the sphere of
action of the second ; that is, it will vary in the direct
proportion of the density. Again, if we now suppose the
density of the second portion to vary, the attractive force
will on this account also suffer a proportional change.
Wherefore, when both portions undergo an equal change
of temperature, their cohesion will vary as the square of
the density.
Again, the variations in the mutual distances of the
particles of a fluid, caused by changes of temperature,
must bear a finite proportion to the range of the corpus¬
cular force ; and, on this account, a change in the fluid’s
cohesion will take place, depending upon the law that at¬
traction follows in regard to the distance. At a given
temperature, and under a given pressure, the particles
are separated from one another to a certain distance, at
which there is an equilibrium between the attractive force
which impels them to one another, and the repulsive power
attending the action of heat. In these circumstances, the
actual cohesion is due to that part only of the whole cor¬
puscular force which is exerted upon the particles placed
beyond the limit of approach allowed by the given degree
of temperature. The cohesion, too, is diminished not only
by the decreased intensity of the attractive force, but also
by the increased repulsion of heat. Our ignorance of the
laws that regulate the action of these forces makes it im¬
possible to subject to calculation the effect of a change of
temperature ; but, when we consider that corpuscular at¬
traction decreases very rapidly as the distance increases,
it is extremely probable that the cohesion of a fluid un¬
dergoes much greater changes from this cause than from
the variations of density.
But capillary action arises from the cohesion between
the particles of a fluid, and the attraction that takes place
between them and the solid bodies with which they are
brought into contact. Experiments show that these forces
continue to act so long as the state of fluidity endures ;
their action is constant under the same temperature; and
they are affected in degree only by the variations of heat.
In the further prosecution of this inquiry we shall there-
U2 CAPILLAR
Capillary fore throw out of view the effect of temperature, and shall
Action' confine our attention to develope the consequences ot
corpuscular attraction. .
Attraction 4. The attraction of a solid body on every particle ot
between a a fluid within the sphere ot its action, is a torce peipendi-
solid body cu]ar to the surface of the solid. This is manifest from
and a fluid. the homogeneity of the solid when its surface is a plane ;
for, on account of the uniform arrangement of the parts,
there is no reason why the attractive force should decline
from the perpendicular to one side rather than to another.
And when the solid is bounded by a curve of any kind,
we may still consider the extremely small part of the sur¬
face which acts on a particle, as coinciding with the tan¬
gent plane; whence we may conclude thdt, in all cases,
the attraction on every particle is perpendicular to the
surface of the attracting body. The same thing is true in
the action of transparent bodies on light; for, if the mo¬
tion of a ray be decomposed into two parts, one parallel to
the refracting surface, and the other perpendicular to it,
the observed law of refraction implies that the velocity of
the first part will remain unchanged, while the velocity of
the other part will be increased or diminished by the re¬
fracting force.
If a smooth plate of glass be laid horizontally upon the
surface of water, it is found that the glass will adhere to
the water. The adhesion is not produced by the pressure
of the atmosphere, for the fact is equally true in the va¬
cuum of an air-pump. There is, therefore, evidently an
attraction between the glass and the water, acting per¬
pendicularly to the plate, and causing it to adhere to the
water.
If the plate, instead of being laid horizontally upon the
water, be immersed vertically in it, the part below the sur¬
face will exert the same attractions as it did in the former
position. Every particle of the fluid within the sphere of
action of the glass will be drawn perpendicularly towards
it, and a thin coating of the fluid will attach itself to all
the immersed surface of the plate.
Secondary 5. Although the attractive force exerted by a solid
or lateral body on a fluid is confined to insensible distances, it must
force. st;i) be considered as penetrating in some degree into the
fluid mass. The thin film on which it acts retains posses¬
sion of all the properties of a fluid. The particles of water
in contact with the glass press upon its surface ; the par¬
ticles farther off press upon those nearer; and the whole
film is in a state of compression. But it is a distinguish¬
ing property of a fluid, arising from the perfect mobility
of its particles, that a pressure in one direction will cause
an equal pressure in all directions ; and hence we must in¬
fer that the thin film of water, at the same time that it is
compressed by the direct attraction of the glass, will like¬
wise press laterally, or will make an effort to spread itself
towards every side on the surface of the plate. If the
film, instead of being attracted by the plate, were pressed
against its surface by a weight, the lateral pressure, esti¬
mated on a given superficial space, would be the same
with the direct pressure. But as the strata at different
distances from the plate are attracted in unequal degrees,
the whole lateral force can be found only by summing up
the lateral pressures arising from the attraction upon each
stratum.
Let AB (fig. 2) be a plate of glass on which there
stands an upright vessel or tube, containing water; and
let GH be a thin section or elementary part of the water
within the tube, parallel to the glass, and so near it as to
be attracted by it. Suppose that w denotes the area of
the section, a its distance from the plate, and da its thick¬
ness ; and let Y (a) represent the attraction of the whole
matter of the plate upon a single particle of water placed
at the distance a. Then the density being constant and
Y ACTION.
equal to unit, the attractive force of the plate upon the CapiU*
thin elementary section will be equal to Action
Y(a) X wda ;
and hence the attraction of the plate upon all the water
in the tube will be equal to the integral
w X\jY(ayda,
generated while a increases from 0 to be infinitely great.
The expression J Y(a)-da, which we may denote by K',
is therefore the force with which the attraction of the
glass causes the fluid to press upon a square inch of the
plate, or it is the measure of that force. If the particles
of the fluid were attracted by the matter of the plate
with an intensity equal to their own cohesive force, then
K' would be equal to K, that is, it would be equal to the
force with which an indefinite mass of the fluid causes the
superficial stratum to press inward.
In the inside periphery of the tube, assume any deter¬
minate length ab, equal to A, and let the lines ac, bd, be
drawn in the interior surface at right angles to ab. The
area of the space abdc is equal to A X « ; and because fluids
press equally in all directions, the attraction which urges
the elementary section towards the plate AB will cause
the fluid below the section to press upon the space abdc
with a force which is to the attractive force urging the
section downward, as A X « to the area ot the section.
Hence the pressure on the space abdc, caused by the
attraction of the glass on the elementary section GH, is
equal to
A X Y(a)'ada.
This expression would evidently denote the pressure upon
the surface abdc, if the fluid below the section were im¬
pelled towards the plate by a piston exactly fitted to the
orifice of the tube. But there is no difference between
the action of such a piston and that of the thin elemen¬
tary section when urged by attraction with equal force in
the same direction. The total force acting laterally in the
length A, is therefore equal to the fluent
A X J\(a)'ada,
generated while a increases from 0 to be infinitely great.
Hence, if we put IT =J'Y(a)'ada ; then H' will be the
measure of the lateral force in the length equal to unit.
It is obvious that the direct attraction between two
portions of a fluid, as well as that between a solid and
a fluid, is attended with a lateral pressure. It we de¬
note by H what IT becomes when the matter of the plate
attracts the fluid with the same intensity that the fluid
attracts its own particles, then H will be the measure ot
the lateral force arising from the direct attraction of the
fluid, and it will have the same relation to K that H' has
to K'.
The lateral force is always very small when compared
with the direct pressure. For the function Y(a) has a
conceivable value oqly when a is so small as to be imper¬
ceptible to the senses ; in such circumstances the product
Y(a) X a is very small when compared with Y(a) ; and,
consequently, '¥(a)ada is considerable in respect of
K'=/f (a)'da.
The smallness of the lateral in comparison of the direct
pressure arises from this, that every elementary part of
the latter is estimated on the same finite area, while the
simultaneous element of the former is confined to a space
incomparably less. These two pressures resemble the
power in the hydrostatic paradox, and the effect which it
produces. In both cases we have a small pressure applied
CAPILLARY ACTION.
113
: Hlary
. ion.
er in
the
mn sion
f a
tod
lid
lis-
url the
to a surface extremely minute, in equilibrium with a great
pressure distributed over a comparatively large area.
When a piece of glass is partially plunged in water in a
vertical direction, the thin film which is attracted by the
immersed surface endeavours to spread itself on the glass
with an effort more or less in proportion to the compres¬
sive force. Below the surface of the water the lateral ac¬
tions of the parts in contact mutually counteract one ano¬
ther ; but at the surface the expansive force meets with
no opposition. The film will therefore be pushed above
the general level; and as it acts by cohesion on the conti¬
guous fluid, it will draw up a portion of it, and form a ring
surrounding the immersed part of the glass. The small
fluid mass on which the glass exerts its attraction per¬
forms the office of a machine, which changes a horizontal
force into one having a vertical direction. In the mecha¬
nical properties of a fluid we thus have a principle ade¬
quate to account for what we observe in capillary action.
But although the general view here given of the cause of
the capillary phenomena is so far satisfactory, a great deal
of discussion is still necessary, in order to deduce from
it a clear explanation of the laws observed in the appear¬
ances that take place in different circumstances.
The idea of accounting for capillary action by means of
the lateral force produced by the direct attraction of a
solid body upon a fluid, is due to Professor Leslie, a phi¬
losopher to whom physical science is indebted for more
than one discovery. It is developed and applied, to ex¬
plain some of the principal phenomena, in a short disser¬
tation published in 1802 in the Philosophical Magazine.
This dissertation is written with the same ability that cha¬
racterizes all the productions of the author; and nothing
more was necessary than to pursue the observation he
had made, in order to obtain a complete theory of this
branch of natural philosophy. It happens that, in this
instance, the views of the philosopher are confirmed by
the most abstruse and refined mathematical investigation.
The formula found by Laplace for the attractive force of
a fluid bounded by a curve surface, consists of two parts,
one of which is the same for all surfaces, and the other varies
with the curvature in each particular case. The first of
these terms is the attractive force of an indefinite mass of
the fluid bounded by a plane. The other term, which
depends upon the curvature, is composed of a constant
quantity multiplied into half the sum of the reciprocals
of the radii of the circles, which have the same curvature
with any two sections of the curve surface made by
planes, perpendicular to one another and to the curve
surface; and, on examination, this constant quantity will
be found to coincide with the measure of the lateral ten¬
dency of the fluid caused by the direct action of the first
force. Thus it appears that the two quantities which
enter into the formula of Laplace are no other than the
measures of the two kinds of force which we have been
considering; the one denoting the direct pressure caused
by the attraction of a fluid mass bounded by a plane, and
the other signifying the derivative force acting laterally,
which is a necessary consequence of the direct pressure.
In a subsequent part of this article, what has now been
advanced will be proved, by deducing the formula of La¬
place in a direct and satisfactory manner from the two
kinds of force, with the consideration of which we have
been occupied.
6. Imagine a large vessel D G H F (fig. 3), which con¬
tains a fluid subjected to no forces but gravity and the at¬
traction of its own particles, and consequently having its
surface DF horizontal; let AB represent a rectangular
plate partially plunged in the fluid which it attracts; and
supposing the surface of the fluid to remain level, let it
be proposed to investigate the force with which the at-
VOL. VI.
traction of the plate tends to disturb the equilibrium of Capillary
the fluid. Action.
Suppose a horizontal plane, df, to be traced in the fluid,
at a depth equal to the range of the corpuscular force;
then this plane will separate all the superficial strata, in
which the pressure is variable, from the rest of the mass.
Below the plane df the fluid particles cohere with the
same force in every part, and they are likewise attracted
with equal intensity by all the points of the plate with
which they are in contact; above the same plane the at¬
tractive force of the plate remains unchanged, but the
pressure of the fluid in the different strata is variable,
gradually becoming less and less as we approach the sur¬
face. It wall therefore be proper, first to examine what
tendency the part of the plate below the plane d f has
to disturb the equilibrium; and, secondly, to consider the
effect of the plate’s attraction upon the superficial film or
stratum.
If the matter of the plate have the same attraction for
the particles of the fluid that they have for one another,
we may consider the plate as a body of the fluid that has
congealed without any other change; in which case it is
evident that, below the superficial stratum, the cohesive
force of the fluid particles will be equal to their adhesion
to the plate, and the action of the solid matter will nowise
disturb the equilibrium of the fluid in the vessel.
If the plate be supposed to have no attraction for the
fluid, a canal having one end in the surface of the fluid,
and the other end on the plate, will be similar to a canal
terminating both ways in the fluid’s surface. It will be
in equilibrium by the mutual attractions of the particles
within it, and will exert no pressure whatever upon the
plate.
If the solid matter attract the particles of the fluid, but
with less intensity than they attract one another, there
will be an adhesion of the fluid to the plate in proportion
to the attractive force. In this case we may distinguish
the attraction between the fluid particles into two parts,
one of which is equal to and in equilibrium with the at¬
traction of solid matter; while the other part, which is
over and above what balances the attraction of the solid
matter, is in equilibrium by the mutual action of the par¬
ticles upon one another.
The solid matter acts immediately upon a thin portion
of the fluid in contact with it; that portion attracts ano¬
ther contiguous portion; and in this manner the attrac¬
tion of the plate reaches to any distance in the fluid mass.
But from this it is manifest that the whole of a force
greater than the mutual attraction of the particles cannot
be propagated to a distance. Part of it must remain con¬
fined to the sphere of immediate action. Hence, if the
plate attract the particles of the fluid with greater inten¬
sity than they attract one another, a part only of the at¬
traction of the solid matter will balance the whole attrac¬
tion of the fluid ; and the remaining part will not penetrate
beyond the range of the corpuscular force, but will act
only upon a thin film of the fluid in contact with the plate.
In this case, therefore, the plate’s attraction produces a
force which is not absorbed by the fluid. As this force
compresses the thin film on which it acts upon the plate’s
surface, it will be attended with a lateral pressure, or an
effort of the film to spread itself on all sides; and it may
at first be thought that this lateral tendency, by acting
upon the superficial stratum, will disturb the equilibrium.
But it will immediately occur, that the effort which the
edge of the film adhering to the plate below the plane df
makes to raise up the superficial stratum, is counteracted
by the opposite effort of the fluid situated immediately
above the plane df Thus, in every relation that can sub¬
sist between the attractive powers of the plate and the
p
114
Capillary
Action.
Insuffi¬
ciency of
Laplace’s
second the
ory of ca¬
pillary ac¬
tion.
CAPILLARY ACTION.
fluid, that part of the solid which is immersed below the
superficial stratum has no tendency to disturb the equili¬
brium of the fluid in the vessel.
Some philosophers account for capillary action by means
of attractions between the plate and the fluid, which are
supposed to take place, partly at the surface of the fluid,
"and partly at the bottom of the plate. Laplace, in parti¬
cular, has grounded his second or more popular theory
entirely on such attractions. He observes, that the part
of the plate’s vertical plane immersed in the water attracts
the fluid in contact with it as much upward as downward,
and therefore has no effect in causing either-an elevation
or a depression; but the part above the water attracts a
thin film in contact with the plate upward ; and the whole
vertical side of the plate likewise attracts in the same
direction the fluid below it, and situated in its prolonga¬
tion. According to Laplace, it is the united effect of these
two attractions which supports the suspended ring. Ihe
whole of this reasoning appears to us gratuitous. JNo
part of the fluid is attracted by the solid matter in a ver¬
tical direction, but in a direction perpendicular to the
plate’s surface. The immersed part of the solid presents
a continuous surface to the fluid, attracting it with the
same intensity at every point; whereas Laplace neglects
the action of the plate’s horizontal boundary, and seems
to suppose that the attractive energy of the solid matter
resides only in the vertical sides. We have endeavoured
to prove that the thin film or coating of fluid which covers
the part of the solid immersed below the superficial stra¬
tum, is everywhere in a state of equilibrium and of equal
compression by the attractions which act upon it. Ihere
is, therefore, no force produced at the bottom of the plate
by the attraction between the solid matter and the parti¬
cles of the fluid which can contribute to support the
weight of the ring raised above the level
We proceed now to consider the action of the plate
upon the superficial stratum. Trace a canal at right an¬
gles to the plate, of the same depth with the superficial
film, and having its horizontal width equal to unit, and
continue the canal till it terminate in a vertical plane PS,
parallel to the plate. Let 11 be the small portion of the
canal within the sphere of the plate s attraction, and sup¬
pose the canal to be divided in its whole length into the
parallelepipeds m,m, m, &c., each equal to n. It is plain that
the attractions of the fluid below the canal, and on the
two sides of it, have no tendency to impel it in any direc¬
tion, nor to impede the motion of the fluid along it. fhe
canal is also in equilibrium with regard to gravity, since
by the hypothesis it is horizontal. The rectangular wedge
of fluid beyond the plane PS will attract the small paral¬
lelepiped contiguous to it with a force proportional to ^K,
because K denotes the attractive force of two rectangular
wedges, sect. 5 ; and the same parallelepiped will also be
attracted with an equal force in the opposite direction by
the one next to it. In like manner, every parallelopiped
in the canal is attracted with equal forces by those conti¬
guous to it on opposite sides, except the one in contact
with the plate, which is attracted in the direction of the
canal with the force |K, and towards the plate with the
force K', depending upon the intensity of the plate’s at¬
traction for the fluid.
Now, if K' be just equal to ^K, which will happen when
the intensity of the plate’s attraction is half that of the
fluid, the parallelepiped n will be situated, with regard to
the forces that act upon it, similarly to the others in the
canal; in this case, therefore, the insertion of the plate
will not disturb the equilibrium of the fluid, the surface of
which will remain horizontal.
If K' be greater than ^K, it may be resolved into two
parts, + (K' — ^K), of which one will counterbalance
the opposite force, and reduce the canal to equilibrium; Cap®
and the other part, K' = |K, will act only upon the paral- Actic
lelopiped n, and will compress it upon the surface of the
plate. The compression will produce a lateral force pro¬
portional to H' — ^H, which urges the small fluid mass to
spread itself towards every side; and as this force is un¬
opposed vertically upward, the equilibrium of the fluid
will be disturbed; the superficial film will ascend all round
the plate, and, by means of the force of cohesion, will
carry with it a portion of the fluid till the suspended
weight is sufficient to counterbalance the force acting
upward. .
When K' is less than LK, the parallelepiped in contact
with the plate will be more attracted in the direction of
the canal than towards the plate. When this happens
the fluid is depressed below the level by capillary action;
but we shall leave this case to be afterwards considered,
and at present confine our attention to the former case,
when the fluid is elevated above the level.
7. When the immersion of the plate causes an eleva-Ring
tion, the fluid will assume the form of a concave ring, as the suit
KLM (fig. 4). If we suppose a superficial canal divided”^Sl;
into parallelepipeds as before, we may prove by like rea-^/.,"
soning that the attraction of the solid matter has no ten-fl^j
dency to disturb the equilibrium of the fluid except by
the lateral force which it communicates to the small pa¬
rallelepiped in contact with it. And since the attractive
force of the plate upon the particles of the fluid depends
only upon their perpendicular distance from its surface,
it readily follows that the lateral force will undergo no
variation, but will remain constantly equal to IT — |H,
both during the rising of the ring, and when it has at¬
tained the greatest elevation. The reciprocal attrac¬
tion of all the fluid in the vessel likewise produces pres¬
sures that are propagated inward from the surface of the
fluid, and from the sides and bottom of the vessel, sect.
3; but these forces cannot be in equilibrium with the
ring and the disturbing force arising from the plate’s at¬
traction. For the former forces have no tendency to
move the centre of gravity of the whole mass, whereas
the latter tend to produce motion in that point, each in
its own direction. In the case of equilibrium, therefore,
the vertical force arising from the plate s attraction must
be equal to the weight of the suspended ring; or, which
is the same thing, FT—will express the weight of a
portion of the ring in every unit of the horizontal extent.
The vertical force produced by the attraction of the
solid matter begins to act the instant the fluid comes into
contact with the solid ; it first causes the ring to rise, and
then keeps it suspended.
If m2 denote the area of a section of the ring made by a
vertical plane perpendicular to the surface or the plate,
then tn2, or m2 X 1, will be the volume of a portion of the
fluid equal in weight to IT—|H.
If two parallel plates, AB and CD (fig. 5), very near Llevat
one another, have their lower ends immersed in a fluid,
is observed that the fluid will rise between them above thetwop„
natural level. Conceive a superficial canal extending be-je[piai
tween the plates in a direction at right angles to their sur¬
faces, having its depth equal to the greatest range of the
corpuscular force, and its horizontal width equal to unit;
then all the fluid below the canal will be in equilibrium
with respect to the attractive forces that act upon it, and
therefore the suspended weight must be supported by the
action of the two plates upon the canal. Of the forces
which act upon the canal, we may neglect the attraction
of the fluid below it, which causes the particles in the in¬
side to press perpendicularly on the bottom. At each end
it is attracted by the plates with a force equal to K', or
+ (K'— ^K), and, at the vertical sides between the
!
CAPILLARY ACTION.
115
Llary
A on.
Edition
if c’apil-
iiube.
plates, by the fluid on the outside with a force equal ^K.
Wherefore, when the canal is reduced to equilibrium by
equalizing the pressure upon its sides, there will remain
at each end an excess of force equal to K'—^K, which
compresses the fluid upon the plates; and the compres¬
sive force is necessarily accompanied with a lateral pres¬
sure equal to H'—^H, which tends upwards and supports
the weight of the fluid suspended below the canal.
Hence the weight elevated between the plates, in the
horizontal length X, is equal to 2(H'—|H) X X; and,
since m2 X 1 is the volume corresponding to the weight
(H'—£H) X 1, the volume corresponding to the weight
2(H'—|H) X X will be equal to 2m2 X X. Let D denote
the distance of the plates, and Q the least height of the
curve surface between them above the natural level; then,
if we conceive a horizontal plane touching the curve sur¬
face at its lowest point, the whole fluids between the
plates in the length X will be composed of a small curved
portion in the shape of a meniscus, and a parallelepiped
equal in volume to X X D X Q. Now, when the plates are
very near one another, and the elevation is considerable in
comparison of their distance, the meniscus will be so small
that the parallelepiped alone maybe reckoned equal to the
whole volume of the fluid. Hence, if we equate the two
expressions of the same bulk, we shall get
DXQ=2«2;
which proves that the elevations of a fluid between plates
of the same matter are reciprocally proportional to the
distances of the plates ; and this agrees with observation.
When a capillary tube, or one with a bore less than
one tenth of an inch, is partly plunged in a fluid, the fluid
will rise within the tube above the level on the outside.
Let AB and CD (fig. 5) represent the sides of such a
tube, MHN the curve surface of the elevated column, hav¬
ing below' it an imaginary surface at a depth equal to the
range of the corpuscular force, and conceive two planes
intersecting one another in the axis of the tube at any
angle, then all the fluid below the superficial stratum w ill
be in equilibrium with regard to the attractions to wdiich
it is subjected ; and the triangular portion of that stratum,
bounded by the inside of the tube, and the two planes in¬
tersecting in the axis, would likewise be in equilibrium,
if the pressures upon all its vertical sides were equal. But
the side in contact with the tube is attracted with a force
equal to K', or £K + (K'—i^K) ; and each of the other two
sides is attracted wdth a force equal to |K ; therefore, when
the equilibrium of the attracting forces is provided for,
there w ill remain an unbalanced pressure, proportional to
K'—|K, upon the inside of the tube ; and this direct com¬
pressive force is accompanied with a lateral tendency,
proportional to H'—^H, which is directed upward, and
sustains the elevated fluid between the two intersecting
planes.
If denote the circumference of a circle that has its
radius equal to unit, and r the radius of the capillary tube,
then (H' — i H) X r v will be the weight of the elevated
column of fluid within the tube, and m‘2 X r v will be its
bulk. Conceive a plane which touches the cmwe surface
of the column at its lowest point, and let cj be the height of
that point above the level on the outside of the tube, then
the elevated column will consist of a cylinder equal to
| r2 ir q, and a small meniscus above the cylinder ; so that,
in very small tubes, the cylinder may be taken for the
w'hole bulk of the column ; wherefore, by equating the
two expressions of the same bulk, we get
i r X 9 — m ‘2 ;
which proves that, in small tubes of the same matter, the
elevations are reciprocally proportional to the radii or dia¬
meters of the tubes.
And because m'2 is the same in all cases, w hen plates
and tubes of the same matter act on the same fluid, if wTe Capillary
equate the values of it taken from the last expression, and Action,
from the expression formerly obtained for two plates, we
shall get
HXQ = rX<7;
and this shows that a fluid will rise between two plates,
to the same height it would do in a tube of the same mat¬
ter having its radius equal to the distance of the plates.
The deductions that have now been drawn from the Theory of
principle of a corpuscular attraction evanescent at all sen-Lr Jurin.
sible distances, are equivalent to the account of capillary
action founded on the hypothesis of Dr Jurin. Whatever
may be thought of the physical principle advanced by this
philosopher, it must be allowed that his theory agrees
well with observation; and it cannot be denied that he
has, with great sagacity, inferred from his experiments
the true place in which the capillary force resides. But
it is impossible to accede to his opinion, that, w hen a ca¬
pillary tube of glass is immersed in water, the water with¬
in the tube is attracted upward by a narrow ring of glass
immediately above the surface of the liquid. If the glass
attract the water, the attraction must be perpendicular to
the surface of the glass ; the force acting on the fluid can¬
not be vertical, it must be horizontal; and if we would
reason strictly, the proper inference must be, that an at¬
traction between the glass and the water is alone insuffi¬
cient to account for capillary action. In order to explain
the phenomena, it is necessary to attend to the remark of
Professor Leslie, founded on the properties essential to
fluidity, namely, that a fluid cannot be attracted horizon¬
tally by a solid body, without having a vertical force com¬
municated to it. It is certainly not a little surprising, that
an observation made in 1802, so well calculated to remove
all the difficulties of the theory, should have passed en¬
tirely unnoticed, although, since that period, the subject
has engaged the attention of the first philosophers of the
age.
In what goes before, it has been shown that, in many
cases, the height to which a fluid will rise may be found
with considerable exactness, by comparing the bulk as de¬
termined by the magnitude of the capillary force with the
same bulk deduced from the figure which the displaced
fluid is constrained to assume ; but a rigorous investigation
of all the circumstances attending the capillary pheno¬
mena requires further, that we know the nature of the
curve assumed by that part of the fluid’s surface which is
free to obey the impulse of all the forces that act upon it;
and it is to this branch of the subject that we are now to
proceed.
8. Resuming the first and simplest case of a single plate
immersed in a fluid, which rises upon its surface in a con¬
cave ring, let a vertical plane PL (fig. 4), parallel to the
plate, and at a distance from its surface greater than the
range of the corpuscular force, be drawn to intersect the
curve ; then the part of the ring cut off, being without the
sphere of the plate’s attraction, must be supported by the
force with which it is attracted by the fluid between the
plate and the plane. Now, all the fluid below the super¬
ficial stratum is in equilibrium with regard to the corpus¬
cular forces to which it is subjected; and hence it is the
attraction of the fluid between the plate and the plane
upon the superficial stratum which supports the part of
the ring below the plane, in the same manner that the at¬
traction of the plate upon the same stratum supports the
whole ring. All the fluid in the vessel being supposed in
equilibrium, we may conceive that the portion of it be¬
tween the plate and the plane is converted into a solid
without any other change of its properties; then if we
consider that part of the superficial canal which lies be¬
tween the vertical plane and the level surface of the fluid,
116
CAPILLARY ACTION.
Capillary the upper end of it will be pressed against the imaginary
Action. solid by the attraction of an obtuse-angled wedge of the
fluid, while the pressure upon all the other vertical sides
is only equal to the attraction of a right-angled wedge ,
and the difference of these forces remaining unbalanced,
generates the force which tends upward, and supports tlm
weight of the part of the ring situated below the point of
its action. < • n c
It is now necessary to determine the attractive force of
a portion of a fluid, in the shape of a wedge, contained in
any proposed angle. Suppose that a fluid mass bounded
by the plane AB (fig. 6) is divided by the plane PQ; and
let it be required to find the force with which the attrac¬
tion of the particles contained in each of the wedges APQ
and BPQ will cause a small drop placed at P to press
upon the plane AB. Draw PN and PG to bisect the
angles APQ, BPQ; let the line PH, perpendicular to the
plane AB, represent the force K, or the pressure of the
drop caused by the attraction of all the fluid below the plane,
sect. 3; and draw HN and HG perpendicular to PN and
PG. It is manifest that the attraction of all the particles
in the wedge APQ is a force in the direction PN ; and, in
like manner, the attraction of the particles in the wedge
BPQ is a force in the direction PG. Wherefore, since
PH, the united effect of both attractions, is resolved into
the forces PN and PG, it follows that PN will represent
the attraction of the obtuse-angled wedge upon the drop,
and PG that of the acute-angled wedge. Draw NO and
GL perpendicular to PH ; then PO is the part of the
force PN acting at right angles to the plane AB, and PL
is the like part of the force PG. Draw NG, and let cp de¬
note the angle HPQ, or the difference of each of the an¬
gles APQ and BPQ from a right angle. Then NG and
PH are equal and bisect one another. Also, the angle
PHG =: BPG, each being the complement of PIPG.
Wherefore GCP — 2PHG = 2BPG — BPQ; and, taking
the complements of the equal angles, CGL = CNO
= HPQ = p. Now GC = iPH = IK ; hence CL=CO
partial ring in the horizontal extent equal to unit, is equal Capins
to 1 X Jydx. Hence if we put z = sin. 6, and equate the
two expressions of the same bulk, we shall get these equa¬
tions, which are sufficient to determine the nature of the
curve, viz.
$iz——Jydx
dy _
dx
Vl—z2
the negative signs must be used, because z and y both de¬
crease when x increases.
From the first of these equations we get
—ydx—firdz;
and, if this be multiplied into the second equation, there
will result
t32zdz
ydy—
VI—z'2
that is, since .z =r sin. 0, ydyzzf&dO sin. 0; whence «/2=2/32
(1—cos. ^)=4/32 sin. 2±Q; and
y=2j3 sin. i d.
Again, dz=dQ cos. ^=^(1—2 sin. 2}29) ; therefore
|3,fe='3' {ikfi •2i'»sin4«}i
—dx -
y
and hence
—x-p/Slog. tan.L^—4f3 sin. 2^z=/3 log. tan. —4/3 sin. 2\t
t being the value of 6 when Therefore
0 . tan. -k
X-=:p X log.   
tan. y
4/3 | sin.2!*—sin.
■|K sin. p; therefore PO = |K + gK sin. p, and PL
= IK — sin. p. Thus the pressure of the drop upon
the plane AB, caused by the attraction of the obtuse-
angled wedge, is equal to ^K + ^K sin. p; and that caused
by the attraction of the acute-angled wedge is equal to
g-K — |-K sin. p.
Curve Returning now to the canal below the vertical plane
formed up- PL (fig. 4), and the level surface of the fluid, let 9 denote
fac<fof ^ie *nc^na^on th0 curve at L to the horizon ; the canal
soli 1° * would be in equilibrium with respect to the corpuscular
forces that act upon it, if the attractions upon all its ver¬
tical sides were equal. But, according to what has just
been investigated, the upper end is attracted by the fluid
beyond the vertical plane PL, with a force equal to
+ ^K sin. 9; and the attraction upon each of the remain¬
ing sides is only equal to LK ; wherefore there is an excess
of attraction equal to sin. 9, which causes the drop of
liquid at the upper end of the canal to press upon the
fluid above it, and which will be attended with a lateral
force, equal to ^H sin. 9, acting upward and sustaining
the part of the ring cut off by the vertical plane.
Let /3-X 1 denote the volume of a portion of the fluid
equal in weight to ^H. Then |-H sin. 9 will be the weight,
and /3- sin. 9 the bulk, of the partial ring cut off by the
plane PL in the horizontal extent equal to unit. Let y
denote the vertical ordinate of a point in the curve, form¬
ed by the intersection of the ring, with a vertical plane
perpendicular to the plate ; and let x be the corresponding
horizontal ordinate, or the distance of y from the plate.
Then the area of the curve below the point L is equal to
fydx, the fluent vanishing with y ; and the volume of the
The value of the ordinate shows that x increases with¬
out limit as y decreases; whence it follows that the curve
has an asymptote in the level surface of the fluid.
In like manner, we may investigate the curve formed by Curve ti
the intersection of the fluid between two parallel plates t'veen ts
and a vertical plane perpendicular to the plates. Let y
denote the height above the natural level of a point in theP ate3,
curve, and x the distance of y from the middle of the
plates, or from the point where y is least. Suppose two ver¬
tical planes, PO and QR (fig. 5), parallel to the plates and
at equal distances from them ; then, as before, the fluid on
the outside of the planes PO and QR wall attract the ends
of the superficial canal between them with a force equal
to ^-K + g-K sin. 9\ and, as the part is alone sufficient
2*2... _ . _
for the equilibrium of the canal, it follows that the other
part g-K sin. 9 will compress the fluid in contact with the
two planes, producing thereby a lateral pressure that tends
upward and sustains the weight of the suspended fluid.
Hence the weight of the fluid suspended between the
planes PO and QR, in every unit of the horizontal length,
is equal to 2 X g-H sin. 9; and its bulk is equal to 2/32 sin. 9.
But the same bulk is also equal to 2 X J'ydx, the fluent
vanishing with x. Wherefore, by putting z — sin, 9, and
equating the two expressions of the same bulk, wre get
the equations
J'ydx — (3%
dy__
dz vF
which determine the nature of the curve.
By combining the two equations, we get ydy:
fizdz
VI—z2
now let u = sin. ±9; then z —
dz 2du . 7
: hence ydy
VI
Vl-
sin. 9 = 2uVl
= ifi2udu, and
u2, and
( illary
tion.
V.,
C Ire sur-
fai i« a
Iflary
tic-
C ;e
w i a
fit is de.
pa 'sed be^
loi the le
ve
CAPILLARY ACTION.
117
y — ‘Zfiv (f + u1,
2(3q being tbe height of the lowest point of the curve
above the level.
, f&dz 0 du(l — 2m2)
Again, cte - — y
;^=/3
y
x = (31
V (l — u2)(q2 + m2)
du( 1 — 2m2)
; therefore,
''fv(\ — u2)(q2 + m2)’
and x will be obtained by the rectification of the conic
sections.
In the case of a capillary tube, conceive an imaginary
tube, of which the sides are PO and QR (fig. 5), within
the real one, and let 6 denote the inclination of the curve
surface to the horizon at the points P and Q. The ele¬
vated column within the imaginary tube is supported by
the attraction of the fluid between the two tubes, in the
same manner that the whole capillary column is support¬
ed by the attraction of the solid matter of the real tube.
The fluid in contact with the imaginary tube on the out¬
side having the shape of a wedge contained in the obtuse
angle 90° + d, will attract the fluid in the inside in a ho¬
rizontal direction with a force equal to sin. 6;
and of this force, the part -^K sin. d will compress the fluid
ring on which it acts, producing, by this means, a lateral
tendency upward, proportional to sin. d, which supports
the weight of the suspended column. If r denote the ra¬
dius of the imaginary tube, then sin. 0 X rzr will be
equal to the weight, and /32 sin. 0 X r -r to the bulk of the
elevated column within that tube; and if y be the verti¬
cal ordinate of a point in the curve surface, or the height
above the natural level, and r the horizontal distance of y
from the axis of the tube, the bulk of the same column
will be equal to vjyrdr, the fluent vanishing with r.
Wherefore, by equating the equivalent expressions, we
shall get the following equations, which determine the na¬
ture of the curve surface, viz.
(32.rz =Jyrdr,
dy _ z
dr ~VI—z2"
If these equations be combined so as to exterminate y,
a differential equation between r and z will be obtained,
viz.
(d. rz\
rdr )  !_ v z
d? ~ /32 vT^?
9. Having explained the most remarkable instances of
elevation by capillary action, we must now turn our atten-
■tion to the cases where a fluid is depressed below the level
"by the same cause. It has been shown that an elevation
’ will always take place when K' and IT are greater than
|K and -^H, and that the fluid wdll remain level when the
same quantities are equal. It follows, therefore, that the
fluid will sink below the level when the former quantities
are less than the latter; or otherwise there could not be
an equilibrium. The shortest and most perspicuous man¬
ner of explaining the cases when a fluid is depressed is to
compare them with the similar cases of an elevation. Sup¬
pose that AB and ab (fig. 7 and 8) are two plates of dif¬
ferent kinds of matter immersed in the same fluid, which
they attract with intensities equally above and below the
mean quantity IK, we shall prove that the same curve
which is formed above the level on the surface of the one,
will be in equilibrium by the action of the other when
placed upon its surface in a reversed position below the
level.
Conceive the two curves to be intersected at intervals
equal to the range of the corpuscular force by an inde¬
finite number of planes parallel to the plates; and let
the curves at L and l have the same inclination, Q, to the
horizon. In the curve above the level (fig. 7), it has
been shown that the force which tends upward, and sup¬
ports the part of the ring below L, is equal to £H sin. 6;
and, in like manner, the force which supports the part of
the ring below the point O, indefinitely near L, is equal
to iH. (sin. 0 + e? sin. 6). Therefore the difference of
these forces, or • d sin. 8, which may be considered as
a force urging the curvilineal element OL upward, is equal
to the weight of the fluid elevated between the planes pass¬
ing through O and L. In effect, if we put y and x to de¬
note the vertical and horizontal ordinates of the point L,
and equate the two expressions of the bulk of the small
portion of fluid above mentioned, we shall get
(32d sin. 8=(32dz=ydx,
which is no other than the differential of the equation for¬
merly obtained (sect. 7). We may therefore conceive
that every element of the curve is urged upward with a
force equal to the weight of the elevated fluid below it,
the attraction of the plate supplying the force necessary
to sustain the accumulated weight of all the suspended
fluid.
In the curve below the level (fig. 8), the fluid on the
same side of the plane tl with the plate ab, attracts the
particles on the other side of that plane; and as the at¬
tracting fluid forms an acute-angled wedge contained in
the angle M=90°—d, the horizontal attraction will be
equal to sin. 8; and the lateral force thence aris¬
ing, and acting vertically, to sin. 8. The point l
of the curve is therefore urged upward by the attraction
of the fluid between it and the plate ab, with a force equal
to —J H sin. 8; and in like manner, the point o inde¬
finitely near l, tends upwards with the force •
(sin. 8 + d sin. 8).. The difference of these forces, which
may be considered as a force applied to the curvilineal
element ol, is equal to —sin. 8; and it is the same
in quantity as in the other curve, but has an opposite di¬
rection. The difference in the directions of the two forces
acting upon the elements of the two curves arises from this,
that, in the curve above the level, the force acting up¬
ward continually increases from the level surface to the
plate, whereas, in the curve below the level, it continual¬
ly decreases. Again, because OL and ol are placed at
equal distances above and below the general level of the
fluid, the weight drawing the element OL downward will
be just equal to the vertical pressure caused by the su¬
perincumbent fluid, and urging the element ol upward. It
thus appears that the forces which act upon the like ele¬
ments of the two curves are the same in quantity, but
that they have their directions reversed ; which proves
that, because the one curve is in equilibrium, the other
will be so too; at least this will be the case if the attrac¬
tion of the plate ab be sufficient to maintain the lowest
point of the convex curve in its place.
The parts of the curves between the level surface of
the fluid and the planes TL and tl are kept in their places
by the horizontal attraction of the fluid on the other side
of the same planes. These attractions are respectively
equal to + £ K sin. 8, and IK—sin. 6-, and the one
as much exceeds the mean quantity £-K as the other falls
short of it. Now, in place of the attractions of the fluid
particles contained in the wedges KLT and kit, we may
substitute the attractions of two solid plates that act upon
the fluid with equal forces; and these plates will come
under the condition we have supposed with respect to the
attractions of the plates AB and ab. It follows, there¬
fore, that, because the attraction of the plate AB main-
Capillary
Action.
118 CAPILLAR
Capillary tains the concave curve in its place, the attraction of the
Action, plate ab will be sufficient to maintain the convex curve m
its place.
It is evident that the same reasoning which has been
applied to two solid plates will apply equally in all other
cases, and we may lay down this general proposition, viz.
If two solid bodies, perfectly equal and similar, but com¬
posed of different kinds of matter, be immersed in a fluid
which they attract with intensities equally different from
the mean quantity ^K, the fluid will be raised above the
level by the action of the one, and depressed below the
level by the action of the other, and the convex curve be¬
low the level will differ from the concave curve above the
level in no respect, except that it will have a reversed po¬
sition.
Limit to As no bounds can be set to the attractive force which
the eleva- a solid body exerts upon the particles of a fluid, it may be
tion and asked, will the weight displaced by capillary action in-
depression crease jn proportion to the attraction of the solid ? or, are
of a fluid. there any conditions that confine the effect within a cer¬
tain limit, however great may be the attraction of the solid ?
In answer to this, it must be observed, that the action of
the solid matter is confined to a thin film of the fluid in
contact with it; and that it is this film alone which acts
on the particles beyond it, and keeps them suspended by
means of the force of cohesion. Hence the weight main¬
tained above the level can never exceed what this last force
is able to support. The elevation of the fluid will there
be regulated by the attractive force of the solid matter,
only so long as that force is less than the mutual attrac¬
tion of the fluid particles; and the fluid will always rise
to the same height when the attraction of the solid mat¬
ter is either equal to or greater than the fluid’s cohesion. In
all these cases, the solid is wetted by the fluid, and we
may conceive that it becomes covered with a coating of
sufficient thickness to shield the particles on the outside
from the attraction of the solid matter,,a new body being
thus formed, wfliich attracts the fluid with a force equal to
its own cohesive power.
From the relation that has been shown to take place
between the cases of equal elevation and depression, it
follows that the greatest depression will take place when
a solid has no attraction for the particles of a fluid. If we
go beyond this limit, and suppose that the solid matter
repels the fluid, the capillary effect will not be heighten¬
ed; for the repulsive force will be confined to the parti¬
cles within the range of its action ; beyond this insensible
distance the repelling power will produce no effect, and
the fluid will be left to assume the same figure it would
do if no such power existed.
Angle of 10. In the several cases that have been considered, the
contact. weight of the fluid suspended below that point of the
curve surface which is inclined to the horizon in the an¬
gle 6, has been found to be equal to H sin. 6; wherefore,
if t denote the angle of contact, or the angle in which the
surface of the fluid intersects the solid, then 90° — s will
be the limit of 6, or what 6 becomes at the surface of the
solid ; and consequently the weight of the whole fluid sus¬
pended by capillary action will be equal to }2 H cos. s;
but, as has likewise been proved (sect. 7), the same weight
is also equal to H'—|H; and hence, by equating the
equivalent quantities, we get
H'= H cos. 2lg.
This expression is possible only when H' is not greater
than H; but we must not infer that the theory leads to
any contradiction in the case where a solid body attracts
the particles of a fluid with an intensity greater than their
own mutual action upon one another. The equation is a
consequence of the equality that takes place between the
vertical force H'—derived from the attraction of the
Y ACTION.
solid, and the weight of the displaced fluid deduced from Capillar-
the figure which the attraction of its own particles causes Action;
it to assume. It is, therefore, only the effective part of
the force IP—|H, or that which is really employed in
displacing the fluid, that can enter into the equation ; and
when a part of the same force has no effect in elevating
or depressing the fluid, that part must be neglected.
Now it has been proved that, however great the force
H' LH maybe, the capillary effect can never exceed
that produced by the force H' — |H (sect. 9) ; and hence
it appears, from the principle on which the investigation
proceeds, that, in the equation, H' must be limited not to
exceed H, which must be taken for its value in all cases
when the solid matter acts upon the fluid particles with
an intensity either equal to or greater than their own mu-
tual attraction.
From this equation it follows that the angle of contact
is always the same when different solids of the same at¬
tractive powers are immersed in the same fluid, a proper¬
ty that was first noticed by Dr Young.
The weight of the displaced fluid being equal to
cos. 5, is in every case proportional to the cosine of the
angle of contact.
11. In order still farther to illustrate and confirm theinvestiff tJ
principles of the theory we have been explaining, we shall tion of L, m
conclude this article with applying them to demonstrate place’s fo. «
the formula found by Laplace for "the attraction of a fluid™13
mass bounded by a curve surface. tionofT" ;
Conceive a fluid mass bounded by a curve surface con-fluid mass L
cave outward, and let the plane MAN (fig. 9) be a tan-boundedtJ »
gent, and the straight line AO a normal, to the curve sur-a curve u
face at any point A; through AO draw any two planes surface,
perpendicular to one another, which cut the surface of
the fluid in the curve lines BA and CA, and let DC and
DB be two other sections of the fluid’s surface made by
planes parallel to the first planes, and indefinitely near
them. Put ds and ds' for the small curve lines AB and
AC ; and dd and dO' for the measures of the small angles
which the tangents drawn to the curve lines from the
points B and C make with the tangent plane MAN. The
four planes intersecting the fluid contain within them a
rectangular prism, standing upon the base ABDC, and
extending into the interior of the fluid mass at right
angles to the curve surface: it is required to find the
force which urges the prism outward above the tangent
plane.
Conceive a surface intersecting the prism at a depth
below its base equal to the range of the corpuscular force;
then all the fluid of the prism below this imaginary sur¬
face being an equilibrium with regard to the attractions
to which it is subjected, we have only to examine the
forces that act upon the superficial stratum. It is attract¬
ed by the particles below the imaginary surface, and by
the fluid on the outside of the force bounding planes.
The attraction of the particles below the imaginary sur¬
face is at every point perpendicular to that surface; and
therefore the stratum would be in equilibrium, if the at¬
tractions upon its four sides were equal. The fluid on the
outside of each of the two planes AB and AC is a rectan¬
gular wedge; and consequently the attractions upon the
particles within the stratum causing them to press per¬
pendicularly upon these planes, are each proportional to
|K. On the outside of the plane DC, the fluid is a wedge
contained in the obtuse angle 90° + <7^; and on the out¬
side of the plane BD, it is a wedge contained in the ob¬
tuse angle 9Oo + t?0; the attraction is therefore propor¬
tional to tK + in the first case, and to £K +1 Kdt) in
the other case. Hence, after the attractions upon the
sides of the stratum are equalized, there is an excess of
force perpendicular to each of the planes CD and DB,
CAPILLARY ACTION.
119
ary amounting respectively to and ±Kdd. These direct
>n. forces produce the corresponding lateral pressures
and of which the first is the force in the length
equal to unit, urging the fluid in contact with the plane
CD to ascend above the tangent plane, and the second is
the like force acting upon the fluid in contact with the
plane BD. Therefore the actual forces which, in the
lengths DC and DB, impel the superficial stratum, and
consequently the prism attached to it by cohesion, above
the tangent plane, are respectively equal to ^WdO'ds and
It must be observed that these forces, like the
curvatures from which they arise, are independent of one
another; and that any alteration in the intensity of one
will in no degree affect the action of the other. We may
therefore conceive them to be applied to the prism one
after the other; in which case the centre of gravity of
the prism will have the same motion communicated to it
as it would have if it were acted upon by the sum of both,
or by the single force,
&ds-\-^VLd6ds ;
and this must therefore be considered as the effective
force which pushes the prism above the tangent plane.
Let R and R' be the radii of the circles that have the
same curvature with the sections BA and CA, at the point
A; then the small arcs AB and AC will subtend angles
at the centres of the circles respectively, equal to dQ and
ds
dP; consequently ds =■ Rdd, and dd =■ R'dd1; dd=—, and
R
ds'
iH
= —; and if these values be substituted in the expres¬
sion of the force, it will become
{it+¥'}■'**•
Since ds and ds’ are entirely arbitrary, we may suppose
that dsds’, the base of the prism, is constant or equal to
unit; then the measure of the attractive force arising from
the curvature of the surface, and lifting the prism above
the tangent plane, will be equal to
iH
JL ,
1 R + R'J -
This expression would not be a proper measure of the
attractive force, unless -jj- + -jj-, have the same value at
the same point of the curve surface, for any two planes
perpendicular to one another and to the curve surface;
but this is a well-known property belonging to all curve
surfaces.
If the surface of the fluid be convex outward, the pre¬
ceding expression will become negative, and the force
will change its direction and draw the prism inward, be¬
low the tangent plane.
The force arising from the curvature of the surface is
independent of the direct attraction of the fluid mass upon
the prism. This last force is proportional to K; it is the
same whatever be the figure of the fluid, and it is always
directed inward. (Sect. 3.) The whole force which
draws inward a column upon a given base is, therefore,
proportional to
In a fluid mass, which is subjected to no forces but the Capillary
attractions of its own particles, and which is in equili- Action,
brium, if we conceive a slender canal passing through the
interior and forming a communication between any two
points of the surface, the canal will be in equilibrium
taken separately (fig. 1). Of the forces in action at the
ends, those which arise from the direct attraction of the
whole mass, being equal and opposite, counteract one an¬
other in all positions of the canal; but the other forces,
which depend on the curvature, and which in reality are
nothing more than the lateral tendencies outward, pro¬
duced by the direct attraction of the particles surround¬
ing the two orifices, cannot be equal to one another in all
positions of the canal, unless the function
1 + L
R R'
have the same value at all points of the curve surface,
which is the case in no solid figure except a sphere. Such
a body of fluid, therefore, cannot be in equilibrium, unless
its form be perfectly spherical.
The formula of Laplace must be considered as a great
step made in this branch of natural philosophy, not only
because it ascertains the connection between the pressure
and the curvature, in which it agrees with the hypothesis
of Segner and Dr loung ; but also because it brings into
view the forces K and H, and draws the attention to the
relation they have to one another, and to the primitive
attraction of the particles. The labours of philosophers
have discovered the facts of capillary action, which have
been verified by innumerable experiments; but if the
truth is to be told, it may be affirmed, that, reckoning back
from the present time to the speculations of the Floren¬
tine academicians, the formula of Laplace, and the re¬
mark of Professor Leslie relating to the lateral force, are
the only approaches that have been made to a sound phy¬
sical account of the phenomena.
Method of computing the Depression of the Mercury in the
Tubes of Barometers.
It is a problem of no small difficulty to determine the ver¬
tical ordinates of the curve surface in a capillary tube
from the differential equations that have been investigated.
The research possesses considerable interest, as it applies
to the correction of the observed heights of the mercury
in a barometer, by enabling us to compute the depres¬
sion arising from capillary action. It is more particularly
with a view to this application that the problem is here
very briefly considered.
Resuming the equations of the curve surface in a tube,
found in sect. 8, we get
dz
{£+!}
dr
' P* VI—z*
• T
and if we put x =these equations will become
1 = — +?.
(3 dx 1 x
This is the formula of Laplace; and the manner in which
we have attained it proves clearly that the symbol which
makes its appearance in the analytical operations of the
illustrious geometer, is, in reality, the measure of the la¬
teral pressure necessarily attending the direct attraction
of the particles of a fluid.
2fd-zx\
\xdxj
dx
V\—z‘>
In these equations, when a; = 0, we have
.(1).
dz z .
: and
dx x
120 CAPILLAR
Capillary hence, if? denote the elevation or depression, or the least
Y ACTION.
Action.
— £ z=. P • M + h:‘ • M' cfvdt + W • M" • cVvdt, &c.
value of y, then ^ — 2 —, when x — 0.
dt
When z is small, the equation (1) will coincide very
nearly with the more simple equation
^ fd’wx\
 (2),
., = /, + ■ N + /.= • K' </' * + /C-N'- cfivdt + &c.
Capillj
Actio,
dx
= A:
And if, in this last equation, we put w—Xx, x2—it, we
shall get
dd'Xt
~dF
hence,
+ 2^+^2223'' 1
then by substituting these values, and equating the terms
containing the like powers of A, we shall get
dM lvr_^ fvdt
— +vU—rcJ
rfN_M
dt ~ t2 J
dt & A
-P +
-i? + &c.
r/N ,
&c.
Again, if we put \=c2fvdt, c being the base of the hy¬
perbolic logarithms, we shall get by substitution,
dv
^t + Tt + V=l;
and hence,
v—\
Now, if we expand cS = A2 in a series, we shall
get, by means of the first two equations, first a value of
M, and then one of N, each in a series ; and by a like pro¬
cedure with the other equations, it will be found that
1H3 . *4 _ 19.*5
N
IB
1/ 4. Jl /2 L/34 
6 ^24 906 ‘ 4320
•&c.
< t . t2 ll^3 t* 19'P
_^-Q _ ]2 + 36 + 1440 -I" 120() "t- 120960 -t*
&c.
Thus we have these two expressions of w, viz.
w—x'X=2V tX
w—x'c }lfvdt = 9wVc }^vdt
each of which, being multiplied by a constant quantity,
will exhibit the general value, on the supposition that w
vanishes with x: but the constant quantity is not neces¬
sary for the purpose we have in view.
Now, let z = ~ : then, on account of the equations (1)
and (2), we shall readily get
dds , ds , ^ dw ds s
,2c2 * • • • (A)
N' = f-Q’ = t*
' \ —
\ 32
+
17^3
128
_ f3.(y> — t3. / A. 4-^14
XN - t u - t |64-r640^
5760 ‘ 7560
163^3 . 823-£4
&c.
N'" = *4 • Q'" = t4-
/ ™
161280 1
t2 , t3
2257920
+ &c.
+ &c.
\ 768 256 ^ 286720
These formulae will enable us to compute the value of
Q, Q', &c. with sufficient exactness when t is not ex¬
tremely large. By substituting in the assumed value of
s = —= and observing that A2 cJ'vd^, we shall get
x'X’
4_ ^ 4. 2 dw
dx2 xdx 1 wdx' dx
— “ A 4" A3, ?A2a
x‘X
^ + ^2A4- ^ 4- &c.
kxX
which may be thus written :
and hence if we put f = we shall have
d-
ds
\xdx
xdx
+ 2
dw ds
A2
wxdx’xdx'
s;
but xdx
„ j ds f
2dt, —r~ x‘
xdx
ds , dw
2— t, and 2 T
dt wxdx
-t+hv;
therefore, we have
d-(d4-t) ,
\dt J . ds . ds
~~dT + di + v-dit 7
J'
w‘2s‘2
~T
S ;
A2 1 J A2
&c. . (3)
In this method of proceeding the co-efficients in the
series for jf are in every case very small, and decrease so
fast, that a few of the first terms determine the value of/
with sufficient exactness. In reality, as t increases, each
of the co-efficients increases from 0 to a certain limit;
whence it follows that f will decrease from 1 to a certain
24
limit, which is greater than —.
In order to prove what has been advanced, and to de-
and if we multiply both sides by c fvdt, and expand the
radical on the right hand side, we shall get
termine the limit of/ assume w — —and substitute in
Vx
t d t
= r«3
, 3<s ,
+-r^'
a.5'3. 7
+ )6 s‘
c?/“*
Spvdt
\fvdt
the equation (2) ; then,
ddu _ / 3 1 \
l,1 +4 ‘ !&)'
dx?
fldx
Again, put u — c ; then,
^-4- e2 = 1 4- :
dx * 4
4" &c.
In order to integrate this expression, assume
and hence,
, , 3 1 , 3 1 . 63 1 , ^
f ~ 1 + 8* a,’2+ 8* x^ 128’ x*+ cVC*
llary
ion.
CAPILLARY ACTION.
In consequence of the different assumptions, we have
— =:k + —
^ 16
Pxs7?
+
¥‘x- X4
ar X =
V X
6_
4 ' 256 ' 16
and hence, by putting /=fVl=/+/3.
■j" &'C.
Z1 , n . Sz*
121
Capillary
Action.
_cfzdx
The expression will represent every value of w
that vanishes with x; for it vanishes with x, and we con¬
ceive that f^dx contains an arbitrary constant not neces¬
sary to be determined here.
If now we substitute this value of w in the equation
(A), and observe that i + 2^, we shall get
^+9^ = i  
dx2^ ^dx
+/7
119^6
+ /9*
S93-08
+ &c.
35’2:G 131'Zn
*** 4a;
2 f*pd.dc
and, by multiplying both sides by c J £ ’ and expanding
the radical, we have
( ds 9-fidx I
K 5 .
dx
s3 c
4 2 x
2jtdx
J_ 3£5
+ 16' 8 ‘ a3
-f- &c.
In order to integrate this expression, we may assume
/7 c 1$
%- =— Me
dx 4 •
+£M'//^+&c.
16
s = A + . N . N' Wh: -}- &c.
4 16
then, by substituting and proceeding as before, we shall
get
dm i r
-s-+k.u = ^-
+2S- N = M
dx
dM.’
12288 ‘ ^ 65536
from which we derive
d 16 128 12288 98304
This is the limit to which f tends as x increases, and with
which it coincides when x is infinitely great.
It remains now to apply the formulae that have been
investigated. If, in the equation f32zr —Jyrdr (sect. 8),
we substitute q -\-y' for y, we shall get
fy’rdr
+ 1A_,
2 r
and the smaller the diameter of the tube, the more near¬
ly will this equation approach to /32z qr. Therefore, L
being the diameter of the tube, the value of Apz will be
equal to ql, that is, to the product of the elevation or de¬
pression by the diameter of the tube, when the bore is
very small. When mercury is contained in tubes of glass,
the value of 4/32.z, assigned by the English philosophers, is
•015; and Laplace, from the experiments of Gay Lussac,
makes it equal to *01469. There is also some uncertain¬
ty in the value of z, or the cosine of the angle of contact,
which seems to be between the limits 0*75 and 0*729. W^e
may assume 4 (32 z = *015, and z = *735, whence j3 =
these numbers being recommended by their simplicity,
and lying between the limits of the errors of observation.
Now, * = 4- = 4jg2 = =[y) : the scries denot*
ed by X, and the co-efficients of the series forj^ will there¬
fore be known in numbers, and hence f may be found.
Qg Qg (y
Again, when x =: 0, we have s = — an(i
D arX x p
, r l . . kxX qlX
because * = jj = we get/= ^ ^;
and hence
 4(3-2
•015
dx 6eM' 8‘^+2
rfN'
N
x
dx
&c.
4gN' = M'
Xf=-7TT X/-■■(*)■
1
&c.
By means of the first two equations we get
N_J_ 1 ^ 1 . 1 _1 9^
~ 16 " a; 64 ’ 128 " x3 128 ’ x*
This series will coincide with its first term in the extreme
case when x is very great; and by applying the like me¬
thod of investigation to the other quantities sought, it
will be found that
^ 5
N= -L . I. N'- —
16 x’ “ 256
ic2 ’ 12288
N"'=
393
65536 ' ■^ow, ^et ^iese quantities be substi¬
tuted in the assumed value of s, and, because
rMx
, we shall get
w — x' X —
V x
* 1‘ X ”*' _ /* X
If we compute the value of the limit to which f ap¬
proaches when l is very great, we shall find/ = 0*9635:
and hence, in the case of tubes with very large diameters,
we have
q-Tx x *9635 “ ~Fx~ • • •(5'-
It remains to ascertain in what cases this last formula
may be safely used.
If we make l successively equal to *3 and *4, we shall
find
/ = *3 ; t= 1*1025 ; f= *9696 ; q = *02916 ;
/ = *4; t= 1*96 ; /= *9649 ; q = *01534.
Now, this last value of/approaches very nearly to the
ultimate value ; and if q be computed by the formula (5),
we shall find
q = *01532.
We may therefore use the formula (5) in all cases when
the diameter of the tube is greater than four tenths of an
inch. In other cases, we must compute the depression by
the formula (4), having first found/ by means of the fol¬
lowing expression, in which all the quantities too small to
affect the exactness of the result are left out, viz.
Q
VOL. VI.
122
Capilupi
tl
Capita-
nata.
--f+P x
+P X
+px
+px
CAP
—. f—+
X2 \ 12 ~
X2' {3i
i! / _L
X2' 1.64
i! / ZjJ 4--—
A
36'
<2
11
1440
17-^
+
1200
32 + 128 + 5760
3 • /2 . 163
+ 640 + 161280
^ 768 1 256
To compute/from this formula, assume/=l —«:
Then, a being always less than its square and higher
powers may be neglected. ,
By the procedure just described, the following tab e
has been constructed, in which all the numbers may be
reckoned exact, with the uncertainty of one unit in the
last place of figures.
CAP
Table of the Depression of Mercury in Glass Tubes.
Diameter of
the Tube.
Inches.
0-05
•10
•15
•20
•25
•30
•35
•40
•45
•50
•60
•70
•80
Depression.
Inches.
0-29494
•14028
•08628
•05811
•04075
•02916
•02110
•01534
•01117 ’
•00835
•00443
•00228
•00119 (k.k.)
Oapitant:
II
Capite,,
CAPILUPI, or Capilupus, Camillus, a native of
Mantua, in the sixteenth century. He wrote a book en¬
titled The Stratagem, in which he relates not only what
was perpetrated at Paris during the massacre on at Bar¬
tholomew’s day, but also the artful preparations which
preceded that horrid massacre. It is, however, blended
with a great number of fabrications.
Capilupi, Lcelius, an Italian poet, brother to the loi-
mer, made himself famous by some centos of Virgil, d he
manner in which he applied Virgil’s expressions to repre¬
sent things which the poet never dreamt of is remarkab e.
His cento against women is very ingenious, but too sati¬
rical. The poems of Capilupi are inserted in the Dehcia;
Poetarum Italorum. ...
CAPISCOLUS, or Capischolus, in ecclesiastical wri¬
ters, denotes a dignitary in certain cathedrals, who had the
superintendence of the choir or band of music, and an¬
swers to what in other churches is called chanter oi pre¬
centor. The word is also written cabiscolus and caput-
scholce, meaning the head ot the school or band of music.
The capiscolus is also called scholasticus, as haying the in¬
struction of the young clerks and choristers in the per¬
formance of their duty.
CAPITAL, from the Latin caputy the head, is used
on various occasions to express the relation of a head,
chief, or principal: thus,
Capital City, in Geography, denotes the principal city
of a kingdom, state, or province.
Capital Stock, among merchants, bankers, and trad¬
ers, signifies the sum of money which individuals contri¬
bute to make up the common stock of a partnership w hen
it is first formed.
Capital Crime, such a one as subjects the criminal to
capital punishment, that is, to loss of life.
Capital Letters, in Printing, large or initial letters,
in which titles, &c. are composed, with which all periods,
verses, &c. commence, and all proper names ot men, king¬
doms, nations, &c. begin. The practice which for some
time obtained among our printers, of beginning every sub¬
stantive with a capital, has now justly fallen into disrepute,
being a manifest perversion of the design of capitals, as
well as an offence against beauty and distinctness.
CAPITANATA, a province of the kingdom of Naples,
in the southern part of Italy. It is bounded on the north
and the east by the Adriatic Sea, on the south-east by
the provinces Bari and Basilicata, on the south by the
Principato-Ulteriore, on the west by Molise, and on the
north-west by Abruzzo. It extends over 5000 square
miles, or 3,200,000 acres, and is by far the largest pro¬
vince of the kingdom. On the north-east the mountain¬
ous range of Gargano covers an extent of more than 800
square miles. On the south-west side of the province the
Apennines occupy a part of the space. Though the more
mountainous parts are sterile, yet between them are rich
valleys. The chief products are wheat, maize, pulse, fruits,
tobacco, licorice, hemp, flax, oil, and wine. The breeding
of cattle, especially of sheep, is a very extensive pursuit,
and has in a great measure superseded the breeding of
silk worms. There are few manufactures in the province ;
and even the wool, which is excellent, is sent to other
districts to be made into cloth. There is some little
coasting trade with the other Italian countries, but no
foreign commerce, except with Dalmatia. The inhabit¬
ants at the last census in 1793 amounted to 251,828 in¬
dividuals, but are supposed to have much increased since
that period. It is divided into three districts, namely, Fog-
gio, St Severe, and Manfredonia. Ihe capital of the pro¬
vince is the city Foggio.
CAPITANEI, or Catanei, in Italy, was a denomina¬
tion given to all the dukes, marquises, and counts, who
were called capitanei regis. The same appellation was also
given to persons of inferior rank who were invested with
fees, and formerly distinguished by the appellation vala-
sores majores.
CAP1TANEUS, in ancient law w-riters, denotes a ten¬
ant in capite or chief.
Capitaneus Ecclesice, the same with advocate.
CAPITANIA, an appellation given to the twelve go¬
vernments established by the Portuguese in the Brazils.
CAPITATION, a tax or imposition raised on each per¬
son, in proportion to his labour, industry, office, rank, or
station. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The Latins
call it trihutum, by which taxes on persons ai-e distinguished
from taxes on merchandise, which were called vectigalia.
CAPITE, in Law (from caput, that is, rex, whence tenere
in capite is to hold of the king, the head or lord-paramount
of all the lands in the kingdom), an ancient tenure of land,
held immediately of the king, as of the crown, either by
knight’s service or by soccage.
Capite Censi, in Antiquity, the lowest rank of Roman
citizens, wdio in public taxes were rated the least of all,
being such as never were worth above 365 asses. They
wTere supposed to have been so denominated because they
wrere rather counted and marshalled by their heads than
by their estates. The capite censi formed part of the sixth
class of citizens, being below the proletarii, who constitut¬
ed the other moiety of that class. They were not enrolled
in the army, as being judged unable to support the ex¬
pense of war; for in those days the soldiers maintained
themselves. It does not appear that before the time of
CAP
C j itol Caius Marius any of the Roman generals enlisted the ca-
i pile censi in their armies.
z\ ula- CAPITOL, Capitolium, in Antiquity, a famous fort or
castle, on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, in which was a
■ r-^ temple dedicated to Jupiter (thence also denominated
Capitolinus), where the senate anciently assembled. It had
its name of capital from caput, a man’s head, said to have
been found fresh, and yet bleeding, upon digging the foun¬
dation of the temple built in honour of Jupiter. Arnobius
adds, that the man’s name was Tolus, whence caput tolium.
The first foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin
the Elder, in the year of Rome 139. His successor Ser-
vius raised the walls, and Tarquin the Proud finished it
in the year 221; but it was not consecrated till the third
year after the expulsion of the kings, and the establishment
of the consulate. The ceremony of the dedication of the
temple was performed by the consul Horatius in 246.
The capitol consisted of three parts; a nave sacred to Ju¬
piter, and two wings, the one consecrated to Juno, the other
to Minerva. It was ascended by stairs. The frontispiece
and sides were surrounded with galleries, in which those
who were honoured with triumphs entertained the senate
at a magnificent banquet, after the sacrifice had been
offered to the gods. Both the inside and outside were en¬
riched with an infinity of ornaments, the most distinguish¬
ed of which was the statue of Jupiter with his golden
thunderbolt, his sceptre, and crown. In the capitol also
were a temple dedicated to Jupiter the Guardian, and an¬
other to Juno with the mint; and on the descent of the
hill was the temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice
contained the most sacred deposits of religion, such as the
ancilia, the books of the Sibyls, &c. The capitol was burnt
under Vitellius, and rebuilt under Vespasian. It was burnt
a second time by lightning under Titus, and restored by
Domitian. The modern name is Campidoglio.
CAPITOLINE Games, annual games instituted by Ca-
millus, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in commemo¬
ration of the escape of the capitol from capture by the
Gauls. Plutarch tells us that a part of the ceremony con¬
sisted in the public criers putting up the Hetrurians to sale
by auction ; they also took an old man, and tying a golden
bulla about his neck, exposed him to public derision. Festus
says they likewise dressed him in a pretexta. There was
another kind of Capitoline games, instituted by Domitian,
in which there were rewards and crowns bestowed on the
poets, champions, orators, historians, and musicians. These
last Capitoline games were celebrated every five years,
and became so famous, that, instead of calculating time
by lustra, they began to count by Capitoline games, as the
j Greeks did by Olympiads. It appears, however, that this
custom was not of long continuance.
CAPITOLINUS, Julius, an historian in the beginning
of the fourth age, under Diocletian, to whom he inscribed
the Lives of Verus, Antoninus Pius, Clodius Balbinus, Ma-
crinus, the Maximins, and the Gordians. He wrote other
lives, which are most of them lost.
CAPITULARIES are certain laws enacted under the
auspices of kings of the Frankish race. They are called Ca-
pitularia by a word of no classical authority, but derived
from capitulum, the diminutive of caput; and they are
so described from the circumstance of their being en¬
acted or digested capitulatim, by heads or chapters.1 The
term is very frequently used in a general sense, but in
other instances capitularies are distinguished from laws.
The laws of the Franks were enacted “ cofisensu popu-
CAP 123
li, constitutione regis.” Liberty was the chief inheritance Capitula-
of the ancient people of Germany, nor were they govern- ries.
ed by laws which they had no share in enacting. It has
been remarked by Dr Stuart that “ the short, but com¬
prehensive and sentimental work of Tacitus, on the man¬
ners of Germany, is the key to the institutions, the Capi¬
tularies, and the codes of the barbarians.”2 In the opi¬
nion of the same able jurist, the foundation and principles
of the Anglo-Saxon constitution are to be found in the
institutions and manners of the ancient Germans; and he
has accordingly endeavoured to trace the most essential
principles of that constitution to the forests of Germany.
But the national assemblies of those who were capable
and worthy of bearing arms, appear to have been gra¬
dually superseded by a select council, composed of the
two orders of the clergy and nobility; and if the great
body of the people attended their deliberations, it seems
to have been more in the capacity of spectators, than of ac¬
tual legislators. This was the form of the constitution in
the time of Charlemagne, in whose name a great proportion
of the Capitularies are promulgated, though some of them
belong to a more recent, and others to a much more early
period, the collection commencing with an enactment of
King Childebert, dated in the year 554. The Capitula¬
ries are written in the Latin language, and this task was
doubtless performed by the ecclesiastics. The Latin co¬
pies were deposited among the national archives, but the
laws were divulged to the people in their mother tongue.3
Savigny, whose name ought to be familiar to all those
who study the history or jurisprudence of the middle ages,
has supplied us with the following statement: “The
imperial ordinances of the Franks, Capitularia, which,
after the extension of their empire, were distinguished
from the national laws, Leges, arose from the enlargement
of the same principle. All royal enactments, particularly
in later times, were called Capitularia, or Capitula. The
king had a double character; the one, as chief of each in¬
dividual tribe, and the other as head of the whole nation.
Hence the Capitularies also are of two classes; thqse de¬
fining the law of a particular race ; e. g. “ Capitula addita
ad Legem Salicam,” and those of general application over
the whole Frank territory. In the kingdom of the Franks,
with which so many different nations were incorporated,
the Capitularies are so frequently general, under the Car-
lovingian dynasty, that when their character is not spe¬
cially fixed, they may be understood as belonging to that
class. In Lombardic Itaty, on the contrary, where the
Lombards and Romans were the only distinct people,
most of the ordinances of Charles and his successors
must be understood as constituting exclusively Lombar¬
dic law. For this reason, probably, they have been insert¬
ed in all the early collections of that law, and were con¬
sequently never obligatory on the Romans.—It is, how¬
ever, of great importance to determine accurately the li¬
mits of the general Capitularies. The laws of the race of
Charlemagne have been erroneously supposed to apply
to all the subjects of their extensive empire. These
princes reigned over three distinct kingdoms, the Frank¬
ish, Lombardic, and that which, under the name of Rome
and the Exarchate, had recently constituted part of the
Greek empire. No Capitulary, however general, could
overstep the boundaries of that state in which it had ori¬
ginated. The only exceptions to this rule were some cle¬
rical laws; and their universal validity arose from the
unity of the church, and from the common old ecclesias-
1 Augustinus de Emendatione Gratiani, p. 327- edit. Baluzii. Paris. 1G72, 8vo.
3 Stuart’s Historical Dissertation concerning the Antiquity of the English Constitution, p. 108. 2d edit. _ Lond. 177L 8vo.
1 Bieneri Connnentarii de Origine et Progressu Legum Juriumque Germanicorum, part. i. p. 1G8. Lipsise, 1787—90, 2 part. 8vo.
124 CAP
Capitula- tical authorities, on which they were founded. No ex-
tion ample of a similarly general application is tound in any
Jl of the temporal ordinances.”1
Lapitulum. The earijest editor of the Capitularies was Vitus Amer-
pachius, who published at Ingolstadt, in the year 15to,
“ Prsecipuse Constitutiones Caroli Magni de Rebus eccle-
siasticis et civilibus.” The history of the various editions
we cannot here detail, but must refer our more inquisitive
readers to the copious and elaborate preface of Baluze, who
has himself surpassed all preceding and all subsequent edi¬
tors. His great collection appeared under the following
title : “ Capitularia Regum Francorum ; additae sunt Mar-
culfi monachi et aliorum Formulae veteres,2 3 et notae doctis-
simorum virorum: Stephanus Baluzius i utelensis in unum
collegit, ad vetustissimos codices manuscriptos emendavit,
magnam partem nunc primum edidit, notis illustravit. Paris.
1677, 2 tom/fol. This valuable work was long afterwards
reprinted in Italy. Venetiis, 1771, 2 tom. fol. Another
edition, for which Baluze had himself made preparations,
remains to be mentioned P Nova editio, auctior ac emen-
datior ad fidem autographi Baluzii, qui de novo textum
purgavit, notasque castigavit et adjecit: acessere Vita Ba¬
luzii, partim ab ipso scripta, Catalogus Operum hujus viri
clarissimi, cum animadversionibus historicis, et Index va¬
riorum Operum ab illo illustratorum, quorum plurimorum
novas meditabatur Editiones: curante Petro de Chiniac,
Regi a Consiliis, Prosenescallo Generali Civili Userchse,
e Regia Humaniorum Litterarum Academia Montis-Al-
bani.” Paris. 1780, 2 tom. fol. This edition is splendid¬
ly printed, but is somewhat disfigured by a French trans¬
lation of the preface, exhibited column for column. The
Capitularies may likewise be found in two more recent
publications ; in Georgisch’s Corpus Juris Germanici an-
tiqui, Halse Magd. 1738, 4to, and in Canciani’s Jeges Bar-
barovum anliquce. Venetiis, 1781-91, 5 tom. fol. (x.)
CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty made
between the inhabitants or garrison of a place besieged
and the besiegers, for the delivering up of the place on cer¬
tain conditions. The most honourable and ordinary terms
of capitulation are to march out at the breach with arms
and baggage, drums beating, colours flying, a match light¬
ed at both ends, and some pieces of cannon, waggons, and
convoys for the baggage, and for the sick and wounded.
Capitulation, in the German polity, a contract which
the emperor enters into with the electors, in the name of all
the princes and states of the empire, before he is declar¬
ed emperor, and which he ratifies before he is raised to
that sovereign dignity. The principal points which the
emperor undertakes to observe are, 1. To defend the
church and empire ; 2. to observe the fundamental laws
of the empire; and, 3. to maintain and preserve the
rights, privileges, and immunities of the electors, prin¬
ces, and other states of the empire, specified in the ca¬
pitulation.
CAPITULUM, in the ancient military art, a transverse
beam, wherein were holes, through which passed the strings
whereby the arms of huge engines, as balistse, catapultee,
and scorpions, were played or worked.
Capitulum, in ecclesiastical writers, denoted part of a
CAP
chapter of the Bible read and explained. In this sense Capi2a
they said, ire ad capitulum, to go to a lecture. After- ||
wards the place or apartment where such theological ex-
ercises were performed was denominated domus capituli. y:
C APIZZI, a town of the intendancy of Messina, in the ^
island of Sicily, in a healthy situation, containing 3400
inhabitants.
CAPMANI, D. Antonio de, one of the most eminent
of the later writers of Spain, was born in Catalonia in 1754.
Fie lived for a considerable time in Barcelona, and latter¬
ly in Madrid, wdiere he died in 1810. He ranks high
both as a general scholar and as a political wwiter, and
has, indeed, in the latter character, manifested much more
sound and extensive views than belong to most of his
countrymen. In particular, it is to be remarked of him,
that he is almost the only native who has endeavoured to
expose the exaggerations of the earlier writers in regard
to the immense population, and highly advanced state of
agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, in that country,
in former times. FI is principal works, as noticed in the
Biographic Universelle, and Bictionnaire Universe!, are as
follows : 1. The art of translating the French into the Spa¬
nish Language. 1776, in 4 to. 2. The Philosophy of Elo¬
quence. 1777, in 8vo. 3. History of the Marine, Com¬
merce, and Arts of the ancient city of Barcelona. The first
two volumes of this work were published in 1779; the
last two, which consist of a variety of curious and impor¬
tant documents copied from the archives of Barcelona
in 1792. “ This excellent work is marked throughout
with a spirit of liberality and good sense, and distinguish¬
ed by an attention to philosophical and general views, but
seldom displayed by those who ransack archives, and com¬
pile papers for the use of future historians. We consider
it a most valuable addition to the history of the commerce
and manufactures of the middle ages.” (Edinburgh Re¬
view, vol. x.) 4. Historical and Critical Theatre of Spa¬
nish Eloquence. 1786-94, 5 vols. 4to. 5. A Dictionary,
French and Spanish, 1805, in 4to. This dictionary is pre¬
faced with a critical examination of the two languages.
Besides these, and some other pieces noticed in the
biographical dictionaries already mentioned, there is a
collection of tracts by Capmani, not alluded to in either
of them, entitled Questionescriticas sobre varios Puntos de
Historia Economica, Politicay Militar, published in 1807,
and of which there is an interesting account in the tenth
volume of the Edinburgh Review. All Capmani's works
were published in the Spanish language, and we are not
aware that any of them has been translated into any other
tongue.
CAPNICON, in Antiquity, chimney money, or a tax
which the Roman emperors levied for smoke, and which
of consequence was due from all, even the poorest, who
kept a fire. This was first invented by Nicephorus.
CAPNOMANCY, a kind of divination by means of
smoke, used by the ancients in their sacrifices. The
words come from xcwmj, smoke, and divination. The
general rule was, when the smoke was thin and light, and
rose straight up, it was a good omen ; if the contrary, it
was a bad one. There was also another species of capno-
1 Savigny’s Geschichte ties Romischen Reehts im Mittelafter, Bd. i S. 143. We quote Mr Cathcart’s translation, which, we are
sorry to find, has not yet extended beyond the first volume. See likewise Eichhorn’s Deutsche Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte, Th. i. S.
34G, and Conringius Dc Origine Juris Germanici, p. 88. edit. Helmestad. 4to.
2 In reference to this subject, the reader may consult a work entitled “ Commentatio de Marculfinis aliisque similibus Formulis,
Liber singulars: auctor Dr J. A. L. Seidensticker.” Jena;, 1818, 4to.
3 See above, vol. iv. p. 334—The work described in the Biographic UniverteUe as a publication of various manuscripts, is merely a
catalogue of Baluze’s library. “ Bibliotheca Baluziana, seu Catalogus Librorum Bibliothecae v. cl Stephan! Baluzii Tutelensis.”
Paris. 1719, 2 tom 8vo. This library contained 10,799 printed books, and many hundred manuscripts. Of one of his e irly publica¬
tions, which we had no opportunity of inspecting, we have copied a French title from Niceron, but the wrork is written in Latin:
“ Disquisitio Seculi quo vixit Sanctus Sacerdos, Episcopus Lemovicensis.” Tutelae Lemovicum, 1C55, 8vo. Baluze obtained seve¬
ral other benefices besides those which we have mentioned in p. 333.
CAP
D’Is- mancy, consisting in the observation of the smoke vising
a from poppy and jasmine seed cast upon lighted coal.
I . CAPO D’Istria, the capital of the Austrian province
[iocia-of istria, situated on a small island in the Gulf of Trieste.
1It contains about 5000 inhabitants, and possesses a bishop’s
see. Long. 13. 50. E. Lat. 45. 40. N.
CAPON, a cock chicken, emasculated as soon as left by
the dam, or as soon as he begins to crow.
CAPONIERE,orCAPPONiERE, in Fortification, a. cover¬
ed. lodgment sunk four or five feet into the ground, encom¬
passed with a little parapet about two feet high, serving
to support several planks covered with earth. The ca-
poniere is large enough to contain fifteen or twenty sol¬
diers, and is usually placed in the glacis on the extremi¬
ty of the counterscarp, and in dry moats ; having little
embrasures for the soldiers to fire through.
CAPPADOCIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, compre¬
hending all the country which lies between Mount Taurus
and the Euxine Sea. It was divided by the Persians into
two satrapies or governments; by the Macedonians into
two kingdoms, the one called Cappadocia ad Taurum ; the
other Cappadocia ad Pontum, and commonly Pontus ; for
the description and history of which last, see the article
Pontus.
Cappadocia Magna, or Cappadocia properly so called,
was bounded by Pontus on the north, Lycaonia and part
of Armenia Major on the south, Galatia on the west, and
by the Euphrates and part of Armenia Minor on the east.
The first king of Cappadocia we read of in history was
Pharnaces, who was preferred to the crown by Cyrus, king
of Persia, who gave him his sister Atossa in marriage. This
is all we find recorded of him, except that he was killed
in a war with the Hyrcanians. After him came a succes¬
sion of eight kings, of whom we know scarce any thing
except that they continued faithful to the Persian interest.
In the time of Alexander the Great, Cappadocia was go¬
verned by Ariarathes II. who, notwithstanding the vast
conquests and fame of the Macedonian monarchy, continu¬
ed unshaken in his fidelity to the Persians. Alexander
was prevented by death from invading his dominions ; but
Perdiccas, marching against him with a powerful and well-
disciplined army, dispersed his forces, and having taken
Ariarathes himself prisoner, crucified him, with all those
of the royal blood whom he could get into his pow'er.
Diodorus tells us that he was killed in the battle. He is
said to have reigned eighty-two years. His son Ariara¬
thes III. having escaped the general slaughter of the royal
family, fled into Armenia, where he lay concealed till the
civil dissensions which rose among the Macedonians gave
him a fair opportunity of recovering his paternal kingdom.
Amyntas, at that time the governor of Cappadocia, op¬
posed him; but being defeated in a pitched battle, the
Macedonians wrere obliged to abandon all the strongholds.
Ariarathes, after a long and peaceable reign, left his king¬
dom to his son Ariaramnes II. He applied himself more
to the arts of peace than war, in consequence of which
Cappadocia flourished greatly during his reign. He was
succeeded by his son Ariarathes IV. who proved a very
warlike prince, and having overcome Arsaces, founder of
the Parthian monarchy, considerably enlarged his own
dominions.
He was succeeded by Ariarathes V. who, marrying the
daughter of Antiochus the Great, entered into an alliance
with that prince against the Romans ; but Antiochus being
defeated, the king of Cappadocia was obliged to sue for
peace, which he obtained, after having paid two hundred
talents by way of fine, for taking up arms against the peo¬
ple of Rome. He afterwards assisted the republic with
men and money against Perseus king of Macedon, on which
account he was by the senate honoured with the title of
CAP 125
the friend and ally of the Roman people. He left the king-Cappadocia,
dom in a very flourishing condition to his son Mithridates, O-y-w
who, on his accession, took the name of Ariarathes VI.
Ibis prince, surnamed Philopater, from the filial respect
and love he showed his father from his very infancy, im¬
mediately renewed the alliance with Rome. Out of mere
good nature, he restored Mithrobarzanes, son to Ladria-
des, king of the Lesser Armenia, to his father’s kingdom,
though he foresaw that the Armenians would lay hold of
that opportunity to join Artaxias, who w^as then on the
point of invading Cappadocia. These differences, however,
were settled before they came to an open rupture, by the
Roman legates; and Ariarathes seeing himself thus de¬
livered from an impending war by the mediation of the re¬
public, presented the senate with a golden crown, and of¬
fered his service in whatever way they might think proper
to employ him. The senate in return sent him a staff and
chair of ivory ; which were presents usually bestowed on
those only whom they looked upon as attached to their in¬
terest. Not long before this, Demetrius Soter, king of Syria,,
had offered Ariarathes in marriage, his sister, the widow
of Perseus king of Macedon ; but this offer the king of Cap¬
padocia was obliged to decline for fear of offending the
Romans; and his so doing proved in the highest degree
acceptable to the republic, who reckoned him among the
chief of her allies. Demetrius, however, being greatly
incensed at the slight put upon his sister, set up a preten¬
der to the throne, one Orophernes, a supposititious, or, as
others call him, a natural son of the deceased king. The
Romans ordered Eumenes, king of Pergamus, to assist
Ariarathes with all his forces; which he accordingly did,
but to no purpose; for the confederates were overthrown
by Demetrius, and Ariarathes was obliged to abandon the
kingdom tg his rival. This happened about 159 years be¬
fore Christ, and the usurper immediately dispatched ambas¬
sadors to Rome with a golden crown. The senate declined
accepting the present till they heard his pretensions to the
kingdom; and these Orophernes, by suborned witnesses,
made to appear so plain, that the senate decreed that Ari¬
arathes and he should reign as partners ; but next year
Orophernes was driven out by Attalus, brother to Eu¬
menes, and his successor to the kingdom of Pergamus.
Ariarathes, being thus restored, immediately demanded
of the Priennians four hundred talents of gold which Oro¬
phernes had deposited with them. They honestly replied,
that as they had been trusted with the money by Oropher¬
nes, they could deliver it to none but himself, or such as
came in his name. Upon this the king entered their terri¬
tories with an army, destroying all with fire and sword.
The Priennians, however, still persevered in their integrity,
and, though their city was besieged by the united forces
of Ariarathes and Attalus, not only made an obstinate de¬
fence, but found means to restore the sum to Orophernes.
At last they applied for assistance to the Romans, who
enjoined the two kings to raise the siege, under pain of
being declared enemies to the republic. Ariarathes im¬
mediately obeyed; and marching his army into Assyria,
joined Alexander Epiphanes against Demetrius Soter, by
whom he had been formerly driven out of his kingdom.
In the very first engagement Demetrius was slain, and his
army entirely dispersed, Ariarathes having on that occa¬
sion given uncommon proofs of his courage and conduct.
Some years afterwards, a war breaking out between the Ro¬
mans and Aristonicus, who claimed the kingdom of Per¬
gamus in right of his father, Ariarathes joined the former,
and was slain in the same battle in which Crassus, procon¬
sul of Asia, v'as taken, and the Roman army cut in pieces.
He left six sons by his wife Laodice, on whom the Romans
bestowed Lycaonia and Cilicia. Rut Laodice, fearing lest
her children, when they came of age, should take the go-
126
CAP
Cappadocia, vernment out of her hands, poisoned five of them, the
youngest only having escaped her cruelty by being con¬
veyed out of the kingdom. The queen herself was soon
afterwards put to death by her subjects, who could not
bear her cruel and tyrannical government.
Laodice was succeeded by Ariarathes VIL, who, soon
after his accession, married another Laodice, daughter to
Mithridates the Great, hoping to find in that prince a
powerful friend to support him against Nicomedes, king
of Bithynia, who laid claim to part of Cappadocia. But
Mithridates, instead of assisting, procured one Gordius to
poison his unhappy son-in-law, and on his death seized
the kingdom, under pretence of maintaining the rights of
the Cappadocians against Nicomedes, till the children of
Ariarathes were in a condition to govern the kingdom.
The Cappadocians at first fancied themselves obliged to
their new protector; but finding him unwilling to resign the
kingdom to the lawful heir, they rose up in arms, and driv-
ino- out all the garrisons established by Mithridates, placed
on°the throne Ariarathes VIII. eldest son of their deceas¬
ed king. . , i •
The new prince found himself immediately engaged in
a war with Nicomedes ; but, being assisted by Mithridates,
not only drove him out of Cappadocia, but stripped him
of a great part of his hereditary dominions. On the con¬
clusion of the peace, Mithridates, seeking for some pre¬
tence to quarrel with Ariarathes, insisted upon his recal-
ling Gordius, who had murdered his father, which being
rejected with abhorrence, a war ensued. Mithridates took
the field first, in hopes of overrunning Cappadocia before
Ariarathes could be in a condition to make head against
him; but, contrary to his expectation, he was met on the
frontiers by the king of Cappadocia, with an army no way
inferior to his own. Hereupon he invited Ariarathes to a
conference, and, in sight of both armies, stabbed him with
a dagger which he had concealed under his garment.
This struck such terror into the Cappadocians, that they
immediately dispersed, and gave Mithridates an oppor¬
tunity of possessing himself of the kingdom without the
least opposition. The Cappadocians, however, unable
to endure the tyranny of his prefects, soon shook off the
yoke, and recalling the king’s brother, who had fled into
the province of Asia, proclaimed him king. He was scarcely
seated on the throne, however, before Mithridates invad¬
ed the kingdom at the head of a very numerous army; and
having drawn Ariarathes to a battle, defeated his army
with great slaughter, and obliged him to abandon the
kingdom. The unhappy prince soon after died of grief,
and Mithridates bestowed the kingdom on his son, who
was then but eight years old, giving him also the name of
Ariarathes. But Nicomedes Philopater, king of Bithynia,
fearing lest Mithridates, having now got possession of
the whole kingdom of Cappadocia, should invade his ter¬
ritories, suborned a youth to pass himself for the third son
of Ariarathes, and to present to him, the king, a petition,
praying for aid, in order that the petitioner might be re¬
stored" to his father’s kingdom. With him Nicomedes
sent to Rome Laodice, sister of Mithridates, whom he
had married after the death of her former husband Aria¬
rathes. Laodice declared before the senate that she had
three sons by Ariarathes, and that the petitioner was one
of them; but that she had been obliged to keep him con¬
cealed, lest he should undergo the same fate with his
brothers. The senate assured him that they would at all
events reinstate him in his kingdom. But in the mean
time, Mithridates, receiving notice of these transactions,
dispatched Gordius to Rome to undeceive the senate, and
to persuade them that the youth to whom he had resign¬
ed the kingdom of Cappadocia was the lawful son of the
late king, and grandson to Ariarathes, who had lost his
CAP
life in the service of the Romans against Aristonicus. Cappadoc;
This unexpected embassy put the senate upon inquiring
more narrowly into the matter; the whole plot was dis¬
covered ; Mithridates was ordered to resign Cappadocia,
and the kingdom was declared free. The Cappadocians,
however, in a short time sent ambassadors to Rome, ac¬
quainting the senate that they could not live without a
king. This greatly surprised the Romans, who had ,such
an aversion to royal authority; but leave was given them
to elect a king of their own nation. As the family of
Pharnaces was now extinct, the Cappadocians chose Ario-
barzanes, and their choice was approved by the senate, he
having on all occasions shown himself a steady liiend to
the Romans.
Ariobarzanes had scarcely taken possession of his king¬
dom when he was driven out by Tigranes, king of Arme¬
nia, who resigned Cappadocia to the son of Mithridates,
in pursuance of an alliance previously concluded between
the two parties. Ariobarzanes fled to Rome, and having
engaged the senate in his cause, he returned into Asia
with Sylla, who was enjoined to restore him to his king¬
dom. This was easily performed by Sylla, who, with a
body of troops, routed Gordius, who came to meet him on
the borders of Cappadocia at the head of a numerous
army. Sylla, however, had scarcely turned his back, when
Ariobarzanes was again driven out by Ariarathes, the son
of Mithridates, on whom Tigranes had bestowed the king¬
dom of Cappadocia. This obliged Sylla to return into
Asia, where he was attended with his usual success; and
Ariobarzanes was again placed on the throne. After the
death of Sylla, he was a third time forced by Mithri¬
dates to abandon his kingdom; but Pompey, having en¬
tirely defeated Mithridates near Mount Stella, restored
Ariobarzanes to his throne, and rewarded him for his
services during the war with the provinces of Sophene,
Gordiene, and great part of Cilicia. I he king, however,
being now advanced in years, and desirous ot spending
the remainder of his life in ease, resigned the crown to his
son Ariobarzanes, in presence ot Pompey, and never af¬
terwards troubled himself with affairs ot state.
Ariobarzanes II. proved no less faithful to the Romans
than his father had been. On the breaking out of the
civil war between Caesar and Pompey, he sided with the
latter; but, after the death of Pompey, he was received
into favour by Caesar, who even bestowed upon him great
part of Armenia. While Caesar was engaged in a war
with the Egyptians, Pharnaces, king of Pontus, invaded
Cappadocia, and stripped Ariobarzanes of all his domini¬
ons ; but Caesar, having defeated Pharnaces, restored the
king of Cappadocia, and honoured him with new titles of
friendship. After the murder of Caesar, Ariobarzanes,
having refused to join Brutus and Cassius, was by them
declared an enemy to the republic, and soon afterwards
taken prisoner and put to death. He was succeeded by
his brother Ariobarzanes III. whom Mark Antony deprived
both of his kingdom and his life; and in him ended the
family of Ariobarzanes.
Archelaus, the grandson of the general of the same
name who commanded against Sylla in the Mithridatic
war, was placed by Mark Antony on the throne of Cap¬
padocia, though nowise related either to the family of
Pharnaces or Ariobarzanes. His preferment was entirely
owing to his mother Glaphyra, a woman ot great beauty,
but of loose behaviour, who, in return for her compliance
with the lascivious desires of Antony, obtained the kingdom
of Cappadocia for her son. In the war between Augustus
and Antony, he joined the latter; but, at the interces¬
sion of the Cappadocians, he was pardoned by the empe¬
ror. He afterwards received Armenia the Lesser and
Cilicia Trachaea, as a reward for having assisted the Ro-
CAP
tocia. mans in clearing the seas of pirates, who greatly infest-
ed the coasts of Asia. He contracted a strict friendship
with Herod the Great, king of Judaea; and even mar¬
ried his daughter Glaphyra to Alexander, Herod’s son.
In the reign of Tiberius, Archelaus was summoned to ap¬
pear before the senate; for he had always been hated
by that emperor, because in his retirement at Rhodes he
had paid him no sort of respect. This had proceeded
from no aversion in him to Tiberius, but from the warn¬
ing given by Archelaus to his friends at Rome. For Caius
Csesar, the presumptive heir to the empire, being then alive,
had been sent to compose the differences of the East; and
hence the friendship of Tiberius was then looked upon
as dangerous. But Tiberius, when he came to the em¬
pire, remembering the disrespect shown him by Archelaus,
enticed the latter to Rome by means of letters from Li-
via, who promised him her son Tiberius’s pardon, provid¬
ed he came in person to implore it. Archelaus obeyed
the summons, and hastened to Rome, where he was re¬
ceived by the emperor with great wrath and contempt,
and soon afterwards accused of certain crimes before the
senate. The crimes of which he was accused were mere
fictions; but his concern at seeing himself treated as a
malefactor was so great, that he died soon afterwards of
grief, or, as others state, laid violent hands on himself. He
is said to have reigned fifty years.
On the death of Archelaus, the kingdom of Cappadocia
was reduced to a Roman province, and governed by men
of the equestrian order. It continued subject to the Ro¬
mans till the invasion of the eastern empire by the Turks,
to whom it is now subject, but has no distinguishing mo¬
dern name. In what was anciently called Cappadocia,
however, the Turks have four beglierbeylics, called Siwas,
Trebizond, Maraisch, and Cogni.
In the time of the Romans the inhabitants of Cappado¬
cia bore so bad a character, and were reputed so vicious
and lewd, that among the neighbouring nations a wicked
man was emphatically called a Cappadocian. In after
ages, however, their lewd disposition was so much corrected
and restrained by the pure doctrines of Christianity, that
no country whatever has produced greater champions of
the Christian religion, or given to the church prelates of
more unblemished characters.
We have now no system of the Cappadocian laws,
and scarcely wherewithal to form any particular idea of
Cappadocian jurisprudence. As to their commerce, they
carried on a considerable trade in horses, great numbers
of which were produced in their country; and we read of
them in Scripture as frequenting the fairs of Tyre with
this commodity. As Cappadocia abounded with mines of
silver, brass, iron, and alum, and afforded great store of
alabaster, crystal, and jasper, it is probable that they might
supply the neighbouring countries with these commodities.
The religion of the ancient Cappadocians was much the
same with that of the Persians. At Comana there was a
rich and stately temple dedicated to Bellona, w’hose
battles the priests and their attendants used to represent
on stated days, cutting and wounding each other as if
seized with an enthusiastic fury. No less famous and
magnificent were the temples of Apollo Catanius and of
Jupiter, the last of which had three thousand sacred ser¬
vants, or religious votaries. The chief priest was next in
rank to that of Comana, and, according to Strabo, had
a yearly revenue of fifteen talents. Diana Persica was
worshipped in a city called Castaballa, where women de¬
voted to the worship of that goddess were reported to
tread barefooted on burning coals without receiving any
hurt. The temples of Diana at Diospolis, and of Anias
at Zela, were likewise held in great veneration both by
the Cappadocians and Armenians, who flocked to them
cap 127
from all parts. In the latter were tendered all oaths in Caposele
matters of consequence ; and the chief among the priests II
was no way inferior in dignity, power, and wealth, to any Caprifica-
in the kingdom, having a royal attendance, and an unli-
mited authority over all the inferior servants and officers
of the temple. The Romans, who willingly adopted all
the superstitions and superstitious rites of the nations they
conquered, greatly increased the revenues of this and
other temples, conferring the priesthood on such as they
thought most fit for carrying on their designs. We are
told that human sacrifices were offered at Comana; and
that this barbarous custom was brought by Orestes and
his sister Iphigenia from Tauris Scythica, where men
and women were immolated to Diana. But this custom,
if ever it obtained in Cappadocia, was abolished in the
times of the Romans.
CAPOSELE, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
called Principato-Citeriore, with 3115 inhabitants.
CAPPANUS, a name given by some authors to a worm
that adheres to and gnaw^s the bottoms of ships, to which
it is extremely pernicious, especially in the East and West
Indies.
CAPRAIA, a small island of the Sardinian states, lying
in the Tuscan Sea, between the north-east point of Cor¬
sica and the coast of Piombino. It is about fifteen miles
in circumference, and possesses a town of the same name,
which has a good harbour. The principal product of the
ground is vines. The population amounts to about 2000. *
Long. 9. 48. 12. E. Lat. 43. 0. 18. N.
CAPRANU, a village of European Turkey, in the pro¬
vince of Livadia, on the river Cephissus, nearly correspond¬
ing to the ancient Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia. The
ruins of that town are still in existence, and consist of the
remains of a temple, a beautiful antique fountain, the thea¬
tre, some relics of the acropolis, and a number of broken
marbles with inscriptions. The modern village is a mean
place, of about half a dozen scattered cottages, with almost
as many churches.
CAPRI, an island of Italy, on the eastern side of the
Bay of Naples, opposite to Ponte della Campanella. It
consists of two lofty hills, with a fertile valley between
them, which produces much wine and oil. The dwellings
are scattered over the island, and the inhabitants amount
to 3620. In ancient times it was the place of retreat of
the Roman emperors. It is in longitude 14. 12. E. and
in latitude 40. 32. N.
CAPRIATA, Peter John, a civilian and historian,
was born at Genoa. He wrote in Italian the history of
the wars of Italy, an English translation of which was
printed in London in 1663.
CAPRICORN, in Astronomy, one of the twelve signs of
the zodiac.
The ancients accounted Capricorn the tenth sign; and
when the sun arrived thereat, it made the winter solstice
with regard to our hemisphere; but the stars being ad¬
vanced a whole sign towards the east, Capricorn is now
rather the eleventh sign; and it is at the sun’s entry into
Sagittary that the solstice happens, though the ancient
manner of speaking is still retained.
The sign is represented on ancient monuments, medals,
and the like, as having the fore part of a goat, and the hind
part of a fish, which is the form of an iEgipan ; and some¬
times simply under the form of a goat.
Tropic of Capricorn, a lesser circle of the sphere,
which is parallel to the equinoctial, and at 23° 30' distance
from it southwards, passing through the beginning of Ca¬
pricorn.
CAPRIFICATION, a method used in the Levant for
ripening the fruit of the domestic fig-tree, by means of
insects bred in that of the wild fig-tree.
128
Caprimul-
gus
I!
Capsicum.
CAP CAP
The most ample and satisfactory —s ?f thisjrio^ ^oi^in v^r . m^em^een^fKey wtmtc^
operation in garden,ng are Urose of Toumefort ajrf Pon^ no a^ ^ Another species is used for clfa
tedra; the former, in lus T oy j f ’ . paris making what is called cayan-butter or pepper-pots, by the
Memoir delivered to the Academy of Sciences at Fans maK.ng ^ ^ »nA w;lir.h
in 1705; the latter, in his Anthologia.
CAPRIMULGUS, Goatsucker, or Fern-owl. See
Ornithology. . . ,
CAPRINO, a town, the chief place of a district intne
delegation of Verona, in Austrian Italy, containing 3700
squa*
YN
inhabitants of America, and which they esteem the best
of all the spices.
C APSQUARES, strong plates of iron which come over
the trunnions of a gun, and keep it in the carriage. They
are fastened by a hinge to the prize-plate, that they may
lift up and down, and form a part of an arch in the mid-
inIT APHTOI ES in the manege, leaps that a horse makes die, to receive a third part of the thickness of the trim,
in ^the^isame^^ac^withou^advancing, in such a manner nions; for two thirds are let into the carnage and the
that when he is at the height of the leap, he jerks out other end is fastened by two iron wedges called the/re-
’ near. It is the most diffi-
It differs from a croupade
in the same place without advancing, in such a manner
that, when he is at the height of the — j , 7 it,
with his hinder lees even and near. It is the most diffi- locks and keys.
™!t of a the h i manege. It differs from a croupade CAPS TAN or Capsteen, a strong massive column of
'“ this that in a croupade a horse does not show his shoes; timber, formed hke a truncated cone, and having ,ts up-
and from the ballotade, because in the latter he does not per extremity p,creed with a number of holes to ece.ve
wfc out To make a horse work well at caprioles, he must the bars or levers. It .s lat perpend,cularly down through
be put between two pillars, and taught to raise first his the decks of a ship, and ,s fixed m such a manner, that
fore quarters, and then his hind quarters while his fore the men, by turning it honzontally with then- bars, may
ones are yet in the air, for which reason you must give perform any work winch requires «n extraordnary effort,
him the whip and the poinson
The following descriptions present a view of some im¬
portant improvements on capstans by Captain Phillips of
the royal navy.
Fig. 1 is an elevation of the upper capstan and works,
and an elevated section of the lower capstan, of a frigate;
A, the upper capstan, is fitted securely to the spindle by
two iron crosses at the upper and lower ends of the barrel;
B, the spindle, runs the full length of both capstans, is a
fixture to the upper one, and revolves freely on turned
bearings in the lower capstan; CC, a strong hexagonal
CAPRYKE, a town of the province of East Flanders,
in the Netherlands, on the Wantergank, with 3379 inha¬
bitants.
CAPSA, in Ancient Geography, a large and strong town
of Numidia, situated amidst vast deserts, waste, unculti¬
vated, and full of serpents, where Jugurtha kept his trea¬
sure. In his time it was taken and razed by Marius the
Roman general, who put. to death all the citizens capable
of bearing arms, and sold the rest as slaves. It was, how- y. , , . - . . c 4 ai
ever, afterwards rebuilt by the Romans, and strongly for- plate, fitted to the spindle and upper part of the trundle-
tified • but, on the decline of their empire, was taken and head. DD, the trundle-head, fits hexagonally over the bai-
demolished a second time by Occuba, a famous Arab rel U, which is connected with the spindle by the plates
o-eneral The walls of the citadel still remain, and are CC and EE ; the trundle-head is further secured by being
monuments of the ancient glory and strength of Capsa. bolted to the plate EE. By using a barrel instead of a
They are twenty-four fathoms in height, and five in thick¬
ness, built of large square stones, and have now acquired
the solidity and firmness of a rock. The walls of the
town were rebuilt by the inhabitants since their first de¬
molition, but were afterwards destroyed by Jacob Alman-
zor, who sent a governor and troops into the province. In
Marmol’s time Capsa was very populous, and abounded
with stately mosques and other structures of superb and
plain trundle-head, a greater bearing is obtained upon
the spindle, which must prevent the head from working,
when the men bear much at the outer end of the bars.
EE, the trundle-head lower plate, is fixed to the hexago¬
nal part of the spindle, and to the trundle-head, as above
described. FF are fixed bolts that connect the plates
C and E together; GG, drop bolts, that serve either
to attach the trundle-head to, or detach it from, the
elegant workmanship; but at present it is occupied by a lower body. The size of the bolts is larger in diameter
poor and indigent people, fleeced and oppressed by the than the largest mooring chain of a line-of-battle ship;
Tunisian government. Long. 9. 3. E. Lat. 33. 15. N. and from there being three in use, there can be no risk
CAPSALI, a market-town of the island Cerigo, in the of their breaking. H is an hexagonal part of the spindle,
Mediterranean. It stands at the foot of a lofty mountain on which the plates C and E fit, as well as the barrel U.
on the southern shore of the island, and has an excellent 11, the upper plate of the lower body, secures the body
anchorage. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and contains and whelps together. It has a circular hole in the centre,
1420 inhabitants. - through which the spindle passes; the bearing is bushed
CAPSARIUS (from capsa, a satchel), in Antiquity, a with brass. KK, the lower body, is composed of a bar-
servant who attended the Roman youth to school, carry- rel, whelps, and pecul-head, like any other capstan, but
ing a satchel with their books in it. He was sometimes revolving in turned bearings round the spindle. LL, drop
also called librarius. bolts, which attach the lower body to the frame that car-
Capsarius was likewise an attendant at the baths, to ries the works, or detach it from them, as may be required,
whom persons committed the keeping of their clothes. by means of chains running over the upper cheek. MM,
Capsarius (from capsa, a chest), among the Roman
bankers, was he who had the care of the money-chest or
coffer.
CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper. The bell-pepper
produces fruit for pickling, for which purpose the pods must
be gathered before they arrive at their full size, while
their rind is tender. They must be slit down on one side
the lower plate of the body, revolves with a turned bear¬
ing round the spindle. N N, the frame that carries the
centre of the intermediate pinions NNN, which frame
revolves in turned bearings round the spindle. O, the
centre pinion, is fixed to the spindle. PP, the large
wheel, is a fixture to the beams. Q, a collar, is bolted
to the spindle on which the lower body rests. R, a col-
to get out the seeds, after which they should be soaked lar to support the frame U. S, the step, is a strong piece
two or three days in salt and water. When they are taken of wood passing from beam to beam ; it is secured by
out of this and drained, boiling vinegar must be poured bolts to the beams, and supported by stauncheons from
on them in a sufficient quantity to cover them, and close- the deck; an iron cup with a brass bushing is let into it,
ly stopped down for two months; then they should be to receive the lower end of the spindle.
CAP
CAP
129
tan.
( '
Fig. 2 is a plan of the works used in fig. 1, which shows
that the centre wheel is but one half the size of the ex¬
terior wheel, although possessing a power of three to one.
The parts of the works are lettered similar to those of
fig 1, being a plan corresponding with that elevation.
Fig. 3 is a plan of the works in fig. 4, the parts being
lettered the same, and answering to the elevation de¬
scribed in fig. 4.
Fig. 4 shows the elevation of the upper capstan, with the
works partly in section partly rn elevation, and an elevat¬
ed section of the lower capstan of a frigate. A, the upper
capstan, is firmly secured to the spindle by crosses and an
iron bolt. B, the spindle, which runs the length of both
capstans, is a fixture to the upper one and false head, but
revolves freely in the lower capstan. C C, the false head,
is attached to a hexagon on the spindle; it may be let on
in halves, and when fixed to the spindle will prevent the
lower capstan from rising. D D, the lower capstan, is made
entire; head, whelps, body, and pecul-head, similar to any
other capstan, but revolving in turned bearings round the
spindle. E, the collar that carries the lower capstan. F,
the partners, are made like those of plain capstans, with
iron spindles, with a cup let in to receive the toe. G G,
drop bolts, which serve to connect or disconnect the false
head to the lower capstan. H H, the standards, are se¬
cured at their base to the trundle-head, and on their up¬
per end is fixed a circular ring, which supports the cen¬
tres of the intermediate pinions NNN; which ring is at¬
tached by pillars to the upper flanch N N, with the pinions
working between the plates N N. O, the centre pinion,
is let on the hexagonal part of the spindle, and is conse¬
quently a fixture to it. Q Q, the guides, are iron carriages,
that are secured to the beams, and in which the bolts R R
traverse. R R, the bolts which serve to fix the large wheel
when the increased power is in use, by grooves in stubbs,
fixed at opposite diameters of the rim of the large wheel.
These bolts slide backwards and forwards in the guides,
Q Q. S S is a blocking of w ood attached to the beams to
support the carriages of the bolts R R. T T are the up¬
per and lower deck beams, shown in section.
Fig. 5 is an elevation of the lower capstan of a frigate,
with the spindle separated beneath the quarter-deck, and
is constructed in every way similar to fig. 1, excepting
that the trundle-head is connected to the body and whelps,
and plays loosely round the spindle. A fixed head or plate,
firmly secured to the spindle, attaches the lower capstan
to the spindle by the upper deck bolts G G ; it will there¬
fore be only necessary to describe those parts that differ
from fig. 1. C C, the false head, is secured to the spindle
on an hexagonal bearing; D, the trundle-head, is a fixture
to the lower body. The bolts G G and L L will be cor¬
respondent in strength to the spindle.
The mode of using these capstans will be more fully un¬
derstood by referring to the letters in the plate and de¬
scription.
When the upper bolts GG in fig. 1 are down, and the
lower ones LL are suspended by the chains to the upper
cheek, the capstan has no power beyond the leverage of the
bars, as the works are totally disconnected with the cap¬
stans. To increase the power, elevate the bolts GG, and
let the chains loose that suspend the bolts LL, when these
bolts will fix themselves by their wreight in the frame NN,
and thus connect the lower body with the works. By the
upper bolts GG being elevated, the lower body becomes
detached from the head; and in this state, when the up¬
per capstan is hove round, the lower capstan receives its
motion by the bolts LL through the medium of the works.
The lower head D, being a fixture to the spindle, has the
power of setting the works in motion, as well as the upper
capstan, and consequently the power may be acted upon
vox,, vi.
on either deck. When all the bolts are up, the capstans Capsule
are separated; the lower capstan will then remain sta- II
tionary, and the upper capstan may be used to spring the Captain,
ship, or for any other distinct purpose, whilst the messen-
ger may remain during this period passed round the lower
capstan body, ready to weigh the anchor.
In fig. 4 the works are between the quarter-deck beams.
To increase the power, lock the large wheel P (that is, se¬
cure it by the bolts RR), and disconnect the false head
CC from the lower capstan by elevating the bolts GG.
Heave round on the quarter-deck capstan, and the power
will be in action by the lower capstan being set in motion
by the pillars HH through the medium of the works. To
use it as a plain capstan, unlock the large wheel by with¬
drawing the bolts RR, and dropping the upper bolts GG,
when both capstans and the works will traverse round to¬
gether. To disconnect the capstans (that is, to use them
for separate purposes), suspend the bolts GG and with¬
draw the bolts RR, when the works will go round with
the lower capstan by means of the pillars HH, and the
spindle with the upper one.
In fig. 5 the false head is a fixture to the spindle, and the
lower capstan revolves round it. To increase the power,
elevate the bolts GG, and drop the lower bolts LL. To
use the capstan for separate purposes, lift all the bolts and
keep them suspended ; to make it a plain capstan, suspend
the lower bolts LL, and keep the upper ones GG down.
The improvements above described consist in adapting
an arrangement of wheel works to the capstan, to assist it
with an increase of power when the power of the plain
capstan is found to be insufficient. The arrangement of
fig. 1 is similar to that which has been in general use in his
majesty’s service for these last ten years, and many instances
have presented themselves during this period of the great
benefit to be derived from the improvement. Among
these, it will be sufficient to enumerate the essential use
of which it proved to Sir Edward Parry, and all the later
expeditions fitted out from this country for the purpose of
maritime discovery; to the Diamond frigate, commanded
by Lord Napier; to the Isis, by Sir Thomas Staines; to
the Pelosus, by Captain Quin ; to the Jupiter in the Gulf
of St Lawrence; to the Druid and iEtna, commanded by
Captain Sandon; and to the Tamac, by Captain Bremer.
The wheel work is so arranged that the power may be
applied or relieved from it almost instantaneously; and
the leading feature of the improvement is, that both cap¬
stans traverse the same way, either as a plain capstan, or
when set in motion by the machinery; and the increase
of power obtained is in the ratio of one revolution of the
first mover more than the revolution gained by the differ¬
ence of diameter between the first period and the large
wheel. This is gained by making the large wheel station¬
ary, and the centres of the intermediate pinions the means
of communication with the capstan. Captain Phillips’ cap¬
stans are so generally adopted in his majesty’s service, that
there have been more than two hundred and sixty-five
supplied to all classes of his majesty’s ships, besides those
employed in foreign men-of-war and the East India and
merchant service.
CAPSULE, in a general sense, denotes a receptacle or
cover in form of a bag.
Capsule, among botanists, a dry hollow seed-vessel or
pericarpium, that cleaves or splits in some determinate
manner.
CAPTAIN, a military officer. There are several kinds
of captains, according to their commands.
Captain of a Troop or Company, an officer who com¬
mands a troop of horse or a company of foot under a co¬
lonel. In the horse and foot guards, the captains have the
rank of colonels.
R
130 CAP
Captain Captain-Gewera/, he who commands in chief.
II Cattain-Lieutenant, he who, with the rank of captain,
Captive.^ j.|^e pay of lieutenant, commands a troop or company
Sm**~Y~*m* jn name and place of some other person who is dis¬
pensed with, on account of his quality, from peifoiming
the functions of his post. Thus the colonel being usually
captain of the first company of his regiment, that company
is commanded by his deputy under the title of Captann-
Lieutenant, So in England, as well as in France, the king,
dauphin, princes, and others, have usually the title of C^P‘
tain of the guards, gens darmes, &c.; the real duty of which
offices is performed by captain-lieutenants. _
Captain Reformed, one who, upon the reduction of the
forces, has his commission and company suppiessed, .jc't
is continued captain, either as second to another, or with¬
out any post or command at all.
Captain of a Ship of War, the officer who commands
a ship of the line or a frigate carrying twenty or more
cannon. The charge of a captain in his majesty s navy
is very comprehensive, in &s much as he is not only an¬
swerable for any bad conduct in the military govern¬
ment, navigation, and equipment of the ship he commands,
but also for any neglect of duty or ill management in his
inferior officers, whose several charges he is appointed to
superintend and regulate. See Navy.
Captain of a Merchant-ship, he who has the direction
of the ship, crew, lading, &c. In small ships and short voy¬
ages he is more ordinarily called the master. In the Me¬
diterranean he is called the patroon.
Captain Pashau, or Capdan Pasha, in the polity of
the Turks, signifies the Turkish high admiral. He pos¬
sesses the third office of the empire, and is invested with
the same power at sea as the vizier has on shore. So-
liman II. instituted this office in favour of the famous Bar-
barossa, with absolute authority over the officers of the
marine and arsenal, whom he may punish, cashier, or put
to death, as soon as he is without the Dardanelles. _ He
commands in chief in all the maritime countries, cities,
castles, &c.; and at Constantinople he is the first magistrate
of police in the villages on the side of the Porte and the
canal of the Black Sea. The mark of his authority is a
large Indian cane, which he carries in his hand both in the
arsenal and with the army.
CAPTION, in Scots Law, a writ issuing under his ma¬
jesty’s signet, in his majesty’s name, obtained after decree
at the instance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding
messengers at arms and other officers of the law to appre¬
hend and imprison the person of the debtor until he pay
the debt.
CAPTIVE, a slave, or a person taken from the enemy.
Formerly captives in war became the slaves of those who
took them; and though slavery, such as obtained among
the ancients, is now abolished, some shadow of it still re¬
mains in respect of prisoners of war, who are accounted
the property of their captors, and have no right to liberty
but by concession from them. The Homans used their
captives with great severity; their necks were exposed to
the soldiers to be trampled on, and their persons after¬
wards sold by public auction. Captives were frequently
burnt in the funeral piles of the ancient warriors, as a sa¬
crifice to the infexmal gods. Those of royal or noble blood
had their heads shaven, and their hair sent to Rome to
serve as decorations for female toys, and the like. They
were led in triumph, loaded with chains, through Rome, in
the emperor’s train, at least as far as the foot of the Capito-
line Mount; for they were not permitted to ascend the sa¬
cred hill, but carried thence to prison. Those of the first
quality were honoured with golden chains on their hands
and feet, and golden collars on their necks. If they made
their escape, or killed themselves, to avoid the ignominy
CAP
of being carried in triumph, their images or effigies were Captivi
frequently carried in their place. II
CAPTIVITY, in a general sense, the state or conditiont
of a captive. .
Captivity, in sacred history, a punishment which God
inflicted upon his people, the Jews, for their vices and infi¬
delities. The first of these captivities is that of Egypt, from
which Moses delivered them, after which are reckoned
six during the government of the judges; but the greatest
and most remarkable were those of Judah and Israel,
which happened under the kings of each of these king¬
doms. It is generally believed that the ten tribes of Israel
never came back again after their dispersion, and Jose¬
phus and St Jerome are of this opinion; nevertheless,
when we examine the writings of the prophets, we find
the return of Israel from captivity pointed out in a man¬
ner almost as clear as that of the tribes of Benjamin and
Judah; see Hosea, i. 10, 11 ; Amos, ix. 14. The capti¬
vities of Judah are generally reckoned four, the fourth and
last of which fell in the year of the world 3416, under
Zedekiah ; and from this period begins the seventy years’
captivity foretold by Jeremiah.
Since the destruction of the temple by the Romans,
the Hebrews boast that they have always had their heads,
or particular princes, whom they call “ princes of the capti¬
vity,” in the east and west. The princes of the captivity
in the east governed the Jews that dwelt in Babylon, As¬
syria, and Persia; and the princes of the captivity in the
west governed those who dwelt in Judaea, Egypt, Italy,
and in other parts of the Roman empire. He who resid¬
ed in Judaea commonly took up his abode at Tiberias, and
assumed the name of Roschahboth, head of the fathers
or patriarchs. He presided in assemblies, decided in
cases of conscience, levied taxes for the expenses of his
visits, and had officers under him, who were dispatched
throughout the provinces for the execution of his orders.
As to the princes of the captivity of Babylon, or the East,
we know neither the original nor the succession of them.
It only appears that they were not in being before the end
of the second century.
CAPTURE, a prize or prey, particularly that of a ship
taken at sea. Captures made at sea were formerly held
to be the property of the captors after a possession of
twenty-four hours; but the modern authorities require
that, before the property can be changed, the goods must
have been brought into port, and have continued a night
intra prcesidia, in a place of safe custody, so that all hope
of recovering them has been lost.
CAPUA, a city, the capital of the province Terra di
Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples. It is on the river Vol-
turno, and is fortified. The air in summer is unhealthy,
and the water scarcely drinkable. The principal streets
are paved with lava, but the others are in a neglected state.
Though it contains a cathedral, eighteen parish churches,
and thirty-three cloister churches, with six hospitals, the
number of inhabitants does not exceed 8000. In the neigh¬
bourhood are some medicinal springs, and quarries of good
tuffstein. It is in longitude 13. 51. E. and latitude 41. 7. N.
The ancient Capua was situated at the village of Santa
Maria, a short distance from the present city.
CAPUCHINS, religious persons of the order of St Fran¬
cis in its strictest observance ; deriving their name from
caprice, or capuchon, a stuff cap, or cowl, wherewith they
cover their heads. They are clothed with brown or gray,
always barefooted, and never travel in coaches, nor shave
their beards. The Capuchins are a reformed body of the
order of Minors, commonly called Cordeliers, set on foot
in the sixteenth century by Matthew Baschi, a religi¬
ous observant of the monastery of Montefiascone; who,
being at Rome, was advertised several times from heaven
CAR
jput to practise the rule of St Francis to the letter. Upon this
j 0 he made application to Pope Clement in 1525, who gave
■calla- him permission to retire into a solitude, with as many others
as chose to embrace the strict observance. In 1528 they
obtained the pope’s bull. In 1529 the order was brought
into complete form, Matthew was elected general, and
the chapter framed constitutions. In 1543 the right of
preaching was taken from the Capuchins by the pope ; but
in 1545 it was restored to them again with honour. In
1578 there were already seventeen general chapters in the
order of Capuchins.
CAPUT, the head.
Caput Baronice, the head of the barony, in ancient
customs, denotes the ancient or chief seat or castle of a
nobleman, where he had his usual residence, and held his
court; and sometimes also called caput honoris, or the head
of the honour. The caput haronicc could not be settled in
dowry, nor could it be divided among the daughters in
case there was no son to inherit, but wtis to descend entire
to the eldest daughter, cceteris filiabus aliunde satisfactis.
Caput Lupinum. Anciently an outlawed felon was said
to have caput lupinum, and might be knocked on the head
like a wolf, by any one who should meet him ; because,
having renounced all law, he w'as to be dealt with as in a
state of nature, when every one who should find him might
slay him.
Caput Mortuum, a Latin name given to fixed and ex¬
hausted residuums remaining in retorts after distillations.
CARABINE, a fire-arm shorter than a musket, carry¬
ing a ball of twenty-four in the pound, borne by the light
horse, hanging at a belt suspended over the left shoulder.
The barrel is two feet and a half long, and is sometimes
furrowed spirally or rifled within, which is said to add to
the range of the piece.
CARABINEERS, regiments of light horse, carrying
longer carabines than the rest, and sometimes employed on
foot.
CARACALLA, M. Antoninus Bassianus, emperor
after his father Severus in 211, put the physicians to death
for not dispatching his father, as he would have had them.
He killed his brother Geta; and put Papinianus to death,
because he would not defend nor excuse his parricide. In
short, it is said that twenty thousand persons were mas¬
sacred by his order. He married Julia, his father’s widow.
Going to Alexandria, he slew the inhabitants, and applied
to the magicians and astrologers. At last, when travelling
from Edessa to Mesopotamia, one of his captains slew him,
by order of Macrinus, who succeeded him. He died after
he had reigned somewhat more than six years.
Caracalla, in Antiquity, a long garment, having a sort
of capuchin or hood a-top, and reaching to the heels;
worn among the Romans by the men and the women, in
the city as well as in the camp. Spartian and Xiphilian
represent the emperor Caracalla as the inventor of this
garment, and hence suppose the appellation Caracalla
was first given him. Others, with more probability, make
the caracalla originally a Gallic habit, and only brought
to Rome by the emperor above mentioned, who first en¬
joined the soldiery to wear it. The people called it antoni-
nian, from the same prince, who had borrowed the name
of Antoninus. The caracalla was a sort of cassock or
surtout. Salmasius, Scaliger, and after them Du Cange,
even take the name casaque to have been formed from that
of caraque, for caracalla. This is certain from St Jerome,
that the caracalla, with a retrenchment of the capuchin,
became an ecclesiastical garment. It is described as made
of several pieces cut and sewed together, and hanging
down to the feet; but it is more than probable some were
made shorter, especially out of Rome, otherwise they could
not have suited as a military dress.
C A R 131
CARACCAS was formerly a division of the Spanish Caraccas
dominions in South America, bounded on the north by ||
the Caribbean Sea, from the Cape de la Vela on the west, Caracci.
to the point of Paria; on the east by the sea, from the
twelfth to the eighth degree of north latitude; on the
south by Dutch Guiana and Peru; and on the west by
the kingdom of Santa be, another obsolete division of the
Spanish territory. The captain generalship of the Carac¬
cas is now incorporated into the modern republic of Co¬
lombia, to which the reader is referred.
Caraccas, a large city of South America, and the
former capital of the above province, situated on that
chain of mountains which runs along the coast of the Ca¬
ribbean Sea, from Coro to Cumana, above the land of
which it is situated at the height of three thousand feet.
It stands on a declivity near four streams, namely, the
Guayra, the Anauco, the Caroata, and the Catucho, which,
after passing the town, join into one, and at length
mingling their waters with those of the Tuy, flow into
the ocean thirty-six miles east of Cape Codera. The
streets are in general about a hundred yards apart; and
as they intersect each other at right angles, the whole
town is divided into square portions called quadras. There
are several squares in this city, of which the Plaza Mayor,
or open square, is the most worthy of notice. The east
side is principally occupied by the cathedral, the south
by the college, and the west by the public prison. This
square is a great market for fruit and other articles, and
contains a sort of inner square, in which are ranges of
shops. The town is well supplied with water from the
Catucho, which is dispensed to the inhabitants in public
fountains, as well as in pipes and reservoirs. The chief
public buildings are the cathedral, which is two hundred
and fifty feet in length by seventy-five in breadth, and is
supported by twenty-four pillars, without beauty or pro¬
portion. The church ol Alta Gracia, built by the people
ol colour, excels the cathedral in the richness of its orna¬
ments, and is by far the most splendid church in Carac¬
cas. There are three other parish churches, three mo¬
nasteries for friars, two nunneries, and three hospitals, of
which one is for lepers alone. The college is the only
public institution for education ; and the mode of educa¬
tion was a mere monkish routine before the late revolu¬
tion ; but more liberal sentiments now begin to prevail.
The city contains, according to Depons, 40,000 inhabit¬
ants, composed of whites, freed persons, slaves, and a few
Indians. Caraccas, owing to its elevation, enjoys a tem¬
perate climate; the thermometer in summer varying, about
two o’clock of the day, from 73 to 79. Long. 67. W.
Lat. 10. 31. N.
CARACCI, Louis, Augustine, and Hannibal, three
celebrated painters of the Lombard school, all of Bologna.
Louis was born in 1555, and was cousin-german to Au¬
gustine and Hannibal, who were brothers, the sons of a
tailor, who was yet careful to give them a liberal educa¬
tion. They were both disciples of their cousin Louis.
Augustine gained a knowledge of mathematics, natural
philosophy, music, poetry, and most of the liberal arts;
but, though painting was his principal pursuit, he learned
the art of engraving from Cornelius Cort, and surpassed
all the masters of his time. Hannibal, again, never devi¬
ated from his pencil. These three painters at length hav¬
ing reaped all the advantages they could by contempla¬
tion and practice, formed a plan of association, continued
always together, and laid the foundation of that celebrated
school which has ever since been known by the name of Ca¬
racci s Academy. Thither all the young students who had
a view of becoming masters resorted for instruction in
the rudiments of painting; and there the Caracci taught
freely, and without reserve, all that came. Louis’s charge
132
CAR
Caracci.
was to make a collection of antique statues and has leliefs.
They had designs of the best masters, and a collection ot
curious books on all subjects relating to their art; and they
had a skilful anatomist always ready to teach whatever
belonged to the knitting and motions of the muscles, &c.
There were often disputations in the academy; and not only
painters, but men of learned professions, proposed ques¬
tions which were always decided by Louis. Every body
was well received ; and though stated hours were allotted
to treat of different matters, yet improvement might be
made at all hours from the antiquities and the designs wine i
were constantly to be seen. _
The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, Cardinal rar-
nese sent for Hannibal thither, to paint the gallery of his
palace. Hannibal was the more willing to go, because
he had a great desire to see Raphael’s works, with the an¬
tique statues and bas reliefs. The taste which he formed
there from the ancient sculpture, made him change his
Bolognian manner for one more learned, but less natural
in the design and in the colouring. Augustine followed
Hannibal to assist him in his undertaking of the Farnese
gallery; but the brothers not rightly agreeing, Farnese
sent Augustine to the court of the Duke of Parma, where
he died in the year 1602, being only forty-five years of
age. His most celebrated piece of painting is that of the
communion of St Jerome, in Bologna. .
In the meanwhile, Hannibal continued working in the
Farnese gallery at Rome ; and, after inconceivable pains
and care, finished the paintings in a style ot perfection
altogether unrivalled. He hoped that the cardinal would
have rewarded him in some proportion to the excellence
of his work, and the time it occupied, which was eight
years ; but he was disappointed. The cardinal, influenced
by an ignorant Spaniard, his domestic, gave him little more
than L.200, though it is certain he deserved more than
twice as many thousands. When the money was brought
him, he was so surprised at the injustice done him, that
he could not speak a word to the person who brought it.
This confirmed him in a melancholy to which his temper
naturally inclined, and made him resolve never more to
touch his pencil; which resolution he would undoubtedly
have kept, if his necessities had not compelled him to bi eak
it. It is said that his melancholy gained so much upon
him, that at certain times it deprived him of the use of
his senses. It did not, however, put a stop to his amours;
and his debauches at Naples, whither he retired for the
recovery of his health, brought on a distemper of which
he died in 1609, when he was only forty-nine years of age.
His veneration for Raphael was so great, that his death¬
bed request was to be buried in the same tomb with him ;
which was accordingly done in the Pantheon or Rotunda
at Rome. There are extant several prints of the blessed
Virgin, and some other subjects etched by the hand of this
incomparable artist. He is said to have been a friendly,
plain, honest, open-hearted man ; very communicative to
his scholars, and so extremely kind to them, that he gene¬
rally kept his money in the same box with his colours, where
they might have recourse to either as they bud occasion.
While Hannibal Caracci worked at Rome, Louis was
courted from all parts of Lombardy, especially by the
clergy, to paint pictures in their churches; and we may
judge of his capacity and facility by the great number of
pictures he executed, and by the preference that was given
him over other painters. In the midst of these employ¬
ments Hannibal solicited him to come and assist him in
the Farnese gallei'y, and so earnestly, that he could not
avoid complying with his request. He went to Rome,
corrected several things in that gallery, painted a figure
or two himself, and then returned to Bologna, where he
died in 1619, aged sixty-four.
CAR
CARACOL, in the manege, the half-turn which a
horseman makes either to the right or left.
Caracol, in Architecture, denotes a staircase in a he-
lix or spiral form.
CARACT, or Carat, the name of that weight which
expresses the degree of fineness of gold. The word is
also written carract, car rat, karract, and karrat. Its ori¬
gin is contested; but the most probable opinion is that of
Kennet, who derives it from carecta, a term which ancient¬
ly denoted any weight, and came afterwards to be appro¬
priated to that which expresses the fineness of gold and
the gravity of diamonds.
These carats are not real determinate weights, but only
imaginary. The whole mass, be the weight what it will,
is conceived to be divided into twenty-four carats; and
as many twenty-fourth parts as it contains of pure gold,
it is called gold of so many carats, or so many carats fine.
Thus, gold of eighteen carats is a mixture, of which
eighteen parts are of pure gold, and the other six of an in¬
ferior metal. This is the common way of reckoning in Eu¬
rope, and at the gold mines in the Spanish West Indies,
but with some variation in the subdivision of the carat;
for among us it is divided into four grains, among the Ger¬
mans into twelve parts, and among the French, according
to Mr Helot, into thirty-two. The Chinese reckon by a dif¬
ferent division called touches, of which the highest num¬
ber, or that which denotes pure gold, is a hundred; so
that a hundred touches correspond to our twenty-four
carats’ . • u • t.
Caract is also a certain weight which goldsmiths and
jewellers use for weighing precious stones and pearls. In
th*3 sense the word is supposed by some to be derived from
the Greek Mganov, a fruit which the Latins call siligua,
and we carob bean, each of which may weigh above four
grains of wheat; and hence the Latin siligua has been
used for the weight of four grains. This caract weighs four
grains; but they are sometimes lighter than the grains of
other weights. Each of these grains is subdivided into
&c
i.? A, 1, -L,
CARACTACUS, a renowned king of the ancient Bri¬
tish people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales. Hav¬
ing valiantly defended his country seven years against
the Romans, he was at length defeated ; and, flying to
Cartismunda, queen of the Brigantes (inhabitants of York¬
shire), was by her treacherously delivered up to the Ro¬
mans, and led in triumph to the Emperor Claudius, then
at York, where his noble behaviour, and heroic but pathe¬
tic speech, obtained him not only his liberty, but the es¬
teem of the emperor, A. d. 52. See article Britain.
CARAGROUTH, in Commerce, a silver coin of the
empire, weighing nine drachms. It passes at Constanti¬
nople for a hundred and twenty aspers. There are foui
sorts of them, which are all equally current, and of the
same value.
CARAITES, in ecclesiastical history, a religious sect
among the Jews, of which there are still some subsisting
in Poland, Russia, Constantinople, Cairo, and other places
of the Levant, whose distinguishing tenet and practice it
is to adhere closely to the words and letter of the scrip¬
ture, exclusive of allegories, traditions, and the like.
Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice, observes, that of all
the heresies among the Jews before the destruction of
the temple, there is none now left but that of the Caraim,
a name derived from Micra, which signifies the pure text
of the Bible, because of their keeping to the Pentateuch,
observing it to the letter, and rejecting all interpretations,
paraphrases, and constitutions of the rabbin. Aben Ez¬
ra, and some other rabbin, treat the Caraites as Saddu-
cees; but Leo de Juda calls them, more accurately, Sad-
ducees Reformed, because they believe in the immortality
CAR
;aites. of the soul, paradise, hell, the resurrection, and other doc-
y-o-' trines which the ancient Sadducees denied. He adds,
however, that they were doubtless originally real Saddu¬
cees, and sprung from among them. But M. Simon, with
more probability, supposes them to have taken their rise
in this way, namely, that the more knowing among the Jews
opposing the dreams and reveries of the rabbin, and using
the pure texts of Scripture to refute their groundless tra¬
ditions, had the name of Caraim given them, which sig¬
nifies the same thing as the barbarous Latin Scripturarii,
that is, people attached to the text of Scripture. The other
Jews gave them the odious name Sadducees, from their
agreement with those sectaries on the head of traditions.
Scaliger, Yossius, and Spanheim, rank the Caraites among
the Sabaeans, Magi, Manichees, and Mussulmans, but by
mistake. Wolfgang, Fabricius, and others say that the Sad¬
ducees and Esseni were called Caraites, in opposition to the
Pharisees; while others take them for the doctors of the
law so often mentioned in the gospel. But these are all con¬
jectures ; for Josephus and Philo make no mention of them,
which shows them to be more modern than either of those
authors. In all probability this sect was not formed till
after the collection of the second part of the Talmud, or
the Gemera; perhaps not till after the compilation of the
Mischna, in the third century. The Caraites themselves
pretend to be the remains of the ten tribes led captive by
Shalmaneser. Wolfius, from the Memoirs of Mardacheus,
a Caraite, refers their origin to a massacre among the
Jewish doctors under Alexander Jannaeus, their king,
about a hundred years before Christ; because Simon, son
of Schetach, and the queen’s brother, making his escape
into Egypt, there forged his pretended traditions, and,
at his return to Jerusalem, published his visions, interpo¬
lating the law after his own fancy, and supporting his no¬
velties from the notices which God, he said, had communi¬
cated by the mouth of Moses, whose depositary he was.
He gained many followers, and was opposed by others,
who maintained that all which God had revealed to Moses
was written. Hence the Jews became divided into two
sects, the Caraites and Traditionists. Among the first,
Juda, son of Tabbai, distinguished himself; among the
latter, Hillel. Wolfius reckons not only the Sadducees,
but also the Scribes, in the number of Caraites. But the
address of the Pharisees prevailed against them all, and
the number of Caraites decreased. In the eighth cen¬
tury, Annan indeed retrieved their credit a little; Rabbi
Schalomon did the same in the ninth ; and they succeed¬
ed pretty well till the fourteenth; but since that time
they have been declining.
The Caraites are but little known, their works coming
only into very few hands, even among the greatest He¬
braists. Buxtorf never saw more than one, and Selden
two; but Mr Trigland says he has recovered enough to
speak of them with assurance. He asserts, that soon after
the prophets had ceased, the Jews became divided on
the subject of works and supererogation, some maintain¬
ing their necessity from tradition, whilst others, keeping
close to the written law, set them aside; and it was from
these last that Caraitism commenced. He adds, that
after the return from the Babylonish captivity, the obser¬
vance of the law being to be re-established, there were
several practices found proper for that end; and these
being once introduced, were looked upon as essential, and
as appointed by Moses. This was the origin of Pharisaism :
while a contrary party continuing to keep close to the let¬
ter, founded Caraitism.
The modern Caraites, Leo of Modena observes, have
their synagogues and ceremonies. They pretend to be
the sole proper Jews, or observers of the laws of Moses,
calling the rest by the term rabbinim, or “ followers of the
CAR 133
rabbin.” The latter hate the Caraites mortally, refusing Caraman
to ally or even to converse with them, and treating them II
as mamzeim, or bastards, because of their rejecting the con- Caramania.
stitutions of the rabbin relating to marriages, repudiations,
purifications of women, and the like. This aversion is so
great, that if a Caraite should become a rabbinist, he would
never be received by the other Jews.
The Caraites, however, do not absolutely reject all kinds
of traditions, but only such as appear to be not well ground¬
ed. Selden, who is very express on this point, in his
Uxor Hebraica, observes, that besides the mere text, they
have certain interpretations, which they call hereditary,
and which are proper traditions. Their theology seems
to differ from that of the other Jews, only in that it is
purer, and clearer of superstition ; and they give no credit
to the explications of the Cabbalists, chimerical allegories,
nor to any constitutions of the Talmud, but such as are
conformable to the Scripture, and may be drawn from it
by just and necessary consequences.
Peringer observes of the Caraites in Lithuania, that they
are very different, both in aspect, language, and man¬
ners, from the rabbinists, with whom the country abounds.
Their mother tongue is the Turkish; and this they use in
their schools and synagogues. In visage they resemble
the Mahommedan Tartars. Their synagogues are placed
north and south ; and the reason they give for this is, that
Shalmaneser brought them northward ; so that, in praying,
they must turn to the south, in order to look to Jerusalem.
He adds, that they admit all the books of the Old Testa¬
ment ; contrary to the opinion of many of the learned, who
hold that they reject all but the Pentateuch.
Caleb, a Caraite, reduces the difference between them
and the rabbinists to three points: I, In that they deny
the oral law to have come from Moses, and reject the
Cabbala; 2, in that they abhor the Talmud; 3, in that
they observe the feasts, as the sabbaths, &c. much more
rigorously than the rabbin do; and to these may be add¬
ed, that they extend the degree of affinity in which mar¬
riage is prohibited, almost to infinity.
CARAMAN, a town in the department of the Upper
Garonne, in France, with 2286 inhabitants.
Caraman, a town of Asiatic Turkey, and the capital of
Caramania. It is situated on a plain, and consists of low
houses, almost all built of clay. It has manufactures of
coarse woollen cloth, and others of wool and cotton mixed
for the use of the inhabitants. On the neighbouring moun¬
tains are fed numerous goats and sheep, which afford an
abundant supply of wool. A considerable trade is carried
on with Smyrna, and generally with Asia Minor. The
town contains 1100 houses, 1000 of which are occupied
by Turks, and the remainder by Armenians.
CARAMANIA, an extensive province of Asia Minor.
On the north and west it has Natolia for its boundary, on
the south the Mediterranean, and its eastern boundary is
not exactly ascertained. The coast is everywhere indent¬
ed by bays and inlets, and in many parts is of a steep and
rocky aspect, with promontories which rise to the height
of 500 or 600 feet above the level of the sea, and pene¬
trate to a great depth below the surface. In other parts
the shore is barren and sandy. The country is well
watered, though its rivers are in general narrow, shallow,
and unfit for navigation. It contains also many lakes
stored with fish. But this and other advantages are not
improved by the indolent inhabitants. The aspect of the
country is mountainous. It is intersected by long ranges
of hills, from which diverge subordinate branches in every
direction, with broad and fertile valleys intervening, and
insulated rocks and mountains in the spacious plains.
Some of the more lofty hills rise to the line of perpetual
snow; and the lower ranges are covered with forests to
134 CAR
Cararaanta their very summit, in which are seen the oak, the pine a
II hundred feet in height, besides every other variety of forest
Caravan. trees< The soil in the valleys is remarkably fertile, and
yields the finest wheat and other grain, besides all de¬
scriptions of fruit. Oranges, citrons, pomegranates, figs,
grapes, &c. are produced in abundance ; the vine and the
fig tree exhibit the most luxuriant vegetation, and the
laurel and myrtle, with innumerable odoriferous shrubs and
plants, flourish in profusion. The poppy plant is exten¬
sively cultivated. This country, which was once so popu¬
lous, and covered with flourishing cities, now lies desolate
in many parts. Fhe inhabitants, namely the lurcoman
shepherds, are little better than a lawless banditti; and pi¬
rates frequently shelter themselves behind the promonto¬
ries of the coast, in order to plunder the defenceless mariner.
Among the principal cities known to Europeans, are enu¬
merated Konieh, the residence of the pasha; Aphiom;
and Adalia, which contains 8000 inhabitants. The Turks
exercise a pernicious authority over the country, which is
governed, or rather oppressed and plundered, by the pashas,
who rule over it as the delegates of the grand signior.
The ruins of cities once flourishing, containing the finest
monuments of antiquity, are seen scattered over the plains,
and attest the former prosperity of this now comparative¬
ly desolate country.
CARAMANTA, a town of South America, in the pro¬
vince of Antioquia. It is situated on the Cauca, sixty-
five leagues north-east of Popayan. Long. 75. 33. W.
Lat. 5. 58. N.
CARAMNASSA, a small winding river of Hindustan,
which separates the province of Batar from that of Be¬
nares. It is chiefly remarkable as it is so far different from
other streams that the Hindus are forbidden to touch it;
and they always cross it therefore with the utmost cau¬
tion, as by touching it they lose the fruits of their former
austerities and pilgrimages.
CARAT. See Caeact.
C All A V ACC A, a town of Spain, at the mouth of a
river of the same name, in Segura, in the province of
Murcia, containing 8720 inhabitants. Lat. 38. 7. N.
CARAVAN, or Karavanne, in the East, signifies a
company or assembly of travellers and pilgrims, and more
particularly of merchants, who, for their greater security,
and in order to assist each other, march in a body through
the deserts, and other dangerous places, which are infest¬
ed with Arabs or robbers.
There are four regular caravans which go yearly to
Mecca; the first from Damascus, composed of the pilgrims
from Europe and Asia; the second from Cairo, composed
of the Mahommedans of Barbary ; the third from Zibith, a
place near the mouth of the Red Sea, where those of Arabia
and India meet; the fourth from Babylon, where the Per¬
sians assemble. Most of the inland commerce of the East
is carried on by caravans. The Czar Peter the Great
established a trade between Russia and China by means
of a caravan. M. Bougnon, geographer to the Duke of
Lorrain, published a treatise of the caravans of merchants
in Asia; in which he shows of what they are composed,
how many sorts there are, the several uses of the different
sorts of animals in them, the prices given for them, the
officers and men appointed to conduct them, and the pay
of each, with their manner of marching, halting, fighting,
retreating, and the like. Caravans of this kind are large con¬
voys of armed men, merchants, and travellers, with diverse
sorts of animals for the carriage of their provisions. There
are commonly four chief officers of a caravan, viz. the ca¬
ravan bachi, or chief, the captain guide, captain of rest,
and captain of distribution. The first has absolute com¬
mand over all the rest; the second is absolute in the
march; the office of the third only commences when the
CAR
caravan stops and makes a stay; to the fourth belongs
the disposition of every part of the corps in case of an
attack or battle, and he has also the inspection of the dis¬
tribution of provisions, which is made under him by seve¬
ral distributors, who give security to the master of the
caravan, and have each of them a certain number of per¬
sons, elephants, dromedaries, &c. to take care of at their
peril. The treasurer of the caravan is a fifth officer, who
has under him several agents and interpreters, who keep
journals of all that passes, for the satisfaction of those
concerned in fitting out the caravan. Any dealer is at
liberty to form a company in order to make a caravan.
He in whose name it is raised is considered as the caravan
bachi, or chief of the caravan, unless he appoint some other'
person in his place. If there are several merchants equal¬
ly concerned, they elect a caravan bachi; after which they
appoint officers to conduct the caravan, and decide all con¬
troversies that may arise during the journey.
There are also sea caravans, established on the same
footing, and for the same purpose ; such is the caravan of
vessels from Constantinople to Alexandria.
CARAVANSERAI, or Karavansera, a place ap¬
pointed for receiving and loading the caravans. It is
commonly a large square building, in the middle of which
there is a very spacious court; and under the arches or
piazzas that surround it there runs a bank, raised some
feet above the ground, where the merchants and those
who travel with them in any capacity take up their lodg¬
ings as well as they can, the beasts of burden being fas¬
tened to the foot of the bank. Over the gates that lead
into the court there are sometimes little rooms, which the
keepers of the caravanserais let out at a very high price
to such as have a mind to be private.
The caravanserais in the East are something of the na¬
ture of the inns in Europe ; only that you meet with little
accommodation either for man or beast, but are obliged
to carry almost every thing with you. Tdiere is no cara¬
vanserai without a well or spring of wrater. The exist¬
ence of these buildings is chiefly owing to the charity of
the Mahommedans; and they are esteemed as sacred
dwellings, where it is not permitted to insult any person,
or to pillage any of the effects that are deposited there.
There are also caravanserais where most things may be
had for money ; and as the profits of these are consider¬
able, the magistrates of the cities to whose jurisdiction
they belong take care to store them well. I here is an
inspector, who, at the departure of each caravan, fixes
the price of the night’s lodging, from which there is no
appeal.
CARAVANSERASKIER, the steward or keeper of a
caravanserai. He keeps an account of all the merchan¬
dises that are sold upon trust, and demands the payments
of the sums due to the merchants for what has been sold
in the caravanserai, on the seller’s paying two per cent.
CARBON. See Chemistry.
CAR BON AR A, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Principato-Ulteriore, with 2747 inhabitants.
CARBUNCLE, a name formerly given to garnet.
Carbuncle, in Heraldry, a charge or bearing, consist¬
ing of eight radii, four of which make a common cross, and
the other four a saltier. Some call these radii buttons or
staves, because they are round, and enriched with buttons,
or pearled like pilgrims’ staves, and frequently tipped or
terminated with fleurs-de-lis; others blazon them, royal
sceptres, placed in saltier, pale and fesse.
CARCASSONNE, an arrondissement of the department
of the Aude, in France, extending over 830 square miles.
It is divided into 12 cantons and 141 communes. Ihe
population amounts to 89,139 persons. The chief place,
from which the arrondissement takes its name, is a city
Caravjj
sera;
Carca,;
sonne
'WV'
CAR
!, ixenteon the Aube, which divides it into two parts. That which
! || is situated on the left bank is a well-built and rather mo-
rds. (Jem city, with a fine square, from which streets lead in
different directions. The part on the right bank is more
antique and less handsome. Carcassonne contains 1604i
houses and 15,000 inhabitants, who are occupied in various
manufactures, particularly thin woollen, for the trade of
the Levant. Long. 2. 14. 35. E. Lat. 43. 12. 51. N.
CARCAXENTE, a town of Spain, in the province of
Valencia, containing 5900 inhabitants. There are mills
here for making silk thread; and oranges and pomegra¬
nates are cultivated in the neighbourhood. Lat. 39. 11. N.
CARCERES, in the ancient Circensian games, were
inclosures in the circus, wherein the horses were restrain¬
ed till the signal was given for starting, when, by an ad¬
mirable contrivance, they all at once flew open.
CARD, among artificers, an instrument consisting of a
block of wood set with sharp teeth, serving to arrange the
hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and the like. There are different
kinds of them, as hand-cards, stock-cards, &c. They are
made as follows:
A piece of thick leather, of the size intended for the
card, is strained in a frame for that purpose, and then
pricked full of holes, into which the teeth or pieces of iron
wire are inserted; after which the leather is nailed by
the edges to a flat piece of wood, in the form of an oblong
square, about a foot in length and half a foot in breadth,
with a handle placed in the middle of one of the longer
sides.
The teeth are made in the following manner. The wire
being drawn of the size intended, a skain or number of
wires are cut into proper lengths by means of a gauge,
and then doubled in a tool contrived for the purpose;
after which they are bent into the proper direction by
means of another tool, and then placed in the leather, as
above mentioned. See Woollen Manufacture.
Cards, in Gaming, little pieces of fine thin pasteboard,
of an oblong figure, of several sizes, but most commonly,
in Britain, three inches and a half long and two and a
half broad, on which are painted several points and
figures.
The moulds and blocks for making cards are exactly
like those that were used for the first printed books. . A
sheet of wet or moist paper is laid on the block, which is
very slightly done over with a sort of ink made of lamp¬
black diluted in water, and mixed with some starch to
give it a body. This is afterwards rubbed off with a round
list. The court-cards are coloured by means of several
patterns, styled stane-Jiles. These consist of papers cut
through with a penknife ; £tnd in the apertures the various
colours, as red, black, &c. are severally applied. These
patterns are painted with oil-colours, that the brushes
may not wear them out; and when the pattern is laid on
the pasteboard, a brush full of colour is slightly passed
over it, and, leaving the colour within the openings, forms
the face or figure of the card.
Among sharpers, divers sorts of false and fraudulent
cards have been contrived; as, \. Marked cards, where
the aces, kings, queens, knaves, are marked on the corners
of the backs with spots of different number and order,
either with clear water or water tinged with pale Indian
ink, that those in the secret may distinguish them. Aces
are marked with single spots on two corners opposite dia¬
gonally ; kings with two spots at the same corners ; knaves
with the same number transversed. 2. Afrce/’cards, those
which are longer or broader than the rest, chiefly used at
v/hist and piquet. The broad cards are usually for kings,
queens, knaves, and aces; the long for the rest. Their
design is to direct the cuttings, to enable him in the se¬
cret to cut the cards disadvantageously to his adversary,
CAR 135
and draw the person unacquainted with the fraud to cut Cardan,
them favourably for the sharper. As the pack is placed
either endwise or sidewise to him that is to cut, the long
or broad cards naturally lead him to cut them. Breef
cards are sometimes made thus by the manufacturer; but,
hr defect of these, sharpers pare all but the breefs with a
penknife or razor. 3. Corner bend denotes four cards
turned down finely at one corner, to serve as a signal to
cut by. 4. Middle bend, or Kingston-bridge, is where
the tricks are bent two different ways, which causes an
opening or arch in the middle, to direct likewise the
cutting.
Cards were invented about the year 1390, to divert
Charles VI. of France, who had fallen into a melancholy
disposition. The inventor proposed, by the figures of the
four suits or colours, as the French call them, to represent
the four classes of men in the kingdom. By the cceurs
(hearts) are meant the gens de choeur, choir-men, or eccle¬
siastics ; and therefore the Spaniards, who certainly re¬
ceived the use of cards from the French, have copas, or
chalices, instead of hearts. The nobility, or prime mili¬
tary part of the kingdom, are represented by the ends or
points of lances or pikes ; and our ignorance of the mean¬
ing or the resemblance of the figure induced us to call
them spades. The Spaniards have espadas, swords, in lieu
of pikes, which are of similar import. By diamonds are
designed the order of citizens, merchants, or tradesmen,
carreaux, square stones, tiles, or the like. The Spaniards
have a coin, dincros, which answers to it; and the Dutch
call the French word carreaux, streneen, stones and dia¬
monds, from the form. Trejle, the trefoil-leaf, or clover-
grass, corruptly called clubs, alludes to the husbandmen
and peasants. But how this suit came to be called clubs
is not easily explained; unless, borrowing the game from
the Spaniards, who have bastos (staves or clubs) instead
of the trefoil, we gave the Spanish signification to the
French figure.
The history of the four kings, which the French, in
drollery, sometimes call the cards, are David, Alexander,
Caesar, and Charles ; which names were then, and still are,
on the French cards. Those respectable names represent
the four celebrated monarchies of the Jews, Greeks, Ro¬
mans, and Franks under Charlemagne. By the queens are
intended Argine, Esther, Judith, and Pallas (names re¬
tained in the French cards), typical of birth, piety, forti¬
tude, and wisdom, the qualifications residing in each per¬
son. Argine is an anagram for regina, queen by descent.
By the knaves were designed the servants to knights, for
knave originally meant only servant; but French pages
and valets, now indiscriminately used by various orders of
persons, were formerly only allowed to persons of quality,
esquires (escuires), shield or armour-bearers. Others fancy
that the knights themselves were designed by those cards,
because Hogier and Labire, two names on the French
cards, were famous knights at the time when cards were
supposed to have been invented.
CARDAN, Jerom, one of the most extraordinary ge¬
niuses of his age, was born at Pavia on the 24th ot Sep¬
tember 1501. As his mother was not married, she tried
every method to procure an abortion, but without effect.
She was three days in labour, and they were at last oblig¬
ed to cut the child from her. He was born with his head
covered with black curled hair. When he was four years
old he was carried to Milan, his father being an advocate
in that city. At the age of twenty he was sent to study
at the university of that city; and two years afterwards
he explained Euclid. In 1524 he went to Padua, and the
same year he was admitted to the degree of master of
arts. In the end of the following year he took the degree
of doctor of physic. He married about the year 1531.
136 CAR
Cardan. During ten years before, his impotency had hindered him
from having knowledge of a woman, which was a great mor¬
tification to him. He attributed it to the evil influences
of the planet under which he was born. When he enume¬
rates, as he frequently does, the greatest misfortunes of
his life, this ten years impotency is always one. At the
age of thirty-two he became professor of mathematics at
Milan. In 1539 he was admitted as a member of the college
of physicians at Milan ; in 1543 he read public lectures on
medicine in that city, and at Pavia the year following; but
he discontinued them because he could not get payment
of his salary, and returned to Milan. In 15o2 he went
into Scotland, having been sent for by the archbishop of
St Andrews, who had in vain applied to the French kings^
physicians, and afterwards to those of the empeior of
Germany. This prelate, then forty years old, had for ten
years been afflicted with a shortness of breath, which had
returned every eight days during the two preceding years.
But he began to recover from the moment that Cardan
prescribed for him. Cardan took his leave of him at the
end of six weeks and three days, leaving him prescriptions
which in two years wrought a complete cure.
Cardan’s journey to Scotland gave him an opportunity
of visiting several countries. He crossed b ranee on his
way thither, and returned through Germany and the Low
Countries, along the banks of the Rhine. It was on this
occasion that he went to London, and calculated King
Edward’s nativity. This tour occupied about four months ;
after which, returning to Milan, he continued there till
the beginning of October 1552, and then went to Pavia,
whence he was invited to Bologna in the year 1562. He
taught in this last city till the year 1570, at which time
he was thrown into prison; but some months afterwards
he was sent home to his own house. He left Bologna in
1571, and went to Rome, where he lived for some time
without any public employment. He was, however, ad¬
mitted as a member of the college of physicians, and re¬
ceived a pension from the pope. He died at Rome, on
the 21st of September 1575, according to Thuanus. This
account may be sufficient to show the reader that Car¬
dan was of a very fickle temper; but he will have a much
better idea of his singular and odd turn of mind by exa¬
mining what he himself has written concerning his own
good and bad qualities. He paid himself congratulatory
compliments for not having a friend in this world ; but
that in requital he was attended by an aerial spirit, ema¬
nated partly from Saturn and partly from Mercury, who was
the constant guide of his actions, and teacher of every
duty to which he was bound. He declared, too, that his
manner of walking the streets was so irregular, that it
induced all beholders to point at him as a fool. Some¬
times he walked very slowly, like a man absorbed in pro¬
found meditation; then all on a sudden quickened his
steps, accompanying them with very absurd attitudes. In
Bologna his delight was to be drawn about in a mean ve¬
hicle with three wheels. When nature did not visit him
with any pain, he would procure to himself that disagree¬
able sensation by biting his lips so wantonly, or pulling
his fingers to such a vehement degree, as sometimes to
force the tears from his eyes; and the reason he assigned
for so doing was to moderate certain impetuous sallies
of the mind, the violence of which was to him far more
insupportable than pain itself; and that the sure conse¬
quence of such a severe discipline was the enjoying the
pleasure of health. He says elsewhere, that, in the great¬
est tortures of soul, he used to whip his legs with rods,
and bite his left arm; that it was a great relief to him to
weep, but that very often he could not; that nothing gave
him more pleasure than to talk of things which made the
whole company uneasy; that he spoke on all subjects, in
CAR
season and out of season ; and that he was so fond of games Cart:
of chance as to spend whole days in them, to the great pre- (
judice of his family and reputation, for he even staked his ^
furniture and his wife’s jewels.
Cardan makes no scruple of owning that he was re¬
vengeful, envious, treacherous, a dealer in the black art,
a backbiter, a calumniator, and addicted to all the foul
and detestable excesses that can be imagined; yet, not¬
withstanding, as one would think, so humbling a declara¬
tion, there was never perhaps a vainer mortal, or one
who with less ceremony expressed the high opinion he
had of himself, than Cardan, as will appear by the fol¬
lowing proofs. “ 1 have been admired by many nations;
an infinite number of panegyrics, both in prose and verse,
have been composed to celebrate my fame. I was born
to release the world from the manifold errors under which
it groaned. What I have found out could not be disco¬
vered either by my predecessors or my contemporaries;
and that is the reason why those authors who write any
thing worthy of being remembered scruple not to own that
they are indebted to me for it. I have composed a book
on the dialectic art, in which there is neither one super¬
fluous letter nor one deficient. I finished it in seven days,
which seems a prodigy. Yet where is there a person to
be found who can boast of his having become master of
its doctrine in a year? And he who shall have compre¬
hended it in thattime must appear to have been instructed
by a familiar demon.”
The same capriciousness observable in his outward con¬
duct is observable in the composition of his works. We
have a multitude of his treatises, in which the reader
is stopped almost every moment by the obscurity ot his
text, or his digressions from the point in hand. In his
arithmetical performances there are several discourses on
the motions of the planets, on the creation, and on the
tower of Babel. In his dialectic work we find his judg¬
ment on the historians and the writers of epistles. The
only apology which he makes for the frequency of his di¬
gressions is, that they were purposely done for the sooner
filling up of his sheet, his bargain with the bookseller be¬
ing at so much per sheet; and that he worked as much
for his daily support as for the acquisition of glory. The
Lyons edition of his works, printed in 1663, consists of
ten volumes in folio.
CARD ASS, a sort of card, proper for carding flocks of
silk, to make cappadine of it. It is also the name which
the French give to those flocks of silk.
Carcass is also the name which, in the cloth manufac¬
tories of Languedoc, they give to a sort ot large card,
which is used for carding the dyed wool designed for
making cloth of mixed colours.
CARDERS, in the woollen manufactory, are persons
who prepare wool, &c. for spinning.
CARDIAC, in a general sense, signifies all medicines
beneficial to the heart, whether applied internally dr ex¬
ternally. The word comes from the Greek word xagbict,
cor ; the heart being reputed the immediate seat of their
operation.
Cardiacs, in a more particular sense, denote medicines
which raise the spirits and give present strength and cheer¬
fulness ; these are the same with what are properly called
cordials.
CARDIFF, a market-town of Glamorganshire, South
Wales, where the assizes and sessions are held. It con¬
sists of two parishes, though it has but one church. It is
watered by the river Taaf, which is connected by means
of a canal with the distant parts of the country, by which
a vast quantity of iron is brought from the founderies and
furnaces in the interior, to be shipped at the port of Cardiff,
about three miles below the town. The same conveyance
C A H
rdigan is used for the large number of boxes of tin plates which
li the country supplies. The borough unites with Swansea,
digan- Loughor, Neath, Aberavon, and Ken-fig, in returning a
, member to parliament. It has markets on Wednesday and
Saturday, and is distant from London 160 miles. The
population amounted in 1811 to 2458, in 1821 to 3521,
and in 1831 to 6187.
CARDIGAN, a town in South Wales, the capital of
the county of the same name, on the Irish Channel. It
is a borough sending one member to parliament in con¬
junction with Aberystwith, Lampeter, and Adpar. It has
two markets weekly, on Tuesday and Saturday. The
river Tivey runs by it to the sea. The castle, once an
extensive pile, is now dilapidated. It is 233 miles from
London. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 2129, in
1821 to 2397, and in 1831 to 2795.
CARDIGANSHIRE, a county of Wales, is divided
from Caermarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, along the
greatest part of its southern side, by the Tivey; on the
north it is divided from Merionethshire by the river Dory,
and from Montgomeryshire by an artificial boundary. The
boundaries on the east, between it and Radnorshire and
Breconshire, are also artificial. On the west it stretches
along the sea-coast in a bending line, from north-east to
south-west, forming part of the shore of Cardigan Bay.
Its extent, measured along the shore, is nearly forty miles ;
its breadth does not average twenty. It contains 726
square miles, or 464,640 acres, and is divided into five hun¬
dreds. The market-towns are Aberystwith, Cardigan,
Llanbodarnvawr, Llanbeder or Lampeter, and Tregaron.
The number of parishes, according to the last parliamen¬
tary returns respecting the poor’s rates, is ninety-seven.
It sends one member to parliament, lies in the province of
Canterbury and diocese of St David’s, and is in the North
Wales circuit. The coasts of Cardigan Bay (which is
formed by the projecting counties of Caernarvon on the
north and Pembroke on the south, with the coasts of Me¬
rioneth and Cardigan in the centre) have, according to
tradition and appearance, suffered greatly from the de¬
predations of the sea, especially on the Cardigan shore.
The tradition of the country is, that there was formerly a
sixth hundred, which is now covered by the sea ; and
there are still to be seen at low w?ater several ridges of
rocks, called causeways, which seem to confirm the truth
of this tradition. Of these the most remarkable is St Pa¬
trick’s Causeway, which extends from within a mile of the
point of Mochras, south of Harlech, twenty-two miles into
the sea, in a serpentine line. It is formed of rough stones,
twenty-four feet broad; and at the extremity there is a
round head, formed of sixteen great stones, one of which
is four yards in diameter. Trunks and roots of trees are
also found at a considerable distance from the shore.
The principal rivers are the Tivey, the Rydiol, the Yst-
with, and the Aeron. The Tivey rises in Llyn Teefy, or
Tivey Pool, in a mountain in the north-east of the county.
On the top of this mountain there are five lakes, of which
Tivey Pool is the principal. It is about one mile and a half
in circumference, is surrounded by high and perpendicular
rocks, and is said never to have been fathomed. The Tivey
at first flows through a rocky district; afterwards, forming
a regular channel, it passes Tregaron ; and at Llanbeder
it becomes the boundary between Caermarthenshire and
Cardiganshire. It falls into the sea about two miles below
Cardigan. The Rydiol rises on the south-west side of
Plinlimmon; its course is about south-west; and it falls
into the sea near Aberystwith. About twelve miles above
this town is the Devil’s Bridge, called by the Welsh Pont
y Monach, or the Monks’ Bridge, and Pont ar Fynach,
from the confluence here of the Fynach with the Rydiol.
Ihere are two arches, one above the other. The upper-
VOL. VI.
CAR 137
most is between twenty and thirty feet in the chord, and Cardigan-
the other less than twenty. The upper one was built in shire.
1753; the date of the building of the lower one is not
known. Near this bridge are the falls of the Fynach. The
first fall takes place where the river is much confined by
the rocks. The water is carried about six feet over
them, into a basin eighteen feet below. The next fall is
sixty feet, the third fall is twenty, and the last is 110 feet.
Near this is the fall of the Rydiol, the scenery around which
is considered as very striking and grand. The Ystwith
rises among the hills on the eastern side of the county,
and falls into the sea at Aberystwith. The Aeron is be¬
tween six and seven miles in extent, receives six tributary
streams, and forms, during the whole of its course, nearly
the arc of a circle. It falls into the sea at Aberaeron.
That part of the country which lies along the sea is level,
especially the south-western extremity ; but the'northern
and eastern parts are very rugged and mountainous. The
soil of the low lands is either a light or a strong loam, ly¬
ing on slate. The soil of the mountainous division is in
general thin and poor, except in the narrow valleys, where
it consists of clay or peat. The tract along the sea-coast
produces good crops of wheat, barley, turnips, potatoes,
and oats. The quality as well as the produce of the bar¬
ley grown in some parts of this tract is very remarkable.
Between Aberaeron and Llanrysted is an extensive flat, ex¬
tending from the sea to the east mountains, which produces
from sixty to eighty bushels of fine barley per acre. This
land is constantly under this .crop, and has been so for at
least half a century. It is manured every three years
with sea-weed. Potatoes are grown on the peat mosses
in such a manner as at once to secure good crops and to
drain the land. The potato sets are laid on the surface
of the bog, a little manure is spread over them, and they
are afterwards covered with earth dug out of the trenches.
Very few sheep are kept on the low land, but on the
mountains they are numerous. They are in general the
native breed, and very inferior both for wool and carcass.
Cattle are kept in all* parts of the county; in the low
lands, and in the vales of the mountainous district, prin¬
cipally for butter and cheese; in the other parts they are
bred for the English drovers. Of the 464,640 acres
which this county contains, it is calculated that 100,000
are in tillage, 145,000 in pasture, and the rest waste land.
Cardiganshire was formerly famous for its mines of lead,
but at present they are not very productive ; the principal
are two in the vicinity of Cwmystwith. Near Tal-y-bont
are some that used to be very productive, but are now al¬
most exhausted ; the matrix of the ore is carbonate of lime.
There are also veins of copper, but these are not wrought.
The want of coal, of which there is none in the whole
county, the rugged nature of the country, and the badness
of the roads, are probably the chief causes why the mines
are not worked. Near Aberystwith are large slate quar¬
ries ; the slates lie in alternate strata with shale, and are
in compact masses, of a coarse texture; the inclination of
the strata varies very much, following the general irregu¬
larity of shale. The slate that is found near the sea-
coast, not being mixed with shale, lies in perpendicular
strata. There are some very extensive tracts of peat,
especially on the coast beyond Aberystwith, bordering on
the river Dovy; and from Strata Florida, near the Tivey,
to Llyn y Maes, or the Lake of the Flood; the latter tract
is one continued marshy bog, abounding in turbaries as far
as Tregaron. According to tradition, a town once stood
in this marsh. As connected with the natural history of
this county, it may be remarked, that Mr Aikin observed,
near the banks of the Rydiol, a moor-buzzard, and the
horse-ant, the largest species of ants that are natives of
Britain. The angel-fish is found in the bay of Cardigan,
s
138
Cardinal.
CAR
There are few manufactures in this county; but at Llech-
wvdol, near Cardigan, are iron and tin works. Black cat¬
tle, pigs, butter, barley, oats, flannels, Welsh webs, bark,
iron, tin, slates, and ale, are exported from Aberystwith
and Cardigan. There is a great fair for cattle and sheep
at Rhos, near the source of the livey.
Cardiganshire is celebrated in the literary histoiy of
Wales for having given birth to David ap Gwylim, who
flourished between 1330 and 1370. From the poems of
this author, the modern literary dialect of Wales has been
chiefly formed, and this dialect is spoken with greater
purity in the county of Cardigan than in any other part
of the principality.
In Cardiganshire a custom prevails resembling the
penny-weddings among the peasantry of Scotland. . Before
marriage a bidder goes from house to house inviting the
CAR
inhabitants to come to the wedding, and to bring money Cardinal,
and cheese and butter. The marriage always takes place y^,
on the Saturday, and the guests assemble on the Friday
with their presents. All these are set down on paper,
that, if demanded, they may be repaid; but this seldom
happens. The furnishing of the woman is also brought
home on this day. On Saturday, ten or twenty of the
man’s friends who are best mounted, go to demand the
bride, who is placed on a horse behind her father, and
rides off as fast as she can. She is soon, however, over¬
taken. Presents continue to be received on the Saturday
and Sunday; on Monday they are sold, frequently making,
with the money presented, the sum of L.50 or L.60. •
In 1803 the poor’s rates amounted to L.10,167; in
1815 there was collected from 92 parishes L.15,409
8s. 6d.
YEARS,
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
9639
11,304
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
11,296
12,071
be
.5
ra
129
77
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
5864
6312
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
1913
2501
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
3519
3258
Males.
23,759
27,898
30,868
PERSONS.
Females.
26,501
29,886
43,912
Total of
Persons.
50,260
57,784
64,780
CARDINAL, in a general sense, an appellation given
to things on account of their pre-eminence. The word is
formed of the Latin cardo, a hinge ; it being on these
fundamental points that all the rest of the same kind are
supposed to turn. Thus, justice, prudence, temperance,
and fortitude, are denominated the four cardinal virtues, as
being the basis of all the rest.
Cardinal Points, in Cosmography, are the four inter¬
sections of the horizon with the meridian and the prime
vertical circle. Of these, two, namely, the intersections of
the horizon and meridian, are called North and South,
with regard to the poles they are directed to. The other
two, viz. the intersections of the horizon and first vertical,
are called East and West.
The cardinal points, therefore, coincide with the four
cardinal regions of the heavens, and are 90° distant from
each other. The intermediate points are called collateral
points.
Cardinal Points, in Astrology, are the rising and set¬
ting of the sun, the zenith, and nadir.
Cardinal Signs, in Astronomy, are Aries, Libra, Can¬
cer, and Capricorn.
Cardinal Winds are those that blow from the cardinal
points.
Cardinal Numbers, in Grammar, are the numbers one,
two, three, &c. which are indeclinable; in opposition to
the ordinal numbers, first, second, third, fourth, &c.
Cardinal, an ecclesiastical prince in the Romish
church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at the
election of a pope. Some say that the cardinals were so
called from the Latin incardinatio, which signifies the
adoption in any church of a priest of a foreign church,
driven thence by misfortune ; and that the use of the word
commenced at Rome and Ravenna, which, as the reve¬
nues of the churches of those cities were very great, be¬
came the common refuge of the unhappy priests of all
other churches.
The cardinals compose the pope’s council or senate. In
the Vatican there is a constitution of Pope John, which
regulates the rights and titles of the cardinals, and de¬
clares, that as the pope represents Moses, so the cardinals
represent the seventy elders, who, under the pontifical au¬
thority, decide private and particular differences.
Cardinals, in their first institution, were only the prin¬
cipal priests, or incumbents, of the parishes of Rome. In
the primitive church the chief priest of a parish, who im¬
mediately followed the bishop, was called presbyter car-
dinalis, to distinguish him from the other petty priests,
who had no church or preferment. The term seems to have
been first applied to them in the year 150; but some say
that this took place under Pope Silvester, in the year 300.
These cardinal priests wrere alone allowed to baptize and
administer the eucharist. When the cardinal priests be¬
came bishops, their cardinalate became vacant, as they
were then supposed to be raised to a higher dignity. Ln-
der Pope Gregory, cardinal priests and cardinal deacons
were only such priests and deacons as had a church or
chapel under their particular care; and this was the ori¬
ginal use of the word. Leo IV. in the council of Rome
held in 853, calls them jiresbyteros sui cardinis; and their
churches, parochias cardinales.
The cardinals continued on this footing till the eleventh
century; but as the grandeur and state of his holiness
then became exceedingly augmented, he wished his coun¬
cil of cardinals to make a better figure than the ancient
priests had done. It is true that they still preserved their
ancient title, but the thing expressed by it ceased to exist.
It was a long time, however, before they had the prece¬
dence over the bishops, or got the election of the pope
into their hands; but when they once became possessed
of those privileges, they soon got the red hat and purple;
and growing still in authority, they became at length su¬
perior to the bishops, by the sole quality of being car¬
dinals.
Du Cange observes, that there were originally three
kinds of churches; the first or genuine churches were
properly ca\\e<\ parishes ; the second, which were chapels
joined to hospitals, and served by deacons, were denomi-
CAR
dinal. nated deaconries; the third were simple oratories, where
y-w' private masses were said, and were served by local and re¬
sident chaplains. He adds, that to distinguish the prin¬
cipal or parish churches from the chapels and oratories,
the name cardinales was given to them. Accordingly,
parish churches gave titles to cardinal priests; and some
chapels also, at length, gave the title of cardinal deacons.
Others observe, that the term cardinal was given not
only to priests, but also to bishops and deacons who were
attached to certain churches, to distinguish them from
those who only served them en passant, and by commis¬
sion. Titular churches, or benefices, were a kind of pa¬
rishes, or churches, assigned each to a cardinal priest,
with some stated district depending on it, and a font for
administering of baptism, in cases where the bishop him¬
self could not administer it. These cardinals were sub¬
ordinate to the bishops; and accordingly, in councils,
particularly that held at Rome in 868, subscribed after
them.
It was not, however, only at Rome that priests bore
this name; for we find that there were cardinal priests in
France. Thus, the curate of the parish of St John de
Vignes is called in old charters the cardinal priest of that
parish.
The title of cardinal is also given to'some bishops,
quatenus bishops, as, for instance, to those of Mentz and
Milan. The Archbishop of Bourges is also, in ancient
writings, called cardinal; and the church of Bourges a
cardinal church. The abbot of Vendome used to style
himself cardinalis natus.
The cardinals are divided into three classes or orders,
containing six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons,
and making in all seventy, who constitute what is called the
sacred college. The cardinal bishops, who are as it were
the pope’s vicars, bear the titles of the bishoprics assigned
to them, and the rest take such titles as are given them.
The number of cardinal bishops has been fixed, but that of
cardinal priests and deacons, and consequently the sacred
college itself, is always fluctuating. Till the year 1125
the college consisted of fifty-two or fifty-three, and the
council of Constance reduced them to twenty-four; but
Sixtus IV. without any regard to that restriction, raised
them again to fifty-three, and Leo to sixty-five. Thus,
as the number of cardinal priests was anciently fixed at
twenty-eight, new titles were to be established, in propor¬
tion as new cardinals were created. As for the car¬
dinal deacons, they were originally no more than seven for
the fourteen quarters of Rome; but they were afterwards
increased to nineteen, and at a subsequent period were
again diminished.
According to Onuphrius, it was Pope Pius IV. who first
enacted, in 1562, that the pope should be chosen only by
the senate of cardinals, whereas till that time the election
was by all the clergy of Rome. Some say the election of
the pope rested in the cardinals, exclusively of the clergy,
in the time of Alexander III. in 1160. Others go higher
still, and affirm that Nicholas II. having been elected at
Sienna, in 1058, by the cardinals alone, occasioned the
right of election to be taken from the clergy and people
of Rome, leaving them only that of confirming him by
their consent, which was at length, however, taken from
them. (See his decree for this purpose, issued in the Ro¬
man council of 1059, in Hardouin’s Acta Conciliorum,
tom. vi. part i. p. 1165.) It appears, indeed, that the car¬
dinals who had the right of suffrage in the election of his
successors, were divided by this pontiff into cardinal bi¬
shops and cardinal clerks, meaning by the former the seven
bishops who belonged to the city and territory of Rome,
and by the latter the cardinal presbyters, or ministers of
the twenty-eight Roman parishes or principal churches.
CAR 139
To these w^ere added, in process of time, under Alexander Cardinal
III. and other pontiffs, new members, in order to appease II
the tumults occasioned by the edict of Nicholas II." Career.
At the creation of a new cardinal, the pope performs
the ceremony of opening and shutting his mouth, which
is done in a private consistory. The shutting his mouth
implies the depriving him of the liberty of giving his opi¬
nion in congregations; and the opening his mouth, which
is performed fifteen days after, signifies the taking off this
restraint. However, if the pope happens to die during
the time a cardinal’s mouth is shut, he can neither give
his voice in the election of a new pope, nor be himself ad¬
vanced to that dignit}^.
The dress of a cardinal is a red soutanne, a rocket, a
short purple mantle, and a red hat. The cardinals began
to wear the red hat at the council of Lyons in 1243. The
decree of Pope Urban VIII., by which it is appointed that
the cardinals be addressed by the title of eminence, is of
the year 1630; till then they were called illustrissinii.
When cardinals are sent to the courts of princes, it is in
quality of legates a latere ; and when they are appointed
governors of towns, their government is called by the name
of legation.
Cakdinal has also been applied to secular officers.
Thus the prime ministers in the court of the Emperor
Theodosius were called cardinales. Cassiodorus, lib. vii.
formul. 31, makes mention of the cardinal prince of the
city of Rome; and in the list of officers of the Duke of
Bretagne, in 1447, we meet with one Raoul de Thorel,
cardinal of Quiilart, chancellor, and servant of the Vis¬
count de Rohan, which shows it to have been an inferior
quality.
CARDIOID, in the higher geometry, an algebraical
curve, so called from its resemblance to a heart.
CARDITO, a town of Italy, in the province Terra di
Lavoro, of the kingdom of Naples, with 3501 inhabitants.
CARDONA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cata¬
lonia, with 2400 inhabitants. It is situated on the banks of
the river Llobregat, and is remarkable for a mountain of
rock salt, destitute of any covering, at the foot of which it is
built. This extraordinary mountain is one Spanish league,
or four miles, in circumference, and from 400 to 500 leet
in height. Its depth below the surface has not been as¬
certained, and consequently the substance on which it
rests, though a most important desideratum to geologists,
is unknown. The rock is as transparent as crystal; and
pieces cut from it are worked, by artists in Cardona, into
images, crucifixes, and many articles of ornamental furni¬
ture. It is in latitude 41. 57. N.
CAREENING, in naval language, the bringing a ship
to incline on one side, in order to trim and caulk the other
side.
A ship is said to be brought to the careen when, the
most of her lading being taken out, she is hulled down on
one side by a small vessel, as low as necessary, and there
kept by the weight of the ballast, ordnance, &c. as well as
by ropes, lest her masts should be strained too much, in
order that her sides and bottom may be trimmed, her seams
caulked, or any thing that is faulty under water mended.
Hence, when a ship lies on one side when she sails, she is
said to sail on the careen.
CAREER, in the manege, a place inclosed with a bar¬
rier, wherein they run the ring. The word is also used
for the race or course of the horse itself, provided it do not
exceed 200 paces. In the ancient circus, the career was
the space which the bigse or quadrigae were to run at full
speed in order to gain the prize.
Career, in falconry, is a flight or tour of the bird, about
120 yards. If she mount more, it is called a double ca¬
reer ; if less, a semi-career.
140
CAR
Carew.
Careglio CAREGLIO, a town of Italy, in the province Coni, of
the kingdom nf Sardinia. It is built on the river Grana, and
contains 5200 inhabitants, who are employed chiefly in
raising silk.
CARENTAN, a small city in the department of La
Manche, in France. It is fortified, and strong from its
situation amidst marshes. It has a small tide harbour,
which admits light vessels to the city. The inhabitants
are 2717. Long. 1. 20. 25. W. Lat. 49. 18. 17. N.
CARENTOIRE, a small town, in a large parish in the
department of Morbihan in France, in the neighbourhood
of which many crystals are found. The population is
5467.
CARET, among grammarians, is a character marked
thus a, signifying that something is added on the margin,
or interlined," which ought to come in where the caret
Stands- . ^ J
CAREW, George, born m Devonshire in 1557, and
an eminent commander in Ireland, was made president of
Munster by Queen Elizabeth; when, joining his forces
with the Earl of Thomond, he reduced the Irish insur¬
gents, and brought the Earl of Desmond to trial. King
James made him governor of Guernsey, and created him
a baron. As he was a valiant commander, he was no less
a polite scholar, and wrote Hibernia Pacata, or a history
of the wars in Ireland, printed, after his death, in 1683.
He made several collections for a history of Henry V.,
which are digested into Speed’s History of Great Britain.
Carew, Thomas, descended from the family of Carew,
in Gloucestershire, was gentleman of the privy chamber
to Charles L, who always esteemed him as one of the most
celebrated wits of his court. He was much respected by
the poets of his time, particularly by Ben Jonson and Sir
William Davenant; and left behind him several poems,
and a masque called Ccelum Britannicum, performed at
Whitehall on Shrove Tuesday night, 1633, by the king,
and several of his nobles with their sons. Carew was as¬
sisted in the contrivance by Inigo Jones; and the music
was set by Mr Henry Lawes of the king’s chapel. He
died in the prime of life, about the year 1639.
Carew, Richard, author of the Survey of Cornwall,
was the eldest son of Thomas Carew of East Anthony,
and was born in 1555. When very young, he became a
gentleman commoner of Christ Church College, Oxford;
and at fourteen years of age had the honour of disputing
extempore with the famous Sir Philip Sydney, in the pre¬
sence of the Earls of Leicester, Warwick, and other nobi¬
lity. After spending three years at the university, he re¬
moved to the Middle Temple, where he resided the same
length of time, and then travelled into foreign parts. Not
long after his return to England he married, in 1577,
Juliana Arundel of Trerice. In 1581 Mr Carew was
made justice of the peace, and in 1586 appointed high
sheriff of the county of Cornwall, about which time he
was likewise queen’s deputy for the militia. In 1589 he
was elected a member of the College of Antiquaries, a dis¬
tinction to which he was entitled by his literary abilities
and pursuits. But that which particularly engaged his at¬
tention was his native county, his “ Survey” of which was
published in 4to at London in 1602. It has been twice
reprinted, first in 1723, and next in 1769, Of this work
Camden has spoken in high terms, and acknowledges his
obligations to the author. In the present improved state
of topographical knowledge, and since Dr Borlase’s excel¬
lent publications relative to the county of Cornwall, the
value of Carew’s “ Survey” must have been greatly dimi¬
nished. Mr Gough remarks, that the history and monu¬
ments of this country were faintly touched by Carew;
but it is added, that he was a person extremely capable
of describing them, if the infancy of those studies had at
CAR
that time afforded light and materials. Another work of carer
our author was a translation from the Italian, entitled ||
The Examination of Men’s Wits; in which, by discover- Carey,
ing the variety of natures, is showed for what profession
each one is apt, and how far he shall profit therein. This
was published at London in 1594, and afterwards in 1604;
and, though Richard Carew’s name is prefixed to it, it has
by some persons been principally ascribed to his father.
According to Wood, Carew wrote also The true and ready
Way to learn the Latin Tongue, in answer to a query whe¬
ther the ordinary method of teaching the Latin by the
rules of Grammar be the best mode of instructing Youths
in that Language? This tract is included in Mr Hartlib’s
book upon the same subject, and with the same title. It
is certain that Carew was a gentleman of considerable
abilities and literature, and that he was held in great es¬
timation by some of the most eminent scholars of his time.
He was particularly intimate with Sir Henry Spelman,
who extols him for his ingenuity, learning, and virtue.
Carew, George, brother to the subject of the last arti¬
cle, was educated in the university of Oxford, after which
he studied the law in the inns of court, and then travel¬
led to foreign countries for further improvement. On his
return to his native country he was called to the bar, and
after some time was appointed secretary to Sir Christo¬
pher Hatton, lord chancellor of England. This was by
the special recommendation of Queen Elizabeth herself,
who gave him a protonotaryship in the chancery, and
conferred upon him the honour of knighthood. In 1597
Sir George Carew, who was then a master in chancery, was
sent as ambassador to the king of Poland. In the next
reign he was one of the commissioners for treating with the
Scotch concerning an union between the two kingdoms;
after which he was appointed as ambassador to the court
of France, where he continued from the latter end of the
year 1605 till 1609. During his residence in that coun¬
try he formed an intimacy with Thuanus, to whom he com¬
municated an account of the transactions in Poland whilst
he was employed there, which was of great service to that
admirable author in drawing up the 121st book of his his¬
tory. After Sir George Carew’s return from France, he
was advanced to the important post of master of the court
of wards, which honourable situation he did not long live
to enjoy; for it appears from a letter written by Thuanus
to Camden in the spring 1613, that he was then lately
deceased. Sir George Carew married Thomasine, daugh¬
ter of Sir Francis Godolphin, great grandfather of the
lord treasurer Godolphin, and had by her two sons and
three daughters. When Sir George Carew returned in
1609 from his French embassy, he drew up and address¬
ed to James I. A Relation of the State of France, with
the characters of Henry IV. and the principal persons of
that Court. The characters are drawn from personal
knowledge and close observation, and might be of service
to a general historian of that period. The composition is
perspicuous and manly, and entirely free from the pedan¬
try which prevailed in the reign of James I.; but this is
the less surprising, as Sir George Carew’s taste had been
formed in a better era, that of Queen Elizabeth. The
valuable tract we are speaking of lay tor a long time in
manuscript, till happily falling into the hands of the Earl
of Hardwicke, it was communicated by him to Dr Birch,
who published it in 1749, at the end of his Historical
View of the Negotiations between the Courts of England,
France, and Brussels, from 1592 to 1617. That intelli¬
gent and industrious writer justly observes, that it is a
model upon which ambassadors may form arid digest their
notions and representations; and the celebrated poet Mr
Gray has spoken of it as an excellent performance.
CAREY, Harry, a man distinguished both in poetry
CAR
Iulors and music, but perhaps more so by a certain facetiousness,
which made him agreeable to everybody. He published
in 1720 a little collection of poems, and in 1732 six can-
tatas, written and composed by himself. He also com¬
posed sundry songs for modern comedies, particularly those
in the Provoked Husband; he wrote a farce called The
Contrivances, in which were several little songs set to very
pretty airs of his own composition ; and he also composed
two or three little dramas for Goodman’s Fields Theatre,
which were very favourably received. In 1729 he pub¬
lished by subscription his poems much enlarged, with the
addition of one entitled Namby Pamby, in which Ambrose
Philips is ridiculed. Carey’s talent, says his historian, lay
in humour and satire without malevolence. To ridicule
the rant and bombast of modern tragedies, he wrote one, to
which he gave the strange title of Chrononhotonthologos,
acted in 1734. He also wrote a farce called The Honest
Yorkshireman. Carey was a thorough Englishman, and
had an insurmountable aversion to the Italian opera and
the singers in it; he wrote a burlesque opera on the sub¬
ject of the Dragon of Wantley, and afterwards a sequel to
it, entitled the Dragoness, both which were esteemed a
good burlesque of the Italian opera. His qualities be¬
ing of the entertaining kind, he was led into more ex¬
penses than his finances could bear, and thus was frequent¬
ly in distress. His friends, however, were always ready
to assist him by their little subscriptions to his works;
and encouraged by these, he republished in 1740 all the
songs he had ever composed, in a collection entitled The
Musical Century, in a hundred English Ballads, and in 1743
his dramatic works in a small volume 4to. With all his
mirth and good humour, he seems to have been at times
deeply alfected with the malevolence of some of his own
profession, who, for reasons that no one can guess at, were
his enemies; and this, with the pressure of his circum¬
stances, is supposed to have occasioned his untimely end ;
for about 1744, at his house in Warner Street, Cold Bath
Fields, he, in a fit of desperation, put a period to a life
which, Sir John Hawkins says, wras without reproach. It
is to be noted, and it is somewhat singular in such a cha¬
racter, that in all his songs and poems on wane, love, and
such kinds of subjects, he seems to have manifested an in¬
violable regard for decency and good manners.
CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch give to those
brokers whose business is to find freight for ships outward
bound, and to give notice to the merchants, who have
commodities to send by sea, of the ships that are ready
to sail, and of the places for which they are bound.
CARGO denotes all the merchandises and effects which
are laden on board a ship.
Super-Cargo, a person employed by merchants to go
a voyage, oversee the cargo, and dispose of it to the best
advantage.
CARIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Asia Mi¬
nor, whose limits are extended by some, while they are
contracted by others. Mela and Pliny extend the mari¬
time Caria from Jasus and Halicarnassus to Calynda and
the borders of Lycia. The inland Caria Ptolemy extends
to the Meander and beyond. Car, Cariates, Cariatis,
Carissa and Caris, and Caira, are the gentilitious names;
Carius and Carte us the epithets. In Care periculum was
a proverbial saying respecting a thing exposed to dan¬
ger, but of no great value. The Cares being the Swiss of
those days, were hired and placed in the front of the battle.
Cum Care Carissa denoted the behaviour of clowns. The
Cares came originally from the islands to the continent,
being formerly subject to Minos, and caWed Leleges. This
the Cretans affirmed, and the Cares denied, making them¬
selves aborigines. They were of a common origin with
the Mysi and Lydi, having a common temple, of a very
CAR hi
ancient standing, at Melassa, a town of Caria, called Jovis Cariaco
Carii Delubrum. Homer calls the Carians barbarians in ||
language. Carina.
CARIACO, a sea-port towm of Colombia, in the pro-
vince of Cumana. It is situated to the east of the Gulf of
Cariaco, near the mouth of the river of the same name,
on a large plain covered with plantations. The climate
is hot and unhealthy. The principal trade of this place
consists in cotton, which is of excellent quality. Cocoa,
and some sugar, are also raised. The population is 6500.
Long. 63. 39. W. Lat. 10. 30. N.
CARIBBEE Islands, a cluster of islands which stretch
from Anguilla on the north to Tobago on the south, and
form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. The
name has been vaguely applied to the whole of the West
India islands ; but it strictly means that archipelago which
extends somewhat in the form of a crescent, from Porto
Rico to the coast of South America, and lies between the
58th and 63d degrees of west longitude, and between the
11th and 19th degrees of north latitude. They are divided
into Leeward and Windward Islands, or into the Great and
Little Antilles, though the limits of these respective divi¬
sions have never been accurately fixed. The following
are the principal of the Caribbees:—Santa Cruz, Som-
buca, Anguilla, St Martin, St Bartholomew, Barbuda, Sa¬
ba, St Eustatia, St Christopher, Nevis, Antigua, Montser¬
rat, Guadaloupe, Deseada, Mariagalante, Dominica, St
Lucia, St Vincent, Barbadoes, Grenada, and Tobago.
CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the concealment
of real beauties, and the exaggeration of blemishes, but
still so as to preserve a resemblance of the object. The
word is Italian, formed of carica, a load, burden, or the
like.
CARICOUS, an epithet given to such tumours as re¬
semble the figure of a fig. They are frequently found in
the piles.
CARIGNANO, a city of Italy, in the province of Tu¬
rin, in the kingdom of Sardinia, on the left bank of the
river Po. The royal family name is derived from this
place. It contains 7220 inhabitants. Long. 7. 35. E.
Lat. 44. 45. N.
CARILLONS, a species of chimes, frequent in the Low
Countries, particularly at Ghent and Antwerp, and played
on a number of bells in a belfrey, forming a complete se¬
ries or scale of tones and semitones, like those on the
harpsichord or organ. There are pedals communicating
with the great bells, upon which the carillaneur with his
feet plays the bass to sprightly airs, performed with the
two hands upon the upper species of keys. These keys
are projecting sticks, wide enough asunder to be struck
with violence and velocity by either of the hands edge¬
wise, without the danger of hitting the neighbouring key.
The player is provided with a thick leather covering for
the little finger of each hand, to guard against the vio¬
lence of the stroke. These carillons are heard through a
large town.
CARIMATA, an island in the Eastern Seas, lying off
the west coast of Borneo, betwixt the first and second de¬
grees of south latitude. It is mountainous and woody,
with a cloud-capt peak in the middle, and is inhabited.
CARIMON, Java, a group of ten or twelve small
islands in the Eastern Seas, lying north of Samarang, in
Java Sea, covered with wood. The principal island is
about twenty miles in circumference. Long. 110. 15. E.
Lat. 5. 45. S.
CARINA, a Latin term, properly signifying the keel of
a ship, or that long piece of timber running along the bot¬
tom of the ship from head to stern, upon which the whole
structure is built or framed.
Carina is also frequently used for the whole capacity
CAR
or bulk of a ship, containing the hull or all the space be¬
low the deck. Hence the word is also sometimes used
by a figure for the whole ship.
Carina is likewise used in the ancient architecture.
The Romans gave the name of carina to all buildings in
the form of a ship, as we still give the name of nave to tne
middle or principal vault of our Gothic churches, because
it has that figure.
CARINiE were weepers, or women hired among the
ancient Romans to weep at funerals. They were thus call¬
ed from Caria, the country whence most of them came.
CARINI, a city of Italy in the intendancy of Palermo,
in the island of Sicily. It is situated on a small bay in a
luxuriant valley, eighteen miles from Palermo, and con¬
tains 7600 inhabitants.
CARINTHIA, a province of the Austrian empire, with
the title of duchy, lying between 12° 35' and 15° of east
longitude, and between 46° 20' 50" and 47° ,6' of north la¬
titude. It is bounded on the west by the Tyrol, on the
south by Carniola and Friuli, and on the north and east by
Salzburg and Styria. This province contains about 4000
English square miles, and a population of 300,000. The
chief towns are Clagenfurth and Villach.
Carinthia, like the Tyrol, to which it adjoins, is a series
of mountains separated by narrow valleys. They attain
their highest elevation on the frontiers of the province,
and in general are covered with thick forests, which would
be valuable were it practicable to convey the trees to na¬
vigable rivers. The valleys, besides being narrow, are
frequently short; and this, in connection with the height
of the mountains, has contributed to form the vast number
of lakes with which the province is studded. In this re¬
spect it bears a resemblance to the Highlands of Scotland.
The soil of Carinthia is by no means fertile, except in a
few favoured spots, such as the valley of Lavant; in these
the fruits of the south abound. Of 1,400,000 acres, about
one seventh only is under tillage; the rest consist of pas¬
turages, which are extensive, and w'aste lands. Wheat,
oats, millet, and buck-wheat, are successfully cultivated
in the plains, while only rye and barley thrive on the
mountains. Turnips, potatoes, beet-root, carrots, and
other garden vegetables, are raised in considerable quan¬
tities. Although ample facilities are afforded for the
breeding of cattle, that branch of agricultural trade is
little understood ; and hence the quantity of cattle bred is
not considerable. The chief wealth of Carinthia consists
in its metallic mines; and to these may be added its mar¬
ble, which is of great beauty and whiteness. In many of
the lead mines silver is found impregnated w’ith the ore;
and at Mieslding and Steinfeld it is found in a state of
purity. Near Cappel a mine of quicksilver of some value
has been discovered ; and there are also copper mines on a
small scale; but by far the most important are those of
iron and lead. That portion of the latter metal which is
found near Villach is considered as the finest in Europe.
The chief manufactures of Carinthia are those which have
a relation to the mineral kingdom, such as the well known
steel called brescia, iron plate, fire-arms, and the several
preparations of lead.
In manners and character the Carinthians in some de¬
gree resemble the Italians. They are in general gay,
frank, and contented, fond of tranquillity and a pastoral
mode of life; but, as a counterbalance to these, they are
indolent, ignorant, and bigoted. Their dialect has a
strong resemblance to that of the Sclavonians of Lower
Styria. In religion the Carinthians are adherents of the
Romish church ; the only sectaries are Lutherans, who
are not numerous. This duchy forms part of the division
of the Austrian empire, which has its seat of government
at Gratz.
CAR
CARITAS. The poculum caritatis, or grace-cup, was Carit
an extraordinary allowance of wine or other liquors, which ||
the religious at festivals drank in commemoration of their Carlo,
founders and benefactors.
CARKE denotes the thirtieth part of a sarplar of wool.
CARLETON, Sir Dudley, wrs born in Oxfordshire
in 1573, and bred in Christ Church College. He went as
secretary to Sir Ralph Winwood to the Low Countries
when King James resigned the cautionary towns to the
States ; and he was afterwards employed for twenty-nine
years as ambassador to Venice, Savoy, and the United
Provinces. King Charles created him Viscount Dorches¬
ter, and appointed him one of his principal secretaries of
state, in which office he died in 1651. He was esteemed
as a good statesman, though an honest man. He publish¬
ed several works, consisting chiefly of speeches, letters,
and other productions on political subjects, of which the
most valuable is a selection of “ Letters to and from Sir
Dudley Carleton during his embassy to Holland, from Ja¬
nuary 1616 to December 1620.”
CARLINE, or Caroline Thistle. This plant is said
to have been discovered by an angel to Charlemagne, to
cure his army of the plague; whence its denomination.
Carline, or Caroline, a silver coin current in the Nea¬
politan dominions, and worth about 4d. of our money.
Carlines, or Carlings, in a ship, two pieces of tim¬
ber lying fore and aft, along from one beam to another,
directly over the keel, and serving as a foundation for the
whole body of the ship. On these rest the ledges, on
which the planks of the deck and other matters of carpen¬
try are made fast. The carlines have their ends let into
the beams called culver-tailways.
Carline Trees are timbers going athwart the ship,
from the sides to the hatchway, and serving to sustain the
deck on both sides.
CARLINGFORD, a sea-port town of Ireland, in the
county of Lowth, situated on a bay to which it gives name.
The town is inconsiderable. Butter brought from the
county of Tyrone is here shipped to a considerable ex¬
tent ; and large quantities of oysters are sent to Dublin.
This town has a castle built on a rock, which is said
to have been founded by King John. It is distant fifty-
one miles north of Dublin. Long. 6. 8. W. Lat. 54. 1. N.
CARLISLE, a city, the capital of the county of Cum¬
berland, on the south side of the river Eden, near the in¬
flux of the Cadew. It is 305 miles from London, and
sixteen from Penrith. As a frontier place towards Scot¬
land, it has still some ancient fortifications, though in a
state of dilapidation. It is the see of a bishop, having
been separated from the diocese of Durham in the reign
of Henry I. The government of the city is vested in a
corporation, consisting of a mayor, a recorder, twelve al¬
dermen, and twenty-four common-council men. The as¬
sizes for the county are held here, but only once in the
year. It sends two members to parliament. There are
two parish churches, one of which, St Mary s, serves as
the cathedral. Of late years the importance of Carlisle
has been increased by the extension of its manufactures.
These consist of printed calicoes and other cotton goods
linens of various kinds, worsted, articles, hardware, cord¬
age, and various smaller commodities. It is in long. 2.
53. E. and lat. 54. 56. N. The population amounted in
1811 to 10,875, in 1821 to 15,476, and in 1831 to 20,006.
It gives the title of Earl to a branch of the Howard
family.
CARLOCK, in Commerce, a sort of isinglass, made of
the sturgeon’s bladder, imported from Archangel. The
chief use of it is for clarifying wine, but it is also used by
the dyers. The best carlock comes from Astracan, where
a great quantity of sturgeon is caught.
CAR
' opago CARLOPAGO, a sea-port town of the Austrian pro-
|| vince of Croatia, in the Morlachian channel. It is forti-
i plow, fled, and contains a church and Capuchin convent, with 220
louses, and about 1000 inhabitants, who carry on consider¬
able trade in wine, honey, wax, and timber. . The har¬
bour is very secure, and the merchants have about thirty
ships. Long. 15. 9. 31. E. Lat. 40. 31. 45. N.
CARLOS, San, a city of South America, in the pro¬
vince and government of Venezuela. It is situated on
the river Aguirre, and is large, handsome, and well divided.
Like a number of other towns in the South American pro¬
vinces, it was founded by the missionaries. The inhabit¬
ants, who are chiefly Spaniards from the Canary Islands,
display considerable enterprise and industry. Their wealth
consists mainly of cattle, and the principal agricultural pro¬
ducts are indigo and coffee. The" heat experienced at
San Carlos is great, and would be almost intolerable but
for the north-east wind which frequently blows here. The
population amounts to about 10,000. It is 180 miles south¬
west of Caraccas. Lat. 9. 20. N.
CARLOTA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cor¬
dova. It is one of those new establishments, founded with
a view to cultivate the Sierra Morena. It is near the con¬
fluence of the rivers Guadalquivir and Xenil. The culti¬
vation of the Sierra Morena by German colonists was the
project of the meritorious but unfortunate Olavide, and
was conducted by him with great judgment. It would
have been crowned with ultimate success, but for his be¬
ing subjected to the power of the Inquisition, which by
his imprisonment first checked it; and it was subsequent¬
ly impeded by the war of independence which so long
desolated Spain. This town contains 900 inhabitants.
CARLOW, an inland county in the province of Lein¬
ster, in Ireland, is formed somewhat in the shape of a
wedge, having its base to the north, on which side it abuts
on the counties of Kildare and Wicklow, while on the east
it is bounded by the latter of those counties, on the south¬
east by Wexford, and on the south-west and west by Kil¬
kenny and Kildare. Its greatest length from north to south
is thirty-three miles, and, though in one part of its breadth
from east to west it measures twenty-three miles, its ave¬
rage extent in that direction is considerably less. Its sur¬
face is estimated to contain 222,915 acres, or about 348
square miles.
o int This district, according to Ptolemy, was formerly inha-
ta bited by the Brigantes and Cauci. In the middle ages it
comprehended the territories of Hy Kavenagh and Hy
Drone, being the most northern part of the principality of
Hy Kinselagh. Its most ancient families of Irish name
were the Kavenaghs, descended from the celebrated Mac-
murrough, king of Leinster, who invited Henry II. to take
possession of the kingdom; the O’Ryans, the O’Nolans,
and the O’Mores. After the English settlement, the fa¬
milies of St Aubins, De la Frayne, Bermingham, Carew,
De la Landes, Grace, and Butler, held extensive posses¬
sions there. In the time of Queen Elizabeth the names of
most note were those of Bagnal, Eustace, Burton, O’Brien,
Ponsonby, Hamilton, Coke, Bernard, Vigors, Burdett,
Banbury, Beresford, Bruen, Bagot, and Browne. The
chief proprietors of the present period are the families of
Kavenagh, Bruen, Burton, and Rochfort.
Carlow was made shire ground by King John under the
name of Catherlogh, since contracted into its present appel¬
lation. It was then one of the nine counties palatine which
l' ons’ enjoyed exclusive jurisdictions in Ireland. It is now di¬
vided into the six baronies of Carlow, Forth, Idrone East,
Idrone West, Rathvilly, and St Mullins. These are again
subdivided into thirty-six entire parishes, and seven parts
ol parishes, the remaining parts of which are in some of
the adjoining counties.
CAR 143
The numbers and qualifications of the electors of Carlow, Carlow,
previously to the disfranchisement of the forty-shilling
freeholders, were, of LAO freeholders, two hundred and State of
eighty-one ; of L.20, sixty-seven ; and of L.2, eleven hun- j^presenta-
dred and sixty-two ; total fifteen hundred and ten. But011*
subsequently to the passing of the act of 1829, the num¬
bers were altered to two hundred and ninety-eight of
L.50, ninety-three of L.20, and a hundred and thirty-nine
of L.10, total five hundred and thirty; being a reduction
of nearly two thirds of the whole constituency. Before
the year 1829 there was one elector to fifty-four souls in
the county; since that period the proportion is as one to
about a hundred and fifty-five souls. Previously to the
union, Carlow returned six members, two for the county
at large, two for the borough of Carlow, and two for that
of Leighlin. This county sends two members to the im¬
perial parliament, who are elected according to the new
act.
The general aspect of the country is very pleasing, as Soil,
it is throughout diversified with hills and valleys; the lat¬
ter overspread with herbage, and interspersed with trees;
the former generally carrying vegetation to their sum¬
mits, except in the southern extremity, where the lofty
range of Mount Leinster, and the Blackstairs Mountain, Mountains,
of pi'ecipitous ascent and sombre hue, forms between
this county and that of Wexford a barrier which would be
impenetrable as to all purposes of commercial intercourse,
were it not for three passes through it, the first or most
eastern formed by the river Slaney, the second a land pas¬
sage called Scullogh Gap, and the third or most western
formed by the river Barrow. The chain extends still fur¬
ther westward into the county of Kilkenny, where it assumes
the name of the Brandon Mountain. This range is wholly
of granite formation. The western extremity of the coun¬
ty, which lies beyond the Barrow, differs materially in ap¬
pearance from the other parts; but here the deficiencies Coal,
in agricultural produce and scenic beauty are compensat- *•
ed by the treasures which lie beneath its surface ; for the
great coal district of Leinster, which commences here, and
extends westward and southward into Kilkenny, supplies
an abundance of cheap fuel to the surrounding population.
The coal found here is of the carbonaceous or stony for¬
mation. The county is intersected from north to south Rivers,
by two large rivers ; the Barrow in the west, which is navi¬
gable throughout the whole extent of the county, and af¬
fords means of inland navigation to the port of Waterford ;
and the Slaney on the east, which passes out of Carlow
into Wexford at the town of Newtownbarry. Each of
these rivers is enlarged in its course by several smaller
tributary streams.
Although agriculture is the chief occupation of the in- AgricuL
habitants, tillage is still in a backward state, much greater tore,
exertions of skill and industry than what are now applied
being necessary to draw forth from the soil the full pro¬
duce to be expected from its natural richness. Barley is
the favourite crop, yet not to the exclusion of the other
kinds of grain. Large tracts of fine pasture land are oc- Dairies,
cupied as dairy farms, and the butter made in them is in
high reputation in the Dublin market. The dairies are
usually let out at an annual rent, rated according to the
number of cows. The farms are frequently large, and oc¬
casionally stocked with flocks of long-woolled sheep, which
are reared both for their fleece and for the supply of the
flesh market. Great attention is paid to the breeding of
cattle. The lowland parts of the county are embellished
with numerous seats of the resident gentry, whose elegant
mansions and ornamental plantations add considerably to
the rural beauties of this part of the country. Among
these Borris Castle, the seat of the Kavenaghs, is univer¬
sally allowed to be most worthy of notice.
144
Carlow.
Manners.
lleligion.
Education.
Antiqui¬
ties.
CAR
The manners and appearance of the peasantry differ
little from those of the agricultural parts of the southern
portion of Ireland. The people are, generally speaking,
peaceable and industrious, exhibiting few indications of a
tendency to agitation or turbulence. They dwell chiefly
in detached cottages, or in small villages, as there are but
three towns, Carlow, Tullow, and Leighlin Bridge, the po¬
pulation of which exceeds 2000 souls, and very few villages
of any size. The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion.
Its proportion to the Protestant, as far as can be inferred
from a calculation of the number of children receiving in¬
struction, as stated in the reports of the commissioners of
education in 1824 and 1826, may be estimated to be in
the proportion of five to one. The number of Piesbyte-
rians and other Protestant dissenters is very trifling.
According to the returns just referred to, the number
of children receiving education in public schools is 8600,
being somewhat less than one tenth of the whole population,
or one third of those within the period of life usually devot¬
ed to literary instruction. Of these, the number of Pro¬
testants attending school is about 1500, and of Catholics
7100. The number of pupils in schools supported by
grants of public money is 1600, in those supported by vo¬
luntary contributions 1100; the remainder, amounting to
5900, pay for their instruction. The number of schools of
the first of these classes is twenty, of the second nine,
and of the third a hundred and thirty-seven.
Among the relics of remote antiquity in this county may
be noted a cromlech near the town of Carlow, said to be
one of the largest in Ireland. It is formed of an immense
slab, twenty-three feet long, eighteen broad, and four and
a half thick, elevated on three supporters, each five and a
half feet high. At some distance is a solitary pillar, near¬
ly round, and about five feet high. A rath near Leighlin
Bridge, when explored, was found to contain several urns of
baked earth, within which nothing was discovered but a
small quantity of dust. At Kellystown, five miles from Car-
low, are the remains of a round tower, twelve feet diameter
in the inside. It stands in an elevated situation; and near
it are the ruins of an old church. Both buildings are de¬
dicated to St Patrick, to whom their foundation is also at¬
tributed.
The population of this county, at the several periods
at which enumerations were taken by authority of parlia¬
ment, was as follows :—
Year. No. of Souls. Increase.
1813 69,566
1321 78,952  9,386
1831 81,576  2,624
Total increase from 1813 to 1831.... 12,010
Carlow. The town or borough of Carlow is situated in
the heart of the beautiful and highly cultivated vale form¬
ed by the river Barrow, which is here navigable for small
craft, and thus renders the town an emporium for the trade
of the surrounding districts. Its population, according to
the census of 1821, is estimated at 8025 souls. It is a
neat, and in some parts a well-built town. The principal
buildings are the college, founded and maintained by the
voluntary contributions of the Roman Catholic gentry, for
the literary and scientific instruction of a hundred pupils,
fifty of whom are prepared for the priesthood. The build¬
ings are spacious, but without any pretensions to architec¬
tural beauty, and, together with a chapel, cemetery, and
exercise ground of seven acres, are surrounded by a lofty
wall. The court-house, where the assizes for the county
are held, is small but commodious, and has a good ball¬
room attached to it. The parish church is chiefly remark¬
able for a spire of bulky and ungraceful proportions. The
Roman Catholic chapel is a large and elegant structure.
CAR
There are also a cavalry barrack, meeting-houses, a Mag- Carlowj
dalen asylum, and a news-room. This town was formerly 1
a place of considerable importance. In the reign of Ed-Carlsbw
ward III. the king’s exchequer was removed to it; and
L.500, a large sum at that period, was applied towards sur¬
rounding it with a wall. In the early part of Queen Eli¬
zabeth’s reign, it was taken and burned by the Irish chief¬
tain Rory og O’More. When summoned by Cromwell
during tbe disastrous wars of 1641, it submitted to his arms
without resistance. In the insurrection of 1798 it was at¬
tacked by a tumultuary body of insurgents, who were soon
repulsed. A dreadful carnage ensued, for no quarter was
given ; and many in the confusion of their flight took refuge
in the houses of some of the streets, to which the king’s
troops immediately set fire, “ in order,” says Sir Richard
Musgrave, the historian of that calamitous period, with great
want of feeling, “ to make them bolt.” But the most sin¬
gular monument of the former greatness of this town wras its
castle, the erection of which is generally, though not upon
any conclusive evidence, attributed to King John. It stood
on a slight eminence overhanging the Barrow, and consist¬
ed of a quadrangle, having a circular tow^er at each cor¬
ner. The doors were low and narrow, the windows, or,
more properly speaking, the apertures for light, mere loop¬
holes. In the year 1814 the new proprietor of the castle
made such alterations in its fabric, with a view to fit it up
as a lunatic asylum, that the walls, massive as they were,
gave way, and the greater part of the building suddenly
fell to the ground, leaving only the western side vvith two
of the angular towers standing, to show to posterity where
and what it had been. Carlow obtained a charter at an
early period, and was re-incorporated with enlarged privi¬
leges by James I., who allowed it to return two members
to the Irish parliament. It is governed by a sovereign
and twm serjeants. The town sends one member to the im¬
perial parliament.
CARLOWITZ, or Karlovacze, a city of Hungary, in
the province denominated the Sclavonian Frontier. It is
situated on the south bank of the Danube, about ten miles
from Peterwardein. It is the seat of the Greek archbishop,
and, besides the cathedral, has two Greek churches and
one Catholic, with 930 houses, and 5600 inhabitants, who
carry on a considerable trade with the Turkish dominions.
Long. 19. 45. 5. E. Lat. 45. 12. N.
CARLSBAD, a town in the Austrian kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, the capital of the circle of Caslau. It is celebrated
throughout the Continent for its mineral springs, which are
frequented in the summer season by numerous visitors of
the highest rank. It is situated between two lofty moun¬
tains, through which the river Tepl runs ; and the sur¬
rounding country is highly picturesque, whilst the various
accommodations for the company that resort to the town
make it an agreeable residence for the patients. The
springs differ but little from each other in their compo¬
nent parts; all have both an aperient and tonic quality.
Some of them are warm. The Brudel is of 50 degrees of
Fahrenheit, the Miihlenbad of 38. The Neubrunnen and
the Sclopbrunnen are also warm; but the one most prized is
the Sauerbrunnen, which is cold, and has more saline par¬
ticles. These baths are said to have been discovered by
the Emperor Charles IV. when on a hunting excursion,
and to have derived their name from him. The town con¬
tains a church, theatre, ball-room, and about 2500 resi¬
dent inhabitants, who are employed in manufacturing va¬
rious articles of fine steel, of gold and silver, of porcelain,
of fire-arms, and various trinkets. It is thirty-eight miles
from Prague, and the roads to it from thence and from
Saxony are very good.
CARLSBURG, a city, the capital of the same name,
in the Austrian province Siebenbergen, in Hungary. It
CAR
1 ,burg is situated on the banks of the Maros, and contains, besides
r I the cathedral, a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Reformed, and a
Unitarian church, and two synagogues. There is an eccle¬
siastical seminary, and a Catholic gymnasium with a nor¬
mal school attached to it. The city comprehends a thou¬
sand houses, and from six to seven thousand inhabitants.
It has some manufactures, and considerable trade. Long.
23. 30. E. Lat. 48. 3. N.
Carlsburg, a circle in the Austrian province of Sieben-
bergen. It extends over 2500 square miles, or 1,600,000
acres, comprehending one city, three market-towns, and a
hundred and seventy-five villages. It is a district rich in
the products of agriculture, in corn, pulse, and fruits, espe¬
cially vines. It furnishes much cattle and game, as well as
fish ; and it contains mines of rock-salt. It is watered by
the rivers Maros and Vulkui, the latter of which yields
gold by washing its sand.
CARLSHAM, a sea-port of the province of Carlskrona,
in Sweden. It is situated at the mouth of the river An,
and has a small though very secure harbour. It contains
500 houses, and 3387 inhabitants, who carry on a consider¬
able foreign trade, in corn, iron, wood, pitch, tar, and pot¬
ashes. Many ships belong to the port, and an extensive
fishery is pursued. Long. 14. 42. E. Lat. 56. 13. N.
CARLSKRONA, a province of Sweden. It is bound¬
ed on the north by Cronoberg, on the north-east by
Kalmar, on the east and south by the Baltic Sea, and on
the west by Christianstadt. Its extent is 1122 square miles,
and it contains a population of 67,200 persons, inhabiting
three cities, three market-towns, and 1091 hamlets.
Carlskrona, the capital of the Swedish province of the
same name. It is the seat of the boards for regulating the
marine administration of the kingdom. It is built on five
small islands, connected by bridges with the main land.
It contains docks, store-houses, work-shops, hospitals, and
all the other appendages of a naval arsenal. The haven
is secure, and well adapted for the ships of war which are
stationed in it. The city contains 1500 houses, and 10,533
inhabitants, chiefly depending on the fleet, but in some
measure on the fisheries, and on the export of pitch, tar,
timber, and some iron. The city suffers from the wrant of
fresh water. Long. 15. 27. 40. E. Lat. 56. 6. 57. N.
CARLSRUHE, a city of Germany, the capital of the do¬
minions of the Grand Duke of Baden. It is situated in the
valley of the Rhine, about three miles from that stream, and
376 feet above the level of the sea. The city is built in a
peculiar form, eight principal streets proceeding from a cir¬
cular centre, and not unlike the stick of a fan when open,
which produces a very striking effect in spite of the dul-
ness of uniformity. The palace of the duke, and the
other public buildings, are, some tasteful, some magnifi¬
cent; and the institutions for education, for charity, as
well as the library, the museums, and various collections,
are appropriate and well conducted. The inhabitants
amount to 15,789, of whom 9299 are Lutherans, 4417
Catholics, 642 Calvinists, with some other sectaries, and
a few Jews. It is a place of some trade, but chiefly con¬
fined to the sale of the various productions needed by the
inhabitants of the duchy. The environs are beautiful, ow¬
ing to the groves through which the roads to the city pass.
Long. 8. 15. 25. E. Lat. 48. 59. 55. N.
CARLSTADT, a province or laen of the kingdom of
Sweden. It is bounded on the north by Norway, on the
north-east by Storra-Kopperburg, on the east by Oerebro,
on the south-east by Skaraborg, on the south by Wenern,
and on the south-west by Elfsborg. Its extent is 6754
square miles, and the inhabitants are 140,100, who occupy
four cities and 1744 hamlets or farms.
, Carlstadt, the capital of the province of that name,
in Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and of the provincial
VOL. VI.
CAE 145
courts of justice. It stands on the small island Ting- Carlstadt
walla, which is formed by two mouths of the Klaxaelf, II
and connected with the main land by two .bridges. It is Carlyle,
a place of some coasting trade, and of fisheries. It con-
tains 440 houses, and 2205 inhabitants. Long. 13. 24. 55.
E. Lat. 59. 21. 45. N.
Carlstadt, a division of that part of the Austrian
empire denominated the Croatian Military Frontier. It
extends along the shores of the Adriatic Sea, being bound¬
ed on the north by Illyria ; on the east by the Banal Fron¬
tier, Bosnia, and Dalmatia; on the south and west by the
Adriatic; and on the north-west by Illyria. It extends
over 3750 square miles, or about 2,300,000 English acres,
and contains 193,600 inhabitants, living under a kind of
feudal military discipline, in small establishments, always
in a state of preparation to repel any incursions from their
Turkish neighbours. The country is for the most part
mountainous and sterile; but many spots are cultivated,
and produce, corn, wine, and silk; and there are many
sawT-mills for converting the woods to useful purposes.
CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, a distinguished oriental¬
ist, and general scholar, was the son of a physician at
Carlisle, and was born there in the year 1759. He re¬
ceived his early education in the learned languages at the
grammar-school of that city. In 1775 he proceeded to
Cambridge, obtained his bachelor’s degree in 1779, and
was elected a fellow of Queen’s College in that university.
He left college in 1783, after taking his master’s degree,
and returned to his native city, where he obtained some
church preferment. In 1793, upon the resignation of Dr
Paley, he succeeded to the chancellorship of the diocese
of Carlisle.
Mr Carlyle had early devoted much of his attention
to an accurate study of the Arabic language, in which
pursuit he had been assisted by a native of Bagdad, who
resided some time with him at the university. Having
thus attained to great proficiency in the language and li¬
terature of the Arabians, he in 1792 appeared before the
public as the translator of an inedited historical work in
that language, known under the name of the Maured Al-
latafet. The author of this work was Jemaleddin, a per¬
son of the rank of Emir, and distinguished among the
eastern writers by the title of Historiographer of Egypt,
on account of his great attention to the improvement of
its history. The Maured Allatafet is an epitome made
by Jemaleddin himself of a larger work, which comprised
a complete history of that country, from the first esta¬
blishment of the Arabian government to the eight hun¬
dred and fifty-seventh year of the Hegira. In reviewing
the epitome with a view to its publication, Mr Carlyle
thought proper to retrench that part of it which relates
to the caliphs of Bagdad, their history being, as he con¬
ceived, sufficiently illustrated in other writings; so that
his publication- commences with the first of the Fatimite
caliphs, who reigned in Egypt; and it ends, where the ori¬
ginal epitome also terminates, with the reign of Almalec
Alashrof, the twelfth of the Circassian race of sultans,
thus comprising a period of nearly five hundred years.
However creditable to Mr Carlyle’s attainments in east¬
ern learning, this treatise is not thought to have added
much to the stock of historical knowledge, or to suggest
any high ideas of the merit of that larger work from which
it w as abridged, and which procured Jemaleddin so much
renown in the East. The title of Mr Carlyle’s publica¬
tion is as follows :—“ Maured Allatafet Jemaleddini, jilii
Togri Bardii, seu rerum Egypticarum Annales, ab anno
Christi 971, usque ad annum 1453. E Codice MS. Bi¬
bliothecas Academiae Cambrigiensis. Arab, et Lat. 4to.”
In 1794 Mr Carlyle was elected professor of Arabic in
the University of Cambridge; and in 1796 he gave to the
146
CAR
Carmag-
nola.
world another and more pleasing proof of his zealous en¬
deavours to illustrate the literature of the East, in a work
entitled Specimens of Arabian Poetry, from the earliest
time to the extinction of the Caliphat; with some Account oj
the Authors. Arab, and Eng. 8yo. His object was, by ar¬
ranging the pieces in chronological order, and accompany¬
ing each with some account of the author, and of the oc¬
casion of the composition, to exhibit a sort of history o
Arabian poetry during the most splendid period ot the
Mahommedan empire. Many of these pieces possess
considerable beauty; but as Mr Carlyle had it in view to
exemplify the different species of poetical composition, he
has accordingly translated some specimens, in which he
was himself sensible there was nothing to be prized, either
in the thought or the execution. Like most of those who
have become eminent in eastern learning, Professor Car¬
lyle is thought to have formed too high an estimate ot
its merits; but all must admit that his Specimens, with
their prefaces, form an elegant and interesting work: one
which, to use his own words, cannot but prove acceptable
to “ those who wish to gain an insight into the history ot
manners, and who love to trace the operations of the hu¬
man mind in distant countries and various situations.
A second edition of this work was published in 1810.
When the Earl of Elgin was appointed ambassador to
the Porte in 1799, Professor Carlyle was invited to ac¬
company him as an accredited agent of the British go¬
vernment, for the purpose of literary research; and in
that capacity he accordingly proceeded to the East. After
remaining some time in Constantinople, he left that capi¬
tal in January 1800, and proceeded through Asia Minor
and Cyprus to Palestine; in which tour he was employed
till the following July, when he returned to Constanti¬
nople. He again quitted this city in March 1801, and vi¬
sited the Troad, the convents of Mount Athos, and seve¬
ral parts of Greece. He appears to have spent three
weeks amongst these celebrated convents, where, being
furnished with recommendations from the government,
and the Patriarch of Constantinople, he was received with
marked kindness, and enjoyed every opportunity for li¬
terary research, from Athens, where he spent some
time, assisted in his inquiries by the artists employed by
Lord Elgin, he proceeded in a Ragusan vessel to Malta,
and afterwards to Naples, where he arrived in July 1801.
Soon thereafter he set out for England, and reached his
native city early in the month of October. (Addenda to
the Remains of John Tweddall, 1816, 4to.)
Soon after his return he was presented by the Bishop
of Carlisle to the living of Newcastle-upon-Tyne ; but
this he did not long enjoy, for he fell into bad health,
and died in the prime of life in April 1804 (Gent. Mag.
1804). His premature death cut short some useful
literary undertakings, and deprived the world of the full
fruits of his observations on many interesting scenes,
which he had surveyed with the eye of a scholar and the
feeling of a poet; for all that the public has derived from
his travels is a posthumous volume of poems, with re¬
marks suggested by these scenes; and which, though
bearing testimony to his learning and taste, is but a poor
substitute for such a work as, with his knowledge and
means of information, he could not have failed to produce.
The title of this posthumous volume is as follows :—Poems,
suggested chiefly by scenes in Asia Minor, Syria, and
Greece, icith Prefaces extracted from the Author s Journal.
It was published in 4to in 1805, and is embellished with
some fine engravings.
CARMAGNOLA, a city of Italy, in the province of
Turin, in the kingdom of Sardinia, on a small stream that
runs into the Po. It contains an elegant church, and five
others, four monasteries, and 1200 inhabitants, who carry
CAR
on <rreat commerce in silk and linen goods. The silk Carmel
market in June is the most frequented of any in Piedmont, II
and the price fixed there generally rules that of the sur-
rounding country.
CARMEL, a high mountain of Palestine, standing on
the skirts of the sea, and forming the most remarkable
headland on all that coast. It extends eastward from the
sea as far as the plain of Jezreel, and from the city of that
name it stretches to Caesarea on the south. It seems to
have had the name of Carmel from its great fertility; this
word, according to the Hebrew import, signifying the vine
of God, and being used in Scripture to denote any fruitful
spot, or any place planted with fruit trees. Mount Carmel,
we are assured, was at one time very fertile. Now it is
represented by some travellers as dry and barren ; but this
arises from the negligence of the Turks. Carmel is the
name of the mountain, and of a city built on it, as well as
of a heathen deity worshipped in it, but without either
temple or statue; though anciently there must have been
a temple, as we are told that this mountain was a fa¬
vourite retreat of Pythagoras, who, unattended by any one,
spent a good deal of time in the temple. But what has
rendered Mount Carmel most celebrated and revered both
by Jews and Christians, is its having been the residence
of the prophet Elijah, who is supposed to have lived there
in a cave, which is still shown, before he was taken up
into heaven.
CARMELITES, an order of religious persons, making
one of the four tribes of mendicants or begging friars, and
taking its name from Mount Carmel, formerly inhabited by
Elias, Elisha, and the children of the prophets, from whom
this order pretends to be derived in an uninterrupted suc¬
cession. The manner in which they make out their anti¬
quity has something in it too ridiculous to be rehearsed.
Some among them allege they are descendants of Jesus
Christ; others go farther, and make Pythagoras a Carme¬
lite, and the ancient druids regular branches of their or¬
der. But Phocos, a Greek monk, speaks the most ration¬
ally on the subject. He says, that in his time, 1185, Elias’s
cave was still extant on the mountain, near which were the
remains of a building which intimated that there had an¬
ciently been a monastery; and that some years before, an
old monk, a priest of Calabria, by revelation, as he pre¬
tended, from the prophet Elias, had fixed there, and as¬
sembled ten brothers. In 1209 Albert, patriarch of Jeru¬
salem, gave the solitaries a rigid rule, which Papebroch
afterwards printed. In 1217, or, according to others, in
1226, Pope Honorius III. approved and confirmed it. This
rule contained sixteen articles, one of which confined them
to their cells, and enjoined them to continue day and night
in prayer; another prohibited the brethren from having
any property; another enjoined fasting from the feast of
the holy cross till Easter, except on Sundays; abstinence
at all times from flesh was enjoined by another article;
one obliged them to manual labour, another imposed on
them a strict silence from vespers till the tierce the next
day.
The peace concluded by the Emperor Frederic II. with
the Saracens in the year 1229, a peace so disadvantageous
to Christendom and so beneficial to the infidels, occasion¬
ed the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land under Alan the
fifth general of the order. He first sent some of the reli¬
gious to Cyprus, who landed there in the year 1328, and
founded a monastery in the forest of Fortania. Some Sici¬
lians leaving Mount Carmel at the same time, returned to
their own country, where they founded a monastery in the
suburbs of Messina. Several English departed from Syria
in the year 1240, in order to found others in England.
Others of Provence, in the year 1244, founded a monas¬
tery in the desert of Aigualates, about a league from Mar-
CAR
men seilles; and thus the number of their monasteries increas-
|| ing, they held their European general chapter in the year
mcnii. 1245, at their monastery at Aylesford in England. This
order afterwards increased so much, that it had thirty-
eight provinces, besides the congregation of Mantua, in
which were fifty-four monasteries, under a vicar-general;
and the congregations of Barefooted Carmelites in Italy
and Spain, which had their peculiar general.
After the establishment of the Carmelites in Europe, their
rule was in some respects altered. Pope Innocent IV. add¬
ed to the first article a precept of chastity, and relaxed the
11th, which enjoins abstinence at all times from flesh, per¬
mitting them, when they travelled, to eat boiled flesh. This
pope likewise gave them leave to eat in a common refec¬
tory, and to keep asses or mules for their use. Their rule
was again mitigated by the popes Eugenius IV. and Pius
II. Hence the order is divided into two branches, viz. the
Carmelites of the ancient observance, called the moderate or
mitigated; and those of the strict observance, who are the
barefooted Carmelites;—a reform set on foot in 1548 by
S. Theresa, a nun of the convent of Avila, in Castile.
These last are divided into two congregations, that of
Spain and that of Italy.
The habit of the Carmelites was at first white, and the
cloak was laced at the bottom with several lists. But Pope
Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for that of
Minims. Their scapulary is a small woollen habit, of a
brown colour, thrown over their shoulders. They wear
no linen shirts, but instead of them linsey-woolsey, which
they change twice a week in the summer, and once a week
in the winter.
If a monk of this order lies with a woman, he is prohi¬
bited saying mass for three or four years, is declared in¬
famous, and obliged to discipline himself publicly once a
week. If he is again guilty of the same fault, his penance
is doubled; and if a third time, he is expelled the order.
CARMEN, an ancient term among the Latins, used in
a general sense to signify a verse, but more particularly to
signify a spell, charm, form of expiation or execration,
couched in a few words placed in a mystic order, on
which its efficacy depended. Pezron derives the word
carmen from the Celtic carm, the shout of joy, or the verses
which the ancient bards sung to encourage the soldiers
before the combat.
Carmen was anciently a denomination given also to
precepts, laws, prayers, imprecations, and all solemn for¬
mulae, couched in a few words placed in a certain order,
though written in prose; in which sense it was that the
elder Cato wrote a carmen de moribus, which was not in
verse, but in prose.
CARMENTALIA, a feast among the ancient Romans,
celebrated annually upon the 11th of January, in honour
of Carmenta or Carmentis, a prophetess of Arcadia, mo¬
ther of Evander, with whom she came into Italy sixty
years before the Trojan war. The solemnity was also re¬
peated on the 15th of January, which is marked in the old
calendar of Carmentalia relata. This feast was establish¬
ed on occasion of a great fecundity among the Roman
dames, after a general reconciliation with their husbands,
with whom they had been at variance, on account of the
use of coaches being prohibited them by an edict of the
senate. This feast was celebrated by the women ; he who
offered the sacrifices was called sacerdos Carmentalis.
CARMONA, a city of Spain, in Andalusia, in what is
called the kingdom of Seville. It is situated on a gentle
elevation, and towards the south overlooks a plain, one
of the richest in Spain, being almost wholly covered, for
more than twenty miles, with woods of olive trees. A
castle, now in ruins, was formerly the principal fortress of
Peter, called the cruel king of Aragon ; and it contained a
car 147
spacious palace within its defences. When the Romans Carmulla
ruled in Spain, this place, then called Carmone, was one !)
of their stations ; and numerous inscriptions and other re- .Carnatic,
mains of that people are found in this vicinity. It is in
longitude 5. 8. 51. W. and in latitude 37. 28. 1. N. This
city now contains 12,685 inhabitants.
CARMULLA, a considerable town of Hindustan, with
a stone fort, in the territories of the Poonah Mahrattas,
and province of Aurungabad, 100 miles east from Poonah.
Long. 75. 32. E. Lat. is. 23. N.
CARNAC, a town in the department of Morbihan, in
France, containing 2614 inhabitants.
CARNAPRAYCEGA, one of the holy places of the
Hindus, in Northern Hindustan, province of Serinagur, si¬
tuated at the confluence of the Alcananda with the Pin¬
dar river. Long. 79. 15. E. Lat. 30. 17. N.
CARNATIC, a large province of Hindustan, so deno¬
minated by the Europeans. It extends along the eastern
coast of Hindustan about 500 miles in length, and is from
50 to 100 miles in breadth. It is bounded on the north
by the Guntoor circar, the limit being the small river
Gundezama, which falls into the sea at Montapilly, and
thence it stretches southward to Cape Comorin. In this
country is comprehended what lately formed the do¬
minions of the nabob of Arcot. It is divided into the
Southern, Central, and Northern Carnatic. The region
south of the river Coleroon, which passes the town of Tri-
chinopoly, is called the Southern Carnatic. The principal
towns of this division are Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura,
Tranquebar, Negapatam, and Tinevelly. The Central
Carnatic extends from the Coleroon river on the south to
the river Pennar on the north; its chief towns are Ma¬
dras, Pondicherry, Arcot, Vellore, Cuddalore, Pullicat,
Nelloor, &c. The Northern Carnatic extends from the
river Pennar to the northern limit of the country, and the
chief towns are Ongole, Carwaree, and Samgaum. The
soil is various; in a great part of the country it is deep
and rich, whilst in other tracts it is sandy, and, water being
scarce, unproductive. This defect is, however, supplied
by artificial means; and in such parts as are at too great
a distance to have water conveyed to them, tanks are
formed, some of them of great extent, and formed by
inclosing the waters deposited in low situations with a
strong mound of earth ; while others are of a smaller size,
and of a quadrangular form, lined with stone, and with a
flight of steps descending to the bottom. In these reservoirs
are collected the periodical rains, which are afterwards dis¬
tributed over the rice fields, and are also used for the supply
of the cattle in the dry season. The climate, except on the
sea-coast, where there are sea and land breezes, is liable to
excessive heats, the thermometer standing in the coolest
and shadiest parts at 115 degrees. Occasional showers
fall in May, June, and July, and sometimes heavy rains
which last for three or four days, but refresh the air, and
prepare the ground for cultivation. The principal rivers
are the Pennar, the Patar, and the Vaggaroo, which all
rise in the high lands among the Ghauts, and take an
easterly course to the Bay of Bengal. The vegetable
productions are numerous, and similar to those found in
most other parts of Hindustan. Famines and scarcities,
owing to drought, are much more frequent in the Carna¬
tic than in the Bengal provinces. This country has been
from the earliest times the scene of violence and strife
between the numerous polygars or chieftains and petty po¬
tentates, among whom it was formerly divided ; and forts
and fortresses accordingly crown almost all the elevated
points. They are built of a square form, and, from the
long period of internal tranquillity which the country has
enjoyed, they are rapidly falling into decay. Large tem¬
ples and other public monuments of civilization abound in
C A It
CAR
the Carnatic. The temples are commonly built m the
middle of a square area, and inclosed by a wall hlteen
or twenty feet high, which conceals them from the public
view, as they are never raised above it. Throughout
this province the lower classes use an ass of a small breed
as a beast of burden. The higher classes would disdain
the use of so impure an animal. Every man has also a
cow, by which, being trained to act as a stalking horse, he
approaches game, and attacks it with arrows.
The population may be estimated at about o,000,000,
and consists chiefly of Hindus of the Brahmimcal persua¬
sion, the Mahommedans being but thinly scattered ovei
the country. There are about 20,000 native Christians ot
the Roman Catholic sect; and there are other Christians
of all descriptions, who are estimated at about double that
number. The Brahmins rent a great proportion of the
land in the country; they also fill different offices, in the
collection of the revenue and the administration of justice.
Their farms are chiefly cultivated by slaves. Through¬
out the country they appropriate to themselves a particu¬
lar quarter in every town, generally the strongest part of
it. The Southern Carnatic, when it came into the pos¬
session of the British, was occupied by military chief¬
tains called polygars, who ruled over the country, and held
lands by doubtful tenures, as they were interpreted by the
Company’s servants. They were unquestionably a disor¬
derly race ; and the country, by their incessant feuds and
plunderings, was one continued scene of strif e and violence.
They were transferred to the dominions of the British in
the year 1732, in virtue of a treaty concluded by Lord
Cornwallis with the nabob of Arcot. But the conditions
of that treaty were variously understood; and it was found
necessary, for the peace of the country, to reduce these
refractory polygars to obedience. In 1801 an insurrec¬
tion took place, which was crushed by a military force;
after which their forts and military establishments were
abolished, the country was searched for arms, and all
that were found were seized. Severe examples were also
made of some of the polygars, who were deprived of their
estates, and in some instances put to death. The country
has thus been reduced to tranquillity and obedience..
Trade and manufactures are carried on to a consider¬
able extent. Piece goods, consisting mostly of blue cloths,
coarse chintzes, and the like; also rum, indigo, grain, and
other commodities, are exported to Madras. I he blue
cloths are re-exported, as well as the other goods, to east¬
ern markets. The imports are very inconsiderable.
The Carnatic was first invaded by the Mahommedans
in a. n. 1310, when they defeated the Hindu sovereign,
and conquered the country. After this period it was
liable to an occasional tribute, first to the Deccany sove¬
reign, and subsequently to the Mogul emperors ; and early
in the eighteenth century it was overrun by the armies of
Aurungzebe. It was dismembered from the Mogul empire
in 1717, when Nizamul Mulk obtained possession of the
Deccan and the south of India. In 1743 he appointed
Anwar ud Been nabob of the Carnatic and Arcot; in
1754 a competition for the government arose; and after
a long and tedious war, in which the English and the
French took different sides, Mahommed AH was left in
possession of that portion of the Carnatic which was the
fruit of the successes achieved by the British. The Car¬
natic was laid completely waste in its central parts by
Hyder Ali, but was again re-conquered by the British in
1783. In 1801 all the possessions of the nabob of Arcot
situated in the Carnatic were transferred by treaty to the
British, the conditions of which were, that a clear revenue
should be reserved to the nabob of two or three lacks of
pagodas annually; and that the British should undertake
to support a sufficient civil and military force for the pro¬
tection of the country and the collection of the revenue* Carnatio
A liberal establishment was also provided for the other II
branches of the family of Mahommed Ali Khan. After ^rneafe,
this the country was taken possession of by the British
collectors of revenue. It was subdivided into districts;
and an assessment was imposed, which has been since
collected with little difficulty. {Fifth Report of the Se¬
lect Committee on India A/fams—Appendix, Reports of
Colonel Munro, Memoir of Mr Hodgson, of Mr, Thac¬
keray, Revenue Consultations, &c. &c.; Buchanan s Tra¬
vels in Mysore.) (.*•)
CARNATION, among painters, is understood of all
the parts of a picture in general which represent flesh, or
which are naked and without drapery. Titian and Cor¬
reggio in Italy, and Rubens and \ andyke in Flanders, ex¬
celled in carnations.
CARNAUL, a town of Hindustan, and the chief town
of a district in the Balaghaut ceded districts, situated in
the middle of a very extensive plain. This district ex¬
tends along the south side of the Toombuddra river, and
is situated between the 15th and 16th degrees of north
latitude. It was ceded to the British in 1800, and was
then in a very desolate state ; but, under the influence of
regular government, it has since greatly recovered. The
town is situated on the south side ot the loombuddra
Long. 77. 58. E, Eat. 15. 50. N. This town was
river.
in 1752 the capital of a Patan state, and is still the resi¬
dence of a Patan chief, who is tributary to the Company.
It is 279 miles S.S.W. from Madras, the same distance
from Seringapatam, and 127 miles travelling distance from
Hyderabad.
CARNEADES, a celebrated Greek philosopher, was a
native of Cyrene in Africa, and founder of the thiid aca¬
demy. He was so fond of study that he not only avoid¬
ed all entertainments, but forgot even to eat at his own
table; his maid servant Melissa was obliged to put the
victuals into his hand. He was an antagonist of the
Stoics, and applied himself with great eagerness to refute
the works of Chrysippus, one of the most celebiated philo¬
sophers of their sect. ’I he power of his eloquence was
dreaded even by the Roman senate. The Athenians, being
condemned by the Romans to pay a fine of five hundred
talents for plundering the city of Oropus, sent ambassadors
to Rome, who got the fine mitigated to a hundred talents.
Carneades the Academic, Diogenes the Stoic, andCritolaus
the Peripatetic, w'ere charged with this embassy. Before
they had an audience of the senate, they harangued to
great multitudes in different parts of the city. Carneades s
eloquence was distinguished from that of the others by its
strength and rapidity. Cato the Elder made a motion in
the senate that these ambassadors should be immediately
sent- back, because it was very difficult to discern the
truth through the arguments of Carneades. Ihe Athe¬
nian ambassadors, said many of the senators, were sent
rather to force us to comply with their demands than to
solicit them by persuasion; meaning, that it was impos¬
sible to resist the power of that eloquence with which
Carneades addressed them. According to Plutarch, the
youth at Rome were so charmed by the orations of this
philosopher, that they forsook their exercises and other
diversions, and were carried with a kind of madness to
philosophy, the humour of philosophising spreading like
enthusiasm. This grieved Cato, who was particularly
afraid of the subtilty of wit and strength of argument
with which Carneades maintained either side ot a ques¬
tion. Carneades harangued in favour of justice one day,
and the next day against it, to the admiration of all who
heard him, among whom were Galba and Cato, the greatest
orators of Rome. This was his element; he delighted in
demolishing his own work, because it served in the end to
CAR
E,dde confirm his grand principle, that there are only probabili¬
ties or resemblances of truth in the mind of man ; so that
loIa' of two things directly opposite, either may be chosen in-
differently. Quintilian remarks, that though Carneades
argued in favour of injustice, yet he himself acted accord¬
ing to the strictest rules of justice. The following was a
maxim of Carneades: “ If a man privately knew that his
enemy, or any other person whose death might be of ad¬
vantage to him, would come to sit down on grass in which
there lurked an asp, he ought to give him notice of it,
though it were in the power of no person whatever to
blame him for being silent.” Carneades, according to
some, lived to be eighty-five years old; while others make
him to be ninety. His death is placed in the fourth year of
the 162d olympiad.
CARNEDDE, in British antiquity, denotes heaps of
stones, supposed to be druidical remains, and thrown to¬
gether on occasion of confirming and commemorating a
covenant, Gen. xxxi. 46. They are very copimon in the
Isle of Anglesey, and were also used as sepulchral monu¬
ments, in the manner of tumuli; for Mr Rowland found
a curious urn in one of these carnedde, whence it may
be inferred, that the Britons had the custom of throwing
stones on the deceased. From this custom is derived the
Welsh proverb Karn ardyben, I’ll betide thee.
CARNEIA, in Antiquity, a festival in honour of Apollo,
surnamed Carneus, and held in most cities of Greece, but
especially at Sparta, where it was instituted. The i-eason
of'the name, as well as the occasion of the institution, is
controverted. It lasted nine days, beginning on the 13th
of the month Carneus. The ceremonies were an imitation
of the method of living and discipline used in camps.
CARNELIAN, a well-known variety of calcedony, the
produce of India.
CARNERO, a name given to that part of the Gulf of
Venice which extends from the western coast of Istria to
the islands of Grossa and the coast of Morlachia.
Carnero is likewise the name of the cape to the west
of the mouth of the Bay of Gibraltar.
CARNIFEX, among the Romans, the common execu¬
tioner. By reason of the odiousness of his office, the car-
nifex was expressly prohibited by the laws from having
his dwelling-house within the city. In the writers of the
i middle ages carnifex also denotes a butcher.
Under the Anglo-Danish kings the carnifex was an
officer of great dignity, being ranked with the archbishop
of York, Earl Godwin, and the lord steward. Flor.
Wigorn. ann. 1040, Rex Hardecanutus, Alfricum Ebor,
Archiep. Goodwinum comitem, Edricum dispensatorem
Thrond suum carnificem, et alios magrue dignitatis victor
Londinum misit.
CARNIOLA, a province of the Austrian empire, with
the title of duchy. It is bounded on the north by Carin-
thia, on the north-east by Styria, on the east and south¬
east by Croatia, on the south by Dalmatia and the Adri¬
atic, and on the west by Istria, Friuli, and the county of
Grotz. Carniola is about 120 miles in length by 100 in
breadth, and contains above 4700 square mile^. It is di¬
vided either into Upper, Middle, Lower, and Inner Car¬
niola, to which some add Austrian Istria, or into the
circles of Laybach, Neustadt, and Adelsberg. This pro¬
vince, although mountainous in the north and north-west,
has extensive and fertile valleys and plains in the south,
and is more populous than Carinthia. In the interior it
bears a resemblance to that province in its general features,
but it is more susceptible of culture, and produces wheat
maize, millet, and the best flax in the dominions of Aus¬
tria. The ground in the southern parts produces two
crops a year. Fruit is very abundant, especially chestnuts
and walnuts, of which there are entire forests. The
CAR 149
mountains of Carniola are remarkable for their natural Carnival
curiosities, and for their vast cavities and subterranean II
passages. The cataracts are numerous, and of a very Carnivo-
striking and picturesque character. There are several v TOUS'
rivers, the principal of which is the Saave. Among the
lakes, that of Zirknitz or Czirknitz is the most remark¬
able. It possesses two subterranean outlets, by which the
whole of its waters are discharged, and for four months
the bottom is dry, and a crop of millet and hay is produ¬
ced on it.
Carniola, like Carinthia, possesses a number of iron,
lead, and quicksilver mines. There are also varieties of
the mineral kingdom, and precious stones are occasionally
found. Woollens, linens, and lace, are the principal
branches of manufacture. There are several iron forges
and two glass works. Near the coast a considerable quan¬
tity of sea-salt is produced. The population amounts to
about half a million.
CARNIVAL, or Carnaval, a time of rejoicing and
season of mirth, observed with great solemnity by the
Italians, particularly at Venice, and held from the twelfth
day till Lent.
The word is formed from the Italian Carnavalle, which
M. Du Cange derives from Carn-a-val, by reason of the
flesh being then put in the pot, to make amends for the
season of abstinence ensuing. Accordingly, in the corrupt
Latin, he observes, it was called Carnelevamen and Car-
nisprivium ; as the Spaniards still denominate it carnes
tollcndas.
Feasts, balls, operas, concerts of music, intrigues, mar¬
riages, and the like, are chiefly held in carnival time. The
carnival begins at Venice the second holiday in Christmas.
Then it is they begin to wear masks, and open their play¬
houses and gaming houses; while the place of St Mark is
filled with mountebanks, jack-puddings, pedlars, prosti¬
tutes, and such like mobs, who flock thither from all
parts. There have been no less than seven sovereign
princes and 30,000 foreigners present to partake of these
diversions.
CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to those animals
which naturally seek and feed on flesh.
It has been a dispute among naturalists whether man is
naturally carnivorous. Those who take the negative side
of the question insist chiefly on the structure of our teeth,
which are mostly incisores or molares; not such as carni¬
vorous animals are furnished with, and which are proper
to tear flesh in pieces, and to this it may be added, that,
even when we do feed on flesh, it is not without a prepara¬
tory alteration by boiling, roasting, or the like, and even
then it is the hardest of digestion of all foods. To these ar¬
guments Dr Wallis subjoins another, which is, that all quad¬
rupeds which feed on herbs or plants have a long colon,
with a caecum at the upper end of it, or somewhat equi¬
valent, which conveys the food by a long and large pro¬
gress from the stomach downwards, in order to its slower
passage and longer stay in the intestines ; but that, in car¬
nivorous animals, such caecum is wanting, and instead of
it there is a shorter and more slender gut, and a quicker
passage through the intestines. Now, in man the caecum
is very visible ; a strong presumption that nature, which
is still consistent with herself, did not intend him for a
carnivorous animal. It is true, the caecum is but small in
adults, and seems of little or no use; but in a foetus it is
much larger in proportion ; and it is probable that our cus¬
tomary change of diet, as we grow up, may occasion this
shrinking. But to these arguments Dr Tyson replies, that
if man had been designed by nature to be not carnivorous,
there would doubtless have been found, somewhere on the
globe, people who do not feed on flesh ; which is not the
case. Neither are carnivorous animals always without a
150 CAR
Caro colon and cascum ; nor are all animals carnivorous which
II have these parts. The opossum, for instance, has both a
C arolina. cojon anj ca:cum, and yet feeds on poultry and other flesh;
whereas the hedgehog, which has neither colon nor caecum,
and so ought to be carnivorous, feeds only on vegetables.
Add to this, that hogs, which have both, will feed upon
flesh when they can get it; and rats and mice, which have
large caecums, will feed on bacon as well as bread and
cheese. Lastly, the human race are furnished with teeth
necessary for the preparation of all kinds of food ; from
which it would seem that nature intended we should live
on all. And as the alimentary duct in the human body is
fitted for digesting all kinds of food, ought we not rather
to conclude that nature did not intend to deny us any?
It is not less disputed whether mankind were carnivo¬
rous before the flood. St Jerome, Chrysostom, Theodore,
and other ancients, maintain that all animal food was then
forbidden; which opinion is also strenuously supported
among the moderns by Curcellacus, and refuted by Hei¬
degger, Danzius, Bochart, and others.
CARO, Annibal, a celebrated Italian poet, was born
at Civita Nuovo in 1507. He became secretary to the
Duke of Parma, and afterwards to Cardinal Farnese. He
was also made a knight of Malta. He translated Virgil’s
TEr.eid into his own language, and with such propriety and
elegance of expression, that he was allowed by the best
judges to have almost equalled the original. He also
translated Aristotle’s rhetoric, two oratories of Gregory
Nazianzen, and a discourse of Cyprian. He wrote a co¬
medy ; and a miscellany of his poems was printed at Venice
in 1584. He died at Rome in 1566.
CAROLINA, North, one of the United States of Ame¬
rica, is bounded on the north by Virginia, on the east by
the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by South Carolina, and
on the west by Tenessee. It lies between long. 75.45. and 84.
W. and lat. 33. 50. and 36. 30. N., being four hundred and
thirty miles in length by a hundred and eighty in breadth,
and containing an area of 50,000 square miles. This state
is divided into sixty-three counties. It contains no large
towns. Besides Raleigh, which is the seat of government,
the most considerable are Newbern, Fayetteville, Wilming¬
ton, Edenton, Washington, Hillsborough, Halifax, Tarbo-
rough, Salisbury, and Salem. The principal rivers are
the Roanoke, Chowan, Neuse, Pamlico, Cape Fear, Yadkin,
and Catawba. Of these, Cape Fear affords the best navi¬
gation. The two principal sounds on the coast are those
of Pamlico and Albemarle. Dismal Swamp lies partly in
Virginia and partly in this state. There are three cele¬
brated and dangerous capes on the coast, Hatteras, Look¬
out, and Fear. For about sixty miles from the sea, and
in its whole width, North Carolina is a dead level, diversi¬
fied only by occasional openings in the immense forest with
which it is covered. Beyond this monotonous plain rise
mountains and hills, from whose summits is beheld a beau¬
tiful tract of country, which recedes westward beyond the
range of vision, and is adorned with forests of lofty trees.
On the level parts the soil is indifferent; but on the banks
of rivers, such as the Roanoke, it is remarkably produc¬
tive. In some parts of this champaign country there are
glades of rich swamp and ridges of oak land of a black
and fruitful soil, which form an exception to the general
sterility. That portion of the state which extends to the
west of the mountains is for the most part very fertile,
abounding in trees of various kinds. Wheat, rye, barley,
oats, and flax, are the crops usually cultivated. Indian
corn and pulse of all kinds are also abundant throughout
the state, and cotton is raised in considerable quantities.
Of the plains in the low country, the largest natural growth
is the pitch-pine, a tall and beautiful tree. It affords
pitch, tar, turpentine, and various kinds of lumber, which
CAR
together constitute about one half of the exports of the Caroli
state. In the back country a variety of fruits and medi-
cinal plants grow spontaneously. North Carolina abounds
in iron ore; and it is the only one of the United States in
which gold has been discovered in any considerable quan¬
tities. It is found in almost every part of this territory,
intermixed with the soil. Mines have been established,
but hitherto they have not proved very productive.
This state has not reached that perfection of culture
which it is capable of arriving at from its natural advan¬
tages. The want of sufficient inland navigation, and also
of harbours, is described as the cause of this backward¬
ness. There are several large rivers, but their mouths
are blocked up with sand. The best of the harbours,
which are all indifferent, are Wilmington, Newbern, and
Edenton. Since 1815, however, the state has been zea¬
lously engaged in several extensive improvements, such
as the construction of canals and roads, and the draining
of marshes and swamps.
Like all the southern states, North Carolina has a con¬
siderable diversity of climate, occasioned by the physical
peculiarities of its parts. The level parts of the country
are unhealthy, but in the hilly parts the reverse is the
case. The summer day is hot, but the evening is re¬
freshing and cool. Autumn is temperate and serene ; and
in some years the winters are so mild, that autumn may
be said to continue till the spring. The wheat harvest
commences in June, and that of Indian corn in Septem¬
ber. In 1827 merchandize to the value of 276,791 dollars
was imported into North Carolina, and to the amount of
449,237 exported.
The Christian denominations in this state are numerous.
At Chapel Hill there is a respectable institution entitled
the university of North Carolina. Lately considerable
attention has been paid to education, and academies have
been established in various places. The population in
1810 amounted to 555,500, and in 1820 to 638,829.
Carolina, South, one of the United States, is bound¬
ed on the no^jh by North Carolina, on the east by the
Atlantic Ocean, and on the south-west and west by Geor¬
gia. It lies between 78. 24. and 83. 30. of west longitude,
and between 32. and 35. 8. of north latitude. It is 200
miles long by 125 broad, and contains 30,000 square miles.
This state is naturally divided into Upper and Lower Ca¬
rolina. The latter is supposed to have been formerly under
the ocean. To the extent of an hundred miles westward
from the sea, the country presents a dull uniformity of gi¬
gantic forests, swamps, and level fields. This plain is suc¬
ceeded by a range of little sand hills, which cover a surface
of sixty miles, and resemble the undulations of an agitated
sea. It is extremely barren, and only here and there en¬
livened by a small oasis of verdure, or a few straggling
pines. Its scanty inhabitants earn a subsistence by the
cultivation of corn and sweet potatoes. Stretching be¬
yond these sand hills there is a remarkable tract ot
ground called the Ridge, which, on approaching it from
the sea, is lofty and bold; but on the north-west it is level
from its summit. This fine belt of land extends from Sa¬
vannah to Broad River. It is fertile and well cultivated.
Succeeding this ridge, the country is a pleasant alterna¬
tion of hill and dale; and large rivers roll their broad co¬
lumns of water through the varied beauties of luxuriant
and well-cultivated fields. From these fertile regions the
ground continues to rise to the western limits of the state,
where several mountains run in a regular direction, the
principal of which is called Table Mountain. The others
are Oolenoy, Oconee, Paris’s Glassey, Hogback, and Kings.
The chief rivers are the Waccamaw, Pedee, Black River,
Santee, Cooper, Ashly, Stono, Edisto, Asheppo, Camba-
hee, Coosaw, Broad, and Savannah.
CAR
. lijia The soil of South Carolina is divided into six classes,
first, tide swamp; second, inland swamp; third, high ri-
a i osta- ver swamp, or low grounds, distinguished by the name of
(r8, second low grounds; fourth, salt marsh; fifth, oak and
^'■^hickery high land; sixth, pine barren. The first two
classes are best adapted for rice and hemp; the third
for hemp, corn, and indigo; the fourth has been much
neglected; the fifth, which is very fertile, for corn, indigo,
and cotton; and the last is the least productive, but so much
more salubrious than the other soils of the low country,
that a proportion of it is an indispensable appendage to
every swamp plantation. The staple commodities of this
state are cotton and rice, of which great quantities are
annually exported. These crops are the most profitable,
and hence the planters have almost totally neglected the
cultivation of wheat, barley, oats, and other articles equal¬
ly useful. Of wheat, in particular, so little is raised, that
large quantities require to be imported. Tobacco thrives
well, as do various kinds of fruits, such as pears, pome¬
granates, and water melons. The latter grow to an enor¬
mous size, and are thought superior to any in the world.
In favourable years vegetation continues for about eight
months. The frosts are severe; but they seldom pene¬
trate deeper than two inches into the earth, or continue
longer than three or four days. At some seasons the wea¬
ther is very variable. The temperature has been known
to vary forty-six degrees in one day. In summer there
are several days of excessive heat, and the nights also
are sometimes extremely sultry. The low country is in¬
fested with all those diseases which are incidental to a
warm, moist, and unelastic atmosphere. Of these the
most frequent are fevers, from which the inhabitants suf¬
fer severely. The upper districts, however, enjoy a very
salubrious climate.
The planters in the low country live in a luxurious and
splendid style; those in the upper country are of more frugal
and industrious habits. The labour of the fields is principal¬
ly performed by slaves, who in the low country exceed the
free inhabitants in the ratio of three to one. Charleston
is the largest town, but Columbia is the seat of govern¬
ment. The legislature consists of a senate and house of
representatives, who are chosen biennially. In its moral
and religious aspect this state bears a resemblance to
North Carolina. In 1827 the value of the imports amount¬
ed to 1,434,106, and the exports to 8,322,561 dollars.
In 1810 the population was 415,115, and in 1820 to
502,741.
Carolina, a town in Spain, of recent foundation, in
the province of Andalusia, in one of its kingdoms, distin¬
guished by the name of Jaen. It was formed by German
colonists in 1767, who began the process of cultivation,
but, from various causes, with little success. It has, how¬
ever, some excellent wine grown in its vicinity ; and olives,
hemp, and corn, have been introduced. The district was
formerly inhabited only by robbers, gipsies, and pretend¬
ed conjurors ; to extirpate whom, Olavide planted several
German families, and introduced the arts of civilized life.
The great sufferings of the late war were very much ex¬
perienced in this town, and it must be long before it can
recover its former prosperity. It contains at present 2050
inhabitants, and is situated in lat. 38. 17. 5. N.
CAROLINE Islands, or New Philippines, a chain of
islands, amounting to thirty, in the Pacific Ocean, which
are but little known to Europeans.
Caroline Books, the name of four books composed by
order of Charlemagne, to refute the second council of Nice.
These books are couched in very harsh and severe terms,
containing 120 heads of accusation against the council of
Nice, and condemning the worship of images.
CAROLOSTADIANS, or Carlostadians, an ancient
CAR 151
sect or branch of Lutherans, who denied the real presence Carolus
of Christ in the eucharist. II
They were thus denominated from their leader Andrew Carprea.
Carolostadius, who having originally been archdeacon of
Wittemberg, was converted by Luther, and was the first
of all the reformed clergy who took a wife ; but disa¬
greeing afterwards with Luther, chiefly in the point of
the sacrament, he founded a sect apart. The Carolosta-
dians are the same with what are otherwise denominated
Sacramentarians, and agree in most things with the Zu-
inglians.
CAROLUS, an ancient English broad piece of gold
struck under Charles I. Its value at the time it was coin¬
ed is said to have been twenty shillings.
Carolus, a small copper coin, with a little silver mixed
in it, struck under Charles VIII. of France. The Carolus
was worth twelve deniers when it ceased to be current.
CAROOR, a town of Hindustan, in the district of South
Coimbetoor. It is situated on the north bank of the Ama-
rawati, or Caroor river, and contains above 1000 houses.
The Caroor was the ancient boundary between the domi¬
nions of Mysore and Trichinopoly; and owing to this fa¬
vourable situation, and being also guarded by a strong
fort, it became a place of great mercantile resort and opu¬
lence. It was taken in 1760, during the wars of the Car¬
natic, by the British. It is forty-two miles west from
Trichinopoly. Long. 78. 12. E. Lat. 10. 55. N.
CARORA, a city of South America, in the province
of Venezuela. It is situated on the river Morera, is well
built, and possesses some large and handsome streets.
The inhabitants, who amount to about 700, are chiefly en¬
gaged in the rearing of productive animals, such as oxen,
mules, horses, sheep, and the like. Lat. 9. 50. N.
CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries of the neck,
which convey the blood from the aorta to the brain; one
called the right, and the other the left carotid.
CAROUGE, a city in the canton of Geneva, in Switzer¬
land. It stands on the Arve, and is connected with the
city of Geneva by a bridge over that river. It contains
about 3500 inhabitants, employed in various manufactures.
CARP, the English name of a species of cyprinus. See
Ichthyology.
The carp is the most valuable of all kinds of fish for
stocking ponds. It is very quick in its growth, and brings
forth the spawn three times a year, so that the increase
is very great. The female does not begin to breed till
eight or nine years old, so that in breeding ponds a sup¬
ply must be kept of carp of that age. The best judges
allow, that in stocking a breed-pond, four males should be
allowed to twelve females. The usual growth of a carp is
two or three inches in length in a year; but in ponds
which receive the fattening of common sewers they have
been known to grow from five inches to eighteen in one
year. A feeding pond of one acre in extent will very well
feed three hundred carp of three years old, three hundred
of two years, and four hundred of one year old. Carp de¬
light greatly in ponds that have marly sides; they love also
clay-ponds well sheltered from the winds and overgrown
with weeds and long grass at the edges, which they feed
on in the hot months. Carp and tench thrive very fast in
ponds and rivers near the sea, where the water is a little
brackish; but they are not so well tasted as those which
live in fresh water.
CARPATES, or Alpes Bastarnicje, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a range of mountains running out between Po¬
land, Hungary, and Transylvania; now called the Carpa¬
thian Mountains.
CARPATHIUM Mare, the sea that washes the island
ofCarpathus. (See Horace and Ovid.)
CARPiEA, a kind of dance anciently in use among the
152 CAR
Carpene- Athenians and Magnesians, performed by two persons,
dolo the one acting a labourer, the other a robber. Ihe la-
ll bourer, laying by his arms, goes to ploughing and sowing,
Carpentry. ]00king warily about him, as if afraid of being sur-
prised. The robber at length appears, and the labourer,
quitting his plough, betakes himself to his arms, and fights
in defence of his oxen. The whole was performed to the
sound of flutes, and in cadence. Sometimes the robber
was overcome, and sometimes the labourer, the victor s re¬
ward being the oxen and plough. The design of the ex¬
ercise was to teach and accustom the peasants to defend
themselves against the attacks of ruffians.
CARPENEDOLO, a market-town of Italy, in the Aus¬
trian delegation of Brescia. It is situated on the livei
Seriola, and contains two churches, an orphan-house and
hospital, and 4370 inhabitants.
CARPENTARIA, Gulf of, a vast bay on the north¬
ern coast of New Holland, containing many islands. This
gulf, which was accurately surveyed by Captain Flinders,
CAR
has a shore of about 1200 miles in length. It stretches Carp®
in breadth to 5. 30. of east longitude from Endeavour Strait |
to Cape Wilberforce, and it runs into the land to the ex-Carpe
tent of about 350 miles. W
CARPENTER, a person who practises carpentry. The
word is formed from the French charpentier, formed from
charpente, which denotes timber ; or rather from the Latin
carpentarius, a maker of carpenta, or carriages.
CARPENTRAS, an arrondissement in the department
of Vaucluse, in France, 356 square miles in extent. It is
divided into five cantons and twenty-nine communes, con¬
taining 43,282 inhabitants. The city which gives name
to the arrondissement is situated on a fruitful plain on the
banks of the Auzon. It contains 2500 houses and 9674
inhabitants. It is a place of considerable trade, both in
the productions of its vicinity, and in cotton and silk goods.
It contains an ancient cathedral and an episcopal palace,
which are remarkable edifices. Long. 4. 58. 48. E. Lat.
44. 3. 33. N.
CARPENTRY.
We must begin by informing our readers, that the bulk
of the present article was written by the late Professor
Robison, in order to form, with those on Roof, and
Strength of Materials, also written by him for this
Encyclopaedia, a uniform system of the most useful depart¬
ments of practical mechanics, deduced, in the same fami¬
liar and elementary manner, from the simple principles of
the composition of forces. In here reprinting his contri¬
bution, we shall premise some introductory observations,
which may be considered as a retrospective summary of
the doctrine of Passive Strength, accompanied by some
of the most useful propositions respecting the resistance
of elastic substances, derived from the principles which
have been already laid down in our article Bridge ; and
subjoining a few notes on such passages as may appear to
require further illustration or correction. Some of the
demonstrations will be partly borrowed from a work which
has been published since the death of Professor Robison,
but others will be more completely original; and of the
remarks, the most important will probably be those which
relate to the form and direction of the abutment of raft¬
ers ; a subject which seems to have been very incorrectly
treated by former writers on Carpentry.1
x.—abstract of the doctrine of passive strength.
The effects of forces of different kinds, on the materials
employed in the mechanical arts, require to be minutely
examined in the arrangement of every work dependent on
them ; and of these effects, as exhibited in a solid body at
rest, we may distinguish seven different varieties ; the ex¬
tension of a substance acting simply as a tie; the com¬
pression of a block supporting a load above it; the detru-
sion of an axis resting on a support close to its wheel, and
resisting by its lateral adhesion only; the flexure of a
body bent by a force applied unequally to its different
parts ; the torsion or twisting, arising from a partial de-
trusion of the external parts in opposite directions, while
the axis retains its place; the alteration or permanent
change of a body which settles, so as to remain in a new
form, when the force is withdrawn; and lastly, the frac¬
ture, which consists in a complete separation of parts be¬
fore united, and which has been the only effect particu¬
larly examined by the generality of authors on the strength
of materials.
The analogy of the laws of extension and compression
has been demonstrated in a former article" (Bridge), and
their connection with flexure has been investigated;
but it is not easy to compare them directly with the re¬
sistance opposed to a partial delrusion, the effects of
which are only so far understood as they are exhibited in
the phenomena of twisting ; and these appear to justify us
in considering the resistance of lateral adhesion as a pri¬
mitive force, deduced from the rigidity or solidity of the
substance, and proportional to the deviation from the na¬
tural situation of the particles. The resistance exhibited
by steel wire, when twisted, bears a greater proportion to
that of brass than the resistance to extension or compres¬
sion, but the forces agree in being independent of the
hardness produced by tempering.
Flexure may be occasioned either by a transverse or by
a longitudinal force. When the force is transverse, the ex¬
tent of the flexure is nearly proportional to its magnitude;
but when it is longitudinal, there is a certain magnitude
which it must exceed in order to produce, or rather to
continue, the flexure, if the force be applied exactly at
the axis. But it is equally true that the slightest possible
force applied at a distance from the axis, however minute,
or with an obliquity however small, or to a beam already
a little curved, will produce a certain degree of flexure;
and this observation will serve to explain some of the dif¬
ficulties and irregularities which have occurred in making
experiments on beams that are exposed to longitudinal
pressure.
Stiffness, or the power of resisting flexure, is measured
by the force required to produce a given minute change
of form. For beams similarly fixed, it is directly propor¬
tional to the breadth and the cube of the depth, and in¬
versely to the cube of the length. Thus a beam or bar
two yards long will be equally stiff with a beam one yard,
provided that it be either twice as deep or eight times as
broad. If the ends of a beam can be firmly fixed, by con¬
tinuing them to a sufficient distance, and keeping them
down by a proper pressure, the stiffness will be four times
as great as if the ends were simply supported. A hollow
substance, of given weight and length, has its stiffness
1 These introductory observations to Professor Robison’s article, and the notes subjoined to it, were written bv the late Dr Tho¬
mas Young.
CARPENTRY.
* entry.nearly proportional to the square of the diameter; and
hence arises the great utility of tubes when stiffness is
required, this property being still more increased by the
expansion of the substance than the ultimate strength.
It is obvious that there are a multiplicity of cases in car¬
pentry where stiffness is of more importance than any
other property, since the utility as well as beauty of the
fabric might often be destroyed by too great a flexibility
of the materials.
If we wish to And how much a beam of fir will sink when
it is loaded in the middle, we may multiply the cube of
the length in inches by the given weight in pounds, and
divide by the cube of the depth, and by ten million times
the breadth; but, on account of the unequal texture of
the wood, we must expect to find the bending somewhat
greater than this in practice, besides that a large weight
will often produce an alteration, or permanent settling,
which will be added to it: a beam of oak will also sink a
little more than a beam of fir with the same weight.
With respect to torsion, the stiffness of a cylindrical
body varies directly as the fourth power of the diameter,
and inversely in the simple proportion of the length: it
does not appear to be changed by the action of any force
tending to lengthen or to compress the cylinder; and it
may very possibly bear some simple relation to the force
of cohesion, which has not yet been fully ascertained;
but it appears that, in an experiment of Mr Cavendish,
the resistance of a cylinder of copper to a twisting force,
acting at its surface, was about of the resistance that
the same cylinder would have opposed to direct extension
or compression.
Alteration is often an intermediate step between a tem¬
porary change and a complete fracture. There are many
substances which, after bending to a certain extent, are
no longer capable of resuming their original form ; and in
such cases it generally happens that the alteration may
be increased without limit, until complete fracture takes
place, by the continued operation of the same force which
has begun it, or by a force a little greater. Those substan¬
ces which are the most capable of this change are called duc¬
tile ; and the most remarkable are gold, and a spider’s web.
When a substance has undergone an alteration by means
of its ductility, its stiffness, in resisting small changes on
either side, remains little or not at all altered. Thus, if the
stiffness of a spider’s web, in resisting torsion, were suffi¬
cient at the commencement of an experiment to cause it
to recover itself, after being twisted in an angle of ten de¬
grees, it would return ten degrees, and not more, after hav¬
ing been twisted round a thousand times. The ductility of
all substances capable of being annealed is greatly modi¬
fied by the effects of heat. Hard steel, for example, is in¬
comparably less subject to alteration than soft, although
in some cases more liable to fracture; so that the degree
of hardness requires to be proportioned to the uses for
which each instrument is intended ; although it was prov¬
ed by Coulomb, and has since been confirmed by other
observers, that the primitive stiffness of steel, in resisting
small flexures, is neither increased nor diminished by any
variation in its temper.
The strength of a body is measured by the force re¬
quired completely to overcome the corpuscular powers
concerned in the aggregation of its particles, and it is
jointly proportional to the primitive stiffness and to the
toughness of the substance, that is, to the degree in
which it is capable of a change of form without permanent
alteration. It becomes, however, of importance in some
cases to consider the measure of another kind of strength,
which has sometimes been called resilience, or the power
of resisting a body in motion, and which is proportional to
the strength and the toughness conjointly, that is, to the
VOL VI.
153
stiffness and the square of the toughness. Thus, if we Carpentry,
double the length of a given beam, we reduce its abso-
lute strength to one half, and its stiffness to one eighth;
but since the toughness, or the space through which it will
continue to resist, is quadrupled, the resilience will be
doubled, and it would require a double weight to fall from
the same height, or the same weight to fall from a double
height, in order to overcome its whole resistance. If
we wish to determine the resilience of a body from an
experiment on its strength, we must measure the dis¬
tance through which it recedes or is bent previously to
its fracture; and it may be shown that a weight which
is capable of breaking it by pressure, would also break it
by impulse if it moved with the velocity acquired by fall¬
ing from a height equal to half the deflection. Thus, if a
beam or bar were broken by a weight of 100 pounds, after
being bent six inches without alteration, it would also be
broken by a weight of 100 pounds falling from$, height of
three inches, or moving in a horizontal direction with a
velocity of four feet in a second, or by a weight of one
pound falling from a height of 300 inches. This substi¬
tution of velocity for quantity of matter has, however, one
limit, beyond which the velocity must prevail over the
resistance, without regard to the quantity of matter; and
this limit is derived from the time required for the suc¬
cessive propagation of the pressure through the different
parts of the substance, in order that they may participate
in the resistance. Thus, if a weight fell on the end of a
bar or column with a velocity of 100 feet in a second, and
the substance could only be compressed of its length,
without being crushed, it is obvious that the pressure
must be propagated through the substance with a velocity
of 20,000 feet in a second, in order that it might resist the
stroke; and, in general, a substance will be crushed or
penetrated by any velocity exceeding that which is ac¬
quired by a body falling from a height, which is to half
that of the modulus of elasticity of the substance, as the
square of the greatest possible change of length is to the
wdiole length. From the consideration of the effect of
rigidity in lessening the resilience of bodies, we may un¬
derstand how a diamond, which is capable of resisting an
enormous pressure, may be crushed with a blow of a small
hammer, moving with a moderate velocity. It is remark¬
able that, for the same substance in different forms, the
resilience is in most cases simply proportional to the bulk
or weight, while almost every other kind of resistance is
capable of infinite variation by change of form only.
The elaborate investigations of M. Lagrange, respect¬
ing the strength and the strongest forms of columns, ap¬
pear to have been conducted upon principles not altoge¬
ther unexceptionable; but it is much easier to confute
the results than to follow the steps of the computations.
One great error is the supposition that columns are to be
considered as elastic beams, bent by a longitudinal force ;
while, in reality, a stone column is never slender enough
to be bent by a force which it can bear without being
crushed ; and even for such columns as are capable of being
bent by a longitudinal force, M. Lagrange’s determina¬
tions are in several instances inadmissible. He asserts, for
example, that a cylinder is the strongest of all possible
forms, and that a cone is stronger than any conoid of the
same bulk; but it appears to be demonstrable in a very
simple manner, and upon incontestable principles, that a
conoidal form may be determined, which shall be stronger
than either a cone or a cylinder of the same bulk.
When a column is crushed, its resistance to compres¬
sion seems to depend in great measure on the force of la¬
teral adhesion, assisted by a kind of internal friction, de¬
pendent on the magnitude of the pressure; and it com¬
monly gives way by the separation of a wedge in an
u
154
CARPENTRY.
Carpentry, oblique direction. If the adhesion were simply propor-
tional to the section, it may be shown that a squaie
column would be most easily crushed when the angle ot
the wedge is equal to half of a right angle ; but if the ad¬
hesion is increased by pressure, this angle will be dimi¬
nished by half the angle of repose appropriate to the sub¬
stance. In a wedge separated by a direct force oa
prism of cast iron, the angle was found equal to 32^ ,
consequently the angle of repose was 2 X 12^° 25 , and
the internal friction to the pressure as 1 to -466, the tan¬
gent of this angle ; there was, however, a little bubble in
the course of the fracture, which may have changed its
direction in a slight degree. The magnitude of the late¬
ral adhesion is measured by twice the height of the wedge,
whatever its angle may be. In this instance the height was
to the depth as T57 to 1, consequently the surface, alibi d-
ing an adhesion equal to the force, was somewhat more
than three times as great as the transverse section, and
the lateral adhesion of a square inch of cast iron would be
equal to about 46,000 pounds; the direct cohesive force
of the same iron was found by experiment equal to about
20,000 pounds for a square inch. It is obvious that expe¬
riments on the strength of a substance in resisting com¬
pression ought to be tried on pieces rather longer than
cubes, since a cube would not allow of the free separation
of a single wedge so acute as was observed in this expe¬
riment ; although, indeed, the force required to separate
a shorter wedge on each side would be little or no great¬
er than for a single wedge. The same consideration of
the oblique direction of the plane of easiest fracture would
induce us to make the outline of a column a little convex
externally, as the common practice has been; for a circle
cut out of a plank possesses the advantage of resisting
equally in every section, and consequently of exhibiting
the strongest form, when there is no lateral adhesion;
and in the case of an additional resistance proportional to
the pressure, the strongest form is afforded by an oval
consisting of two circular segments, each containing twice
the angle formed by the plane of fracture with the hori¬
zon. If we wish to obtain a direct measure of the lateral
adhesion,.we must take care to apply the forces concerned
at a distance from each other not greater than one sixth of
the depth of the substance, otherwise the fracture will
probably be rather the consequence of flexure than of de-
trusion. Professor Robison found this force in some in¬
stances twice as great as the direct cohesion, or nearly in
the same proportion as it appears to have been in the ex¬
periment on the strength of cast iron ; Mr Coulomb thinks
it most commonly equal only to the cohesion ; and in
fibrous substances, especially where the fibres are not per¬
fectly straight, the repulsive strength is generally much
less than would be inferred from this equality, and some¬
times even less than the cohesive strength.
It is well known that the transverse strength of a beam
is directly as the breadth and as the square of the depth,
and inversely as the length; and the variation of the re¬
sults of some experiments from this law can only have de¬
pended on accidental circumstances. If we wish to find
the number of hundredweights that will break a beam of
oak supported at both ends, supposing them to be placed
exactly on the middle, we may multiply the square of the
depth in inches by 100 times the breadth, and divide by
the length; and we may venture in practice to load a
beam with at least an eighth as much as this, or, in case of
necessity, even a fourth. And if the load be distributed
equally throughout the length of the beam, it will support
twice as much ; but for a beam of fir the strength is some¬
what less than for oak. A cylinder will bear the same
curvature as the circumscribing prism, and it may be
shown that its strength, as well as its stiffness, is to that
of the prism as one fourth of its bulk is to one third of the Carpent
bulk of the prism. The strength of a beam supported at
its extremities may be doubled by firmly fixing the ends
where it is practicable; and we have already seen that
the stiffness is quadrupled: but the resilience remains
unaltered, since the resistance is doubled, and the space
through which it acts is reduced to a half. It is there¬
fore obviously of importance to consider the nature of the
resistance that is required from the fabric which we are
constructing. A floor, considered alone, requires to be
strong ; but in connection with a ceiling, its stiffness re¬
quires more particular attention, in order that the ceiling
may remain free from cracks. A coach-spring requires
resilience for resisting the relative motions of the carriage,
and we obtain this kind of strength as effectually by com¬
bining a number of separate plates, as if we united them
into a single mass, while we avoid the stiffness, which
would render the changes of motion inconveniently abrupt.
In all calculations respecting stiffness, it is necessary to
be acquainted with the modulus of elasticity, which may
be found for a variety of substances in the annexed table.
Height of the Modulus of Elasticity in Thousands of Feet.
Iron and steel 10,000
Copper  5,700
Brass  5,000
Silver  3,240
Tin  2,250
Crown glass  9,800
Fir wood 10,000
Elm  8,000
Beech  8,000
Oak  5,060
Box  5,050
Ice  850
II.—PROPOSITIONS RELATING TO FLEXURE.
A. The stiffness of a cylinder is to that of its circum¬
scribing rectangular prism, as three times the bulk of the cy¬
linder is to four times that of the prism.
We may consider the different strata of the substance
as acting on levers equal in length to the distance of each
from the axis; for although there is no fixed fulcrum at
the axis, yet the whole force is the same as if such a ful¬
crum existed, since the opposite actions of the opposite
parts would relieve the fulcrum from all pressure. Then
the tension of each stratum being also as the same dis¬
tance x, and the breadth of the stratum being called 2y,
the fluxion of the force on either side of the axis will be
2x2ydx, while that of the force of the prism, the radius
being r, is 2rxLdx. Now 2 being the area of half the por¬
tion included between the stratum and the axis, of which
the fluxion is ydx, the fluxion of 2 — ^ will be
ifdx 3y‘2xdy
ydx
r*
3yx
r2
ydy-
But 1
x2
xdx,
^ and — y(ly
therefore the fluxion is
kx2ydx
x?ydx 3x?ydx
consequently the fluent of 2x?ydx is — \lf x> which,
when y — 0, becomes IpFz, or one fourth of the product
of the square of the radius by the area of the section,
while the fluent of 2rx?dx, that is, fra?2, the force of the
prism, becomes ^ r4 or ^ r2 X 2 r2, one third of the pro¬
duct of the same square into the area of the section of
the prism.
Hence the radius of curvature of a cylindrical column,
instead of ^^(Art. Bridge, Prop. G), will be the
weight of the modulus M decreasing in the same proper-
CARPENTRY.
155
entry, tion as the bulk when the prism is reduced to a cylinder.
The force is supposed in this proposition to be either
transverse or applied at a considerable distance from the
axis; but the error will not be material in any other case.
B. When a longitudinal force f is applied to the extremi¬
ties of a straight prismatic beam, at the distance b from
the axis, the deflection of the middle of the beam will be
b ^secant [V(|f) • ~ J) ; M bein0 the wei9ht °f the
modulus, e the length of the beam, and a its depth.
The curvature being proportional to the distance from
the line of direction of the force, or to the ordinate, when
that line is considered as the absciss, the elastic curve
must in this case initially coincide with a portion of the
harmonic curve, well known for its utility in the resolu¬
tion of a variety of problems of this kind. Now if the
half length of the complete curve be called k, correspond¬
ing to a quadrant of the generating circle, and the great¬
est ordinate g, c being the quadrant of a circle of which
the radius is unity, the radius of curvature r correspond-
hh
ing to y will be —-, that is, a third proportional to y and
h , ... .
- the radius of the generating circle; consequently
= , hh — , „ > , and h — \ ax ; but by the na-
ccy 12 f iij
ec
ture of the curve, y :b — 1 : cos. ^ — sec
y
= b
SEC. -y = i SEC.
Ik
3fee _
= cc,f =
Maacc
^ See ee
force that the column will bear : and for a cylinder we find,
, , . „ Maacc
by the same reasoning, j =
4ee
monic curve ; and supposing the quadrantal length of Carpentry,
this curve h, we have again, as in the last proposition, -v-w
M • M
k = % a/—;, ac, or, for a cylinder, h = ^ ^/—r . ac. Now,
J
the tangent of the inclination of the harmonic curve varies
as the sine of the angular distance from the middle ; con-
5;and
gr ^ *
v'-f-r • , which is the ordinate
M a
at the middle; and the deflection from the natural situa¬
tion is y — b.
It follows that, since the secant of the quadrant is infi-
nite, when aV— • - becomes equal to c, the deflection will
M a
be infinite, and the resistance of the column will be over¬
come, however small the distance b may be taken, provid¬
ed that it be of finite magnitude; and since in this case
= *8225 M —, which is the utmost
= *6169 M —. If 6
ee
comes d — at
h—e
or cos. -p is to the radius, so
sequently, as sin.
is the tangent t, expressing the difference of inclination
of the end of the beam and the direction of the force, which
is also that of the middle of the supposed curve, to the
tangent of the extreme inclination of the curve to its ab-
cc
sciss, which will therefore be t sec. ; consequently the
kt
greatest ordinate will be — sec. —, and since the ordi-
C ft
nates are as the sines of the angular distances from the
origin of the curve, the ordinate at the fixed end of the
€C
beam, corresponding to the angle -y-, that is, the deflec-
ri
kt
tion, will be — sec
c
ec
T'
k
at
kt ec ,
= TTANG-T=i'/y
2e 3f . M 4e
— a/ pp or, for a cylinder, ^ ^/-jr • a t tang. —
be supposed to vanish, we shall have in theory an equili¬
brium without flexure; but since it will be tottering, it
cannot exist in nature.
By applying this determination to the strength of wood
and iron, compared with the modulus of elasticity, it ap¬
pears that a round column or a square pillar of either of
these substances cannot be bent by any longitudinal force
applied to the axis, which it can withstand without being
crushed, unless its length be greater than twelve or thir¬
teen times its thickness respectively ; nor a column or pil¬
lar of stone, unless it be forty or forty-five times as long
as it is thick. Hence we may infer, as a practical rule,
that every piece of timber or iron intended to withstand
any considerable compressing force, should be at least as
many inches in thickness as it is feet in length, in order
to avoid the loss of force which necessarily arises from
curvature.
C. When a beam, fixed at one end, is pressed by a force
in a direction deviating from the original position of the axis
in a small angle, of which the tangent is t, the deflection be-
M / .12/
TarTA^-l^ir •«>
The inclination of the curve to the absciss being incon¬
siderable, it will not differ sensibly from a portion of a har-
//
v M"
By means of this proposition we may determine the ef¬
fect of a small lateral force in weakening a beam or pillar
which is at the same time compressed longitudinally by a
much greater force, considering the parts on each side of
the point to which the lateral force is applied, as portions
of two beams, bent in the manner here described, by a
single force slightly inclined to the axis.
D. A bar fixed at one end, and bent by a transverse force
applied to the other end, assumes initially the form of a cu-
bicparabola, and the deflection at the end is d —
The ordinate of a cubic parabola varying as ar3, its se¬
cond fluxion varies as 6x (dx)2, or since the first fluxion
of the absciss is constant, simply as the absciss x, mea¬
sured from the vertex of the parabola, which must there¬
fore be situated at the end to which the force is applied,
and the absciss must coincide with the tangent of the bar.
But if we begin from the other end, we must substitute
e—x for x, and the second fluxion of the ordinate will be
as 6 (e—x) (dx)2, the first as Qexdx—Sx?dx, and the flu¬
ent as Sex2—x?, which, when x — e, becomes 2c3, while it
would have been Se3 if the curvature had been uniform,
and the second fluxion had been everywhere 6e(c?*)2. Now
, ^ i ii- Maa
the radius of curvature at the fixed end being r = -y—r,
and the versed sine of a small portion of a circle being
ee , , 6e¥
equal to this versed sine will be expressed ;
4eY
and two thirds of this, or will be the actual deflection.
Maa
E. The depression of a bar, fixed horizontally at one end,
3e4
and supporting only its own weight, is d = 2maa'’ m ^n9
the height of the modulus of elasticity.
The curvature here varies as the square of the distance
from the end, because the strain is proportional to the
weight of the portion of the bar beyond any given point,
and to the distance of its centre of gravity conjointly,
that is, to (e—x) % (e—x), so that if the second fluxion
156
CARPENTRY.
Carpentry, at tile fixed end be as it will elsewhere be as
s—(e—xf (dxf; and the corresponding first fluxions being
e*xdx and <?xdx—exHx + } x?dx, the fluents will be
i e2^, and A e2*2—4 ex3 + TV^, or, when x = e, T\ e4, and
fi L _|_ J-) g4 = ^ e4; consequently the depression must
be half the versed sine in the circle of greatest curva¬
ture. Now the radius of curvature becomes here
Maa
6ef
the force being applied at the distance ; and
since the weight of the bar is to that of the modulus of
elasticity in the proportion of the respective lengths, we
havp  and r — and the versed sine for the
M — m 6ee
ordinate e will be -' ^ ■, half of which is the actual de-
maa
pression.
F. The depression of the middle of a horizontal bar, fixed
at both ends, and supporting its own weight only, is d =
5e4
32maa
The transverse force at each point of such a bar, re¬
sisted by the lateral adhesion, is as the distance x from
the middle (Art. Bridge, under Prop. L); but this force
is proportional to the first fluxion of the strain or curva¬
ture, consequently the curvature itself must vary as the
corrected fluent of z±= xdx, taking here the negative sign,
because the curvature diminishes as x increases; and the
corrected fluent will be ^e2 — oc2, since it must vanish
when x=\e; the first fluxion of the ordinate will then
be ^e*xdx — J- x?dx, and the fluent — yg or for
the whole length \ e, y^g-e4> instead of or yf^, which
would have been its value if the curvature had been equal
throughout. Now the strain at the middle is the differ¬
ence of the opposite strains produced by the forces act¬
ing on either side; and these are the half weight acting
at the mean distance \ e, and the resistance of the support,
which is equal to the same half weight, but acts at the
distance ^ e, the difference being equivalent to the half
weight, acting at the distance ^e, so that the curvature at
the middle is the same as if the bar were fixed there, and
loose at the ends; that is, as in the last proposition, sub-
2maa . . ... .
stituting e for e,; and the versed sine at the
distance i e being ^ or i of this will be 3^.
This demonstration may serve as an illustration of two
modes of considering the effect of a strain, which have not
been generally known, and which are capable of a very
extensive application.
It follows that where a bar is equally loaded through¬
out its length, the curvature at the middle is half as great
as if the whole weight were collected there, the strain de¬
rived from the resistance of the support remaining in that
case uncompensated. The depression produced by the
divided weight will be f- as great as by the single weight,
since X ^ is to § as 5 to 8. M. Dupin found the propo¬
sition, by many experiments, between -| and f-; and f is a
very good mean for representing these results.
III. ELEMENTS OF CARPENTRY.
Definition. “ Carpentry is the art of framing timber for the pur¬
poses of architecture, machinery, and, in general, for all
considerable structures.”
It is not intended in this article to give a full account
of carpentry as a mechanical art, or to describe the various Carpen
ways of executing its different w-orks, suited to the varie- 'w-Y7
ty of materials employed, the processes which must be
followed for fashioning and framing them for our purposes,
and the tools which must be used, and the manner in
which they must be handled. This would be an occupa¬
tion for volumes, and, though of great importance, must
be entirely omitted here. Our only aim at present will be
to deduce, from the principles and laws of mechanics, and
the knowledge which experience, and judicious inferences
from it, have given us concerning the strength of timber,
in relation to the strain laid on it, such maxims of con¬
struction as will unite economy with strength and efficacy.
This object is to be attained by a knowledge, Ttf, of the
strength of our materials, and of the absolute strain that is
to be laid on them ; 2dly, of the modifications of this strain,
by the place and direction in which it is exerted, and the
changes that can be made by a proper disposition of the
parts of our structure ; and, 3dly, having disposed every
piece in such a manner as to derive the utmost advantage
from its relative strength, we must know how to form the
joints and other connections in such a manner as to secure
the advantages derived from this disposition.
This is evidently a branch of mechanical science which Animp.
makes carpentry a liberal art, constitutes part of the learn-braa
ing of the Engineer, and distinguishes him from the^c“ecliE
workman. Its importance in all times and states of civil ence 1‘
society is manifest and great. In the present condition of
these kingdoms, raised by the active ingenuity and en¬
ergy of our countrymen to a pitch of prosperity and in¬
fluence unequalled in the history of the world, a condition
which consists chiefly in the superiority of our manufac¬
tures, attained by prodigious multiplication of engines of
every description, and for every species of labour, the
Science (so to term it) of carpentry is of immense conse¬
quence. We regret therefore exceedingly that none of
our celebrated artists have done honour to themselves and
their country, by digesting into a body of consecutive doc¬
trines the results of their experience, so as to form a sys¬
tem from which their pupils might derive the first prin¬
ciples of their education. The many volumes called Com¬
plete Instructors, Manuals, &c. take a much humbler
flight, and content themselves with instructing the mere
workman ; or sometimes give the master builder a few ap¬
proved forms of roofs and other framings, with the rules
for drawing them on paper, and from thence forming the
working draughts which must guide the saw and the chisel
of the workman. Hardly any of them offer any thing that can
be called a principle, applicable to many particular cases,
with the rules for this adaptation. We are indebted forprincipa
the greatest part of our knowledge of this subject to the indebted
labours of literary men, chiefly foreigners, who have pub-^Sj;‘e
lished in the memoirs of the learned academies disserta-A e ^
tions on different parts of what may be termed the Science
of Carpentry. It is singular that the members of theject.
Royal Society of London, and even of that established
and supported for the encouragement of the arts, have con¬
tributed so little to the public instruction in this respect.
We have observed some beginnings of this kind, such as the
last part of Nicholson’s Carpenter s and Joiner s Assistant-,
and it is with pleasure we can say, that we were told by
the editor this work was prompted in a great measure by
what has been delivered in our articles Roof and Strength
of Materials. It abounds more in important and new
observations than any book of the kind that we are ac¬
quainted with. We again call on such as have given a
scientific attention to this subject, and pray that they would
render a meritorious service to their country by imparting
the result of their researches. The very limited nature
of this work does not allow us to treat the subject in de-
CARPENTRY.
157
r try* tail; and we must confine our observations to the funda-
llp mental and leading propositions.
L xhe theory, so to term it, of carpentry is founded on
11 id on two distinct portions of mechanical science, namely, a
a knowledge of the strains to which framings of timber are
exposed, and a knowledge of their relative strength.
We shall therefore attempt to bring into one point of
view the propositions of mechanical science that are more
immediately applicable to the art of carpentry, and are to
be found in various articles of our work, particularly Roof
and Strength of Materials. From these propositions
we hope to deduce such principles as shall enable an at¬
tentive reader to comprehend distinctly what is to be
aimed at in framing timber, and how to attain this object
with certainty; and we shall illustrate and confirm our
principles by examples of pieces of carpentry which are
acknowledged to be excellent in their kind.
. The most important proposition of general mechanics
n i](i to the carpenter is that which exhibits the composition
st;iion and resolution of forces ; and we beg our practical read-
f ws. ers to endeavour to form very distinct conceptions of it,
and to make it very familiar to their minds. When ac¬
commodated to their chief purposes, it may be thus ex¬
pressed :
1. If a body, or any part of a body, be at once pressed
in the two directions AB, AC (fig. 1, Plate CXLVII.),
and if the intensity or force of those pressures be in the
proportion of these two lines, the body is affected in the
same manner as if it were pressed by a single force acting
in the direction AD, which is the diagonal of the paralle¬
logram ABDC formed by the two lines, and whose inten¬
sity has the same proportion to the intensity of each of
the other two that AD has to AB or AC.
Such of our readers as have studied the laws of motion,
know that this is fully demonstrated. Such as wish for a
very accurate view of this proposition will do well to read
the demonstration given by D. Bernoulli, in the first vo¬
lume of the Comment. Petropol., and the improvement of
this demonstration by D’Alembert in his Opuscules and in
the Comment. Taurinens. The practitioner in carpentry
will get more useful confidence in the doctrine, if he will
shut his book, and verify the theoretical demonstrations
ated by actual experiments. They are remarkably easy and
convincing. Therefore it is our request that the artist,
who is not so habitually acquainted with the subject, do
not proceed further till he has made it quite familiar to
his thoughts. Nothing is so conducive to this as the ac¬
tual experiment; and since this only requires the trifling
expense of two small pulleys and a few yards of whipcord,
we hope that none of our practical readers will omit it:
they will thank us for this injunction.
2. Let the threads Ad, AF6, and AEc (fig. 2), have the
weights d, b, and c, appended to them, and let two of the
threads be laid over the pulleys F and E. By this appa¬
ratus the knot A will be drawn in the directions AB, AC,
and AK. If the sum of the weights b and c be greater
than the single weight d, the assemblage will of itself
settle in a certain determined form : if you pull the knot
A out of its place, it will always return to it again, and
will rest in no other position. For example, if the three
weights are equal, the threads will always make equal
angles, of 120 degrees each, round the knot. If one of
the weights be three pounds, another four, and the third
five, the angle opposite to the thread stretched by five
pounds will always be square, &c. When the knot A is
thus in equilibrio, we must infer that the action of the
weight d, in the direction Ad, is in direct opposition to
the combined action of b in the direction AB, and of c in
the direction AC. Therefore, if we produce dA to any
point D, and take AD to represent the magnitude of the
force, or pressure exerted by the weight d, the pressures Carpentry,
exerted on A by the weights b and c, in the directions AB,
AC, are in fact equivalent to a pressure acting in the di¬
rection AD, whose intensity we have represented by AD.
If we now measure off by a scale on AF and AE the
lines AB and AC, having the same proportions to AD
that the weights b and c have to the weight d, and if we
draw DB and DC, we shall find DC to be equal and pa¬
rallel to AB, and DB equal and parallel to AC ; so that
AD is the diagonal of a parallelogram ABDC. We shall
find this always to be the case, whatever are the weights
made use of; only we, must take care that the weight
which we cause to act without the intervention of a pulley
be less than the sum of the other two; if any one of the
weights exceeds the sum of the other two, it will prevail,
and drag them along with it.
Now since we know that the weight d would just ba¬
lance an equal weight g, pulling directly upwards by the
intervention of the pulley G; and since we see that it
just balances the weights b and c, acting in the directions
AB, AC ; we must infer that the knot A is affected in the
same manner by those two weights, or by the single weight
g ; and therefore that two pressures, acting in the directions
and with the intensities AB, AC, are equivalent to a single
pressure having the direction and proportion of AD. In
like manner, the pressures AB, AK, are equivalent to
AH, which is equal and opposite to AC. Also AK and
AC are equivalent to AI, which is equal and opposite to
AB.
We shall consider this combination of pressures a little
more particularly.
Suppose an upright beam BA (fig. 3), pushed in the
direction of its length by a load B, and abutting on the
ends of two beams AC, AD, which are firmly resisted at
their extreme points C and D, which rest on two blocks,
but are nowise joined to them ; these two beams can re¬
sist no way but in the directions CA, DA, and therefore
the pressures which they sustain from the beam BA are
in the directions AC, AD. We wish to know how much
each sustains : Produce BA to E, taking AE from a scale
of equal parts, to represent the number of tons or pounds
by which BA is pressed. Draw EF and EG parallel to
AD and AC ; then AF, measured on the same scale, will
give us the number of pounds by which AC is strained or
crushed, and AG will give the strain on AD.
It deserves particular remark here, that the length of
AC or AD has no influence on the strain arising from
the thrust BA, while the directions remain the same. The
effects, however, of this strain are modified by the length
of the piece on which it is exerted. This strain compress¬
es the beam, and will therefore compress a beam of double
length twice as much. This may change the form of the
assemblage. If AC, for example, be very much shorter
than AD, it will be much less compressed : the line CA
will turn about the centre C, while DA will hardly change
its position; and the angle CAD will grow more open,
the point A sinking down. The artist will find it of great
consequence to pay a very minute attention to this cir¬
cumstance, and to be able to see clearly the change of
shape which necessarily results from these mutual strains.
He will see in this the cause of failure in many very great
works. By thus changing shape, strains are often produ¬
ced in places where there were none before, and frequent¬
ly of the very worst kind, tending to break the beams
across.
The dotted lines of this figure show another position
of the beam AD'. This makes a prodigious change, not
only in the strain on AD', but also in that on AC. Both
of them are much increased; AG is almost doubled, and
AF' is four times greater than before. This addition was
CARPENTRY.
Carpentry, made to the figure to show what enormous strains may
be produced by a very moderate force, AE, when it is
exerted on a very obtuse angle.1
The fourth and fifth figures will assist the most unin¬
structed reader in conceiving how the very same strains,
AF, AG, are laid on these beams, by a weight simply
hanging from a billet resting on A, pressing hard on AD,
and also leaning a little on AC ; or by an upright piece,
AE, joggled on the two beams ^C, AD, and performing
the office of an ordinary king-post. The reader will thus
learn to call off his attention from the means by which the
strains are produced, and learn to consider them abstract¬
edly merely as strains, in whatever situation he finds them,
and from whatever cause they arise.
We presume that every reader will perceive, that the
proportions of these strains will be precisely the same if
every thing be inverted, and each beam be drawn or pull¬
ed in the opposite direction. In the same way that we
have substituted a rope and weight in fig. 4, or a king¬
post in fig. 5, for the loaded beam BA of fig. 3, we might
have substituted the framing of fig. 6, which is a very usual
practice. In this framing, the batten DA is stretched by
a force AG, and the piece AC is compressed by a force
AF. It is evident that we may employ a rope or an iron
rod hooked on at D, in place of the batten DA, and the
strains will be the same as before.
This seemingly simple matter is still full of instruction ;
and we hope that the well-informed reader will pardon us,
though we dwell a little longer on it for the sake of the
young artist.
By changing the form of this framing, as in fig. 7, we
produce the same strains as in the disposition represented
by the dotted lines in fig. 3. The strains on both the
battens AD, AC, are now greatly increased.
The same consequences result from an improper change
of the position of AC. If it is placed as in fig. 8, the
strains on both are vastly increased. In short, the rule is
general, that the more open we make the angle against
which the push is exerted, the greater are the strains
which are brought on the struts or ties which form the
sides of the angle.
The reader may not readily conceive the piece AC of
fig. 8 as sustaining a compression ; for the weight B ap¬
pears to hang from AC as much as from AD. But his
doubts will be removed by considering whether he could
employ a rope in place of AC. He cannot; but AD may
be exchanged for a rope. AC is therefore a strut, and
not a tie.
In fig. 9, Plate CXLV1II. AD is again a strut, butting
on the block D, and AC is a tie ; and the batten AC may
be replaced by a rope. While AD is compressed by the
force AG, AC is stretched by the force AF.
If we give AC the position represented by the dotted
lines, the compression of AD is now AGf, and the force
stretching AC' is now AF; both much greater than they
were before. This disposition is analogous to fig. 8, and
to the dotted lines in fig. 3. Nor will the young artist
have any doubts of AC' being on the stretch, if he con¬
sider whether AD can be replaced by a rope. It cannot,
but AC' may; and it is therefore not compressed, but
stretched.
In fig. 10 all the three pieces, AC, AD, and AB, are
ties, on the stretch. This is the complete inversion of fig.
3 ; and the dotted position of AC induces the same changes
in the forces AF, AG', as in fig. 3.
Thus have we gone over all the varieties which canCarpe; £
happen in the bearings of three pieces on one point. All s, ’
calculations about the strength of carpentry are reduced
to this case; for when more ties or braces meet in a point
(a thing that rarely happens), we reduce them to three,
by substituting for any two the force which results from
their combination, and then combining this with another;
and so on.
The young artist must be particularly careful not to
mistake the kind of strain that is exerted on any piece of
the framing, and suppose a piece to be a brace which is
really a tie. It is very easy to avoid all mistakes in this
matter by the following rule, which has no exception.
(See Note AA.)
Take notice of the direction in which the piece actsRuie
from which the strain proceeds. Draw a line in that di-distin
rection from the point on which the strain is exerted,guishi:
and let its length (measured on some scale of equal parts)1*16^
express the magnitude of this action in pounds, hundreds,
or tons. From its remote extremity draw lines parallel toexten'
the pieces on which the strain is exerted. The line pa¬
rallel to one piece will necessarily cut the other, or its di¬
rection produced. If it cut the piece itself, that piece is
compressed by the strain, and it is performing the office
of a strut or brace; if it cut its direction produced, the
piece is stretched, and it is a tie. In short, the strains on
the pieces AC, AD, are to be estimated in the direction
of the points F and G from the strained point A. Thus,
in fig. 3, the upright piece BA, loaded with the weight B,
presses the point A in the direction AE ; so does the rope
AB in the other figures, or the batten AB in fig. 5.
In general, if the straining piece is within the angle
formed by the pieces which are strained, the strains which
they sustain are of the opposite kind to that which it ex¬
erts. If it be pushing, they are drawing; but if it be
within the angle formed by their directions produced, the
strains which they sustain are of the same kind. All the
three are either drawing or pressing. If the straining
piece lie within the angle formed by one piece and the
produced direction of the other, its own strain, whether
compression or extension, is of the same kind with that of
the most remote of the other two, and opposite to that of
the nearest. Thus, in fig. 9, where AB is drawing, the
remote piece AC is also drawing, while AD is pushing or
resisting compression.
In all that has been said on this subject, we have not
spoken of any joints. In the calculations with which we
are occupied at present, the resistance of joints has no
share ; and we must not suppose that they exert any
force which tends to prevent the angles from changing.
The joints are supposed perfectly flexible, or to be like
compass joints, the pin of which only keeps the pieces to¬
gether when one or more of the pieces draws or pulls.
The carpenter must always suppose them all compass
joints when he calculates the thrusts and draughts of the
different pieces of his frames. The strains on joints, and
their power to produce or balance them, are of a different
kind, and require a very different examination.
Seeing that the angles which the pieces make with each General
other are of such importance to the magnitude and the express
proportion of the excited strains, it is proper to find out°jtt^en'(
some way of readily and compendiously conceiving and"i*estrai
expressing this analogy.
In general the strain on any piece is proportional to the
straining force. This is evident.
1 rI he reader is requested to add accents to the extreme letters D and F of fig. 3, which correspond to the position of the beam
AGD indicated by the dotted lines. Accents are also wanted to the upper F and the lower C and G in fig. 9 ; also to the upper F
and lower G in fig. 10 ; and in this & should be C. In fig. 11, the i towards the left should be <, and an accent is wanting over the
upper f. In fig. 12, the dotted line CK should be continued upward and marked L. In fig. 16, the letters should stand thus, A
CEeD/FB. * B
CARPENTRY.
ntry. Secondly, the strain on any piece AC is proportional to
-w1 the sine of the angle which the straining force makes with
the other piece directly, and to the sine of the angle which
the pieces make with each other inversely.
For it is plain that the three pressures AE, AF, and
AG, which are exerted at the point A, are in the propor¬
tion of the lines AE, AF, and FE (because FE is equal to
AG). But because the sides of a triangle are proportion¬
al to the sines of the opposite angles, the strains are pro¬
portional to the sines of the angles AFE, AEF, and FAE.
But the sine of AFE is the same with the sine of the angle
CAD, which the two pieces AC and AD make with each
other; and the sine of AEF is the same with the sine of
EAD, which the straining piece BA makes with the piece
AC. Therefore we have this analogy, Sin. CAD : Sin.
EAD = AE: AF, and AF = AE X Now the
oin. CAL)
sines of angles are most conveniently conceived as deci¬
mal fractions of the radius, which is considered as unity.
Thus. Sin. 30° is the same thing with 0-5, or ^; and so
of others. Therefore, to have the strain on AC, arising
from any load AE acting in the direction AE, multiply
AE by the sine of EAD, and divide the product by the
sine of CAD.
This rule shows how great the strains must be when
the angle CAD becomes very open, approaching to 180
degrees. But when the angle CAD becomes very small,
its sine (which is our divisor) is also very small; and we
should expect a very great quotient in this case also. But
we must observe, that in this case the sine of EAD is also
very small; and this is our multiplier. In such a case, the
quotient cannot exceed unity.
But it is unnecessary to consider the calculation by the
tables of sines more particularly. The angles are seldom
known any otherwise but by drawing the figure of the
frame of carpentry. In this case, we can always obtain
the measures of the strains from the same scale, with equal
accuracy, by drawing the parallelogram AFCG.
•a i Hitherto we have considered the strains excited at A
latated only as they affect the pieces on which they are exerted.
11 But the pieces, in order to sustain, or be subject to, any
t° strain, must be supported at their ends C and D ; and we
I may consider them as mere intermediums, by which these
strains are made to act on those points of support: There¬
fore AF and AG are also measures of the forces which
press or pull at C and D. Thus we learn the supports
which must be found for these points. These may be in¬
finitely various. We shall attend only to such as some¬
how depend on the framing itself.
ti of a Such a structure as fig. 11 very frequently occurs, where
a|bg a beam BA is strongly pressed to the end of another beam
II AD, which is prevented from yielding, both because it
lies on another beam HD, and because its end D is hin¬
dered from sliding backwards. It is indifferent from what
this pressure arises: we have represented it as owing to a
weight hung on at B, while B is withheld from yielding
by a rod or rope hooked to the wall. The beam AD may
be supposed at full liberty to exert all its pressure on D,
as if it were supported on rollers lodged in the beam HD ;
but the loaded beam BA presses both on the beam AD
and on HD. We wish only to know what strain is borne
by AD.
All bodies act on each other in the direction perpendi¬
cular to their touching surfaces ; therefore the support
given by HD is in a direction perpendicular to it. We
may therefore supply its place at A by a beam AC, per¬
pendicular to HD, and firmly supported at C. In this
case, therefore, we may take AE, as before, to represent
the pressure exerted by the loaded beam, and draw EG
perpendicular to AD, and EF parallel to it, meeting the
159
perpendicular AC in F. Then AG is the strain compress- Carpentry,
ing AD, and AF is the pressure on the beam HD.
It may be thought, that since we assume as a principle'rhe form
that the mutual pressures of solid bodies are exerted per- of the
pendicular to their touching surfaces, this balance of pres-abutting
sures, in framings of timbers, depends on the directions ofj°int ot no
their butting joints ; but it does not, as will readily appear ini"
by considering the present case. Let the joint or abut-*)ori'ance‘
ment of the two pieces BA, AD, be mitred in the usual
manner, in the direction /A/'. Therefore, if Ac be drawn
perpendicular to \f, it will be the direction of the actual
pressure exerted by the loaded beam BA on the beam
AD. But the re-action of AD, in the opposite direction
A£, will not balance the pressure of BA ; because it is not
in the direction precisely opposite. BA will therefore
slide along the joint, and press on the beam HD. AE re¬
presents the load on the mitre joint A. Draw Ec perpen¬
dicular to Ac, and Ey parallel to it. The pressure AE will
be balanced by the re-actions cA and fA.; or, the pressure
AE produces the pressures Ac and Af, of which Ajfmust
be resisted by the beam HD, and Ac by the beam AD.
The pressure Af not being perpendicular to HD, cannot
be fully resisted by it; because (by our assumed principle)
it re-acts only in a direction perpendicular to its surface.
Therefore draw fp,fi, parallel to HD, and perpendicular
to it. The pressure Af will be resisted by HD with the
force pA ; but there is required another force iA, to pre¬
vent the beam BA from slipping outwards. This must be
furnished by the re-action of the beam DA. (See Note
BB.) In like manner, the other force Ac cannot be fully
resisted by the beam AD, or rather by the prop D, act¬
ing by the intervention of the beam ; for the action of that
prop is exerted through the beam in the direction DA.
The beam AD, therefore, is pressed to the beam HD by
the force Ac, as well as by Af. To find what this pres¬
sure on FID is, draw eg perpendicular to FID, and co pa¬
rallel to it, cutting EG in r. The forces gA and oA will
resist, and balance Ac.
Thus we see that the two forces Ac and Af, which are
equivalent to AE, are equivalent also to A]), Ai, Ao, and
Ag. But because Af and cE are equal and parallel, and
Er and/* are also parallel, as also cr and fp, it is evident,
that if is equal to rE, or to oF, and iA is equal to rc, or
to G^. Therefore the four forces Ag, Ao, Ap, Ai, are
equal to AG and AF. Therefore AG is the compression
of the beam AD, or the force pressing it on D, and AF is
the force pressing it on the beam HD. The proportion of
these pressures, therefore, is not affected by the form of
the joint.
This remark is important; for many carpenters think
the form and direction of the butting joint of great impor¬
tance ; and even the theorist, by not prosecuting the ge¬
neral principle through all its consequences, may be led
into an error. The form of the joint is of no importance,
in as far as it affects the strains in the direction of the
beams ; but it is often of great consequence, in respect to
its own firmness, and the effect it may have in bruising
the piece on which it acts, or being crippled by it.
The same compression of AB, and the same thrust on , .
the point D by the intervention of AD, will obtain, in
whatever way the original pressure on the end A is pro-on a ^
duced. Thus, supposing that a cord is made fast at A, beam,
and pulled in the direction AE, and with the same force,
the beam AD will be equally compressed, and the prop D
must re-act with the same force.
But it often happens that the obliquity of the pressure
on AD, instead of compressing it, stretches it; and we
desire to know what tension it sustains. Of this we have
a familiar example in a common roof. Let the two rafters
AC, AD (fig. 12), press on the tie-beam DC. We may
CARPENTRY.
160
Carpentry, suppose the whole weight to press vertically on the ridge
A, as if a weight B were hung on there. (See ISote Cc.)
We may represent this weight by the portion Ab of the
vertical or plumb line, intercepted between the ridge and
the beam. Then drawing bf and bg parallel to AD and
AC, Aq and Afwill represent the pressures on AC and
AD. Produce AC till CH be equal to A/. The point
C is forced out in this direction, and with a force repre¬
sented by this line. As this force is not perpendicular¬
ly across the beam, it evidently stretches it; and this ex¬
tending force must be withstood by an equal forcG pub*
ing it in the opposite direction. This must arise from a
similar oblique thrust of the opposite rafter on the other
end D. We concern ourselves only with this extension
at present; but we see that the cohesion of the beam does
nothing but supply the balance to the extending forces.
It must still be supported externally, that it may resist, and
by resisting obliquely, be stretched. T.he points C and
D are supported on the walls, which they press in the di¬
rections CK and DO, parallel to Ab. If we draw HK
parallel to DC, and HI parallel to CK (that is to Ab),
meeting DC produced in I, it follows from the composi¬
tion of forces, that the point C would be supported by the
two forces KC and IC. In like manner, making DN —
Ag, and completing the parallelogram DMNO, the point
D would be supported by the forces OD and MD. If
we draw go and fk parallel to DC, it is plain that they are
equal to NO and Cl, while Ao and Ak are equal to DO
and CK, and Ab is equal to the sum of DO and CK (be¬
cause it is equal to Ao + Ak). The weight of the roof
is equal to its vertical pressure on the walls.
Thus we see, that while a pressure on A, in the direc¬
tion Ab, produces the strains Af and Ag, on the pieces
AC and AD, it also excites a strain Cl or DM in the
piece DC. And this completes the mechanism of a frame ;
for all derive their efficacy from the triangles of which
they are composed, as will appear more clearly as we pro¬
ceed.
External But there is more to be learned from this. The con-
action of a sideration of the strains on the two pieces AD and AC,
frame. by the action of a force at A, only showed them as the
means of propagating the same strains in their own direc¬
tion to the points of support. But, by adding the strains
exerted in DC, we see that the frame becomes an inter¬
medium, by which exertions may be made on other bodies
in certain directions and proportions, so that this frame
may become part of a more complicated one, and, as it
were, an element of its constitution. It is worth while to
ascertain the proportion of the pressures CK and DO,
which are thus exerted on the walls. The similarity of
triangles gives the following analogies :
DO : DM = Ab : M)
Cl, or DM : CK = C6 : Ab
Therefore DO : CK = Cb : bD.
Or, the pressures on the points C and D, in the direction of
the straining force Ab, are reciprocally proportional to the
portions of DC intercepted by Ab.
Also, since Ab is = DO + CK, we have
Ab : CK = C6 + bT> (or CD) : M), and
Ab : DO = CD : bC.
In general, any two of the three parallel forces Ab, DO,
CK, are to each other in the reciprocal proportion of the
parts of CD, intercepted between their directions and the
direction of the third.
And this explains a still more important office of the
frame ADC. If* one of the points, such as D, be support¬
ed, an external power acting at A, in the direction Ab,
and with an intensity which may be measured by Ab, may
be set in equilibrio with another acting at C, in the di¬
rection CL, opposite to CK or Ab, and with an intensity
represented by CK ; for since the pressure CH is partlyCarpe
withstood by the force IC, or the firmness of the beam
DC supported at D, the force KC will complete the ba¬
lance. When we do not attend to the support at D, we
conceive the force Ab to be balanced by KC, or KC to be
balanced by Ab. And, in like manner, we may neglect
the support or force acting at A, and consider the force
DO as balanced by CK.
Thus our frame becomes a lever, and we are able to
trace the interior mechanical procedure which gives it its
efficacy : it is by the intervention of the forces of cohesion,
which connect the points to which the external forces are
applied with the supported point or fulcrum and with each
other.
These strains or pressures Ab, DO, and CK, not being it be
in the directions of the beams, may be called transverse.a kr
We see that by their means a frame of carpentry may be
considered as a solid body : but the example which brought
this to our view is too limited for explaining the efficacy
which may be given to such constructions. We shall
therefore give a general proposition, which will more dis¬
tinctly explain the procedure of nature, and enable us to
trace the strains as they are propagated through all the
parts of the most complicated framing, finally producing
the exertion of its most distant points.
We presume that the reader is now pretty well habitu-Genen
ated to the conception of the strains as they are propagat-proposi
ed along the lines joining the points of a frame, and we
shall therefore employ a very simple figure.
Let the strong lines ACBD (fig. 13) represent a frame
of carpentry. Suppose that it is pulled at the point A by
a force acting in the direction AE, but that it rests on a
fixed point C, and that the other extreme point B is held
back by a power which resists in the direction BF: It is
required to determine the proportion of the strains excit¬
ed in its different parts, the proportion of the external
pressures at A and B, and the pressure which is produced
on the obstacle or fulcrum C.
It is evident that each of the external forces at A and
B tend one way, or to one side of the frame, and that each
would cause it to turn round C if the other did not pre¬
vent it; and that if, notwithstanding their action, it is
turned neither way, the forces in actual exertion are in
equilibrio by the intervention of the frame. It is no less
evident that these forces concur in pressing the frame on
the prop C. Therefore, if the piece CD were away, and
if the joints C and D be perfectly flexible, the pieces CA,
CB, would be turned round the prop C, and the pieces
AD, DB, would also turn with them, and the whole frame
change its form. This shows, by the way, and we desire
it to be carefully kept in mind, that the firmness or stiff¬
ness of framing depends entirely on the triangles bound¬
ed by beams which are contained in it. An open quadri¬
lateral may always change its shape, the sides revolving
round the angles. A quadrilateral may have an infinity
of forms, without any change of its sides, by merely push¬
ing two opposite angles towards each other, or drawing
them asunder. But when the three sides of a triangle
are determined, its shape is also invariably determined;
and if two angles be held fast, the third cannot be moved.
It is thus that, by inserting the bar CD, the figure be¬
comes unchangeable; and any attempt to change it by
applying a force to an angle A, immediately excites forces
of attraction or repulsion between the particles of the stuff
which form its sides. Thus it happens, in the present
instance, that a change of shape is prevented by the bai
CD. The power at A presses its end against the prop ;
and in doing this it puts the bar AD on the stretch, an
also the bar DB. Their places might therefore be sup¬
plied by cords or metal wires. Hence it is evident that
CARP E N TRY.
161
ntry.DC is compressed, as is also AC ; and, for the same rea-
sonj CB is also in a state of compression; for either A or
B may be considered as the point that is impelled or with¬
held. Therefore DA and DB are stretched, and are re¬
sisting with attractive forces. DC and CB are compress¬
ed, and are resisting with repulsive forces; and thus the
support of the prop, combined with the firmness of DC,
puts the frame ADBC into the condition of the two frames
in fig. 8 and fig. 9. Therefore the external force at A
is really in equilibrio with an attracting force acting in
the direction AD, and a repulsive force acting in the
direction AK. And since all the connecting forces are
mutual and equal, the point D is pulled or drawn in the
direction DA. The condition of the point B is similar to
that of A, and D is also drawn in the direction DB. Thus
the point D, being urged by the forces in the directions
. DA and DB, presses the beam DC on the prop, and the
prop resists in the opposite direction. Therefore the line
DC is the diagonal of the parallelogram, whose sides have
the proportion of the forces which connect D with A and
B. This is the principle on which the rest of our inves¬
tigation proceeds. We may take DC as the representa¬
tion and measure of their joint effect. Therefore draw
CH, CG, parallel to DA, DB. Draw HL, GO, parallel
to CA, CB, cutting AE, BF, in L and O, and cutting DA,
DB, in I and M. Complete the parallelograms ILKA,
MONB. Then DG and AI are the equal and opposite
forces which connect A and D; for GD = CH = AI.
In like manner DH and BM are the forces which connect
D and B.
The external force at A is in immediate equilibrio with
the combined forces, connecting A with D and with C.
AI is one of them, therefore AK is the other; and AL
is the compound force with which the external force at A
is in immediate equilibrium. This external force is there¬
fore equal and opposite to AL. In like manner, the ex¬
ternal force at B is equal and opposite to BO ; and AL is
to BO as the external force at A to the external force at
B. The prop C resists with forces equal to those which
are propagated to it from the points D, A, and C. There¬
fore it resists with forces CH, CG, equal and opposite to
DG, DH ; and it resists the compressions KA, NB, with
equal and opposite forces CA, Cm. Draw kl, no, parallel to
AD, BD, and draw C/Q, CoP: It is plain that ACH/ is a
parallelogram equal to KAIL, and that C^ is equal to AL.
In like manner Co is equal to BO. Now the forces CA,
CH, exerted by the prop, compose the force 0,1; and Cm,
CG, compose the force Co. These two forces 01, Co, are
equal and parallel to AL and BO ; and therefore they are
i equal and opposite to the external forces acting at A and
B. But they are, primitively, equal and opposite to the
pressures, or at least the compounds of the pressures, ex¬
erted on the prop, by the forces propagated to C from A,
D, and B. Therefore the pressures exerted on the prop
are the same as if the external forces were applied there
in the same directions as they are applied to A and B.
Now if we make Ov, Oz, equal to 01 and Co, and complete
the parallelogram Ovyz, it is plain that the force 3/C is Carpentry,
in equilibrio with 10 and oC. Therefore the pressures at
A, C, and B are such as would balance if applied to one
point.
Lastly, in order to determine their proportions, draw
CS and CR perpendicular to DA and DB. Also draw
Ad, Y>f, perpendicular to CQ and CP; and draw Og, Oi,
perpendicular to AE, BF.
The triangles CPR and BP/*are similar, having a com¬
mon angle P, and a right angle at It and /I
In like manner, the triangles CQS and AQd are similar.
Also the triangles CHR, CGS, are similar, by reason of
the equal angles at H and G, and the right angles at R
and S. Hence wre obtain the following analogies:
Co : CP = om : PB, = CG : PB
CP:CR= PB:/B
CR:CS= CH:CG
CS:CQ = Ad:AQ
CQ: a = AQ : kl, = AQ: CH.
Therefore, by equality,
Co : 01 = Ad :/B
or BO : AL = Og : Oi.
That is, the external forces are reciprocally proportional
to the perpendiculars drawn from the prop on the lines of
their direction.1
This proposition, sufficiently general for our purpose, is Extensive
fertile in consequences, and furnishes many useful instruc-consequen-
tions to the artist. The strains LA, OB, CY, that areces’
excited, occur in many, we may say in all, framings of
carpentry, whether for edifices or engines, and are the
sources of their efficacy. It is also evident that the doc¬
trine of the transverse strength of timber is contained in
this proposition; for every piece of timber may be con¬
sidered as an assemblage of parts, connected by forces
which act in the direction of the lines which joined the
strained points on the matter which lies between those
points, and also act on the rest of the matter, exciting
those lateral forces which produce the inflexibility of the
whole. See Strength of Materials.
Thus it appears that this proposition contains the prin¬
ciples which direct the artist to frame the most powerful
levers ; to secure uprights by shores or braces, or by tiers
and ropes; to secure scaffoldings for the erection of spires ;
and many other more delicate problems of his art. He also
learns from this proposition how to ascertain the strains
that are produced, without his intention, by pieces which
he intended for other offices, and which, by their trans¬
verse action, puts his work in hazard. In short, this pro¬
position is the key to the science of this art.
We would now counsel the artist, after he has made
the tracing of the strains and thrusts through the vari¬
ous parts of a frame familiar to his mind, and even amused
himself with some complicated fancy framings, to read
over with care the articles Strength of Materials
and Roof. He will now conceive its doctrine much more
clearly than when he was considering them as abstract
theories. The mutual action of the woody fibres will now
* “ The learned reader will perceive that this analogy is precisely the same with that of forces which are in equilibrio. by the in¬
tervention of a lever. In fact, this whole frame of carpentry is nothing else than a built otc framed lever in equilibrio. It is acting in
the same manner as a solid, which occupies the whole figure compressed in the frame, or as a body of any size and shape whatever that
will admit the three points of application A, C, and B.‘ It is always in equilibrio in the case first stated ; because the pressure pro-
duced at B by a force applied to A is always such as balances it. The reader may also perceive, in this proposition, the analysis or
tracing of those internal mechanical forces which are indispensably requisite for the functions of a lever. The mechanicians have been
extremely puzzled to find a legitimate demonstration of the equilibrium of a lever ever since the days of Archimedes. Mr Vince has
the honour of first demonstrating, most ingeniously, the principle assumed by Archimedes, but without sufficient ground for hit de¬
monstration ; but Mr Vince’s demonstration is only a putting the mind into that perplexed state which makes it acknowledge the
proposition, but without a clear perception of its truth. The difficulty has proceeded from the abstract notion of a lever, conceiving
it as a mathematical line inflexible, without reflecting how it is inflexible; for the very source of this indispensable quality furnishes
the mechanical connection between the remote pressures and the fulcrum ; and this supplies the demonstration (without the least dif¬
ficulty) of the desperate case of a straight lever urged by parallel forces.” See the article Rotation.
VOL. VI.
X
CARPENTRY.
Carpentry.be easily comprehended, and his confidence in the results
will be greatly increased.
Decision of There is a proposition (see article. Roof) which has
a disputed been called in question by several very intelligent persons ;
and very an(j t]iey say that Belidor has demonstrated, in his Science
important Ingenieurs, that a beam firmly fixed at both ends is
question. nQt ag strong as when simply lying on the props;
and that its strength is increased only in the proportion of
two to three ; and they support this determination by a list
of experiments recited by Belidor, which agree precisely
with it. Belidor also says that Pitot had the same result
in his experiments. These are respectable authorities,
but Belidor’s reasoning is any thing but demonstration,
and his experiments are described in such an imperfect
manner that we cannot build much on them. It is not
said in what manner the battens were secured at the ends,
any further than that it was by cheyalets. If by this word
is meant a trestle, we cannot conceive how they were em¬
ployed ; but we see it sometimes used for a wedge or key.
If the battens were wedged in the holes, their resistance
to fracture may be made what we please; they may be
made loose, and therefore resist little more than when
simply laid on props. They may be (and probably were)
wedged very fast, and bruised or crippled.
Our proposition mentioned distinctly the security given
to the ends of the beams. They were mortised into re¬
mote posts. Our precise meaning was, that they were
simply kept from rising by these mortises, but at full li¬
berty to bend up at E and I, and between G and K. Our
assertion was not made from theory alone (although we
think the reasoning incontrovertible), but was agreeable
to numerous experiments made in those precise, circum¬
stances. Had we mortised the beams firmly into two
very stout posts which could not be drawn nearer to each
other by bending, the beam would have borne a much
greater weight, as we have verified by experiments. We
hope that the following mode of conceiving this case will
remove all doubts.
Let LM be a long beam (fig. 14) divided into six equal
parts, in the points D, B, A, C, E. Let it be firmly sup¬
ported at L, B, C, M. Let it be cut through at A, and
have compass joints at B and C. Let FB, GC, be two
equal uprights, resting on B and C, but without any connec¬
tion. Let AH be a similar and equal piece, to be occa¬
sionally applied at the seam A. Now let a thread or wire
AGE be extended over the piece GC, and made fast at
A, G, and E. Let the same thing be done on the other
side of A. If a weight be now laid on at A, the wires
AFD, AGE, will be strained, and may be broken. In the
instant of fracture we may suppose their strains to be re¬
presented by A/ and A^. Complete the parallelogram,
and Aa is the magnitude of the weight. It is plain that
nothing is concerned here but the cohesion of the wires;
for the beam is sawed through at A, and its parts are per¬
fectly movable round B and C.
Instead of this process, apply the piece AH below A,
and keep it there by straining the same wire BHC over it.
Now lay on a weight. It must press down the ends of
BA and CA, and cause the piece AH to strain the wire
BHC. In the instant of fracture of the same wire, its re¬
sistances H6 and He must be equal to A/ and Kg, and
the weight AH which breaks them must be equal to Ka.
Lastly, employ all the three pieces FB, AH, GC, with
the same wire attached as before. There can be no doubt
but that the weight which breaks all the four wires must
be = aK + AH, or twice Ka.
The reader cannot but see that the wires perform the
very same office with the fibres of an entire beam LM held
fast in the four holes D, B, C, and E, of some upright posts.
In the experiments for verifying this, by breaking slen¬
der bars of fine deal, we get complete demonstration, by CarpentJ
measuring the curvatures produced in the parts of the
beam thus held down, and comparing them with the cur¬
vature of a beam simply laid on the props B and C; and
there are many curious inferences to be made from these
observations, but we have not room for them in this place.
We may observe by the way, that we learn from this Thebe-;
case that purlins are able to carry twice the load when manner!
notched into the rafters that they carry when mortised hai™g
into them, which is the most usual manner of framing11111'lns'
them. So would the bending joists of floors; but this
would double the thickness of the flooring. But this method
should be followed in every possible case, such as brest-
summers, lintels over several pillars, &c. These should
never be cut off and mortised into the sides of every up¬
right; numberless cases will occur which show the im-
portance of the maxim.
We must here remark, that the proportion of the spaces
BC and CM, or BC and LB, has a very sensible effect on
the strength of the beam BC ; but we have not yet satis¬
fied our minds as to the rationale of this effect. It is un¬
doubtedly connected with the serpentine form of the curve
of the beam before fracture. This should be attended
to in the construction of the springs of carriages. These
are frequently supported at the middle point (and it is an
excellent practice); and there is a certain proportion
which will give the easiest motion to the body of the car¬
riage. We also think that it is connected with that de¬
viation from the best theory observable in Buffon’s expe¬
riments on various lengths of the same scantling. The
force of the beams diminished much more than in the in¬
verse proportion of their lengths.
We have seen that it depends entirely on the position In what
of the pieces in respect of their points of ultimate support, case ties
and of the direction of the external force which produces ^ebettj
the strains, whether any particular piece is in a state of ia,sn1'
extension or of compression. The knowledge of this cir¬
cumstance may greatly influence us in the choice of the
construction. In many cases we may substitute slender
iron rods for massive beams, when the piece is to act the
part of a tie. But we must not invert this disposition;
for when a piece of timber acts as a strut, and is in a state
of compression, it is next to certain that it is not equally
compressible in its opposite sides through the whole length
of the piece, and that the compressing force on the abut¬
ting joint is not acting in the most equable manner all
over the joint. A very trifling inequality in either of
these circumstances (especially in the first) will compress
the beam more on one side than on the other. This can¬
not be without the beam’s bending, and becoming concave
on that side on which it is most compressed. When this
happens, the frame is in danger of being crushed, and
soon going to ruin. It is, therefore, indispensably neces¬
sary to make use of beams in all cases where struts are
required of considerable length, rather than of metal rods
of slender dimensions, unless in situations where we can
effectually prevent their bending, as in trussing a girder
internally, where a cast-iron strut may be firmly cased in
it, so as not to bend in the smallest degree. In cases
where the pressures are enormous, as in the very oblique
struts of a centre or arch frame, we must be particularly
cautious to do nothing which can facilitate the compres¬
sion of either side. No mortises should be cut near to
one side; no lateral pressures, even the slightest, should
be allowed to touch it. We have seen a pillar of fir twelve
inches long, and one inch in section, when loaded with
three tons, snap in an instant when pressed on one side
by sixteen pounds, while another bore four and a half tons
without hurt, because it was inclosed (loosely) in a stout
pipe of iron. (See Note DD.)
CARPENTRY.
163
)entry. In such cases of enormous compression it is of great
Y'w' importance that the compressing force bear equally on the
whole abutting surface. The German carpenters are ac¬
customed to put a plate of lead over the joint. This pre¬
vents, in some measure, the penetration of the end fibres.
M. Perronet, the celebrated French architect, formed his
abutments into arches of circles, the centre of which was
the remote end of the strut. By this contrivance the un¬
avoidable change of form of the triangle made no partial
bearing of either angle of the abutment. This always has
a tendency to splinter olf the heel of the beam where it
presses strongest. It is a very judicious practice. (See
Note EE.)
When circumstances allow it, we must rather employ
ties than struts for securing a beam against lateral strains.
When an upright pillar, such as a flag-staff, a mast, or the
uprights of a very tall scaffolding, are to be sheared up,
the dependence is more certain on those braces that are
stretched by the strain than on those which are compress¬
ed. The scaffolding of the iron bridge near Sunderland
had some ties very judiciously disposed, and others with
less judgment.
We should proceed to consider the transverse strains
as they affect the various parts of a frame of carpentry;
but we have very little to say here in addition to what
will be found in the articles Strength of Materials
and Roof. What we shall add in this article will find
a place in our occasional remarks on different works. It
may, however, be of use to recal to the reader’s memory
the following propositions.
eral 1. When a beam AB (fig. 15) is firmly fixed at the end
jems A, and a straining force acts perpendicularly to its length
e™ng at any point B, the strain occasioned at any section C be-
i th of tween ^ an^ ^’s ProPorti°nal t0 CB, and may therefore
” be represented by the product w X CB; that is, by the
product of the number of tons, pounds, &c. which measure
the straining force, and the number of feet, inches, &c.
contained in CB. As the loads on a beam are easily con¬
ceived, we shall substitute this for any other straining force.
2. If the strain or load is uniformly distributed along
any part of the beam lying beyond C (that is, farther from
A), the strain at C is the same as if the load were all col¬
lected at the middle point of that part; for that point is
the centre of gravity of the load.
3. The strain on any section D of a beam AB (fig. 16)
t a , R ^ ADXDB
resting freely on two props A and B, is w X —T-5 .
A. 13
(See Roof, No. 19, and Strength of Materials, No.
92, &c.) Therefore,
4. The strain on the middle point, by a force applied
there, is one fourth of the strain which the same force
would produce if applied to one end of a beam of the
same length having the other end fixed.
5. The strain on any section C of a beam, resting on two
props A and B, occasioned by a force applied perpendicu¬
larly to another point D, is proportional to the rectangle
r>,, . . , AC X DB
of the exterior segments, or is equal to w X —.
Therefore,
The strain at C occasioned by the pressure on D is the
same with the strain at D occasioned by the same pres¬
sure on C.
6. The strain on any section D, occasioned by a load
uniformly diffused over any part EF, is the same as if the
two parts ED, DF, of the load were collected at their mid¬
dle points e andy. Therefore,
The strain on any part D, occasioned by a load uniform¬
ly distributed over the whole beam, is one half of the strain
that is produced when the same load is laid on at D ; and
The strain on the middle point C, occasioned by a load Carpentry,
uniformly distributed over the whole beam, is the same
which half that load would produce if laid on at C.
7. A beam supported at both ends on two props B and
C (fig. 14), will carry twice as much when the ends be¬
yond the props are kept from rising, as it will carry when
it rests loosely on the props.
8. Lastly, the transverse strain on any section, occa¬
sioned by a force applied obliquely, is diminished in the
proportion of the sine of the angle which the direction of
the force makes with the beam. Thus, if it be inclined to
it in an angle of thirty degrees, the strain is one half of
the strain occasioned by the same force acting perpendi¬
cularly.
On the other hand, the relative strength of a beam,
or its power in any particular section to resist any transverse
strain, is proportional to the absolute cohesion to the sec¬
tion directly, to the distance of its centre of effort from the
axis of fracture directly, and to the distance from the
strained point inversely.
Thus, in a rectangular section of the beam, of which b
is the breadth, d the depth (that is, the dimension in the
direction of the straining force), measured in inches, and f
the number of pounds which one square inch will just
supportwithout being torn asunder, we must have/ XbXd2,
proportional to w X CB (fig. 15). Or,/ X b X d2, mul¬
tiplied by some number m, depending on the nature of the
timber, must be equal to w X CB. Or, in the case of
the section C of fig. 16, that is strained by the force w ap¬
plied at D, we must have m X fbd2 — w X
Thus, if the beam is of sound oak, m is very nearly
= ^ (see Strength of Materials, No. 116.) There-
„ . fbd2 ^ AC X CB XT
tore we have ^— = w X ——. (See Note FF.)
Hence we can tell the precise force iv which any sec¬
tion C can just resist when that force is applied in any
wav whatever; for the above-mentioned formula gives
fbd2
xo — f°r the case represented by fig. 15. But the
case represented in fig. 16, having the straining force ap¬
plied at D, gives the strain at C (= w) = / X 5 ■. *
Example. Let an oak beam, four inches square, rest
freely on the props A and B, seven feet apart, or eighty-
four inches. What weight will it just support at its mid¬
dle point C, on the supposition that a square inch rod will
just carry 16,000 pounds, pulling it asunder?
r , , 16000 X 4 X 16 X 84
The formula becomes w —    — — ,
9 X 42 X 42
   15876 ’ =: pounds. This is very near
what was employed in Buffon’s experiment, which was
5312.
Had the straining force acted on a point D, half way
between C and B, the force sufficient to break the beam
16000 X 4 X 16 X 84 1ADO/>1I
at C would be =  9~x 49 X 21 =: ^s'
Had the beam been sound red fir, we must have taken
/ = 10,000 nearly, and m nearly 8; for although fir be
less cohesive than oak in the proportion of five to eight
nearly, it is less compressible, and its axis of fracture is
therefore nearer to the concave side.
Having considered at sufficient length the strains of Of joints,
different kinds which arise from the form of the parts of a
frame of carpentry, and the direction of the external forces
which act on it, whether considered as impelling or as
supporting its different parts, we must now proceed to con
86016000
104
CARPENTRY.
Carpentry, sider the means by which this form is to be secured, and
'^***~^~*^s thg connections by which those strains are excited and
communicated. .
The joinings practised in carpentry are almost infinite¬
ly various, and each has advantages which make it piefer-
able in some circumstances. Many varieties are employed
merely to please the eye. We do not concern ourselves
with these: nor shall we consider those which are only
employed in connecting small works, and can nevei appear
on a great scale; yot even in some of these, the skill of
the carpenter may be discovered by his choice ; for in all
cases, it is wise to make every, even the smallest, part of
his work as strong as the materials will admit. He will
be particularly attentive to the changes which will neces¬
sarily happen by the shrinking of timber as it dries, and will
consider what dimensions of his framings will be affected
by this, and what will not; and will then dispose the pieces
which are less essential to the strength of the whole, in
such a manner that their tendency to shrink shall be in
the same direction with the shrinking of the whole fram¬
ing. If he do otherwise, the seams will widen, and parts
will be split asunder. He will dispose his boardings in
such a manner as to contribute to the stiffness of the whole,
avoiding at the same time the giving them positions which
will produce lateral strains on truss beams which bear
great pressures ; recollecting, that although a single board
has little force, yet many united have a great deal, and
may frequently perform the office of very powerful struts.
Our limits confine us to the joinings which are most
essential for connecting the parts of a single piece of a
frame when it cannot be formed of one beam, either for
want of the necessary thickness or length; and the joints
for connecting the different sides of a trussed frame.
Of building Much ingenuity and contrivance has been bestowed on
up beams, ’the manner of building up a great beam of many thick¬
nesses, and many singular methods are practised as great
nostrums by different artists; but when we consider the
manner in which the cohesion of the fibres performs its
office, we will clearly see that the simplest are equally
effected with the most refined, and that they are less apt
to lead us into false notions of the strength of the as¬
semblage.
Building Thus, were it required to build up a beam for a great
up a girder lever or a girder, so that it may act nearly as a beam of
or lever. j]le same sjze 0f one i0g? it may either be done by plain jog¬
gling, as in Plate CXLIX. fig. 17, A, or by scarfing, as in fig.
Joggling 17, B or C. If it is to act as a lever, having the gudgeon
preferable on the lower side at C, we believe that most artists will
to scarfing. pre|.er tj)e form an(i q . at least this has been the case
with nine tenths of those to whom we have proposed the
question. The best informed only hesitated ; but the or¬
dinary artists were all confident in its superiority, and we
found their views of the matter very coincident. They
considered the upper piece as grasping the lower in its
hooks ; and several imagined, that by driving the one very
tight on the other, the beam would be stronger than an
entire log; but if we attend carefully to the internal pro¬
cedure in the loaded lever, we shall find the upper one
clearly the strongest. If they are formed of equal logs,
the upper one is thicker than the other by the depth of
the joggling or scarfing, which we suppose to be the same
in both; consequently, if the cohesion of the fibres in
the intervals is able to bring the uppermost filaments into
full action, the form A is stronger than B, in the propor¬
tion of the greater distance of the upper filaments from
the axis of the fracture. This may be greater than the
difference of the thickness if the wood is very compres¬
sible. If the gudgeon be in the middle, the effect, both of
the joggles and the scarfings, is considerably diminished;
and if it is on the upper side the scarfings act in a very
different way. In this situation, if the loads on the arms Carpent;
are also applied to the upper side, the joggled beam is
still more superior to the scarfed one. This will be best
understood by resolving it in imagination into a trussed
frame. But when a gudgeon is thus put on that side of
the lever which grows convex by the strain, it is usual to
connect it with the rest by a powerful strap, which em¬
braces the beam, and causes the opposite point to become
the resisting point. This greatly changes the internal ac¬
tions of the filaments, and in some measure brings it into
the same state as the first, with the gudgeon below. Were
it possible to have the gudgeon on the upper side, and to
bring the whole into action without a strap, it would be
the strongest of all; because in general the resistance to
compression is greater than to extension. In every situa¬
tion the joggled beam has the advantage, and it is the
easiest executed. (See Note GG.)
We may frequently gain a considerable accession of
strength by this building up of a beam, especially if the
part which is stretched by the strain be of oak, and the
other part be fir. Fir being so much superior to oak
as a pillar (if Muschenbroeck’s experiments may be con¬
fided in), and oak so much preferable as a tie, this con¬
struction seems to unite both advantages. But we shall
see much better methods of making powerful levers, gir¬
ders, &c. by trussing.
Observe that the efficacy of both methods depends en¬
tirely on the difficulty of causing the piece between the
cross joints to slide along the timber to which it adheres.
Therefore, if this be moderate, it is wrong to make the
notches deep ; for as soon as they are so deep that their
ends have a force sufficient to push the slice along the
line of junction, nothing is gained by making them deeper;
and this requires a greater expenditure of timber.
Scarfings are frequently made oblique, as in fig. 18;
but we imagine that this is a bad practice. It begins to
yield at a point where the wood is crippled and splintered
off, or at least bruised out a little. As the pressure in¬
creases, this part, by squeezing broader, causes the solid
parts to rise a little upwards, and gives them some ten¬
dency, not only to push their antagonists along the base,
but even to tear them up a little. For similar reasons, we
disapprove of the favourite practice of many artists to
make the angles of their scarfings acute, as in fig. 19.
This often causes the twro pieces to tear each other up.
The abutments should always be perpendicular to the di¬
rections of the pressures. Lest it should be forgotten in
its proper place, we may extend this injunction also to
the abutments of different pieces of a frame, and recom¬
mend it to the artist even to attend to the shrinking of
the timbers by drying. When two timbers abut obliquely,
the joint should be most full at the obtuse angle of the
end; because, by drying, that angle grows more obtuse,
and the beam would then be in danger of splintering off
at the acute angle.
It is evident that the nicest work is indispensably ne-Wemus
cessary in building up a beam. The parts must abut onnot
each other completely, and the smallest play or void takes100 ian
away the whole efficacy. It is usual to give the butting
joints a small taper to one side of the beam, so that they
may require moderate blows of a maul to force them in;
and the joints may be perfectly close when the external
surfaces are even on each side of the beam. But we must
not exceed in the least degree, for a very taper wedge
has great force; and if we have driven the pieces toge¬
ther by very heavy blows, we leave the whole in a state
of violent strain, and the abutments are perhaps ready to
splinter off by a small addition of pressure. This is like
too severe a proof for artillery; which, though not suffi¬
cient to burst the pieces, has weakened them to such a
CARPENTRY.
?ntry. degree, that the strain of ordinary service is sufficient to
L-W complete the fracture. The workman is tempted to ex¬
ceed in this, because it smooths off and conceals all un¬
even seams; but he must be watched. It is not unusual
to leave some abutments open enough to admit a thin
wedge reaching through the beam. Nor is this a bad
practice, if the wedge is of material which is not com¬
pressed by the driving or the strain of service. Iron would
be preferable for this purpose, and for the joggles, were it
not that, by its too great hardness, it cripples the fibres
of timber to some distance. In consequence of this it
often happens, that in beams which are subjected to de¬
sultory and sudden strains (as in the levers of reciprocat¬
ing engines), the joggles or wedges widen the holes, and
work themselves loose; therefore skilful engineers never
admit them, and indeed as few bolts as possible, for the
same reason; but when resisting a steady or dead pull,
they are not so improper, and are frequently used.
Beams are built up, not only to increase their dimen¬
sions in the direction of the strain (which we have hither¬
to called their depth), but also to increase their breadth,
or the dimensions perpendicular to the strain. We some¬
times double the breadth of a girder which is thought too
weak for its load, and where we must not increase the
thickness of the flooring.
tiling The mast of a great ship of war must be made bigger
C ists, athwartship, as well as fore and aft. This is one of the
nicest problems of the art; and professional men are by
no means agreed in their opinions about it. We do not
presume to decide, and shall content ourselves with exhi¬
biting the different methods.
The most obvious and natural method is that shown in
fig. 20. It is plain that (independent of the connection
of cross bolts, which are used in them all when the beams
are square) the piece C cannot bend in the direction of
the plane of the figure without bending the piece D along
^aod with it. This method is much used in the French navy;
s; in the but it is undoubtedly imperfect. Hardly any two great
’’ ch trees are of equal quality, and swell or shrink alike. If
ia' C shrinks more than D, the feather of C becomes loose in
the groove wrought in D to receive it; and when the
beam bends, the parts can slide on each other like the
plates of a coach-spring; and if the bending is in the di¬
rection cf, there is nothing to hinder this sliding but the
bolts, which soon work themselves loose in the bolt-holes.
Li her Fig. 21 exhibits another method. The two halves of
"'tod. the beam are tabled into each other in the same manner
as in fig. 17. It is plain that this will not be affected by
the unequal swelling or shrinking, because this is insen¬
sible in the direction of the fibres; but when bent in the
direction ab, the beam is weaker than fig. 20 bent in the
direction c f. Each half of fig. 20 has, in every part of its
length, a thickness greater than half the thickness of the
beam. It is the contrary in the alternate portions of the
halves of fig. 21. When one of them is bent in the di¬
rection AB, it is plain that it drags the other with it by
means of the cross butments of its tables, and there can
be no longitudinal sliding. But unless the work is accu¬
rately executed, and each hollow completely filled up by
the table of the other piece, there will be a lateral slide
along the cross joints sufficient to compensate for the cur¬
vature ; and this w ill hinder the one from compressing or
stretching the other in conformity to this curvature.
ts nper- The imperfection of this method is so obvious that it
e(i'11, has seldom been practised; but it has been combined
with the other, as is represented in fig. 22, where the
beams are divided along the middle, and the tables in
each half are alternate, and alternate also with the tables
of the other half. Thus 1, 3, 4, are prominent, and 5, 2, 6,
are depressed. This construction evidently puts a stop to
165
both slides, and obliges every part of both pieces to move Carpentry,
together, ab and cd show sections of the built-up beam
corresponding to AB and CD.
No more is intended in this practice by any intelligent
artist, than the causing the two pieces to act together in
all their parts, although the strains may be unequally dis¬
tributed on them. Thus, in a built-up girder, the binding
joists are frequently mortised into very different parts of
the two sides. But many seem to aim at making the beam
stronger than if it were of one piece ; and this inconsider¬
ate project has given rise to many whimsical modes of ta¬
bling and scarfing, wdiich we need not regard.
The practice in the British dock-yards is somewhat dif-British me-
ferent from any of these methods. The pieces are tabled thod.
as in fig. 22, but the tables are not thin parallelepipeds,
but thin prisms. The two outward joints or visible seams
are straight lines, and the table No. 1 rises gradually to
its greatest thickness in the axis. In like manner, the
hollow, 5, for receiving the opposite table, sinks gradually
from the edge to its greatest depth in the axis. Fig. 23,
No. 1, represents a section of a round piece of timber
built up in this way, where the full line EFGH is the
section corresponding to AB of fig. 22, and the dotted
line EGFH is the section corresponding to CD.
This construction, by making the external seam straight,
leaves no lodgment for water, and looks much fairer to the
eye ; but it appears to us that it does not give so firm a
hold when the mast is bent in the direction EH. The
exterior parts are most stretched and most compressed by
this bending; but there is hardly any abutment in the ex¬
terior parts of these tables. In the very axis, where the
abutment is the firmest, there is little or no difference of
extension and compi’ession.
But this construction has an advantage, which, wre ima¬
gine, much more than compensates for these imperfec¬
tions, at least in the particular case of a round mast; it
will draw together by hooping incomparably better than
any of the others. If the cavity be made somewhat too
shallow for the prominence of the tables, and if this be
done uniformly along the whole length, it wrill make a
somewhat open seam; and this opening can be regulated
with the utmost exactness from end to end by the plane.
The heart of those vast trunks is very sensibly softer than
the exterior circles ; therefore, when the whole is hooped,
and the hoops hard driven, and at considerable intervals
between each spell, we are confident that all may be com¬
pressed till the seam disappears; and then the whole
makes one piece, much stronger than if it were an original
log of that size, because the middle has become, by com¬
pression, as solid as the crust, which was naturally firmer,
and resisted farther compression. We Verified this be¬
yond a doubt by hooping a built stick of a timber which
has this inequality of firmness in a remarkable degree, and
it was nearly twice as strong as another of the same size.
Our mast-makers are not without their fancies and whims;
and the manner in which our masts and yards are gene¬
rally built up is not near so simple as fig. 23; but it con¬
sists of the same essential parts, acting in the very same
manner, and derives all its efficacy from the principles
which are here employed.
This construction is particularly suited to the situation Attended
and office of a ship’s mast. It has no bolts; or, at least, with pecu-
none of any magnitude, or that make very important partsliar advan-
of its construction. The most violent strains perhaps ta^es‘
that it is exposed to, is that of twisting, when the lower
yards are close braced up by the force of many men act¬
ing by a long lever. This form resists a twist with pecu¬
liar energy ; it is therefore an excellent method for build¬
ing up a great shaft for a mill. The way in which they
are usually built up is by reducing a central log to a poly-
CARPENTRY.
166
Carpentry, gonal prism, and then filling it up to the intended size by
planting pieces of timber along its sides, either spiking
them down, or cocking them into it by a feather, or jog¬
gling them by slips of hard wood sunk into the central
log and into the slips. N.B. Joggles of elm are sometimes
used in the middle of the large tables of masts; and when
sunk into the firm wood near the surface, they must con¬
tribute much to the strength. But it is very necessary to
employ wood not much harder than the pine, otherwise it
will soon enlarge its bed, and become loose, for the tim¬
ber of these large trunks is very soft.
The most general reason for piecing a beam is to in¬
crease its length. This is frequently necessary, in order
to procure tie-beams for very wide roofs. Two pieces
must be scarfed together. Numberless are the modes of
doing this, and almost every master carpenter has his fa¬
vourite nostrum. Some of them are very ingenious ; but
here, as in other cases, the most simple are commonly
Various the strongest. We do not imagine that any, the most in-
methods ofgenious, is equally strong with a tie consisting of two
scarfing, pieces of the same scantling laid over each other for a
certain length, and firmly bolted together. We acknow¬
ledge that this will appear an artless and clumsy tie-beam,
but we only say that it will be stronger than any that is
more artificially made up of the same thickness of timber.
This, we imagine, will appear sufficiently certain.
The simplest and most obvious scarfing, after the one
now mentioned, is that represented in fig. 24, No. 1 and 2.
If considered merely as two pieces of wood joined, it is
plain that, as a tie, it has but half the strength of an en¬
tire piece, supposing that the bolts (which are the only
connections) are fast in their holes. No. 2 requires a
bolt in the middle of the scarf to give it that strength,
and in every other part is weaker on one side or the other.
(See Note HH.)
But the bolts are very apt to bend by the violent strain,
and require to be strengthened by uniting their ends by
iron plates; in which case it is no longer a wooden tie.
The form of No. 1 is better adapted to the office of a pil¬
lar than No. 2, especially if its ends be formed in the
manner shown in the elevation No. 3. By the sally given
to the ends, the scarf resists an effort to bend it in that
direction. Besides, the form of No. 2 is unsuitable for a
post; because the pieces, by sliding on each other by the
pressure, are apt to splinter off the tongue which confines
their extremity.
Fig. 25 and 26 exhibit the most approved form of a
scarf, whether for a tie or for a post. The key represent¬
ed in the middle is not essentially necessary; the two
pieces might simply meet square there. This form, with¬
out a key, needs no bolts (although they strengthen it
greatly) ; but, if worked very true and close, and with
square abutments, will hold together, and will resist bend¬
ing in any direction. But the key is an ingenious and a
very great improvement, and will force the parts together
with perfect tightness. The same precaution must be ob¬
served that we mentioned on another occasion, not to pro¬
duce a constant internal strain on the parts by overdriv¬
ing the key. The form of fig. 25 is by far the best; be¬
cause the triangle of 26 is much easier splintered off by
the strain, or by the key, than the square wood of 25. It
is far preferable for a post, for the reason given when
speaking of fig. 24, No. 1 and No. 2. Both may be form¬
ed with a sally at the ends equal to the breadth of the key.
In this shape fig. 25 is vastly well suited for joining the
parts of the long corner posts of spires and other wooden
towers. Fig. 25, No. 2, differs from No. 1 only by having
three keys. The principal and the longitudinal strength
are the same. The long scarf of No. 2, tightened by the
three keys, enables it to resist a bending much better.
None of these scarfed tie-beams can have more than Carpe
one third of the strength of an entire piece, unless with w,.
the assistance of iron plates ; for if the key be made thin¬
ner than one third, it has less than one third of the fibres
to pull by.
We are confident, therefore, that when the heads of the
bolts are connected by plates, the simple form of fig. 24,
No. 1, is stronger than those more ingenious scarfings. It
may be strengthened against lateral bending by a little
tongue, or by a sally, but cannot have both.
The strongest of all methods of piecing a tie-beam
would be to set the parts end to end, and grasp them be¬
tween other pieces on each side, as in fig. 27, Plate CL.
This is what the ship-carpenter calls fishing a beam, andFishin j
is a frequent practice for occasional repairs. M. Perronetbeam. i
used it for the tie-beams or stretchers, by which he con¬
nected the opposite feet of a centre, which was yielding
to its load, and had pushed aside one of the piers above
four inches. Six of these not only withstood a strain of
1800 tons, but, by wedging behind them, he brought the
feet of the truss inches nearer. The stretchers were
14 inches by 11 of sound oak, and could have withstood
three times that strain. M. Perronet, fearing that the
great length of the bolts employed to connect the beams
of these stretchers would expose them to the risk of bend¬
ing, scarfed the two side pieces into the middle piece.
The scarfing was of the triangular kind ( Trait de Jupiter),
and only an inch deep, each face being two feet long, and
the bolt passed through close to the angle.
In piecing the pump-rods and other wooden stretchers
of great engines, no dependence is had on scarfing; and
the engineer connects every thing by iron straps. We
doubt the propriety of this, at least in cases where the
bulk of the wooden connection is not inconvenient. These
observations must suffice for the methods employed for
connecting the parts of a beam; and we now proceed to
consider what are more usually called the joints of a piece
of carpentry.
Where the beams stand square with each other, and the Square
strains are also square with the beams, and in the plane ofjoints.
the frame, the common mortise and tenon is the most per¬
fect junction. A pin is generally put through both, in
order to keep the pieces united, in opposition to any force
which tends to part them. Every carpenter knows how
to bore the hole for this pin, so that it shall draw the te¬
non tight into the mortise, and cause the shoulder to butt
close, and make neat work ; and he knows the risk of tear¬
ing out the bit of the tenon beyond the pin, if he draw it
too much. We may just observe, that square holes and
pins are much preferable to round ones for this purpose,
bringing more of the wood into action, with less tendency
to split it. The ship-carpenters have an ingenious method Fox-tai!
of making long wooden bolts, which do not pass complete-wedginc
ly through, take a very fast hold, though not nicely fitted
to their holes, which they must not be, lest they should be
crippled in driving. They call it fox-tail wedging. They
stick into the point of the bolt a very thin wedge of hard
wood, so as to project a proper distance ; when this reaches
the bottom of the hole by driving the bolt, it splits the
end of it, and squeezes it hard to the side. This may be
practised with advantage in carpentry. If the ends of the
mortise are widened inwards, and a thin wedge be put into
the end of the tenon, it will have the same effect, and
make the joint equal to a dove-tail. But this risks the
splitting the piece beyond the shoulder of the tenon, which
would be unsightly. This may be avoided as follows : Let
the tenon T, fig. 28, have two very thin wedges a and c
struck in near its angles, projecting equally; at a very
small distance within these, put in two shorter ones b, d,
and more within these if necessary. In driving this tenon,
CARPENTRY.
itry. the wedges a and c will take first, and split off a thin slice,
^ which will easily bend without breaking. The wedges b,
d, will act next, and have a similar effect, and the others
in succession. The thickness of all the wedges taken to¬
gether must be equal to the enlargement of the mortise
towards the bottom.
When the strain is transverse to the plane of the two
beams, the principles laid down in No. 85, 86, of the
article Strength of Materials, will direct the artist
in placing his mortise. Thus the mortise in a girder for
receiving the tenon of a binding joist of a floor should be
as near the upper side as possible, because the girder be¬
comes concave on that side by the strain. But as this ex¬
poses the tenon of the binding-joist to the risk of being
torn off, we are obliged to mortise farther down. The
form (fig. 29) generally given to this joint is extremely
judicious. The sloping part a b gives a very firm support
to the additional bearing e d, without much weakening of
the girder. This form should be copied in every case
where the strain has a similar direction,
je The joint that most of all demands the careful attention
;eand0f the artist, is that which connects the ends of beams,
one of which pushes the other very obliquely, putting it
into a state of extension. The most familiar instance of
this is the foot of a rafter pressing on the tie-beam, and
thereby drawing it away from the other wall. When the
direction is very oblique (in which case the extending
strain is the greatest), it is difficult to give the foot of the
rafter such a hold of the tie-beam as to bring many of its
fibres into the proper action. There would be little diffi¬
culty if we could allow the end of the tie-beam to project
to a small distance beyond the foot of the rafter ; but, in¬
deed, the dimensions which are given to tie-beams for
other reasons, are always sufficient to give enough of abut¬
ment when judiciously employed. Unfortunately this
joint is much exposed to failure by the effects of the wea¬
ther. It is much exposed, and frequently perishes by rot,
or becomes so soft and friable that a very small force is
sufficient either for pulling the filaments out of the tie-
beam, or for crushing them together. We are therefore
obliged to secure it with particular attention, and to avail
ourselves of every circumstance of construction.
One is naturally disposed to give the rafter a deep hold
by a long tenon; but it has been frequently observed in
old roofs that such tenons break off. Frequently they are
observed to tear up the wood that is above them, and push
their way through the end of the tie-beam. This in all
probability arises from the first sagging of the roof, by the
compression of the rafters and of the head of the king-post.
The head of the rafter descends; the angle with the tie-
beam is diminished by the rafter revolving round its step
in the tie-beam. By this motion the heel or inner angle
of the rafter becomes a fulcrum to a very long and power¬
ful lever much loaded. The tenon is the other arm, very
short; and being still fresh, it is therefore very powerful.
It therefore forces up the wood that is above it, tearing
it out from between the cheeks of the mortise, and then
pushes it along. Carpenters have therefore given up
long tenons, and give to the toe of the tenon a shape which
abuts firmly, in the direction of the thrust, on the solid
bottom of the mortise, which is well supported on the un¬
der side by the wall-plate. This form has the further ad¬
vantage of having no tendency to tear up the end of the
mortise. This form is represented in fig. 30. The tenon
has a small portion ab cut perpendicular to the surface of
the tie-beam, and the rest be is perpendicular to the raf¬
ter. (See Note CC.)
But if the tenon is not sufficiently strong (and it is not
so strong as the rafter, which is thought not to be stronger
than is necessary), it will be crushed, and then the raf-
167
ter will shade out along the surface of the beam. It is Carpentry,
therefore necessary to call in the assistance of the whole -vO
rafter. It is in this distribution of the strain among the
various abutting parts that the varieties of joints and their
merits chiefly consist. It would be endless to describe
every nostrum, and we shall only mention a few that are
most generally approved of.
The aim in fig. 31 is to make the abutments exactly Most ap-
perpendicular to the thrusts. (See Note CC.) It does proved
this very precisely; and the share which the tenon and*orn!S‘
the shoulder have of the whole may be what we please,
by the portion of the beam that we notch down. If the
wall-plate lie duly before the heel of the rafter, there is
no risk of straining the tie across or breaking it, because
the thrust is made to direct to that point where the beam
is supported. The action is the same as against the
joggle on the head or foot of a king-post. We have no
doubt but that this is a very effectual joint. It is not,
however, much practised. It is said that the sloping seam
at the shoulder lodges water ; but the great reason seems
to be a secret notion that it weakens the tie-beam. If
we consider the direction in which it acts as a tie, we
must acknowledge that this form takes the best method
for bringing the whole of it into action.
Fig. 32 exhibits a form that is more general, but cer¬
tainly worse. Such part of the thrust as is not borne by
the tenon acts obliquely on the joint of the shoulder,
and gives the whole a tendency to rise up and slide out¬
ward.
The shoulder joint is sometimes formed like the dotted
line abedefg of fig. 32. This is much more agreeable to
the true principle, and w'ould be a very perfect method,
were it not that the intervals bd and df are so short that
the little wooden triangles bed, def, will be easily pushed
off their bases bd, df.
Fig. 33, No. 1, seems to have the most general appro¬
bation. It is the joint recommended by Price, and copied
into all books of carpentry as the true joint for a rafter
foot. The visible shoulder-joint is flush with the upper
surface of the tie-beam. The angle of the tenon at the
tie nearly bisects the obtuse angle formed by the rafter
and the beam, and is therefore somewhat oblique to the
thrust. The inner shoulder ac is nearly perpendicular to
bd. The lower angle of the tenon is cut off horizontally,
as at ed. Fig. 34> is a section of the beam and rafter foot,
showing the different shoulders.
We do not perceive the peculiar merit of this joint.
The effect of the three oblique abutments, ab, ac, ed, is
undoubtedly to make the whole bear on the outer end of
the mortise, and there is no other part of the tie-beam
that makes immediate resistance. Its only advantage
over a tenon extending in the direction of the thrust is,
that it will not tear up the w^ood above it. Had the inner
shoulder had the form eci, having its face ic perpendicular,
it would certainly have acted more powerfully in stretch¬
ing many filaments of the tie-beam, and would have had
much less tendency to force out the end of the mortise.
The little bit ci would have prevented the sliding upwards
along ec. At any rate, the joint ab being flush with the
beam, prevents any sensible abutment on the shoulder ac.
Fig. 33, No. 2, is a simpler, and in our opinion a prefer¬
able, joint. We observe it practised by the most eminent
carpenters for all oblique thrusts; but it surely employs
less of the cohesion of the tie-beam than might be used
without weakening it, at least when it is supported on the
other side by the wall-plate.
Fig. 33, No. 3, is also much practised by the first car¬
penters.
Fig. 35, No. 1, is proposed by Mr Nicholson as prefer¬
able to fig. 33, No. 3, because the abutment of the inner
168
Carpentry.
CARPENTRY.
Circum¬
stance to
be attend¬
ed to.
Butting
joints.
part is better supported. This is certainly the case; but
it supposes the whole rafter to go to the bottom of the
socket, and the beam to be thicker than the rafter. Some
may think that this will weaken the beam too much, when
it is no broader than the rafter is thick; in which case
they think that it requires a deeper socket than Nichol¬
son has given it. Perhaps the advantages of JNicholson s
construction may be had by a joint like fig. 35, No. 2.
Whatever is the form of these butting joints, great care
should be taken that all parts bear alike; and the artist
will attend to the magnitude of the different surfaces. In
the general compression, the greater surfaces wdl be less
compressed, and the smaller will therefore change most.
When all has settled, every part should be equally close.
Because great logs are moved with difficulty, it is very
troublesome to try the joint frequently to see how the
parts fit; therefore we must expect less accuracy in the
interior parts. This should make us prefer those joints
whose efficacy depends chiefly on the visible joint.
It appears from all that we have said on this subject,
that a very small part of the cohesion of the tie-beam is
sufficient for withstanding the horizontal thrust of a roof,
even though very low pitched. If therefore no other use
is made of the tie-beam, one much slenderer may be used,
and blocks may be firmly fixed to the ends, on which the
rafters might abut, as they do on the joggles on the head
and foot of a king-post. Although a tie-beam has com¬
monly floors or ceilings to carry, and sometimes the work¬
shops and store-rooms of a theatre, and therefore requires
a great scantling, yet there frequently occur in machines
and engines very oblique stretchers, which have no other
office, and are generally made of dimensions quite inade¬
quate to their situation, often containing ten times the ne¬
cessary quantity of timber. It is therefore of importance
to ascertain the most perfect manner of executing such a
joint. We have directed the attention to the principles
that are really concerned in the effect. In all hazardous
cases, the carpenter calls in the assistance of iron straps;
and they are frequently necessary, even in roofs, notwith¬
standing this superabundant strength of the. tie-beam.
But this is generally owing to bad construction of the
wooden joint, or to the failure of it by time. Straps will
be considered in their place.
There needs but little to be said of the joints at a jog¬
gle worked out of solid timber; they are not near so diffi¬
cult as the. last. When the size of a log will allow the
joggle to receive the whole breadth of the abutting brace,
it ought certainly to be made with a square shoulder; or,
which is still better, an arch of a circle, having the other
end of the brace for its centre. (See Note EE.) Indeed
this in general will not sensibly differ from a straight line
perpendicular to the brace. By this circular form, the
settling of the roof makes no change in the abutment;
but when there is not sufficient stuff for this, we must
avoid bevel joints at the shoulders, because these always
tend to make the brace slide off. The brace in fig. 36,
No. 1, must not be joined as at &, but as at a, or in some
equivalent manner. Observe the joints at the head of the
main posts of Urury Lane theatre, fig. 44, Plate CLII.
When the very oblique action of one side of a frame of
carpentry does not extend, but compress, the piece on
which it abuts (as in fig. 11), there is no difficulty in the
joint. Indeed a joining is unnecessary, and it is enough
that the pieces abut on each other; and we have only to
take care that the mutual pressure be equally borne by all
the parts, and that it do not produce lateral pressures,
which may cause one of the pieces to slide on the butting
joint. A very slight mortise and tenon is sufficient at the
joggle of a king-post with a rafter or straining beam. It
is best, in general, to make the butting plain, bisecting the
angle formed by the sides, or else perpendicular to one ofCarpe.
the pieces. In fig. 36, No. 2, where the straining beam, ''—4
ab, cannot slip away from the pressure, the joint a is
preferable to b, or indeed to any uneven joint, which
never fails to produce very unequal pressures on the dif¬
ferent parts, by which some are crippled, others are splin¬
tered off, &c.
When it is necessary to employ iron straps for strength-Direc
ening a joint, considerable attention is necessary, that wefor p
may place them properly. The first thing to be deter-1™11'
mined is the direction of the strain. This is learned by
the observations in the beginning of this article. We must
then resolve this strain into a strain parallel to each piece,
and another perpendicular to it. Ihen the strap which
is to be made fast to any of the pieces must be so fixed
that it shall resist in the direction parallel to the piece.
Frequently this cannot be done; but we must come as
near to it as we can. In such cases we must suppose
that the assemblage yields a little to the pressures which
act on it. We must examine what change of shape a
small yielding will produce. We must now see how this
will affect the iron strap which we have already suppos¬
ed attached to the joint in some manner that we thought
suitable. This settling will perhaps draw the pieces
away from it, leaving it loose and unserviceable (this fre¬
quently happens to the plates which are put to secure the
obtuse angles of butting timbers, when their bolts are at
some distance from the angles, especially when these plates
are laid on the inside of the angles) ; or it may cause it to
compress the pieces harder than before, in which case it
is answering our intention. But it may be producing cross
strains, which may break them, or it may be crippling them.
We can hardly give any general rules ; but the reader will
do wfell to read what is written in No. 36 and 41 of the
article Roof. In No. 36 he will see the nature of the strap
or stirrup, by which the king-post carries the tie-beam.
The strap that we observe most generally ill placed is that
which connects the foot of the rafter with the beam. It
only binds down the rafter, but does not act against its
horizontal thrust. It should be placed farther back on the
beam, with a bolt through it, which will allow it to turn
round. It should embrace the rafter almost horizontally
near the foot, and should be notched square with the back
of the rafter. Such a construction is represented in fig. 37.
By moving round the eye-bolt, it follows the rafter, and
cannot pinch and cripple it, which it always does in its
ordinary form. We are of opinion that straps which
have eye-bolts in the very angles, and allow all motion
round them, are of all the most perfect. A branched strap,
such as may at once bind the king-post and the two braces
which butt on its foot, will be more serviceable if it have
a joint. When a roof warps, those branched straps fre¬
quently break the tenons, by affording a fulcrum in one of
their bolts. An attentive and judicious artist will consi¬
der how the beams will act on such occasions, and will
avoid giving rise to these great strains by levers. A skil¬
ful carpenter never employs many straps, considering
them as auxiliaries foreign to his art, and subject to im¬
perfections in workmanship which he cannot discern or
amend. We must refer the reader to Nicholson’s Car¬
penter and Joiners Assistant for a more particular account
of the various forms of stirrups, screwed rods, and other
iron work for carrying tie-beams, &c.
As for those that are necessary for the turning joints of
great engines constructed of timber, they make no part of
the art of carpentry. (See Note II.)
After having attempted to give a systematic view oiExatn
the principles of framing carpentry, we shall conclude by 01
giving some examples which will illustrate and confirm
the foregoing principles.
CARPENTRY.
169
itlauPs,
!i))*nt
iiien.
entry. Fig. 38, Plate CLI. is the roof of the chapel of the
v-w' Royal Hospital at Greenwich, constructed by Mr S. Wyatt.
t. Inches
^ _ Scantling.
AA is the tie-beam, 57 feet long, spanning 51
feet clear  14 by 12
CC, queen-posts  9 X 12
D, braces  9 x 7
E, straining beam  10 X 7
F, straining piece    6X7
G, principal rafters * /.  10 X 7
H, a cambered beam for the platform  9 X 7
B, an iron string, supporting the tie-beam  2 X 2
The trusses are seven feet apart, and the whole is co¬
vered with lead, the boarding being supported by horizon¬
tal ledgers h, h, of six by four inches.
This is a beautiful roof, and contains less timber than
most of its dimensions. The parts are all disposed with
great judgment. Perhaps the iron rod is unnecessary,
but it adds great stiffness to the whole.
The iron straps at the rafter feet would have had more
effect if not so oblique. Those at the head of the post
are very effective.
We may observe, however, that the joints between the
straining beam and its braces are not of the best kind, and
tend to bruise both the straining beam and the truss beam
above it.
Fig. 39, the roof of St Paul’s, Covent Garden, designed
by Mr Hardwick, and constructed by Mr Wapshot in 1796.
AA, tie-beam spanning fifty feet two inches... 16 X 12
BB, queen-posts  9 X
C, straining beam  10 X
D, king-post (fourteen at the joggle)  9 X
EE, struts  8 X
FF, auxiliary rafters (at bottom)  10 X
HH, principal rafter (at bottom)  10 x
gg, studs supporting the rafter  8 X
The trusses are about ten feet six inches apart, and the
dotted lines in the middle compartment show the manner
in which the roof is framed under the cupola.
This roof far excels the original one put up by Inigo
Jones. One of its trusses contains 198 feet of timber.
One of the old roof had 273, but had many inactive tim¬
bers, and others ill disposed. The internal truss FCF is
admirably contrived for supporting the exterior rafters,
without any pressure on the far projecting ends of the
tie-beam. The former roof had bent them greatly, so as
to appear ungraceful. (See Note KK.)
We think that the camber (six inches) of the tie-beam
is rather hurtful, because, by settling, the beam lengthens ;
and this must be accompanied by a considerable sinking of
the roof. This will appear by calculation. (See Note LL.)
Fig. 43, Plate CLII. the roof of Birmingham theatre, con¬
structed by Mr George Saunders. The span is eighty
feet clear, and the trusses are ten feet apart.
A is an oak corbel  9X5
B, inner plate    9X9
C, wall-plate  8 X 5^
D, pole-plate  7X5
E, tie-beam  15 x 15
F, straining beam  12 X 9
G, oak king-post (in the shaft)  9X9
H, oak queen-post (in the shaft)  7X9
I, principal rafters  9X9
K, common ditto    4X2^
L, principal braces  9 and 6X9“
M, common ditto  6X9
N, purlins   7X5
Q. straining sill..         5^ X 9
S, ridge piece     
VOL. vi.
ing-
re,
8
8
8
71
4
8
This roof is a fine specimen of British carpentry, and is Carpentry,
one of the boldest and lightest roofs in Europe. The
straining sill, Q, gives a firm abutment to the principal
braces, and the space between the posts is 191 feet wide,
affording roomy workships for the carpenters and other
workmen connected with a theatre. The contrivance
for taking double hold of the wall, which is very thin, is
excellent. There is also added a beam (marked *R), bolt¬
ed down to the tie-beams. The intention of this was to
prevent the total failure of so bold a trussing, if any of the
tie-beams should fail at the end by rot.
Akin to this roof is fig. 44, Plate CLII. the roof of Drury- Drury-
Lane theatre, eighty feet three inches in the clear, and Lane
the trusses fifteen feet apart, constructed by Edward Greytheatre-
Saunders.
A, beams  10 by 7
B, rafters  7 x 7
C, king-posts  12 X 7
D, struts  5X7
E, purlins  9x5
G, pole-plates  5 x 5
H, gutter plates framed into the beams.'  12 X 6
I, common rafters  5 x 4
K, tie-beam to the main truss  15 X 12
L, posts to ditto  15 x 12
M, principal braces to ditto  14 and 12 X 12
N, struts  8 X 12
P, straining beams  12 X 12
The main beams are trussed in the middle space with
oak trusses five inches square. This was necessary for
its width of thirty-two feet, occupied by the carpenters,
painters, &c. The great space between the trusses afford
good store-rooms, dressing-rooms, &c.
It is probable that this roof has not its equal in the
world for lightness, stiffness, and strength. The main
truss is so judiciously framed, that each of them will safe¬
ly bear a load of three hundred tons; so it is not likely
that they will ever be quarter loaded. The division of the
whole into three parts makes the exterior roofings very
light. The strains are admirably kept from the walls, and
the walls are even firmly bound together by the roof.
They also take off the dead weight from the main truss
one third.
The intelligent reader w ill perceive that all these roofs Remarks,
are on one principle, depending on a truss of three pieces
and a straight tie-beam. This is indeed the great prin¬
ciple of a truss, and is a step beyond the roof with two
rafters and a king-post. It admits of much greater variety
of forms, and of greater extent. We may see that even
the middle part may be carried to any space, and yet be
flat at top; for the truss-beam may be supported in the
middle by an inverted king-post (of timber, not iron), car¬
ried by iron or wooden ties from its extremities; and the
same ties may carry the horizontal tie-beam K; for till
K be torn asunder, or M, M, and P be crippled, nothing
can fail.
The roof of St Martin’s church in the Fields is con¬
structed on good principles, and every piece properly dis¬
posed. But although its span does not exceed forty feet
from column to column, it contains more timber in a truss
than there is in one of Drury-Lane theatre. The roof of
the chapel at Greenwich, that of St Paul’s, Covent-Gar-
den, those of Birmingham and Drury-Lane theatres, form
a series gradually more perfect. Such specimens afford
excellent lessons to the artist. We therefore account
them a useful present to the public.
There is a very ingenious project offered to the public Project by
by Mr P. Nicholson. (Carpenter s Assistant, p. 68.) HeMr Ni-
proposes iron rods for king-posts, queen-posts, and allch°lson-
Y
170 C A R F E
Carpentry, other situations where beams perform the office of ties,
.j—»■«/ jje receives the feet of the braces and struts in a socket
very well connected with the foot of his iron king-post;
and he secures the feet of his queen-posts from being
pushed inwards, by interposing a straining sill. He does
not even mortise the foot of his principal rafter into the
end of the tie-beam, but sets it in a socket like a shoe, at
the end of an iron bar, which is bolted into the tie-beam
a good way back.1 All the parts are formed and disposed
with the precision of a person thoroughly acquainted with
the subject; and we have not the smallest doubt of the
success of the project, and the complete security and du¬
rability of his roofs. We abound in iron ; but we must
send abroad for building timber. This is therefore a va¬
luable project; at the same time, however, let us not over¬
rate its value. Iron is about twelve times stronger than
red fir, and is more than twelve times heavier; nor is it
cheaper, weight for weight, or strength for strength.
Our illustrations and examples have been chiefly taken
from roofs, because they are the most familiar instances
of the difficult problems of the art. "We could have wish¬
ed for more room even on this subject. The construction
of dome roofs has been, we think, mistaken, and the dif¬
ficulty is much less than is imagined; we mean in re¬
spect of strength; for we grant that the obliquity of the
joints, and a general intricacy, increases the trouble of
Wooden workmanship exceedingly. Wooden bridges form another
bridges. class equally difficult and important; but our limits are
already overpassed, and will not admit them. I he prin¬
ciple on which they should all be constructed, without ex¬
ception, is that of a truss, avoiding all lateral bearings on
any of the timbers. In the application of this principle
we must further remark, that the angles of our truss should
be as acute as possible ; therefore we should make it of
as few and of as long pieces as we can, taking care to
prevent the bending of the truss beams by bridles, which
embrace them, but without pressing them to either side.
When the truss consists of many pieces, the angles are
very obtuse, and the thrusts increase nearly in the dupli¬
cate proportion of the number of angles.
Framing of With respect to the frames of carpentry which occur
great le- in engines and great machines, the varieties are such that
vers. it would require a volume to treat of them properly. The
principles are already laid down; and if the reader be
really interested in the study, he will engage in it with
seriousness, and cannot fail of being instructed. We re¬
commend to his consideration, as a specimen of what may
be done in this way, the working beam of Hornblower’s
steam-engine. (See Steam-Engine.) When the beam
must act by chains hung from the upper end of arch-heads,
the framing there given seems very scientifically con¬
structed ; at the same time we think that a strap of
wrought iron reaching the whole length of the upper bar
(see the figure) would be vastly preferable to those par¬
tial plates which the engineer has put there, for the bolts
will soon work loose.
But when arches are not necessary, the form employed
by Mr Watt is vastly preferable, both for simplicity and
for strength. It consists of a simple beam, AB (fig. 45,
Plate CLII.), having the gudgeon, C, on the upper side.
The two piston rods are attached to wrought-iron joints, A
and B. Two strong struts, DC, EC, rest on the upper
side of the gudgeon, and carry an iron string, ADEB,
consisting of three pieces, connected with the struts by
proper joints of wrought iron. A more minute descrip¬
tion is not needed for a clear conception of the principle.
No part of this is exposed to a cross strain ; even the beam
N T R Y.
AB might be sawed through at the middle. The ironCarpen;
string is the only part which is stretched; for AC, DC,
EC, BC, are all in a state of compression. We have made
the angles equal, that all may be as great as possible, and
the pressure on the struts and strings a minimum. Mr
Watt makes them much lower, as AefeB, or ASeB. But
this is for economy, because the strength is almost insu¬
perable. It might be made with wooden strings ; but the
workmanship of the joints would more than compensate
the cheapness of the materials.
We offer this article to the public with deference, and
we hope for an indulgent reception of our essay on a sub¬
ject which is in a manner new, and would require much
study. We have bestowed our chief attention on the
strength of the construction, because it is here that per¬
sons of the profession have the most scanty information.
We beg them not to consider our observations as too re¬
fined, and that they will study them with care. One prin¬
ciple runs through the whole ; and when that is clearly
conceived and familiar to the mind, we venture to say that
the practitioner will find it of easy application, and that he
will improve every performance by a continual reference
to it.
iv.—NOTES.
AA, p. 158. This rule may be somewhat more accu¬
rately expressed in these words : From the point at which
any three forces meet and balance each other, draw a line
in the actual direction of any one of them, and from the
extremity of this line draw two others, parallel to the di¬
rections of the other two forces respectively; then sup¬
posing the pieces affording these two forces to be produ¬
ced indefinitely at their remoter ends, either of them which
is cut by one of the two lines will be compressed, and act
as a brace, and either of them which is not cut will be
stretched, and act as a tie.
BB, p. 159. It is, however, difficult to imagine how the
beam DA can furnish a force iA, to prevent the force A/
from carrying the beam BA towards H, when DA only
affords a repulsive abutment. The true resolution of the
force AE is found by considering the intersection of GE
with Ae, which are the directions of the separate forces
composing it: these lines meeting in a point a little above
r, we may call their intersection r*: then in the triangle
AEr*, the side Ar* will represent the pressure on the
mitred joint, and r#E the pressure on the beam FID ; and
the former being again resolved into AG and Gr*, we have
ultimately AG and Gr*' + r*E —GE = AF, for the ho¬
rizontal and vertical forces, however they may be modi¬
fied by intermediate combinations.
CC, p. 160, The reasoning contained in this and some
of the subsequent articles may serve as an approximation
to the truth in many cases of common occurrence ; but
the supposition on which it is founded is by no means
generally admissible as affording a result mathematically
accurate ; for, in reality, the distribution of the weight of
a roof over the whole extent of the rafters, or the concen¬
tration of the whole weight in the point where they meet,
is far from being an indifferent alternative, either with re¬
spect to the magnitude of the thrusts, or to the proper di¬
rections of the abutments or joints. In the case here dis¬
cussed, where there is no king-post, it is clear that the
centre of gravity of the whole roof must be much nearer
to the middle of the figure than the angular point, and
that consequently the weights supported by the two walls
will be very different from those which would be support-
1 See figures 40, 41, 42, Plate CLI. and Mr Nicholson’s work, p. 68, where these figures are particularly described.
CARPENTRY.
j*sntry. ed if the whole load were placed at the summit; although,
Iv-w' where there is a heavy king-post, supporting also, as it
ought to do, about half the weight of the tie-beam, with
its floors or ceiling, the case will approach much nearer to
the supposition here assumed.
For a common light roof, without a king-post, the cal¬
culation or construction is very simple. When two rafters
only meet at the summit, they must support each other by
a horizontal thrust (see Art. Bridge, Prop. Y); and this
thrust, acting on each rafter as a lever, of which the lower
end is the fulcrum, must be equivalent to the weight, act¬
ing at the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity from
the fulcrum, which is a quarter of the whole span ; conse¬
quently the thrust must be to the weight as a quarter of
the span to the height, and the compound oblique thrust
on the abutment will be represented by the hypotenuse
of the triangle of which those lines are the sides ; so that
if we had a roof of the same height, and of half the breadth,
the direction of its rafters would exactly represent the
actual direction of the compound thrust on the end of the
tie-beam, and would consequently indicate the proper form
for the abutment of the given structure.
But in the case of the unequal rafters represented in
the figure, the determination becomes more complicated,
and we must first find the direction of the mutual thrust
of the rafters, which must evidently be such, that the per¬
pendiculars falling on it from each end of the tie-beam
may be in the inverse proportion of the motive powers of
the weights of the rafters, that is, of the products of those
weights into the horizontal distances of the centres of
gravity from the respective fulcrums, or into the segments
of the tie-beam made by a vertical line passing through
the summit, which are proportional to these distances;
and if we produce the base of the triangle, and find in it
a point, of which the distance is to the length of the tie-
beam as the smaller product to the difference of the pro¬
ducts, a line drawn from the summit to this point will show
the true direction of the thrust; and its magnitude may
then be readily determined by dividing either of the pro¬
ducts by the respective perpendicular falling on this line.
Where, however, there is a king-post supporting a heavy
tie-beam, it is necessary to determine the centre of gravity
of the half roof, together with this addition ; and the dis¬
tance of the centre of gravity from the middle will then
be to the half span, as the weight of one of the rafters with
its load is to the weight of the whole roof, including the
tie-beam and ceiling; and if we erect a perpendicular pass¬
ing through the centre of gravity thus found, and equal to
the height, the oblique thrust on the abutment will be in
the direction of the line joining the upper end of this per¬
pendicular and the end of the tie-beam.
DD, p. 162. In order to obtain a distinct idea of the ope¬
ration of the forces concerned in this experiment, we must
have recourse to proposition C of this article, and substitute
in the formula for the deflection
, . .M / 16/ e\
''-‘"'V TANG- {'/Wa}’
8 1
a = 1, t = q — g^, M == 1,900,000 pounds, the
specific gravity of fir being *56, / = 6720, and e ~ 6,
the middle of the pillar being considered as the fixed
point: we then find */ - — F427, which is the length
of an arc of 81° 45', and the tangent becomes 6-9, whence
we have e?=x 4,2 X 6‘9 = ’0345, or somewhat more
than the thirtieth of an inch : consequently the strength
171
must have been reduced in the proportion of 1*207 to 1. Carpentry.
(Art. Bridge, Prop. E.) But considering how near the
arc thus determined approaches to a quadrant, it is obvi¬
ous that any slight variations of the quantities concerned
in the calculation must have greatly affected the magnitude
of the tangent; so that the loss of strength may easily
have been considerably greater than this, as it appears to
have been found in the experiment. It would, however,
scarcely have been expected that such a pillar, however
supported, could withstand the pressure of ninety hun¬
dredweight, since Emerson informs us that the cohesive
strength of a pillar of fir an inch in diameter is only about
thirty-five: but supposing the facts correct, the coincidence
tends to show the near approach to equality of the forces
of cohesion and lateral adhesion, as explained in the in¬
troduction to this article.
EE, p. 163. A similar remark of the author has already
been noticed in the article Bridge, at the end of the fifth
section. In the form in which it is here expressed, it be¬
comes still more objectionable ; for with whatever part of
a circular abutment a rafter equal to the radius may be
brought into contact, it is very plain that its opposite end
can never be either higher or lower than the original cen¬
tre of curvature: and even if the curvature were made
twice as great, so that the rafter might be equal to the dia¬
meter of the circle, it would be necessary that the lower end
should slide upwards on the abutment as much as the up¬
per end fell, in order to preserve the contact; and there
would obviously be no force in the structure capable of
producing such a change as this. Any general curvature
of the joint must therefore be totally useless; but a judi¬
cious workman will make it somewhat looser below than
above, when there is any probability that the rafters will
sink, taking care, however, to avoid all bearing too near
the surface, lest it should splinter, and, for these reasons
combined, making the end a little prominent somewhat
above the middle of the surface which rests on the abut¬
ment.
With this precaution, the direction of the joint between
a rafter and a tie-beam ought to be made precisely perpen¬
dicular to the true thrust of the rafter, determined as al¬
ready explained (Note CC); for, in the first place, unless
we trust either to the friction, or to straps, the bearing
cannot be more nearly horizontal than this, without danger
of the rafters sliding outwards ; and, in the second place, if
w*e made it more nearly vertical, we should lessen the verti¬
cal pressure on the end of the tie-beam, immediately beyond
the joint; a pressure which gives firmness to the wood,
by pressing its fibres more closely together, and increas¬
ing their lateral adhesion, or rather internal friction. If,
however, the tie-beam were not deep enough to receive
the whole of the rafter so terminated, without too great a
reduction of its depth, it would be proper to make the joint
a little flatter, or more horizontal, and to restrain the end
from sliding upwards by an iron strap fixed in a proper di¬
rection. We should preserve the end of the rafter as little
diminished in breadth as possible, when the tie-beam is
wide enough to receive it; a moderate thickness, left on
each side of the mortise in the tie-beam, being sufficient to
assist in securing the connection of the ends of the beam
with the intermediate parts.
FF, p. 163. The doctrine of the initial equality of the
resistances to compression and extension, as stated in the
article Bridge, enables us to demonstrate that the trans¬
verse strength can never exceed one sixth of that which
would be derived from the resistance of all the fibres,
co-operating at the distance of the whole depth from a fix¬
ed fulcrum, and acting with the weaker of the two powers
appropriate to the bod}'. It is true that the results of
some direct experiments seem to favour the opinion that
172 CAR
Carpet, the cohesive power is the weaker; but where the flexure
is already considerable, it is probable that this circumstance
materially diminishes the primitive power of resisting com¬
pression, so that the principles on which the calculation
proceeds are by no means strictly applicable to the case
of a bar so broken. .
GG, p. 164. There seems to be a little confusion in
the idea of the possibility of altering the nature of the ac¬
tion of the fibres of a beam by altering the place of the
gudgeon in this manner ; but the author has very piopci-
ly abstained from making any practical application of the
supposed modification thus introduced. With respect to
the strength required for scarfing or joggling, it may be
observed, that the whole of the compressed fibres of the
concave side may be considered as abutting against the
whole of the extended fibres on the convex side ; and this
abutment is equally divided throughout the length of the
beam ; so that if the scarfings or joggles in the whole
length of the arm of a lever, taken together, are as strong
as one half of the depth of the lever, exerting half its
powers, from the inequality of tension, there will be no
danger of the failing of these joints ; and from this prin¬
ciple it will be easy to determine the depth to which the
joints ought to extend in any particular case. Hence also
we may understand how a beam may become so short as
to be incapable of transverse fracture in its whole extent;
for the lateral adhesion between the different fibres of
wood is generally far inferior to the longitudinal strength
of the fibres : and if, for example, it were only one fourth as
great, a beam less than twice as long as it is deep would
separate, if urged in the middle by a transverse force,
into two strata, from its incapacity of affording sufficient
abutment, before its longitudinal fibres would give way.
HH, p. 166. If the bolts were sufficiently numerous
and sufficiently firm, so as to produce a great degree of
adhesion or of friction between the parts, this joint might
CAR
be made almost as strong as the entire beam, since there Carp
is nothing to prevent the co-operation of each side with
the other throughout its extent; but much of the strength
would be lost if the bolts became loose, even in an incon¬
siderable degree.
II, p. 169. The author has reasoned upon the'direction
of straps, as if it were universally necessary to economize
their immediate strength only, without regard to the effect
produced on the tightness of the joint; but it may happen
that the principal purpose of the strap will be answered
by its pressing the rafter firmly upon the beam, and this
effect may be produced by a certain deviation from the
horizontal position, with" but little diminution of the
strength of the strap; a deviation which has also the ad¬
vantage of allowing the strap to embrace the whole of the
beam, without weakening it by driving a bolt through it.
We must not, however, run the risk of crippling the end
of the beam, and the straps represented in fig. 38 may be
allowed to be somewhat too erect.
KK, p. 169. It does not appear to be desirable that the
ends of the rafters should be supported without any pres¬
sure on the ends of the beams, since these ends would
bear a small weight without any danger of bending, and
would thus lessen the pressure on the king-post.
LL, p. 169. The half length being 25 feet, and the
camber 6 inches, the excess of the oblique length will
be y' 625-25 — 25, or ^ of a foot, that is, ^ of an inch,
which is all that the beam would appear to lengthen in
sinking ; nor would the settling of the roof be more “ con¬
siderable” than about a quarter of an inch. But there
seems to be no advantage in this deviation of the tie-beam
from the rectilinear direction ; and the idea, which appears
to be entertained by some workmen, that a bent beam
partakes of the nature of an arch, is one of the many mis¬
chievous fallacies which it is the business of the mathe¬
matical theory of carpentry to dispel.
C ARPENTUM, in Antiquity, a name common to differ¬
ent sorts of vehicles, answering to coaches as well as wag¬
gons, or even carts, among us. The carpentum was ori¬
ginally a kind of car or vehicle in which the Roman ladies
were carried, though in after-times it was also used in
war. Some derive the word from carro; others from Car-
menta, the mother of Evander, by a slight literal conversion.
CARPET, a well-known species of covering, chiefly
employed for the floors of rooms, but also used for a va¬
riety of other purposes. Carpets are of oriental origin, and
are made of different sorts of stuffs ; some of them of silk
ornamented with gold, dthers of cotton, but by far the greater
part of wool. They are woven in a variety of ways.
Persia and Turkey carpets are the most esteemed. They
are woven in a piece, in looms of a very simple construction,
being only composed of two beams placed the one above
the other, about eight feet separate, in parallel lines ; the
warp of the web being put on the uppermost, and brought
down the undermost beam, through heddles. The pattern
to be wrought is drawn and painted on design paper, and
placed before the weaver, who works the figure into the
warp with dyed worsted yarn, cut into proper lengths. He
then passes a woof shot through the web, to bind the worst¬
ed yarn. When the carpet is made to the dimensions
required, it is then taken out of the loom and dressed with
shears made for the purpose. Till of late years the manu¬
facture of these carpets was confined to Persia and Tur¬
key ; but they are now successfully imitated at Axminster
in the south of England, and at Kilmarnock in the west
of Scotland.
Brussels, Wilton, imperial Brussels, and royal Wilton
carpets, are all woven in looms of the same construction,
and derive their names from the places where they were
invented. The difference of their fabric consists as follows,
viz. in the Brussels, the worsted yarn raised to form the
pile and show the figure is not cut; in the W ilton the
pile is cut, and has the appearance of velvet; in the im¬
perial Brussels the figure is raised above the ground, and
the pile cut, the ground uncut; and in the royal Wilton
the pile is raised higher than in the Wilton, and cut, which
makes it a more massy carpet. The cloth of these car¬
pets is composed of linen and worsted, and the loom for
weaving them is very ingeniously constructed. Ihe linen
is put on a beam, and brought through heddles and a reed;
it is only used to bind the worsted yarn, and should not
appear on the right side. The better it is covered, the
more complete and perfect is the carpet.
The worsted yarn is put on small bobbins, with a weight
attached to each to keep the yarn of a uniform tightness.
There are in some of the looms 1300, and in others 1800
of these bobbins (according to the width of the web, which
is generally twenty-seven inches, although some are thirty-
six inches), placed in frames behind the loom, and planted
of different coloured yarn, to answer the figure. The yarn
is then passed through the harness, heddles, and reed, to
combine with the linen yarn, and form the cloth. The
harness is tied to tail-cords, which are passed through a
frame filled with small pulleys; a simple is then attached
to the tail cords, and brought down by the side of the
loom, upon which the pattern of the carpet intended to
be wrought is put with lashes and drawn by boys. Ma¬
chines have been introduced in place of boys, but they have
CAR
pet. not been found to answer the purpose so well as in the
other sorts of carpeting. When the boy draws the lash,
he has in one hand a piece of thin board, three feet long
and six inches broad, which is called a sword. This sword
he passes through under the yarn so drawn with the lash,
and keeps it on its edge until the weaver passes a wire
through in front of the reed. This wire keeps up the worst¬
ed, and the weaver throws two shots of linen woof through
the web, and forms the pile. It is necessary to have sixty
of these wires for raising the pile, and at all times to have
at least six of them in the web next to the reed, or else
the worsted, would sink, and the linen appear on the right
side of the carpet, which is a great defect. When it is in¬
tended to make Wilton and royal Wilton, the wires that
are used have a groove in them; and a small knife with a
guide to it, called a travat, is drawn across the web into
the groove, and cuts the pile : and for making imperial
Brussels both a round wire and a grooved wire are used
at the same time.
Double or Kidderminster carpeting is composed of
two plies of cloth, and having what is called a right and a
wrong side, the colours being reversed. Suppose a car¬
pet of scarlet and black, what is scarlet on one side will
be black on the other. They are, however, made in a
variety of colours ; and when done so, the warp of the web
is made of small yarn, so that when it happens to be of a
different colour from the woof, it may appear as little as
possible; for in this sort of carpeting there cannot be put
more than two colours in a line without mixing, whereas
in Brussels five can be thus put.
The warp of the web is put all on one beam, and passed
through the harness and reed; the figure intended to be
wrought is raised by a machine placed on the top of the
loom above the harness. A machine was in use for this
purpose, which was invented in Kilmarnock about eighteen
years ago, and was wrought on the principle of the or¬
gan barrel; but it is now superseded by another, where the
figure is cut on paper, and is consequently called a paper
machine. It is of French invention, and was originally used
in the silk trade, but is now in common use in the car¬
pet trade. One great advantage which the paper machine
has over that of the barrel, is, that when once a pattern
is cut, it can be woven at any time (for an indefinite num¬
ber of patterns may be wrought in one machine), and it
is only necessary to take out one pattern and lay it past
for future use, and put in another, which can be done in
ten minutes; whereas on the barrel machine, the figure,
which is put on with small wire pins, when it is required
to be changed, must all be taken out and put on anew, or
else have a number of barrels for each machine, which adds
greatly to the expense.
This sort of carpeting differs from Brussels, inasmuch
as that both warp and woof appear on the surface of the
cloth, whereas in Brussels it is the warp only.
With regard to three-ply imperial or Scotch carpeting,
although it is only recently that this sort of carpeting has
been made, it is getting very much into repute, and is con¬
sidered very little inferior to Brussels. Some years ago
an attempt was made in England to make three-ply car¬
peting, but it did not succeed; they could not make the
figure distinct on both sides, and it was abandoned. Kil-
Oiarnock has the merit of obviating this defect, by bring¬
ing them to their present state, and of fairly establishing
the trade, which has now become very considerable, and
is still increasing.
They are woven in the same way, and in looms of the
same construction, as the two-ply carpeting, having three
p ies of cloth in place of two plies, which makes them much
niore durable and comfortable, being nearly one half hea¬
vier m the fabric, and every way superior in appearance.
CAR 173
In this sort of carpeting, as well as in the two-ply Kid- Carpet,
derminster, it is the woof which predominates, and shows
the figure.
French or tapestry carpeting differs from Kidderminster
and three-ply imperial Scotch carpeting, inasmuch as it
is the warp of the web, which is made of worsted, that
shows the figure. In other respects they are much the
same, and are woven in looms of the same construction,
with a machine and the other appendages.
Venetian carpeting is made both plain and figured, and
is used mostly for stairs, passages, and lobbies.
Plain Venetian carpets are woven in looms of a very sim¬
ple construction, having only heddles and reed. The warp
is a very heavy body of worsted yarn, and should cover the
woof so completely that it cannot be seen. The pattern
is generally in stripes, and shaded like the rainbow; and
the great object of the manufacturer is to bring off the
shade of colour from dark to light imperceptibly. They
are likewise made checked, and in squares like a draught¬
board. 1 he figured Venetian are woven in looms of the
same construction as the two-ply or Kidderminster car¬
peting,^ having a machine to raise the pattern wanted,
which is entirely of the warp of the web, and is all worst¬
ed yarn, the woof being completely covered by it, which
is composed of a thick shot of woollen and a small shot of
linen yarn alternately.
Besides these described above, there is also Dutch car¬
peting, which is woven much in the same way as plain
Venetian, but a great deal coarser, some of them being
made of cow hair.
There are other branches of the arts and sciences upon
which the successful manufacturing of carpeting very
much depends, such as spinning, dyeing, and drawing.
In Scotland it is matter of regret that so few artists have
turned their attention to the designing and drawing of
patterns for Persian, Turkey, Brussels, and double or
three-ply carpeting. In England there are some who
make it a very lucrative branch of trade, and we have
no doubt but it may become equally so in this country.
The carpet trade in Scotland is much indebted to the
Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of domestic
Manufactures, for the very liberal premiums given by them
to the successful competitors in carpet weaving. They
have, by their patriotic exertions, introduced into this
country several sorts of carpeting, which are likely to
become a very considerable branch of trade, and conse¬
quently employ a number of men, and likewise to con¬
sume a great portion of wool, a staple article of the coun¬
try. The premiums sometimes amount to between six
and seven hundred pounds.
The following is a description of the machines employ¬
ed in the manufacture.
Plate CLIII. fig. 1, description of Brussels, fyc. Carpet
Loom. A A A A, the frame of the loom, consists of six
posts, with caps and cross rails to bind them together.
The posts are seven feet high, of an oblong square, six
inches broad and five inches thick, and the caps and cross
rails five inches broad and two inches thick; the extreme
length of the frame eight feet, and width five feet. B B,
the cloth beam, is made of a circular piece of wood, six
inches diameter, sufficiently long to reach the width of the
loom, with gudgeons in the end, which run into sockets
in the frame of the loom; on the one end of the beam is
a cast-iron ratchet-wheel, with a latch to keep the cloth
when wound up on the beam from coming back, and so
keep the web, when weaving, of a proper tightness. C, the
lay, has an under and upper shell, two swords, and rock-
ing-tree; there are grooves in the upper and under shell,
to admit the reed which the yarn passes through, which
is made of iron splits. D, the heddles, of which there are
CAR
three leaves, are made of brass wire; two of the leaves,
where the linen yarn passes through, have eyes about one
inch long; the other leaf, where the woollen yarn passes
through, has eyes four inches long, on purpose to al¬
low the worsted yarn to be raised that is required to
form the pattern. The heddles are connected and work¬
ed with the treadles, E E, with cords, by coupers placed
on the top of the loom at E, as well as under the heddles.
The treadles are about three inches square and six feet
long, and are pressed down on the point by the weavers
foot. F is the linen yarn. G G, the linen yarn beam, is made
of the same materials, and in the same way, as the cloth
beam, only it has no gudgeons in the end of it, but moves m
an aperture the thickness of the beam, which is generally
eight inches diameter. H H H, the harness, has a brass
mail (with three eyes) for every woollen thread in the web,
of which thereare thirteen hundred. Through the middle
eye, which is the largest, the worsted yarn is passed. From
the undermost of the other two eyes is suspended with
twine a small lead weight, sufficient to keep the worsted
yarn down in its proper place. Through the upper eye is
put the harness twine, and the twine is afterwards passed
through a board perforated with holes, and is called a har¬
ness board; it is then attached to the tail-cords at I, by
means of fine small twine spun for the purpose. By the
proper arranging and tying of the harness to the tail-cords
depends in a great measure the correctness of the figure to
be put to work. I, the horal box, which is about twenty
inches by thirty, has five rows of pulleys, fifty-two in each
row ; and every pulley is divided by sheet-iron divisions.
Over each of these pulleys a tail-cord K K passes, which
is tyed to the harness II. To this tail-cord is connected
the simple L L ; and on this simple, which is made of fine
twine, the figure is lashed on with fine cotton thread, as at
M M. N N N N is the bobbin-frame. There are four full
frames and two half ones; a full frame is eight feet long
and four feet broad, divided into eight rows, having thirty-
two bobbins in each row, with a small lead weight attach¬
ed to each bobbin. The frames are supported at one end
by two posts OOOO, having holes in them to heighten
and lower them at pleasure. The other end of the frame
is supported by two posts of the frame of the loom.
Fig. 2, description of Three-ply Imperial Scotch, and
Two-ply Kidderminster Carpet Loom. The frame treadles,
beams, and lay of this loom are so like fig. 1, that it will
require no farther description. The only difference is,
that fig. 1 has six posts, whereas fig. 2 has only four; and
that fig. 1 is for making cloth three fourths wide, and fig.
2 four fourths wide.
The harness E, however, differs so far from fig. 1, that
it has what is called a double neck attached to each of the
machines F F. These machines are the same as the French
machines used for raising the figures on silk. They are
worked by the treadle B, by means of the connecting iron
rods at their point.
Carpet-Knights, a denomination given to gown-men
and others of peaceable professions, who, on account of
their birth, office, or merits in regard to the public, or the
like, have been raised by the prince to the dignity of
knighthood. They take the appellation of carpet, because
they usually receive their honours from the king’s hands
in the court, kneeling on a carpet; and by this they are
distinguished from knights created in the camp, or field of
battle, on account of their military prowess.
CARPI, a principality of Modena, in Italy, situated
about four leagues from that city.
Carpi, Ugo da, an Italian painter, of no very consider¬
able talents in the art, but remarkable for being the in¬
ventor of that species of engraving on wood, distinguished
by the name of chiaro-scuro, in imitation of drawing.
CAR
This is performed by using more blocks than one. Ugo Car;:
da Carpi usually had three ; the first for the outline and ||
dark shadows, the second for the lighter shadows, and Cam;
the third for the half tint. In this manner he struck off ''■’’Y'
prints after several designs, and cartoons of Raphael, par¬
ticularly one of the Sibyl, a Descent from the Cross, and
the History of Simon the Sorcerer. He died in 1500. The
art was brought to a still higher degree of perfection by
Balthazar Peruzzi of Siena, and Parmigiano, who publish¬
ed several excellent designs in this manner.
Carpi, Girolamo da, historical and portrait painter, was
born at Ferrara in 1501, and became a disciple of Garo-
fala. When he quitted that master, he devoted his wffiole
time, thoughts, and attention to study the works of Cor¬
reggio, and to copy them with the most critical care and
observation; in which labour he spent several years at
Parma, Modena, and other cities of Italy, where the best
works of that exquisite painter were preserved. He ac¬
quired such excellence in the imitation of Correggio’s style,
and in copying his pictures, that many paintings finish¬
ed by him were taken for originals, and not only admired,
but eagerly purchased by the connoisseurs of that time.
Nor is it improbable that several of the paintings of Giro¬
lamo da Carpi pass at this day for genuine works of Cor¬
reggio himself. He died in 1556.
CARPING, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
Capitanata. It is situated on the river Gargano, and con¬
tains 4860 inhabitants.
CARPOCRATIANS, a branch of the ancient Gnostics,
so called from Carpocrates, who in the second century re¬
vived and improved upon the errors of Simon Magus,
Menander, Saturinus, and other Gnostics. He owned
with them one sole principle and author of all things,
whose name as well as nature was unknown. The word,
he taught, was created by angels, beings vastly inferior to
the first principle. He opposed the divinity of Jesus
Christ ; representing him as a mere man, begotten car¬
nally on the body of Mary by Joseph, though possessed of
uncommon gifts, which set him above other creatures. He
inculcated a community of women; and taught that the
soul could not be purified till it had committed all kinds of
abominations, which he considered as a necessary condi¬
tion of perfection.
CARR, a kind of rolling throne, used in triumphs, and
at the splendid entries of princes. The word is derived
from the ancient Gaulish or Celtic carr, mentioned by
Caesar in his Commentaries under the name of carrus.
Plutarch relates that Camillas having entered Rome in
triumph, mounted on a carr drawn by four white horses,
it was looked on as too haughty an innovation.
Carr, or Car, is also used for a kind of light open cha¬
riot. The carr, on medals, drawn by horses, lions, or ele¬
phants, usually signifies either a triumph or an apotheosis;
sometimes it indicates a procession of the images of the
gods at solemn supplication, and sometimes of those of
some illustrious family at a funeral. The carr covered
and drawn by mules signifies a consecration, and the
honour done any one of having his image carried at the
gates of the circus.
CARR AC, or Carraca, a name given by the Portu¬
guese to the vessels which they formerly sent to Brazil
and the East Indies, these being very large, round built,
and fitted for war as well as burden. Their capacity lay
in their depth, which was very extraordinary.
CARRARA, a city of Italy, in the province Massa
Carrara, under the Duke of Modena. It is situated high
up on a mountain, contains a cathedral and several other
churches, a ducal palace, and 6550 inhabitants, who find
employment chiefly in the celebrated marble quarries, and
in some measure in spinning silk.
C A 11
rara
:dck-
rjUS.
Carrara Marble, among our artificers, the name of a
species of white marble, which was called marmor lunense,
and ligustrium by the ancients. It is distinguished from
the Parian, now called the statuary marble, by being hard¬
er and less bright.
CARRIAGE, a vehicle serving to convey persons,
goods, merchandise, and other things, from one place to
another. For the construction and mechanical principles
of wheel-carriages, see Mechanics.
GARRICK, the southern district of Ayrshire, having
the central district of Kyle on the north, Kirkcudbright
on the east, Wigton on the south, and the Irish Sea on
the west. It is thirty-two miles in length and twenty in
breadth. It is a wild and mountainous tract of country.
The Boon, the Girvan, and the Stinchar are its principal
rivers, and each has a number of tributaries. The eldest
son of the king, as prince of Scotland, enjoys the title of
Earl of Garrick.
Carrick-on-Suir, a market-town of Ireland, in the
county of Tipperary, intersected by the river Suir. It
had formerly walls and a castle, which are now' demolish¬
ed. The town is irregularly built. An extensive manu¬
facture of different varieties of woollen stuffs is carried on ;
and it has also a considerable trade, owing to the conve¬
nience of navigation on the river. The population amounts
to about 12,000. It is distant seventy miles north-west of
Dublin. Long. 7. 8. W. Lat. 52. 23. N.
CARRICKFERGUS, a town in the province of Ulster,
in Ireland, which, with a small surrounding district, forms
one of the eight counties of towns which enjoy an exclusive
jurisdiction, separate from that of the county within which
they are situated. It lies on the northern side of Carrick-
fergus Bay, called also the Lough of Belfast, and is sur¬
rounded on all other sides by the county of Antrim. The
length and breadth of the whole county are about four miles
each. A ridge of high ground extends along it from east
to west, terminating on its western extremity by Slieve-
true, a mountain which rises to the height of 1100 feet
above the level of the sea, and commands an extensive
prospect.
About three miles to the north of the town of Carrick-
fergus, on an elevated range, upwards of 550 feet above
the level of the sea, is Lough Morne, remarkable as being
the largest sheet of fresh water at the same altitude in
Ireland. Though its supply of water is extremely scanty,
a stream issues from it containing a body of water sufficient,
even during the driest seasons, to turn the works of a cot¬
ton-mill situated near the sea side. The only river in this
district worthy of the name is the Woodburn, formed of two
branches, on each of which there is a fine cascade; its stream
supplies several mills and print-fields. The Silverstream
and Copeland rivers are mere rivulets, remarkable only as
marking the bounds of the county to the west and east.
The town of Carrickfergus itself, from which the coun¬
ty and the adjoining bay take their names, is the only
place of any consequence within the district. It takes its
name from a large rock, in Irish carrick, projecting into
the sea, on which its castle is built; and from Fergus, one
of the ancient kings of Scotland, supposed to have been
drowned in the neighbourhood. It was a place little
known till the arrival of the English; soon after which
event John de Courcy, to whom Henry II. had granted
all the parts of Ulster he could gain possession of by his
sword, fixed here a colony, which soon acquired stability
and importance. Yet during the earlier period of its ex¬
istence it was subject to many vicissitudes of fortune. In
the reign of Edward II. it was taken by Edward Bruce, in
his expedition to assert his right to the throne of Ireland.
In 1386 it was burned by the Scotch, and in 1400 again
destroyed by the combined forces of the Scotch and Irish,
CAR ]75
who had defeated an English fleet near Strangford. Suhse- Carrick-
quently it suffered much by famine and by the occasional fergus.
assaults of the neighbouring Irish chieftains, whose favour
the townsmen were at length necessitated to secure by
the payment of an annual tribute.
In the reign of Elizabeth its value as a military and
commercial position was better appreciated. It obtained
a charter, which confirmed its former extensive privileges,
and added some new rights. The town was fortified by a
substantial wall, strengthened with seven bastions. The
corporation was also regulated. The mayor enjoyed the
jurisdiction of high admiral of the adjoining seas, from Fair-
head in the county of Antrim, to the Beerlooms, a point of
land near the entrance of Strangford Lough in the county
of Down. This charter was confirmed by James I. who
added the additional right of sending two burgesses to
parliament. It now became a place of considerable import¬
ance. At the commencement of the civil wars in 1641,
an attempt to surprise it, made by Sir Henry M‘Neil, was
baffled by the vigilance of the governor, Colonel Arthur
Chichester. It then became the principal place of refuge
for the Protestants from the neighbouring counties. Short¬
ly afterwards it was taken possession of by General Mun-
roe on the part of the king; but, after holding it for some
time, he was surprised and sent prisoner to England by
Monk the parliamentary general, who, as a reward for this
piece of service, was made governor, and received a grant
of a sum of L.500. In the year 1689 it surrendered on
terms to General Schomberg on the part of King William,
but not till its ammunition had been wholly exhausted.
Soon afterwards it was visited by William in person, on
his arrival in Ireland to head his troops previously to the
battle of the Boyne. The town’s people still point out the
precise stone on the quay where that monarch first set
foot. In the beginning of the year 1760 it was unexpect¬
edly surprised by a small French squadron commanded
by M. Thurot, who, after holding it for a few days, eva¬
cuated it as quickly as he had entered it, in order to meet
an English squadron which was in pursuit of him, and in
an action with which he lost his life. In the year 1778
the town was again alarmed by the sudden appearance of
the celebrated Paul Jones, who, however, made no attempt
on it.
The town extends along the sea-shore about a mile. It
consists of three parts; the town within the walls, the
Irish quarter on the west, and the Scotch quarter on the
east. The principal building is the castle, standing on the
projecting rock already mentioned, and surrounded by a
wall of masonry, planted with about twenty pieces of ar¬
tillery. The ancient keep or donjon is still in perfect pre¬
servation. It is ninety feet high.
The parish church, an antiquated structure, in the shape
of a cross, formed by the intersection of two narrow aisles,
was originally a chapel or oratory dependent on a Francis¬
can monastery in another part of the town. The entrance
of a subterraneous passage leading to it is still visible un¬
der the communion table of the church. One of the aisles
is the private property of the Chichester family, who used
it as a cemetery.
The court-house of the county of Antrim, a neat mo¬
dern building of a single story, forms the termination of
the principal street. Close to it is the jail of the same
county, built on the site of the monastery already men¬
tioned, which, after the suppression of those buildings by
Henry VIII. fell into the hands of the Chichester family.
The corporation of Carrickfergus at present maintains no*
court-house or pi'ison of its own.
The other public buildings in the town are meeting¬
houses for dissenters, methodists, and independents. The
town can boast of no literary institution of any kind what-
176 CAR
Carrick- soever. It has, however, several of a charitable nature, as
fergus. Lancasterian and Sunday schools. By a bequest of Henry
Gill, a freeman, fourteen decayed old townsmen enjoy a
residence and an annual allowance of L.10 each ; and by
another of Henry Adair, the interest of L.2000 is annually
distributed among poor freemen. Formerly these be¬
quests were seldom sought after, but now the applications
for them are numerous. The suburbs, called the Irish and
Scotch quarters, are chiefly inhabited by fishermen.
The government of the corporation is vested in a mayor,
seventeen aldermen, and twenty-four burgesses, who to¬
gether form the assembly, and exercise the right of enact¬
ing bye-laws and creating freemen. The freemen have no
share in the local legislation. Their number amounts to
about 800. The other corporate officers are two sheriffs, a
recorder, a treasurer, two coroners, a town-clerk, a sword-
bearer, and four serjeants-at-mace. The trades of the town
are formed into seven guilds, each under the control of a
master and two wardens; the hammermen or carpenters
are considered as the most respectable.
The few villages within the precincts of the county are
very small, the largest containing only thirty-five houses.
Gentlemen’s seats are frequent along the coast, and add
considerably to the appearance of the prospect. With the
exception of their plantations, there is scarcely any stand¬
ing timber, although strong evidence of the country hav¬
ing been formerly well wooded appears in the number of
trunks of trees raised from the bogs, in one of which, si¬
tuated on the shore beyond high-water mark, and therefore
covered with sand and other marine deposits, there have
been found, together with the trees, hazel-nuts, some of
which were in a state of petrifaction. Petrified hazel¬
nuts, and many other scarce fossil remains, are also found
on the banks of Woodburn river.
The chief minerals found here are basalt and limestone.
The searches for coal have been uniformly unsuccessful.
Gypsum is raised in large quantities, and conveyed to
Belfast for exportation. A mineral spring, containing a
purging nitrous salt, is situated in the eastern part of the
town ; and about a mile farther east is a pure saline spring,
said to be the only one of the kind in Ireland. Near
Lough Morne is a sulphureous chalybeate spring, once fre¬
quented, but latterly totally neglected.
The only manufacture carried on to a considerable ex¬
tent is the cotton, which has wholly superseded that of
linen. It gives work to three large factories, and as many
print-fields. In the town there are a brewery and a distil¬
lery. The farms are small, except in the interior and hilly
parts, where grazing is the principal occupation. Wheat
is little sown, the chief crops being oats and potatoes, for
which sea-weed, generally mixed with line and vegetable
matter, forms the manure. Cheese of excellent quality is
made in the neighbourhood of the town.
According to the ecclesiastical arrangements of Ireland,
this county forms a single rectory in the diocese of Con¬
nor. It now constitutes part of the corps of the deanery.
It is rated in the king’s book at L.8 for first fruits ; but its
actual annual value, as ascertained under the tithe com¬
position act, is L.400.
A weekly market is held in the town on Saturdays, and
fairs take place on the 12th of May and 1st of November.
According to the latest observations, Carrickfergus is in
long. 5. 47. W. and lat. 54. 43. N.
The population, taken at different periods, was as fol¬
lows :
Houses. Inhabitants.
1813 517 6225
1821 615 8030
1831 8698
From the returns of the population taken in 1813 and
CAR
1821, the proportions of the two great religious persuasions
were as follows:
Protestants, includ- Roman Ca- Unascer-
ing Dissenters. tholics. tained.
1813 5582 554 89
1821 6767 917 346
The returns of the late census of 1831 afford no infor¬
mation on this or other similar important results.
The state of education, as collected from the population
returns in 1821, and from the reports of the commission¬
ers of education in 1824-5, give the following results :
Schools. Male Pupils. Female Pupils. Total.
1821 25 427  343 870
1824-5  12 291  175 466
M‘3kimin’s History of Carrickfergus; Dubourdieu’s
Statistical Survey of Antrim ; Nimmo’s Survey of the Irish
Coast ; Parliamentary Returns; Reports of the Commis¬
sioners of Education in 1824-5 ; Historical Collections on
Belfast.
CARRIER, a person who carries goods for others for
hire. By the law of Scotland, carriers fall within the in¬
tendment of the edict of the Roman praetor, entitled Nau-
tce, Caupones, Stabidarii, which has, with some variations,
been adopted into the municipal system of that country,
and according to which an obligation arises, without for¬
mal paction, merely by a traveller’s entering an inn, ship,
or stable, and there depositing his goods, or putting up
his horse ; whereby an innkeeper, shipmaster, or stabler,
is accountable, not only for his acts and those of his ser¬
vants, but also for those of the other guests or passengers,
and, indeed, in every case, unless where the goods have
been lost damno fatali, or carried off by pirates or house¬
breakers. The precise extent of the obligation in the
case of carriers, however, is not very clearly defined; and
in practice various devices have been resorted to in order
to evade it altogether.
Carrieix-Pigeon or Courier-Pigeon, a sort of pigeon,
used, when properly trained, to carry letters from one place
to another. ’ See Columba, Ornithology.
Though you carry these birds hood-winked, twenty,
thirty, nay sixty or a hundred miles, they will find their way
in a very little time to the place where they were bred.
They are trained to this service in Turkey and Persia;
and are carried first, while young, short flights of half a
mile, afterwards more, till at length they will return from
the farthest part of the kingdom. Every pasha has a
basket of these pigeons bred in the seraglio, which, upon
any emergent occasion, as an insurrection, or the like, he
’dispatches, with letters braced under the wings, to the
seraglio. This proves a more speedy method, as w^ell as
a safer one, than any other; he sends out more than one
pigeon, however, for fear of accidents. Lithgow assures
us that one of these birds will carry a letter from Baby¬
lon to Aleppo, ’which is thirty days’ journey, in forty-eight
hours. This was also a very ancient practice. Hirtius
and Brutus, at the siege of Modena, held a correspondence
with one another by means of pigeons. And Ovid tells
us that Taurosthenes, by a pigeon stained with purple,
gave notice to his father of his victory at the Olympic
games, sending it to him at iEgina.
In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of
Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bag¬
dad. But this use of them has been laid aside for the
last thirty or forty years, because the Curd robbers killed
the pigeons. The manner of sending advice by them was
this: They took pairs which had young ones, and car¬
ried them on horseback to the place whence they wished
them to return, taking care to let them have a full view.
When the news arrived, the correspondent tied a billet to
Carj
|j
Carr;
%
:ron.
CAR
on de the pigeon’s foot, and let her loose. The bird, impatient
i jndes to see its young, flew off like lightning, and arrived at
Aleppo in ten hours from Alexandretta, and in two days
from Bagdad. It was not difficult for them to find their
way back, since Aleppo may be discovered at an immense
distance. This pigeon has nothing very peculiar in its
form, except its nostrils, which, instead of being smooth
and even, are swelled and rough.
In this country there seem to be two other varieties
of pigeon frequently used as messengers, namely, the
horseman and dragoon. The following fact is related of
the last-named variety. A gentleman sent a dragoon by
the stage-coach to a friend at St Edmunds Bury, along
with a note, desiring that the bird, two days after its ar¬
rival there, might be thrown up into the air precisely as
the town clock struck nine in the morning. This was ac¬
cordingly done, and the pigeon was observed to fly into
a loft in Bishopsgate Street, London, at half past eleven
of the same morning, having flown, probably without any
violent exertion, seventy-two miles in two hours and a
half.
Carrier-pigeons are still used to carry occasional dis¬
patches from the Bell Rock light-house to the northern
shore of the Frith of Forth. They refuse, however, to
leave the light-house during hazy weather; and as in this
country considerable training seems necessary, the feats
of these aerial messengers, though very admirable, are not
so purely instinctive, and consequently not so unerring, as
is usually supposed.
CARRION de los Coxdes, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon. It is situated near the confluence of
the rivers Carrion and Ciesa. The country around it is
fruitful in wine and in corn ; but being wholly destitute of
trees, it has a very barren appearance. This town con¬
tains 2800 inhabitants.
CARRON, a small but remarkable river in Scotland,
rising about the middle of the isthmus between the Friths
of Forth and Clyde. Both its source, and the place where
it empties itself into the sea, are within the shire of Stir¬
ling, which it divides into two nearly equal parts. The
whole length of its course, which is from west to east, is
not above fourteen miles. It falls into the Frith of Forth
about three miles to the north-east of Falkirk. The
stream is small, and scarcely deserves the notice of a tra¬
veller ; yet there is no river in Scotland, and few in the
whole island of Britain, whose banks have been the scene
of so many memorable transactions. When the Roman
empire was in all its glory, and had its eastern frontiers
upon the Euphrates, the banks of the Carron were its boun¬
daries upon the north-west; for the wall of Antoninus,
which was raised to mark the limits of that mighty em¬
pire, stood in the neighbourhood of this river, and ran pa¬
rallel to it for several miles.
Near the middle of its course, in a pleasant valley,
stand two beautiful mounts, called the Hills of Dunipace,
which are taken notice of by most of the Scottish histo¬
rians as monuments of great antiquity. The whole struc¬
ture ol these mounts is of earth, but they are not both of
the same form and dimensions. The more easterly one is
perfectly round, resembling an oven, and about fifty feet
in height; and that it is an artificial work does not ad¬
mit of the least doubt; but we cannot affirm the same with
equal certainty of the other, though it has been generally
supposed to be so too. It bears no resemblance to the
eastern one either in shape or size. At the foundation it
is nearly of a triangular form; but the superstructure is
quite irregular, nor does the height of it bear any pro¬
portion to the extent of its base. These mounts are now
planted with firs, which, with the parish-church of Duni¬
pace standing in the middle between them, and the river
VOL. VI.
CAR
/
running close by, give this valley a very romantic appear¬
ance. The common account given of these mounts is,
that they were erected as monuments of a peace conclud¬
ed in that place between the Romans and the Caledonians,
and that their name partakes of the language of both peo¬
ple ; dun signifying a hill in the old language of this island,
and pax, peace, in the language of Rome ; so that the
compound word, Dunipace, signifies “ the hills of peace.”
And we find in history, that no less than three treaties of
peace were at different periods entered into between the
Romans and the Caledonians; the first by Severus about
the year 210; the second soon afterwards, by his son Cara-
calla; and the third by the usurper Carausius about the
year 280 ; but which of these treaties Dunipace is a monu¬
ment of it is impossible to determine. If the concurring
testimony of historians and antiquaries did not agree in
giving this original to these mounts, we should be tempt¬
ed to conjecture that they are sepulchral monuments.
Human bones and urns have been discovered in earthen
fabrics of this kind in many parts of the island; and the
little mounts or barrows which are scattered in great
numbers about Stonehenge, in Salisbury Plain, are gene¬
rally supposed to have been the sepulchres of the ancient
Britons.
From the valley of Dunipace the river runs for some
time in a deep and hollow channel, with steep banks on
both sides. Here it passes by the foundations of the an¬
cient Roman bridge, not far from which, as is generally
thought, was the scene of the memorable conference be¬
twixt the Scottish patriot William Wallace, and Robert
Bruce, father to the king of that name, which first opened
the eyes of the latter to a just view both of his own true
interest and that of his country.
After the river has left the village and bridge of Lar-
bert, it soon enters another smaller valley, through the
midst of which it has now worn out to itself a straight
channel; but, in former ages, it had taken a considerable
sweep round, as appears by the track of the old bed, which
is still visible. The high and circling banks upon the
south side give to this valley the appearance of a spacious
bay; and, according to the tradition of the country, there
was once a harbour here. Nor does the tradition seem
altogether groundless, pieces of broken anchors having
been found here, and some of them at no distant period.
The stream-tides would still flow near the place, if they
wrere not kept back by the dam-head built across the river
at Stenhouse ; and there is reason to believe that the frith
flowed considerably higher in former ages than it does at
present. In the near neighbourhood of this valley, upon
the south, stand the ruins of ancient Camelon, which, after
it was abandoned by the Romans, was probably inhabited
for some ages by the natives of the country.
Another ancient monument, called Arthurs Oven, once
stood upon the banks of the Carron ; but it has been en¬
tirely demolished. The corner of a small inclosure be¬
tween Stenhouse and the Carron Iron-works is pointed out
as the place where it stood. This is generally supposed
to have been a Roman work ; though it is not easy to con¬
ceive what could be their motive for erecting such a fa¬
bric, at so great a distance from any other of their works,
and in a spot which at that time must have been very re¬
mote and unfrequented.
As the Carron extends over the half of the isthmus, and
runs so near the ancient boundaries of the Roman em¬
pire, the adjacent country fell naturally to be the scene
of many battles and rencounters. Historians mention a
bloody battle fought near the river between the Romans
and the confederate army of the Scots and Piets in the
beginning of the fifth century. The scenes of some of
Ossian’s poems were, in the opinion of the translator
z
178 CAR CAR
Carron (though that perhaps is not worth much), upon the banks
li of this river. About the distance of half a mile from the
Carruca. j-Jver, and near the town of Falkirk, is the field ot battle
where the English defeated Wallace in the year 1298. It
goes by the name of Graham s muir, from the valiant John
Graham, who fell there, and whose grave-stone is still to
be seen in the church-yard of Falkirk.
The river Carron, though it has long since ceased to roll
its stream amidst the din of arms, still preserves its fame,
by lending its aid to trade and manufactures.
Carron, a small village of Scotland, at which the ce-.
lebrated iron-works are situated, lies in the parish of
Lambert, on the northern bank of the river Carron, about
two miles from Falkirk. These works belong to a. char¬
tered company, established in 1760, with a capital of
L.150,000. They are employed in the smelting of iron
ores, and the manufacture of every description of cast-iron
goods, whether for the arts of war or peace. Cannon,
mortars, howitzers, carronades, shots and shells of all kinds,
are cast here in the highest perfection, not only for the
use of the British, but for that of foreign powers. Hence
the Carron Foundery rivals those of Germany and Russia.
For the conveyance of their goods, the company have cut
a canal, on which lighters ply from the warehouses at the
work to their harbour at Grangemouth, where the goods
are shipped for London. A railway runs from the works
to the Forth and Clyde Canal, where vessels are loaded
for Glasgow, Liverpool, and places on the west coast.
The works consist of seven blast or smelting furnaces,
twenty air-furnaces, four cupola furnaces, mills for grind¬
ing fire-clay, and for grinding and glazing smoothing irons,
stove metal, &c. The machinery of the furnaces is mov¬
ed by a large water-wheel. In the drought of summer an
engine is employed in lifting water to supply these wheels.
An engine for the production of blast works incessantly
both day and night. Another is in the course of erection,
which will in every respect excel any in the kingdom.
There are mills for boring cylinders, &c. the machinery of
which is allowed to be the finest in Europe. Two forges
are employed in the manufacture of malleable iron uten¬
sils. Water is supplied from dams or reservoirs which
cover between two and three hundred acres of ground.
The resources of the surrounding country afford ample
facilities for carrying on such an extensive establishment.
The stores of iron-stone and coal are inexhaustible; and
the ground is so flat, that railways can be laid down at a
trifling expense. These works employ in one way or other
between 2000 and 3000 individuals.
CARRONADE, a short kind of ordnance, capable of
discharging a large ball as well as throwing a shell, and
useful in close engagements at sea. It takes its name
from Carron, the place where this sort of ordnance was
first made, or the principle applied to an improved con¬
struction.
CARROUSAL, a course of horses and chariots, or a
magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes on some
public rejoicing. It consists in a cavalcade of several
gentlemen, richly dressed and equipped after the manner
of ancient cavaliers, divided into squadrons, meeting in
some public place, and practising jousts, tournaments, and
the like. The last carrousals were in the reign of Louis
XIV. The word comes from the Italian word carosello, a
diminutive of mrro, a chariot. Tertullian ascribes the in¬
vention of carrousals to Circe, and states that they were
instituted in honour of the sun, her father; whence some
derive the word from carrus, or carrus soils. The Moors
introduced ciphers, liveries, and other ornaments of arms,
with trappings, &c. for their horses; the Goths added
crests, plumes, &c.
CARRUCA, in Antiquity, a splendid kind of carr, or
chariot, mounted on four wheels, and richly decorated with Cam
gold, silver, ivory, &c. in which the emperors, senators, || j
and people of condition, were carried. The word comes Grse
from the Latin carrus, or British carr, which is still the
Irish name for any wheel-carriage.
Carruca, or Caruca, 'ys also used by the writers of the
middle ages to signify a plough.
CARRUCAGE (carucagium), a kind of tax anciently
imposed on every plough, for the public service. See
Carrucate.
Carrucage, Carucage, or Carnage, in husbandry, de¬
notes the ploughing of ground, either ordinary, as for
grain, hemp, and flax; or extraordinary, as for woad,
dyers’ weed, rape, and the like.
CARRUCATE (carrucata), in our ancient laws and
history, denotes a plough-land, or as much arable ground
as can be tilled in a year with one plough.
In Doomsday Inquisition the arable land is estimated
in carrucates, the pasture in hides, and the meadow in
acres. Skene makes the carrucata the same with hilda,
or hida terrai; Littleton the same with soc.
The measure of a carrucate appears to have differed
in respect of place as well as of time. In the reign of
Richard I. it was estimated at sixty acres, and at one pe¬
riod of the same reign at a hundred acres; in the time of
Edward I. it was rated at a hundred and eighty acres;
and in the twenty-third of Edward III. a carrucate of land
in Burcester contained a hundred and twelve acres, and in
Middleton a hundred and fifty acres.
By a statute of William III. of charging persons to re¬
pair the highways, a plough-land is rated at fifty pounds
per annum, and may contain houses, mills, wood, pas¬
ture, &c.
CARRYING, in falconry, signifies a hawk’s flying away
with the quarry. Carrying is one of the ill qualities of a
hawk, which she acquires either by dislike of the falconer,
or from not being sufficiently broken to the lure.
Carrying, among huntsmen. When a hare runs on
rotten ground, or even sometimes in a frost, and it sticks
to her feet, they say she carries.
Carrying, among riding-masters. A horse is said to
carry low, when having naturally an ill-shaped neck, he
lowers his head too much. A horse is said to carry well
when his neck is raised or arched, and he holds his head
high and firm, without constraint.
CARSE, a word signifying a flat piece of ground, has
been applied to three several tracts of country in Scot¬
land, namely, the Carse of Falkirk, the Carse of Gowrie,
and the Carse of Stirling. It was long matter of plausible
conjecture that these flat tracts of land on the borders of
large rivers had been formed by the deposition of alluvial
matter and the change of the water-courses; and the light
of modern science, with careful investigation, has confirm¬
ed the fact. Bones of large marine animals have been
found embedded many feet below the surface ol the soil;
thus demonstrating that such places must have been at
some former period, but subsequently to the Mosaic de¬
luge, within the flow of the sea. Some years ago the per¬
fect skeleton of a whale was found at Airthrie, in the
Carse of Stirling, many miles from the sea, or the Frith of
Forth, and a considerable distance from the present course
of the river. Anchors, and other artificial articles, have
at various times been found in the Carse of Falkirk. Ihe
nature of the soil of these carses is also probative of the
fact.
Carse of Falkirk, The, stretches for nearly ten miles
in a westerly direction, from about Borrowstownness to
Airth, along the south shore of the Frith of Forth. Its
breadth varies from one to two miles. On the margin of
the sea the land is rich and productive, and rises in well-
CAR
rse of
wrie
itairs.
cultivated acclivities on the south. It is broadest below
Falkirk, where it is irrigated by the placid waters of the
Carron.
Carse of Gowrie, The, is a portion of the district of
Gowrie, in Perthshire, and consists of a level tract of
land on the north side of the Frith of Tay, from the neigh¬
bourhood of Dundee on the east, till it rises into an emi¬
nence at the transition of the Tay from a frith to a river.
On the north it is bounded by the Siedlaw Hills. It
comprehends a breadth of from two to three miles by a
length of fifteen. It is celebrated for its rural loveliness
and high state of cultivation.
Carse of Stirling, The, is a beautiful tract of land
stretching from the Devon on the north side of the Forth,
on both banks of that river, to beyond Stirling. In the
centre it is intersected by the windings of the Forth. It
also possesses great rural beauty, and is in a high state of
cultivation.
CARSTAIRS, William, an eminent Scottish divine,
whose merit and good fortune called him to act in great
scenes, and to associate with men to whose society and
intercourse his birth gave him few pretensions to aspire.
A small village in the neighbourhood of Glasgow was the
place of his nativity. His father, of whom little is known,
exercised the functions of a clergyman.
Young Carstairs turned his thoughts to the profession
of theology; and the persecutions and oppressions of go¬
vernment, both in regard to civil and religious liberty,
having excited his strongest indignation, it became a mat¬
ter of prudence that he should prosecute his studies in a
foreign university. He went accordingly to Utrecht; and
his industry and attention being directed with skill, open¬
ed up and unfolded those faculties which he afterwards
employed with equal honour to his country and himself.
During his residence abroad he became acquainted with
Pensionary Fagel, and entered with warmth into the in¬
terest of the Prince of Orange. On his return to Scotland
in order to obtain a license to teach doctrines which he
had studied with the greatest care, he became disgusted
with the proud and insolent conduct of Archbishop Sharpe,
and prepared to revisit Holland, where he knew that re¬
ligious liberty was respected, and where he hoped he
might improve his condition by the connections he had
formed.
His expectations were not vain. His prudence, reserve,
and political address, were strong recommendations of
him to the Prince of Orange; and he was employed in
personal negotiations in Holland, England, and Scotland.
Upon the elevation of his master to the English throne,
he was appointed the king’s chaplain for Scotland, and
employed in settling the affairs of that kingdom. Wil¬
liam, who carried politics into religion, was solicitous that
episcopacy should prevail there as universally as in Eng¬
land. Carstairs, more conversant with the affairs of his
native country, saw all the impropriety of this project,
and the danger which would arise from enforcing it; and
by his reasonings, remonstrances, and entreaties, he over¬
came the firmness of King William, who yielded to con¬
siderations founded alike in policy and in prudence; so
that to Carstairs Scotland is indebted for the full esta¬
blishment of its church in the Presbyterian form of go¬
vernment.
The death of King William was a severe affliction to
mm; and it happened before the prince had provided for
him with the liberality he deserved. He was continued,
however, in the office of chaplain for Scotland by Queen
Anne; and he was invited to accept the principality of the
university of Edinburgh. He was one of the ministers of
the city, and four times moderator of the general assembly.
Placed at the head of the church, he prosecuted its interest
CAR
with zeal and integrity. Nor were his influence and acti¬
vity confined to matters of religion. They were exerted
with success in promoting the cultivation of the arts and
sciences. The universities of Scotland owe him obliga¬
tions of the highest kind. He procured, in particular, an
augmentation of the salaries of their professors ; a circum¬
stance to which may be ascribed their reputation, as it
enabled them to cultivate with spirit the different branches
of knowledge.
A zeal for truth, a love of moderation and order, with
prudence and humility, distinguished Principal Carstairs
in an uncommon degree. His religion had no mixture of
austerity; his secular transactions were attended with no
imputation of artifice ; and the versatility of his talents
made him pass with ease from a court to a college. He
was among the last who suffered torture before the privy
council, in order to make him divulge the secrets intrust¬
ed to him, which he firmly resisted ; and after the revolu¬
tion, the instrument of torture called the thumbihins was
given to him as a present by the council. This excellent
person died in 1715; and in 1744 his State Papers and
Letters, with an account of his life, were published in one
volume 4to, by the Rev. Dr McCormick.
CARSUCAL, Rainier, a Jesuit, born at Citerna, in
Tuscany, in 1647, was the author of a Latin poem entitled
Ars bene Scribendi, which is esteemed both for the elegance
of the style and for the excellent precepts it contains. He
also wrote some good epigrams, and died in 1709.
CART, a land carriage with two wheels, drawn com¬
monly by horses, to carry heavy goods, &c. from one place
to another. The word seems formed from the French
charrette, which signifies the same, or rather the Latin
carreta, a diminutive of carrus. See Mechanics, and
Wheel-Carriages.
Scripture makes mention of a sort of carts or drags used
by the Jews for the purpose of threshing. They were
supported on low thick wheels, bound with iron, which
were rolled up and down on the sheaves, to break them,
and force out the corn. Something of the same kind also
obtained among the Romans, under the denomination of
plaustra, of which Virgil makes mention in the first Geor-
gic. According to Servius, trahea denotes a cart without
wheels, while tribula is a sort of cart armed on all sides with
teeth, and chiefly used in Africa for threshing corn. The
Septuagint and St Jerome represent these carts as furnish¬
ed with saws, insomuch that their surface was beset with
teeth. David having taken Rabbah, the capital of the
Ammonites, ordered all the inhabitants to be crushed to
pieces under such carts, moving on wheels set with iron
teeth; and the king of Damascus is said to have treated
the Israelites of the land of Gilead in the same manner.
Carts of War, a peculiar kind of artillery anciently in
use among the Scotch. In an act of parliament passed in
the year 1456, they are thus described: “ It is thought
speidfuli, that the king may requeist to certain of the
great burrous of the land that are of ony myght, to mak
carts of weir, and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk ane to have
twa chalmers, with the remnant of the graith that effeirs
thereto, and an cunnand man to shut thame.” By another
act passed in 1471, the prelates and barons are command¬
ed to provide such carts of war against their old enemies
the English.
CARTE, Thomas, the historian, was the son of Mr
Samuel Carte, prebendary of Lichfield, and born in 1686.
When he was reader in the abbey-church at Bath, he took
occasion, in a sermon delivered on the 30th of January
1714, to vindicate Charles I. with respect to the Irish
massacre, which drew him into a controversy with Mr
Chandler the dissenting minister; and on the accession
of the present royal family he refused to take the oaths
180
CAR
Cartes,
Rene des.
Carte to government, and therefore put on a lay habit. He is
Blanche said to have acted as a kind of secretary to Bishop At-
terbury before his troubles; and in the year 1/22, being
accused of high treason, a reward of L.1000 was ohei-
ed for apprehending him ; but Queen Caroline, the gieat
patroness of learned men, obtained leave for him to re¬
turn home in security. He published, l- A" edition of
Thuanus, in seven volumes folio ; 2. The Life of the hist
Duke of Ormond, three volumes folio? 3; lhe II'S^,7
of England, four volumes folio; 4. A Collection of Ou-
pinal Letters and Papers concerning the affairs of Eng¬
land, two volumes octavo; and some other works. He
died in April 1754. His History of England ends in 16o4.
His design was to have brought it down to the Revolu¬
tion ; for which purpose he had taken great pains in copy¬
ing every thing valuable that could be met with in Eng¬
land, Scotland, France, Ireland, and other countries. He
had, as he himself says, “ read abundance of collections
relating to the time of King Charles II. and had in his
power a series of memoirs from the beginning to the end
of that reign, in which all those intrigues and turns at
court, at the latter end of that king’s life, which Bishop
Burnet, with all his gout for tales of secret history, and all
his genius for conjectures, does not pretend to account for,
are laid open in the clearest and most convincing manner,
by the person who was most affected by them, and had
the best reason to know them.” At his death, all his pa-
pers passed into the hands of his widow, who afteiwaids
married Mr Jernegan, a member of the church of Rome.
But they were afterwards deposited in the Bodleian Libra¬
ry, having been delivered by Mr Jernegan to the univei-
sity in 1778, for a valuable consideration. Whilst they
were in this gentleman’s possession, the Earl of Hardwick
paid L.200 for the perusal of them. For a consideration
of L.300 Mr Macpherson had the use of them, and from
these and other materials compiled his history and state
papers. Mr Carte was a man of a strong constitution and
of indefatigable application. When the studies of the day
were over, be would eat heartily; and in conversation he
was cheerful and entertaining.
Carte Blanche, a sort of white paper signed at the bot¬
tom with a person’s name, and sometimes also sealed with
his seal, giving another person power to superscribe what
conditions he pleases. Analogous to this is the Fiench
blanc signe, a paper without writing, except a signatuie at
the bottom, given by contending parties to arbitrators or
friends, to fill up with the conditions they judge reason¬
able, in order to end the difference.
CARTEL, an agreement between two states for the
exchange of prisoners of war.
Cartel signifies also a letter of defiance or a challenge
to decide a controversy either in a tournament or in a sin¬
gle combat. See Duel.
Cartel Ship, a ship commissioned in time of war to
exchange the prisoners of any two hostile powers; also to
carry any particular request or proposal from one to ano¬
ther. For this reason the officer who commands her is
particularly ordered to carry no cargo, ammunition, or im¬
plements of war, except a single gun for the purpose of
firing signals.
CARTES, Rene Des, or Descartes, Rene, was born
at La Haye, in Touraine, on the 31st of March 1596,
and descended of a noble family, who came originally from
Bretagne. In infancy his constitution was extremely de¬
licate, or rather weak, a peculiarity which he shared in
common with many other men of genius; and, in fact, it
is sometimes in the feeblest body that the intellectual fa¬
culties exhibit the greatest vigour. He was educated
among the Jesuits, then recently established in the col¬
lege of La Fleche, and early distinguished himself by an
CAR
extreme passion for study. It was at this seminary that Carte
he became first connected with Mersenne, afterwards a Rend d.
monk of the order of Minims, whose friendship was sub-
sequently approved by its usefulness as well as fidelity to
the illustrious object of it. Having completed the usual
course of scholastic study, and of what was then as it is
still in some parts of the w'orld called philosophy, Des¬
cartes at once perceived the worthlessness of the acqui¬
sition he had made ; but he was keenly alive to the inte¬
rest and importance of the mathematical sciences, which
nature had destined him to renovate. The first thing
which he did on leaving college was, as he tells us in his Dis¬
course on Method, to renounce all books, and to laboui to
efface from his mind every thing uncertain which he had
learned, in order henceforward to admit nothing except
what appeared to him to be demonstrated by reason and
experience ; and, in following out this mode of inquiry, he
invented that method of sceptical examination which has
since become the first principle of all our positive know¬
ledge. At the present day we are unable to appreciate
fully the greatness of such an effort, because we are edu¬
cated in conformity writh this very doctrine, which ap¬
pears to us as natural as it is reasonable. But if we re¬
flect that, at the period when Descartes lived, the Aristo¬
telian philosophy exercised a despotic dominion over all
minds, that it reigned supreme in the world as well as in
the colleges, that" it seemed a necessary support of reli¬
gion, and that to doubt its truth was then considered as
an act of unpardonable temerity, if not a crime, some con¬
ception may be formed of that force of mind which ena¬
bled a young man of nineteen to discard this intellectual
idolatry, and to undertake the reformation of all Ins opi¬
nions. Nor is it less wonderful that at the period in ques¬
tion Descartes seems to have been in possession of his
finest geometrical discoveries. Ibis is sufficiently evinced
by the history of his life; but the time had not yet amv-
ed for the publication of his new ideas; and he thought
that travelling, by extending his knowledge of mankind,
would furnish him with favourable opportunities for im¬
proving himself in the only true philosophy.
Accordingly, he went abroad, and, conformably with his
condition and the manners of his age, engaged in the pio-
fession of arms. He served successively as a volunteer in
the army of Holland and in that of the Duke of Bavaria;
and, in 1620, he was present at the battle of Prague.
But although the ardour of youth led him then to take
some pleasure in this tumultuous kind of life, he never¬
theless knew how to appreciate rightly the bloody game
of war; and seeking neither advancement nor fortune, he
consented to take part in it only because it was necessary
to accompany the men whom he wished to study dosely.
In the midst of camps he accordingly continued his meta¬
physical and mathematical speculations, and, as often as
an occasion presented itself, put them to the test of expe¬
rimental application. While he was in garrison at breda,
chance led him one day to a place where he observed on
a wall a placard written in Flemish, with a number ot
persons assembled in a group before it, and containing tie
enunciation of a geometrical problem, which some unknown
person proposed to mathematicians, according to the usage
of the time. Not understanding Flemish, Descartes re¬
quested one of the spectators to explain the problem.
The person to whom he applied ivas Beckman, principal ot
the college of Dort, and himself a mathematician, who,
finding the problem very difficult, appeared surprised to
see a young soldier inquiring about things of this sor ,
and, in answering him, assumed that air of pedantry an
superiority which is common enough among his tribe,
his astonishment was extreme when the young soldiei
without hesitation promised a solution of the problem, an
CAR
i tes, actually transmitted it to him the following day.1 For se-
tles. veral years Descartes continued to lead this meditative and
■ military life; but at length the reverses of which he was
a witness in Hungary disgusted him with the profession of
arms, which he therefore renounced, and continued his tra¬
vels as a private individual. At this period an adventure
happened to him which had nearly cost him his life. He
had completed his travels through the north of Germany,
and was returning to Holland by sea, when the crew of
the vessel on board of which he had embarked, observing
him to be of a quiet and gentle disposition, took him for
a young man without experience, and concluded that it
would be an easy matter to kill him, in order to take pos¬
session of his property, more especially as he was only
attended by a single French domestic. Having come to
this resolution, they held council together as to the means
of executing their project; and they did not scruple to do
so in the presence of their intended victim, under the im¬
pression that, being a foreigner, he would not understand
them. But in this they were fortunately mistaken. Des¬
cartes had understood every word that passed, and when
he was fully aware of their design, he started up sudden¬
ly, drew his sword, and addressing the ruffians in their
own tongue, and in a determined manner, threatened to
run them through if they dared to offer him the slight¬
est insult. Intimidated by his boldness, the villains relin¬
quished their purpose, and put him ashore in safety at the
place where he wished to land. He then visited in suc¬
cession Holland, France, Italy, Switzerland, the Tyrol,
and ultimately spent some time at Venice and at Rome.
Whilst in Italy, he did not visit Galileo, who had just en¬
tered upon the career of experimental philosophy; and,
what is still more remarkable, he seems never to have en¬
tertained a proper sense of the merit of this great man ; a
circumstance which of itself would be sufficient to prove
that Descartes, although admirable as a geometrician, was
ignorant of the true method by which alone the physical
sciences can be advanced.
Having returned from his travels, and taken a survey of
the various occupations of men, Descartes perceived that
the only one wThich suited him was the cultivation of rea¬
son; but as his ardent temperament naturally led him in¬
to extremes, he conceived a notion that, if he remained in
France, he wmuld neither be sufficiently solitary nor suffi¬
ciently free for the prosecution of the pursuits in which he
was anxious to engage. Accordingly, having sold part of
his property, he, in 1629, retired into Holland, which he re¬
garded as a tranquil retreat, peculiarly suitable for peace¬
ful and free meditation ; and there applied himself to the
study of metaphysics, anatomy, chemistry, and astronomy.
He composed a treatise on the System of the World, such
as he then conceived it; but on the news of the imprison¬
ment of Galileo, he suppressed this production ; and it was
probably the dread of similar persecution which caused
him, at a later period, to adopt the improbable and absurd
notion of the sun and the planets revolving round the
earth, as Tycho Brahe had done before him. As yet
Descartes had published no mathematical work of any ex¬
tent ; but his genius for the exact sciences, and his im¬
mense superiority over the greater part of his contempo¬
raries, were already evinced by the extreme facility with
which he resolved, almost in sport, the questions which
appeared to them the most difficult. The vivacity of his
character involved him in quarrels with some of them;
and in these he was sometimes in the right, some-
CAR 181
times in the wrong. He was in the right with Roberval, Cartes,
a French mathematician, who, denying his genius, labour- Rene des.
ed long to represent him as a vile plagiary of the dis-
coveries of others; but he wras in the wrong with regard
to Fermat, to whom he did not at first do full justice, and
who, though able to maintain a contest on equal terms,
was ever desirous to render homage to the genius of Des¬
cartes, and to seek his friendship. At length, yielding to
the solicitations of his friends, and probably influenced by
an honourable desire to shut the mouths of his adversaries,
Descartes consented to publish his discoveries. But at¬
taching more value to metaphysical speculations, to which
he had then devoted himself, than to the geometrical me¬
thods of which he was the inventor, and which had al¬
ready perhaps lost the charm of novelty, he gave his geo¬
metry only as a single chapter of his Treatise on Method,
and this chapter was worked up slightly and in haste.
Posterity, however, has reversed this judgment, and re¬
garded the geometrical labours of Descartes as affording
the best proofs of his genius. Before his time consider¬
able progress had been made in researches purely alge¬
braic, and the resolution of equations of the second, third,
and fourth order had already been invented; but the no¬
tation employed was still rude, and affected by material
relations, which intermixed with algebra, strictly so call¬
ed, ideas of length, of surface, and of solidity. Algebra,
however, is a language the special object as well as the prin¬
cipal advantage of which is to express only the abstract
relations of quantities. To extend it, therefore, it is ne¬
cessary to begin by freeing it from all foreign considera¬
tions or elements by which it is limited. Descartes was the
first who rendered it this important service; for the meta¬
physical bent of his mind, which w^as injurious to him in
the sciences of application, proved singularly useful in this
particular. According to the ancient limitation of alge¬
bra, the successive products of the same quantity were
represented in the three first dimensions by a square and
a cube in perspective, sometimes by the initial letter of
the word “ square” or the word “ cube” placed above the
quantity, and sometimes by the repetition of the letter
by means of which the quantity was designated. For
this embarrassing mode of notation, which impeded the
current of thought, Descartes substituted one clear, sim¬
ple, general, anti, above all, adapted to the purposes of cal¬
culation. He placed a cipher above the quantity, and by
its different values he indicated the different powers of
that quantity. But his greatest discovery consisted in the
application of algebra to geometry. He imagined that the
nature of each curve might be expressed and defined by
a certain relation between two variable lines, of which one
represented the absciss and the other the ordinate; and
he conceived that, in order to find this relation, it would
be sufficient to express in algebraic language one of the
characteristic properties of the curve, as, for instance, of
the circle, which is a plane curve, all the points of which
are equidistant from a given point called the centre. And
this discovery had the inestimable advantage, that being
once translated into a formula, all that remained to be
done was to consider in an abstract manner the resultant
equation, in order to deduce from it the other geometri¬
cal properties involved in the primary definition.
Descartes, however, did not stop here; but, pursuing his
investigations, he made a discovery exactly the inverse of
the preceding. Having learned to express and to know the
properties of curves by algebraic equations, he no longer
1 It was during his stay at Breda that Descartes composed his Compendium Musicce, which was not printed till after his death.
(Utrecht, 1G50,4to.) A French translation by Father Poisson, of the Oratory, will be found at the end of the Mechaniaue of Descartes.
Paris, 1668, 4to.
182
CAR
Cartes, regarded these equations, except as emblems of curves in-
Rene des. tersected so that the abscisses formed the roots ot the equa-
tions ; and, once in possession of these general methods,
he was enabled to enunciate in algebraic language, and to
resolve directly, geometrical problems which had baffled
all antiquity. This he himself exemplified in the very first
question of his geometry; and it is easy to conceive how,
possessed of this secret, he was enabled to disport with the
greater part of the questions which puzzled the mathema¬
ticians of his age. His geometry, at the time when it ap-
peai'ed, was found exceedingly difficult to read; and he
himself tells us that he had not sought to develop the
different steps of procedure by which he arrived at his
‘ results; but at the present day his methods are the first
which are taught to youth, and for this reason they appear
to us much more easy. In a word, the treatise on geome¬
try does honour to the genius of Descartes, and forms one
of his proudest titles to immortality.
His Discourse on Dioptrics also contains many ingenious
geometrical applications ; but whilst the unequal refran-
gibility of the different rays of light was unknown, it was
impossible that any available progress could be made in
this branch of science. Nevertheless it contains another
proof of the genius of Descartes in the discovery therein
made of the true law of refraction ; a discovery which was
contested by Huygens after his death, but which, notwith¬
standing the pretensions of that philosopher, unquestion¬
ably belongs to him. The Treatise on Meteors, which is
also contained in his Discourse on Method, is much more
imperfect than his Dioptrics, inasmuch as he gives rein to
his imagination, and undertakes to explain all meteorolo¬
gical phenomena, including even the formation of light¬
ning. It is, however, distinguished by a discovery; for he
has given the true theory of the rainbow, as far as it was
possible to do so at a period when the unequal refrangibility
of light was altogether unknown. His Principia, or Prin¬
ciples of Philosophy, were first published in 1644, at the
age of forty-nine. This work is divided into four parts ;
the first, devoted to rational philosophy or metaphysics,
contains an exposition of the principles of all human know¬
ledge ; the second treats of the principles of natural things;
and the last two develop his theory of the system of the
world, the once celebrated, but, since the time of Newton,
for ever exploded theory of vortices. We abstain from
making any observations either as to the metaphysical
notions or physical theories of Descartes, both of which
have been treated of with consummate ability and sufficient
amplitude of detail in the Dissertations prefixed to this work.
With regard to the former, we shall merely add, that in his
celebrated Discourse on the Method of conducting the Rea¬
son, and seeking Truth in the Sciences, published in 1637,
Descartes had already made known the principal points of
his doctrine, and broached the most abstract questions of
metaphysics. These, however, he had treated with greater
order and fulness in the not less celebrated work which
he published in 1641, three years before his Principia, en¬
titled “ Meditations concerning the first Philosophy, in
which are demonstrated the Existence of God, and the
Immortality of the Soul.” These Meditations are six in
number, forming a book small in itself, but which was con¬
siderably enlarged by the objections of several metaphysi¬
cians of the time, among whom may be mentioned Arnauld,
Gassendi, and Hobbes, and by the answers which Descartes
made to these objections. They were originally publish¬
ed in Latin ; but, in 1642, the Duke of Luynes translated
the Meditations, and Clerselier the Objections and An¬
swers, into French.
The influence which Descartes exercised over his age
was very great indeed ; his fame spread rapidly, and soon
became all but universal. In France, particularly, the
CAR
novelty of his hypotheses, the grandeur and boldness Carte;
of his views, and the apparent generality of his methods, Eened.
swayed more or less the most cultivated minds of the age 'wVv
of Louis XIV. It has been remarked that his partizans
were for the most part of the number of those who professed
the most independent ideas. Bossuet and Fenelon, Male-
branche and the principal members of the congregation
of the Oratory, and almost all the writers of the cele¬
brated school of Port-Royal, adopted Cartesianism; and
from the satne source Pascal derived that spirit of discus¬
sion which distinguishes the Provincial Letters. The Je¬
suits were later in giving in their adherence to the domi¬
nant philosophy; and the University admitted it still more
reluctantly, and only as it were at the last extremity. But
in its transmission the metaphysical doctrine of Descartes
experienced the fate which must ever attend all systems of
dogmatic philosophy. In adopting it, each modified it ac¬
cording to the bent of his own mind, or the cast of his own
character; receiving or rejecting as much of it as suited his
convenience, and deducing from it consequences which,
in their turn, formed the basis of new systems. Hence the
most opposite, not to say contradictory theories, all acknow¬
ledged Cartesianism as their common source. From it
Malebranche derived his mystical spiritualism, and Ber¬
keley his pure idealism ; Spinosa found in it the germ
of what has been called his materialism ; and the greater
part of the schools of philosophy which have succeed¬
ed each other in Germany since the time of Descartes,
may be considered as originating in the same common
source.
The writings of Descartes involved him in controversy,
and exposed him to persecution. His disputes with Ro-
berval and Fermat have been already noticed by us when
adverting to his geometrical investigations and discoveries.
But controversies purely scientific are seldom pursued
with exasperation, or calculated to mar the happiness ot
life ; and, in point of fact, if Descartes was misrepresent¬
ed by Roberval, he was guilty of injustice to Fermat. In
the hazy region of metaphysics, however, where it is
equally difficult to attain any measure of certainty, and
easy to discover pretexts for accusations of error or heresy,
the most violent contentions are commonly engendered,
and men’s passions become excited and envenomed from
the very cause which ought to beget charity and forbear¬
ance. And so it proved in the case of Descartes. To
his metaphysical writings he owed all the disputes which
served to disturb the tranquillity of his life; and amongst
the clergy he found the bitterest enemies and persecutors.
Of the latter, by far the most inveterate was Gisbert Voet,
primarius professor of theology in the university of Utrecht;
a man wdiose respectable station and austere manners had
secured him a degree of credit much beyond what was
due to his ability or learning, and who felt no compunc¬
tion in accusing of atheism a philosopher who had exhaust¬
ed all the resources of his genius to discover new demon¬
strations of the existence of God. But when hatred ad¬
dresses itself to credulity, it is almost certain to triumph.
The fierce theologian of Utrechtattempted invain toengage
Father Mersenne, the intimate and much-loved friend of
Descartes, to write publicly against him in defence of the
Catholic religion ; but though deceived in his expectation
of enlisting Mersenne as an auxiliary, he did not relinquish
his design ; and by continued solicitations and manoeuvres
he at length succeeded in “ impetrating” a sentence against
Descartes, condemning him to pay a very considerable
fine, and ordaining his works to be burned. Voet is said to
have assisted the executioner in carrying into effect the
latter part of the sentence. The theologians of Leyden,
imitating the example of those of Utrecht, soon stirred up
a new persecution against the philosopher; who, harass-
CAR
C A R
l S3
es, ed and vexed by these annoyances, cursed the celebrity
des he had acquired, and regretting the sweets of his retired
and studious life, took as his device Qui bene latuiL bene
vixit.
Whilst he was in this mood of mind, Descartes received
an invitation from Christina, queen of Sweden, to repair
to the court of that country, where he was promised an
asylum and protection. Although he had always loved in¬
dependence, and valued his liberty so highly that, as he
said, no prince on earth could induce him to surrender it,
yet he accepted this proposal, as indeed he had every reason
to do. It was made to him at a moment when he was un¬
happy ; whilst the honour of being sought after by a great
queen, and called to her presence and society, was calcu¬
lated to be useful in enabling him to confound his perse¬
cutors. He determined therefore to quit his hermitage
at Egmont, in order to repair to Sweden and pass his daj^s
in the rigorous climate of that country. On his arrival at
court, he was received with the greatest distinction by the
queen, and obtained, at his own solicitation, the favour of
being exempted from all observance of ceremony, and of
only appearing at court when he was specially called. But
as the price of this dispensation, the queen stipulated that
he would come to converse with her every morning at five
o’clock in her library. Descartes, however, who always
needed repose, and whose health required great attention,
was unable to bear up under the change of life which this
matutinal duty imposed on him, especially in so cold a cli¬
mate, and during the rigour of winter. He was attacked
by a disease in the chest, accompanied with delirium, and
expired on the 11th February 1650, at the comparatively
early age of fifty-four. The queen wished his remains to
be interred amongst those of the first families of Sweden ;
but the ambassador of France interposed, and his corpse
was conveyed to Paris for sepulture among his country- Cartesians
men. y
The works of Descartes have been collected under the Carthage-
title of Opera Omnia, Amsterdam, 1690-1701, 9 vols. 4to,
or 1713, also 9 vols. The French edition consists of 13
yols. 12mo, containing, 1. Les Principes de la Philosophic,
ecrits en Latin par Descartes, et traduits en Fran^ais par
un de ses Amies (Picot), 1724; 2. L’Homme de Rene Des¬
cartes, et la Formation du Foetus, avec les Remarques de
Lymis de Laforge, 1729; 3. Meditations Metaphysiques,
1724; 4. Les Passions de 1’Ame, le Monde, ou Traite de
la Lumiere, et la Geometrie, &c. 1726 ; 5. Discours de la
Methode, &c. la Dioptrique et les Meteores, la Mecanique
et la Musique, 1724; 6. Lettres, 1724-1725; together with
Bayle’s Recueil de quelques Pieces curieuses concernant
la Philosophic de Descartes, 1684. (See Biographic JJni-
verselle, art. Descartes.) (a.)
CARTESIANS, a sect of philosophers, who adhered to
the system of Descartes, founded on two principles, the
one metaphysical, the other physical. The metaphysical
principle is, I think, therefore I am; the physical prin¬
ciple is, that nothing exists but substance. Descartes con¬
sidered substances as of two kinds; the one a substance
that thinks, the other a substance extended; and hence
actual thought and actual extension are, according to him,
the essence of substance. The essence of matter being
thus fixed in extension, the Cartesians conclude that there
is no vacuum, nor any possibility of one, in nature, and that
the universe is absolutely full. Mere space is excluded
by this principle, because extension being implied in the
idea of space, matter is so too. Upon these principles the
Cartesians endeavoured to explain mechanically the for¬
mation of the world, and to account for the celestial phe¬
nomena.
CARTHAGE,
A famous city of antiquity, the capital of Africa Propria,
which for many years disputed with Rome the sovereignty
of the world. According to Velleius Paterculus, this city
was built 65, according to Justin and Trogus 72, accord¬
ing to others 100 or 140 years, before the foundation of
home. It is agreed on all hands that the Phoenicians
were the founders.
j. The beginning of the Carthaginian history, like that of
all other nations, is obscure and uncertain. In the seventh
year of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, his sister Elisa, or Dido,
is said to have fled, with some of her companions and vas¬
sals, from the cruelty and avarice of her brother, who had
put to death her husband Sichaeus in order to obtain posses¬
sion of his wealth. She first touched at the island of Cy¬
prus, where she met with a priest of Jupiter, who express¬
ed a desire of attending her; a proposal to which she
readily consented, and fixed the priesthood in his family.
At that time it was a custom in the island of Cyprus for
the young women to go on certain stated days, before
marriage, to the sea side, there to look for the arrival of
strangers on their coasts, in order to prostitute themselves
m gain, that they might thereby acquire a dowry. Of
these strange damsels the Tyrians selected eighty, whom
t iey carried along with them. From Cyprus they sailed
irectly for the coast of Africa; and at last landed safely
in the province called Africa Propria, not far from Utica,
a 1 hcenician city of great antiquity. The inhabitants re¬
ceived their countrymen with great demonstrations of joy,
fw 1I?v^e<^ them to settle in the country. The common
ab e is, that the Phoenicians imposed upon the Africans,
hey desired for their intended settlement only as much
ground as an ox’s hide would encompass. This request
the Africans laughed at; but they were surprised when,
upon their granting it, they saw Elisa cut the hide into
the smallest shreds, by which means it surrounded a large
territory, in which she built the citadel called Byrsa. The jjyrsa.
learned, however, are now unanimous in exploding this
fable ; and it is certain that the Carthaginians for many
years paid an annual tribute to the Africans for the ground
they occupied.
The new city soon became populous and flourishing by
the accession of the neighbouring Africans, who resorted
thither at first with a view of traffic. In a short time it
became so considerable, that Jarbas, a neighbouring prince,
thought of making himself master of it without any effusion
of blood. To effect this, he desired that an embassy of
ten of the most noble Carthaginians might be sent to him ;
and, upon their arrival, he proposed to them a marriage with
Dido, threatening war in the event of refusal. The ambas¬
sadors, being afraid to deliver this message, told the queen
that Jarbas desired some person might be sent to him who
was capable of civilizing his Africans, but that there was
no possibility of finding any of her subjects who would
leave his relations for the conversion of such barbarians.
For this they were reprimanded by the queen, who told
them that they ought to be ashamed of refusing to live in
any manner for the benefit of their country; upon which
they informed her of the true nature of their message from
Jarbas, adding that, according to her own decision, she
ought to sacrifice herself for the good of her country. The
unhappy queen, rather than submit to be the wife of such
a barbarian, caused a funeral pile to be erected, and put
184
Carthage.
Dido kills
herself.
CARTHAGE.
First trea'
ty with
Rome.
Sicily in-
vaded.
an end to her life with a dagger. This is Justin s account
of the death of Queen Dido ; as to Virgil’s story of her
amour with /Eneas, it is obviously fabulous, and was so
considered even in the days of Macrobius. . i • r1.
How long monarchical government continued in Car¬
thage, or what happened to this state in its infancy, we
are altogether ignorant, by reason of the Punic archives
having been destroyed by the Romans; so that there is
a chasm in the Carthaginian history for above 300 years.
It appears, however, that from the very beginning the
Carthaginians applied themselves to maritime aflairs, and
were formidable by sea in the time of Cyrus and Cam-
byses. From Diodorus Siculus and Justin it appears that
the principal support of the Carthaginians were the mines
of Spain, in which country they seem to have very early
established themselves ; and by means of the riches drawn
from these mines they were enabled to equip the formi¬
dable fleets which they are said to have fitted out in the
time of Cyrus or Cambyses. Justin insinuates that the
first Carthaginian settlement in Spain happened when the
citv of Gades, now Cadiz, was only in its infancy. I he
Spaniards finding this new colony beginning to flourish,
attacked it with a numerous army, insomuch that the
inhabitants were obliged to call to their aid the Cai tha-
o-inians, who very readily granted their request, and not
only repulsed the Spaniards, but made themselves mas¬
ters of almost the whole province in which their new city
stood. By this success they were encouraged to attempt
the conquest of the whole country; but having to deal
with very warlike nations, they could not push theii con¬
quests to any great length at first; and it appears fiom
the accounts of Livy and Polybius, that the greater pait
of Spain remained unsubdued till the time of Hamilcar,
Asdrubal, and Hannibal.
About 503 years before the birth of Christ the Cartha¬
ginians entered into a treaty with the Romans. It related
chiefly to matters of navigation and commerce. From it
we learn that the whole island of Sardinia, and part of
Sicily, were then subject to Carthage ; that the Carthagi¬
nians were very well acquainted with the coasts of Italy,
and had previously made some attempts upon them; and
that, even at this early period, a spirit of jealousy had been
excited between the two republics.
By degrees the Carthaginians extended their power over
all the islands in the Mediterranean, Sicily excepted ; and
for the entire conquest of this island they made vast pre¬
parations about 480 years before Christ. Their army con¬
sisted of 300,000 men; their fleet was composed of up¬
wards of 2000 men of war and 3000 transports; and with
such an immense armament they made no doubt of con¬
quering the whole island in a single campaign. In this,
however, they found themselves miserably deceived. Ha¬
milcar their general having landed his numerous forces,
invested Himera, a city of considerable importance, and
carried on his approaches with the greatest assiduity; but
he was at last attacked in his trenches by Gelon and The-
ron, the tyrants of Syracuse and Agrigentum, who inflict¬
ed on the Carthaginians one of the greatest overthrows
mentioned in history. A hundred and fifty thousand were
killed in the battle and pursuit, and all the rest taken pri¬
soners, so that of so mighty an army not a single indivi¬
dual escaped. - Of the 2000 ships of war and 3000 trans¬
ports of which the Carthaginian fleet consisted, eight
ships only, which happened to be out at sea, made their
escape, and immediately set sail for Carthage; but these
were all cast away, and every soul perished, except a few
who were saved in a small boat, and at last reached Car¬
thage with the dismal news of the total loss of the fleet
and army. No words can express the consternation of
the Carthaginians upon receiving the news of so terrible
a disaster. Ambassadors being immediately dispatched to Garths;:
Sicily, with orders to conclude a peace upon any terms,
they put to sea without delay, and landing at Syracuse,
threw themselves at the conqueror's feet, begging Gelon,
with many tears, to receive their city into favour, and
orant them a peace on whatever conditions he should
choose to prescribe. Gelon granted their request, upon
condition that Carthage should pay him 2000 talents of
silver to defray the expenses of the war ; that they should
build two temples, in which the articles of the tieaty
might be lodged and kept as sacred; and that for the
future they should wholly abstain from human sacrifices.
This peace, for which there existed so much necessity,
was not thought too dearly purchased; and to show their
gratitude for Gelon’s moderation, the Carthaginians com¬
plimented his wife Demerata with a crown of gold worth
a hundred talents. .
From this time we find little mention of the Carthagi¬
nians for seventy years. During the latter period, how¬
ever, they greatly extended their dominions in Africa,
and likewise shook off the tribute which gave them so
much uneasiness. Ihey had also warm disputes with the bispuv
inhabitants of Cyrene, the capital of Cyrenaica,_ about
regulation of the limits of their respective territories. Jhe
consequence of these disputes was a war, which reduced
both nations so low that they consented first to a cessa¬
tion of hostilities, and then to a peace. At last it was
agreed that each state should appoint two commissioners,
who should set out from their respective cities on the
same day, and that the spot on which they met should be
the boundary of both states. In consequence of this, two
brothers called Philaeni were sent out from Caithage,
and advanced with great celerity, whilst those from Cy¬
rene were much slower in their motions. Whether this
proceeded from accident, or design, or perfidy, we are not
certainly informed ; but the Cyreneans, finding themselves
greatly outstripped by the Philaeni, accused them of breach
of faith, asserting that they had set out before the time
appointed, and consequently that the convention between
their principals was broken. The Philaeni desired them
to propose some expedient by which their difteiences
might be accommodated, promising to submit to it, what¬
ever it might be. The Cyreneans then proposed, either
that the Philaeni should retire from the place where they
were, or that they should be buried alive upon the spot.
With this last condition the brothers immediately com¬
plied, and by their death gained a large extent of territo¬
ry to their country. The Carthaginians ever afterwards
celebrated this as a most brave and heroic action, paid
the brothers divine honours, and endeavoured to immor¬
talize their names by erecting two altars there, with suit¬
able inscriptions upon them. .
About the year before Christ 412, some disputes hap-^.
pening between the Egestines and Selinuntines, mhabi-^
tants of two cities in Sicily, the former called in the Car¬
thaginians to their assistance, and occasioned a new inva¬
sion of Sicily by that nation. Great preparations were
made for this war; and Hannibal, whom they had appoint¬
ed as general, was empowered to raise an army equal to
the undertaking, as well as equip a suitable fleet. Ihey
also appropriated certain funds for defraying the expenses
of the war, intending to exert their whole force to reduce
the island under subjection.
The Carthaginian general having landed his forces, im¬
mediately marched for Selinis. In his way he took Em¬
porium, a town situated on the river Mazara; and having
arrived at Selinis, he immediately invested it. The besieg¬
ed made a very vigorous defence ; but at last the city was
taken by storm, and the inhabitants were treated with the
utmost cruelty. All were massacred by the savage con-
CARTHAGE.
185
,hage. queror, except the women who fled to the temples; and
E .-^/ these escaped, not through the merciful disposition of the
Carthaginians, but because it was feared that, if driven to
despair, they would set fire to the temples, and by that
means consume the treasure they expected to find in these
places. Sixteen thousand were massacred; 2250 escaped
to Agrigentum ; and the women and children, about 5000
in number, were carried away into captivity. At the same
time the temples were plundered, and the city razed to the
ground. After the reduction of Selinis, Hannibal laid siege
to Himera, a city which he desired above all things to be¬
come master of, in order that he might revenge the death
of his grandfather Hamilcar, who had been slain before
it by Gelon. His troops, flushed with their late success,
behaved with undaunted courage; but finding that his
battering engines did not answer his purpose sufficiently,
he undermined the wall, supporting it with large beams
of timber, to which he afterwards set fire, and thus laid
part of it flat on the ground. Notwithstanding this advan¬
tage, however, the Carthaginians were several times re¬
pulsed with great slaughter; but at last they became mas¬
ters of the place, and treated it in the same manner as
they had done Selinis. After this, Hannibal, dismissing
his Sicilian and Italian allies, returned to Africa.
The Carthaginians were now so much elated that they
meditated the reduction of the whole island. But as the
age and infirmities of Hannibal rendered him incapable of
commanding the forces alone, they joined in commission
with him Imilcar, the son of Hanno, one of the same fa¬
mily. On the landing of the Carthaginian army, all Sicily
was alarmed, and the principal cities put themselves into
the best state of defence they were able. The Carthagi¬
nians immediately marched to Agrigentum, and began to
batter the walls with great fury. The besieged, however,
defended themselves with incredible resolution, burnt in
a sally all the machines raised against their city, and re¬
pulsed the enemy with great slaughter. In the mean time,
the Syracusans, alarmed at the danger of Agrigentum,
sent an army to its relief. On their approach they were
immediately attacked by the Carthaginians ; but after a
sharp -contest the latter were defeated, and forced to fly to
the very walls of Agrigentum, with the loss of about 6000
men. Had the Agrigentine commanders now sallied out
and fallen upon the fugitives, the Carthaginian army must
in all probability have been destroyed ; but, either through
fear or corruption, they refused to stir out of the place,
and this occasioned its fall. Immense booty was found in
the city ; and the Carthaginians behaved with their usual
cruelty, putting all the inhabitants to the sword, not ex¬
cepting those who had fled to the temples.
The next attempt of the Carthaginians was intended to
be against the city of Gela; but the Geleans, being greatly
alarmed, implored the protection of Syracuse ; and, at their
request, Dionysius was sent to assist them with 2000 loot
and 400 horse. The Geleans were so well satisfied with
his conduct, that they treated him with the highest marks
of distinction ; they even sent ambassadors to Syracuse
to return thanks for the important services done them by
sending him thither ; and soon afterwards he wTas appoint¬
ed generalissimo of the Syracusan forces and those of
their allies, against the Carthaginians. In the mean time
Imilcar, having razed the city of Agrigentum, made an
incursion into the territories of Gela and Camarina, which
he ravaged in a dreadful manner, carrying off an immense
quantity of plunder, which filled his whole camp. He
then marched against the city; but though it was indif¬
ferently fortified, he met with a vigorous resistance, and
the place held out for a long time without receiving any
assistance from its allies. At last Dionysius came to its
relief with an army of 50,000 foot and 1000 horse. At
VOL. VI.
the head of this body he attacked the Carthaginian camp, Carthage,
but was repulsed with great loss ; upon which he called a
council of war, the result of whose deliberations was, that
since the enemy was so much superior to them in strength,
it would be highly imprudent to put all to the issue of a
battle, and that the inhabitants should therefore be per¬
suaded to abandon the country, as the only means of sav¬
ing their lives. A trumpet was accordingly sent to Imil¬
car to desire a cessation of hostilities until the next day, in
order, as was pretended, to bury the dead, but in reality
to give the people of Gela an opportunity of making their
escape. About the beginning of the night the greater
part of the citizens left the place ; and Dionysius himself
with the army followed them about midnight. To amuse
the enemy, he left 2000 of his light-armed troops behind
him, commanding them to make fires all night, and set
up loud shouts, as though the army still remained in the
town. But at day-break this body took the same route as
their companions, and pursued their march with great ce¬
lerity. The Carthaginians, finding the city deserted by
almost all its inhabitants, immediately entered it, putting
to death such as remained; after which Imilcar, having
thoroughly plundered it, moved towards Camarina. The
inhabitants of this city had been likewise drawn off by
Dionysius, and it underwent the same fate with Gela.
Notwithstanding these successes, however, Imilcar find¬
ing his army greatly weakened, partly by the casualties of
war, and partly by a plague which broke out in it, sent a
herald to Syracuse to offer terms of peace. His unex¬
pected arrival was very agreeable to the Syracusans, and
a peace was immediately concluded, upon the conditions
that the Carthaginians, besides their ancient acquisitions
in Sicily, should still possess the countries of the Silicani,
the Selinuntines, the Himereans, and Agrigentines; that
the people of Gela and Camarina should be permitted to
reside in their respective cities, which, however, were to
be dismantled, upon their paying an annual tribute to the
Carthaginians ; and that all the Sicilians should preserve
their independence, except the Syracusans, who were to
continue in subjection to Dionysius.
The tyrant of Syracuse, however, had concluded this Cartliagi-
peace with no other view than to gain time, and to putniansat-
himself in condition to attack the Carthaginian territories tacked by
at greater advantage. Having accomplished his object, he^ionys^us*
acquainted the Syracusans with his design, and they im¬
mediately approved of it; upon which he gave up to the
fury of the populace the persons and possessions of the
Carthaginians who resided in Syracuse, and traded there,
relying on the faith of treaties. As there were at that time
many of their ships in the harbour, laden with cargoes of
great value, the people immediately plundered them, and,
not content writh this, ransacked their houses in a most
outrageous manner. This example was followed through¬
out the whole island; and in the mean time Dionysius dis¬
patched a herald to Carthage, with a letter to the senate
and people, telling them, that if they did not immediately
withdraw their garrisons from all the Greek cities in Si¬
cily, the people of Syracuse would treat them as enemies.
With this demand, however, he did not allow them time to
comply ; for, without waiting for any answer from Carthage,
he advanced with his army to Mount Eryx, near which
stood the city of Motya, a Carthaginian colony of great im¬
portance, which he immediately invested. But soon after¬
wards, leaving his brother Leptines to carry on the attack,
he proceeded with the greater part of his forces to reduce
the cities in alliance with the Carthaginians. He destroy¬
ed their territories with fire and sword, levelled all their
trees, and then invested Egesta and Entella, most of the
other towns having opened their gates at his approach ;
but these having baffled his utmost efforts, he returned to
2 A
186
CARTHAGE.
Carthage. Motya, and pushed on the siege of that place with the ut- at last formed an aiiny, with which he ventured a battle. Garth
c . ^ i , •   rni  • :  • tUrvurrU Rnf in this hp was d^fpat.pd. and driven out of tlie field, .
■'w' most vigour. The Carthaginians, in the mean time, though
alarmed at the message sent them by Dionysius, and re¬
duced to a miserable condition by the plague, which had
broken out in their city, did not despond, but dispatched
officers to Europe, wdth considerable sums, to raise troops
with the utmost diligence. Ten galleys were also sent
from Carthage to destroy all the ships that might be found
in the harbour of Syracuse. The admiral, according to his
orders, entered the harbour during the night, without being
discerned by the enemy; and having sunk most of the
ships he found there, returned without the loss of a man.
Meantime the Motyans defended themselves with incre¬
dible vigour; whilst their enemies, desirous of revenging
the cruelties exercised upon their countrymen by the Car¬
thaginians, fought like lions. At last the place was taken
by storm, and the Greek soldiers began a general mas¬
sacre, which Dionysius was for some time unable to re¬
strain ; but at last he ordered the Motyans to fly to the
Greek temples, which they accordingly did, and a stop
was thus put to the slaughter. The soldiers, however, took
care thoroughly to plunder the town, in which they found
great treasure.
The following spring Dionysius invaded the Carthagi¬
nian territories, and made an attempt upon Egesta; but
here he was again disappointed. The Carthaginians were
greatly alarmed at his progress; but next year, notwith¬
standing a considerable loss sustained in a sea-fight with
Leptines, Himilco their general landed a powerful army
at Panormus, seized upon Eryx, and then advancing to¬
wards Motya, made himself master of it before Dionysius
could send any forces to its relief. He next proceeded to
Messana, which he likewise besieged and took; after which
most of the Siculi revolted from Dionysius.
Greeks dc- Notwithstanding this defection, Dionysius, finding that
feated at his forces still amounted to 30,000 foot and 3000 horse, ad-
sea. vanced against the enemy. At the same time Leptines was
sent with the Syracusan fleet against that of the Cartha¬
ginians, but with positive orders not to break the line of
- battle upon any account whatsoever. Notwithstanding
these orders, he thought proper to divide his fleet, and the
consequence was that he suffered a total defeat, above 100
of the Syracusan galleys being sunk or taken, and 20,000
men killed either in the battle or in the pursuit. Dionysius,
disheartened by this misfortune, returned with his army
to Syracuse, being afraid that the Carthaginian fleet might
become masters of that city if he advanced to fight the
army. On the other hand, Himilco did not fail immediate¬
ly to invest the capital; and would certainly have become
master of it, and consequently of the whole island, had not
a most malignant pestilence obliged him to desist from all
further operations. This dreadful malady made great ha-
vock among his forces both by land and sea; and, to com¬
plete his misfortunes, Dionysius attacked him unexpect¬
edly, totally ruined his fleet, and made himself master of
his camp.
Himilco, finding himself altogether unable to sustain an¬
other attack, was obliged to come to a private agreement
with Dionysius, who for three hundred talents consented
to permit him to escape to Africa with the shattered re¬
mains of his fleet and army. The unfortunate general ar¬
rived at Carthage clad in mean and sordid attire, where
he was met by a great number of people bewailing their
sad and inauspicious fortune. Himilco joined them in their
lamentations; and, being unable to survive his misfortunes,
put an end to his own life. Having left Mago in Sicily to
take care of the Carthaginian interests in the best man¬
ner he could, this person treated all the Sicilians subject
to Carthage with the greatest humanity; and, having re¬
ceived a considerable number of soldiers from Africa, he
S3rracuse
besieged.
Himilco
obliged to
return.
But in this he was defeated, and driven out of the field,
with the loss of 800 men; which obliged him to desist
from further attempts of that nature.
Notwithstanding these terrible disasters, the Carthagi-Anothe:
nians could not refrain from making new attempts upon nvasior:
the island of Sicily, and about the year before Christ 392 °f Sicily
Mago landed in it with an army of 80,000 men. This at¬
tempt, however, was attended with no better success than
the former ones; and Dionysius found means to reduce
him to such straits for want of provisions, that he was ob¬
liged to sue for peace, which lasted nine years. At the end
of this period the war was renewed with various success, and
continued with little interruption till the year before Christ
376, when the Syracusan state being rent by civil dissen¬
sions, the Carthaginians thought it a proper time to exert
themselves, in order to become masters of the whole island.
They fitted out a great fleet, and entered into alliance
with Icetas, tyrant of the Leontini, who pretended to have
taken Syracuse under his protection. By this treaty the
two powers engaged to assist eafch other in order to expel
Dionysius II.; after which they were to divide the island
between them. The Syracusans applied for succours to
the Corinthians, who readily sent them a body of troops
under the command of Timoleon, an experienced general.
By a stratagem this commander succeeded in landing his
forces at Taurominium. The whole of them did not ex¬
ceed 1200 in-number; yet with these he marched against
Icetas, who was at the head of 5000 men, surprised his ar¬
my at supper, put 300 of them to the sword, and took 600
prisoners. He then marched to Syracuse, and broke into
one part of the town before the enemy had any notice of
his approach. Here he took post, and defended himself
with such resolution, that he could not be dislodged by
the united power of Icetas and the Carthaginians.
In this place he remained for some time in expectation
of a reinforcement from Corinth, till the arrival of which
he did not judge it practicable to extei d his conquests.
But the Carthaginians, being apprised that the Corinthian
succours were detained by tempestuous weather at Thu-
rium, posted a strong squadron, under Hanno their admi¬
ral, to intercept them in their passage to Sicily. That
commander, however, not imagining the Corinthians would
attempt a passage to Sicily in such a stormy season, left
his station at Thurium, and ordering his seamen to crown
themselves with garlands, and adorn their vessels with
bucklers of both the Greek and Carthaginian form, sailed
to Syracuse in a triumphant manner. Upon his arrival
there, he gave the troops in the citadel to understand that
he had taken the succours Timoleon expected, thinking by
this means to intimidate them into a surrender. But while
he thus trifled away his time, the Corinthians marched
with great expedition to Rhegium, and, taking the advan¬
tage of a gentle breeze, crossed over into Sicily. Mago,
the Carthaginian general, no sooner received information
of the arrival of this reinforcement, than he was struck
with terror ; and though the whole Corinthian army did
not exceed 4000 men, he soon afterwards weighed anchor,
in spite of all the remonstrances of Icetas, and set sail for
Africa. But he no sooner arrived, than, overcome with
remorse and shame for his unparalleled cowardice, he laid
violent hands on himself. His body was hung upon a gal¬
lows or cross, in order to deter succeeding generals from
forfeiting their honour in so flagrant a manner.
After the flight of Mago, Timoleon carried all before Explo^
him. He obliged Icetas to renounce his alliance with the IinK)eo
state of Carthage, nay even deposed him, and continued
his military preparations with the greatest vigour. On
the other hand, the Carthaginians prepared for the en¬
suing campaign with the utmost alacrity. An army ot
CARTHAGE.
. age. 70,000 men was sent over, with a fleet of 200 ships of war
and 1000 transports laden with warlike engines, armed cha¬
riots, horses, and all other sorts of provisions. This im¬
mense multitude, however, was overthrown on the banks
of the Crimesus by Timoleon; 10,000 were left dead on
the field of battle, and of these more than 3000 were na¬
tive Carthaginians of the best families in the city. Above
15,000 were taken prisoners; and all their baggage and pro¬
visions, with 200 chariots, 1000 coats of mail, and 10,000
shields, fell into Timoleon’s hands. The spoil, which con¬
sisted chiefly of gold and silver, was so immense that the
whole Sicilian army was occupied three days in collecting
it and stripping the slain. After this signal victory, he left
his mercenary forces upon the frontiers of the enemy, in
order to plunder and ravage the country; whilst he himself
returned to Syracuse with the rest of his army, where
he was received with the greatest demonstrations of joy.
Soon afterwards, Icetas, having grown weary of a private
station, concluded a new peace with the Carthaginians,
and, assembling an army, ventured an engagement with
Timoleon ; but in this he was utterly defeated, and Icetas
himself, with Eupolemus his son, and Euthymus his gene¬
ral of horse, were brought bound to Timoleon by their own
soldiers. The first two were immediately executed as ty¬
rants and traitors, and the last murdered in cold blood;
Icetas’s wives and daughters were likewise cruelly put to
death after a public trial. In a short time afterwards,
Mamercus, another of the Carthaginian confederates, was
con- overthrown by Timoleon, with the loss of 2000 men. These
ud- misfortunes induced the Carthaginians to conclude a peace
on the conditions that all the Greek cities should be set
free; that the river Halycus should be the boundary be¬
tween the territories of both parties; that the natives of
cities subject to the Carthaginians should be allowed to
withdraw, if they pleased, to Syracuse or its dependencies,
with their families and effects; and lastly, that Carthage
should not, for the future, give any assistance to the re¬
maining tyrants against Syracuse.
^ 're- About 316 years before Christ, we find the Carthagini-
’• ans engaged in another bloody war with the Sicilians. So-
sistratus, who had usurped the supreme authority at Sy¬
racuse, having been forced by Agatbocles to .raise the
siege of Rhegium, returned with his shattered troops to
Sicily; but, soon after this unsuccessful expedition, he
was obliged to abdicate the sovereignty and quit Syra¬
cuse. With him were expelled above 600 of the princi¬
pal citizens, who were suspected of having formed a de¬
sign to overturn the plan of government then establish¬
ed in the city. As Sosistratus and the exiles thought
themselves ill treated, they had recourse to the Cartha¬
ginians, who readily espoused their cause. But the Syra¬
cusans, having recalled Agathoeles, who had before been
banished by Sosistratus, appointed him commander-in¬
chief of all their forces, principally on account of the
known aversion he bore that tyrant. The war, however,
did not then continue long; for Sosistratus and the exiles
were quickly received again into the city, and peace was
gAocles concluded with Carthage. The people of Syracuse, how-
ron ever’ ^1K^ng that Agathocles wanted to make himself ab-
i .a°ne S0Jute, exacted an oath from him that he would do no-
is thing to the prejudice of the democracy. But notwith¬
standing this oath, Agathocles pursued his purpose, and,
by a general massacre of the principal citizens of Syra¬
cuse, raised himself to the throne. For some time he was
obliged to keep the peace he had concluded with Car¬
tilage; but at last, finding his authority established, and
bis subjects ready to second his ambitious designs, he paid
no regard to treaties, and immediately made war on the
neighbouring states, which he had expressly agreed not
to do, after which he carried his arms into the very heart
187
of the island. In these expeditions he was attended with Carthage,
such success, that in two years he brought into subjection
all the Greek part of Sicily ; and when this was accom¬
plished, he committed great devastations in the Cartha- *
ginian territories, their general Hamilcar not offering to
give him the least disturbance. Conduct so perfidious
greatly incensed the people of those districts against Ha¬
milcar, whom they accused before the senate/ He died
hov rever, in Sicily, and Hamilcar the son of Cisco was
appointed to succeed him in the command of the forces.
The last place which held out against Agathocles was
Messana, whither all the Syracusan exiles had retired.
But Pasiphilus, Agathocles’s general, found means to ca¬
jole the inhabitants into a treaty, which Agathocles, ac¬
cording to custom, paid no regard to; and as soon as he
got possession of the town he cut off all those who had
opposed his government; for, as he -intended to prose¬
cute the war with the utmost vigour against Carthage, he
thought it a point of good policy to destroy as many of
his Sicilian enemies as possible.
In the mean time the Carthaginians having landed a
powerful army in Sicily, an engagement soon ensued, in
which Agathocles was defeated with the loss of 7000 men.
After this defeat he was obliged to shut himself up in Sy¬
racuse, which the Carthaginians immediately invested,
and most of the Greek states in the island submitted to
them.
Agathocles, seeing himself stripped of almost all his do¬
minions, and his capital itself in danger of falling into the
hands of the enemy, formed a design, which, were it not
attested by writers of undoubted authority, would seem
absolutely incredible. This was no less than to transfer He invades
the war into Africa, and lay siege to the enemy’s capital, Africa,
at a time when he himself was besieged, and only one city
left to him in all Sicily. Before he departed, however, he
made all the necessary preparations for the defence of the
place, and appointed his brother Antandrus governor. He
also gave permission to all who were not willing to en¬
counter the fatigues of a siegp to retire out of the city.
Many of the principal citizens accepted of this offer ; but
they had no sooner got out of the place than they were
cut off by parties posted on the road for that purpose.
Having seized upon their estates, Agathocles raised a con¬
siderable sum, which was intended in some measure to de¬
fray the expense of the expedition. He carried with him,
however, only fifty talents to supply his present wants, be¬
ing well assured that he should find in the enemy’s coun¬
try whatever was necessary for his subsistence. As the
Carthaginians had a much superior fleet, they for some
time kept the mouth of the harbour blocked up ; but at
last a fair opportunity offered, and Agathocles weighing
anchor, soon got clear of both the port and city of Syra¬
cuse. The Carthaginians pursued him with all expedition;
but notwithstanding their utmost efforts, Agathocles kept
ahead, and landed Ids troops wdth very little opposition.
Soon after his forces had disembarked, Agathocles burnt He burns
his fleet, in order that his soldiers might behave with the his fleet,
greater resolution, when they saw all possibility of retreat
cut off. He first ailvanced to a place called the Great City,
which, after a feeble resistance, he took and plundered.
He then marched to Tunis, which surrendered on the first
summons; and Agathocles levelled both places with the
ground.
The Carthaginians were at first thrown into the greatest
consternation. But, soon recovering themselves, the citi¬
zens took up arms with so much alacrity, that in a short
time they raised an army of 40,000 foot and 1000 horse,
with 2000 armed chariots, and intrusted the command to
Hanno and Bomilcar, two generals between whom there
subsisted a great animosity. But this disunion occasion-
188
CARTHAGE.
Carthagi¬
nians de¬
feated.
Carthage, ed the defeat of their whole army, with the loss of their
camp, although the force of Agathocles did not exceed
14,000 men. " Among the rich spoils the conqueror found
many chariots of curious workmanship, which carried 20,000
pairs of fetters and manacles which the enemy had pro¬
vided for their expected prisoners. After this defeat, the
Carthaginians, supposing themselves to have fallen under
the displeasure of their deities on account of their ne¬
glecting to offer in sacrifice children of noble families,
resolved to expiate this guilt. Accordingly two hundred
children of the first rank were sacrificed to their gods,
besides three hundred other persons who voluntarily of¬
fered themselves to pacify the wrath of these sanguinary
deities.
After these expiations Hamilcar was recalled from Si¬
cily. When the messengers arrived, Hamilcar command¬
ed them not once to mention the victory of Agathocles;
but, on the contrary, to give out among the troops that
he had been entirely defeated, his forces cut off, and his
Assault of fleet destroyed by the Carthaginians. Ibis threw the Sy-
Syracuse. racusans into the utmost despair; however, one Eurym-
non, an Etolian, prevailed upon Antandrus not to consent
to a capitulation, but to stand a general assault. Hamilcar,
informed of this, prepared his battering engines, and made
all the necessary preparations for storming the town with¬
out delay. But while matters were in this situation, a
galley, which Agathocles had caused to be built imme¬
diately after the battle, got into the harbour of Syracuse,
and informed the inhabitants of the victory which he had
obtained. Hamilcar, observing that the garrison flocked
’ down to the port on this occasion, and expecting to find
the walls unguarded, ordered his soldiers to erect scaling
ladders, and begin the intended assault. The enemy hav¬
ing left the ramparts quite exposed, the Carthaginians
mounted them without being discovered, and had almost
possessed themselves of a portion situated between two
The siege towers, when the patrole discovered them. Upon this a
raised. warm contest ensued ; and at last the Carthaginians were
repulsed with loss. Hamilgar, therefore, finding it in vain
to continue the siege after such glad tidings had revived
the spirits of the Syracusans, drew off his forces, and sent
a detachment of 5000 men to reinforce the troops in Af¬
rica. He still, however, entertained hopes that he might
oblige Agathocles to quit Africa, and return to the defence
of his own dominions. With this view he spent some time
in making himself master of such cities as had sided with
the Syracusans; and, after having brought all their allies
under subjection, he returned again to Syracuse, hoping
to surprise it in a night attack. But being attacked while
advancing through narrow passes, where his numerous ar¬
my had not room to act, he was defeated with great slaugh¬
ter, taken prisoner, carried into Syracuse, and put to death.
In the mean time the Agrigentines, finding that the
Carthaginians and Syracusans had greatly weakened each
other by this war, thought it a proper opportunity for at¬
tempting to gain the sovereignty of the whole island. They
therefore commenced a war against both parties; and pro¬
secuted it with such success, that in a short time they wrest¬
ed many places of consequence out of the hands both of
the Syracusans and Carthaginians.
Success of In Africa the tyrant carried every thing before him. He
Agathocles reduced most of the places of any importance in the ter-
in Atrica. ritory of Carthage ; and hearing that Ely mas king of Libya
had declared against him, he immediately entered Libya
Superior, and in a great battle overthrew that prince, put¬
ting to the sword a considerable part of his troops, and the
general who commanded them ; after which he advanced
against the Carthaginians with such expedition, that he sur¬
prised and defeated them with the loss of two thousand
killed, and a great number taken prisoners. He next pre¬
pared for tbe siege of Carthage itself; and, with a view to CarthaJ
this, advanced to a post within five miles of that city. On
the other hand, notwithstanding the great losses they had
already sustained, the Carthaginians encamped with a
powerful army between him and their capital. In this
situation Agathocles received advice of the defeat of the
Carthaginian forces before Syracuse, and also of the head
of Hamilcar their general; upon which he immediately
rode up to the enemy’s camp, and showing them the head,
gave them an account of the total destruction of their army
before Syracuse. This threw them into such consternation,
that in all human probability Agathocles would have made
himself master of Carthage, had not an unexpected mutiny
arisen in his camp, which gave the Carthaginians time to
recover from their terror.
The year following an engagement happened, in which His affi
neither party gained any great advantage ; but soon after-ancewu
wards, the tyrant, notwithstanding all his victories, found Ophelia,
himself unable to carry on the war alone; and he there¬
fore endeavoured to gain over to his interest Ophelias, one
of the captains of Alexander the Great. In this he suc¬
ceeded perfectly ; and in order to succour his new ally
the more effectually, Ophelias sent to Athens for a body of
troops. Having completed his military preparations, Ophel¬
ias found his army to consist of 10,000 foot and 600 horse,
all regular troops, besides 100 chariots, and a body of 10,000
men, attended by their wives and children, as if he had
been going to plant a new colony. At the head of these
forces he continued his march towards the position of
Agathocles for eighteen days, and then encamped at Au¬
tomale, a city about three thousand stadia distant from
the capital of his dominions. He then advanced through
the Kegio Syrtica, but found himself reduced to such extre¬
mities, that his army were in danger of perishing for want
of bread, water, and other provisions. They were also great¬
ly annoyed by serpents and wild beasts, with which that
desert region abounded. The serpents made the greatest
havock among the troops; for, being of the same colour with
the earth, and extremely venomous, many soldiers, who trod
upon without seeing them, were stung to death. At last,
after a very fatiguing march of two months, he approach¬
ed the position of Agathocles, and encamped at a small dis¬
tance, to the no small terror of the Carthaginians, who ap¬
prehended the most fatal consequences from this junction.
Agathocles at first caressed him, and advised him to take
all" possible care of his troops, who had undergone so many
fatigues, but soon afterwards cut him off by treachery, and
then by fair words and promises persuaded his troops to
serve under himself.
Agathocles, now finding himself at the head of a nu¬
merous army, assumed the title of king of Africa, intend¬
ing soon to complete his conquests by the reduction of
Carthage. He began with the siege of Utica, which was
taken by assault. He then marched against Hippo Diar-
rhytus, the Biserta of the moderns, which was also taken
by storm ; and after this most of the people bordering
upon the sea-coasts, and even those who inhabited the in¬
land parts of the country, submitted to him. But in the
midst of this career of success, the Sicilians formed an as¬
sociation in favour of liberty, which obliged the tyrant to
return home, leaving his son Archagathus to carry on the
war in Africa.
Archagathus, after his father’s departure, greatly ex-Arciiaga.
tended the African conquests. He sent Eumachus at the thus,
head of a large detachment to invade some of the neigh¬
bouring provinces, whilst he himself, with the greater part
of his army, observed the motions of the Carthaginians.
Eumachus passing into Numidia, first took the great city
of Tocas, and conquered several of the Numidian cantons.
Afterwards he besieged and took Phillina, which was at-
A
a
it!
M
CART
tended with the submission of the Asphodclodians, a na¬
tion, according to Diodorus, as black as the Ethiopians.
He then reduced several cities; and being at last elated
with his good fortune, resolved to penetrate into the most
remote parts of Africa. And in this he at first met with
success; but hearing that the barbarous nations were ad¬
vancing in a formidable body to give him battle, he aban¬
doned his conquests, and retreated with the utmost pre¬
cipitation towards the sea-coast, after having lost a great
number of men.
i4 to This unfortunate expedition produced a great revolution
^ . lost in the affairs of Archagathus. The Carthaginians, inform-
£■ ed of Eumachus’s bad success, resolved to exert them¬
selves in order to repair their former losses, and divided
their forces into three bodies; one of these they sent to
the sea-coast, to keep the towns there in awe; another
they dispatched into the Mediterranean parts, to preserve
the allegiance of the inhabitants there; and the last body
they ordered to Upper Africa, in order to support their
confederates in that country. Apprised of the motions of
the Carthaginians, Archagathus likewise divided his forces
into three bodies. One of these he sent to observe the Car¬
thaginian troops on the sea-coast, with orders to advance
afterwards into Upper Africa; another, under the command
of fEschrion, one of his generals, he posted at a proper dis¬
tance in the heart of the country, to observe both the enemy
there and the barbarous nations; and with the last, which
he led in person, he kept near Carthage, preserving a com¬
munication with the other two, in order to send them suc¬
cours or recal them, as the exigency of affairs might require.
The Carthaginian troops sent into the heart of the coun¬
try were commanded by Hanno, a general of great expe¬
rience, who, being informed of the approach of iEschrion,
laid an ambuscade for him, into which he was drawn, and
cut off with 4000 foot and 200 horse. Himilco, who com¬
manded the Carthaginian forces in Upper Africa, having
received advice of Eumachus’s march, immediately ad¬
vanced against him ; and an engagement ensued, in which
the Greeks were almost totally cut off, or perished with
thirst after the battle ; for out of 8000 foot only thirty, and
of 800 horse only forty, had the good fortune to make their
escape.
Archagathus having received the melancholy news of
these two defeats, immediately called in the detachments
he had sent out to harass the enemy, which would other¬
wise have been instantly cut off. He was, however, in a
short time hemmed in on all sides, reduced to the last
extremity for want of provisions, and ready every moment
to be swallowed up by the numerous forces which sur¬
rounded him. In this deplorable situation Agathocles
received an express from Archagathus, acquainting him
of the losses which the latter had sustained, and the
scarcity of provisions he laboured under. Upon this the
tyrant, leaving the care of the Sicilian war to one Lep-
tines, got out of the harbour, by a stratagem, eighteen
Etruscan ships which came to his assistance ; and then en¬
gaging the Carthaginian squadron which lay in its neigh¬
bourhood, took five of their ships, and made all their men
prisoners. In this way he became master of the port, and
secured a passage into it for the merchants of all nations,
who soon restored plenty where the famine had before be¬
gun to make great havoc. Supplying himself, therefore,
with a sufficient quantity of necessaries for the voyage
which he was about to undertake, he immediately set sail
for Africa.
it'of Upon his arrival in that country, Agathocles reviewed
atjcleshis forces, and found them to consist of 6000 Greeks, and
as many Samnites, Celtes, and Etruscans, besides 10,000
Africans and 1500 horse. As he found his troops in a
state bordering on despair, he thought this a proper time
H A G E. 189
for offering the enemy battle. The Carthaginians, however, Carthage,
did not think proper to accept the challenge, especially as, v—
by keeping close in their camp, where they had plenty of
every thing, they could starve the Greeks into a surrender
without striking a blow. Upon this Agathocles attack¬
ed the Carthaginian camp with great bravery, made a
considerable impression upon it, and might perhaps have
carried it, had not his mercenaries deserted him almost
at the first onset. By this piece of cowardice he wras
forced to retire with precipitation to his camp, whither
the Carthaginians pursued him very closely, doing great
execution in the pursuit.
The next night, the Carthaginians sacrificed all the pri ■ Disaster in
soners of distinction, as a grateful acknowdedgment to their the Car-
gods for the victory they had gained. Whilst they wrere thaginian
employed in this inhuman work, the wind, suddenly rising, camP‘
carried the flames to the sacred tabernacle near the altar,
which was entirely consumed, together with the general's
tent, and those of the principal officers adjoining to it. A
dreadful alarm was raised throughout the whole camp, which
was heightened by the great progress of the fire; for as
the soldiers’ tents consisted of very combustible materials,
and the wind blew in a most violent manner, the whole
camp was almost entirely reduced to ashes; and many of
the soldiers, endeavouring to carry off their arms and the
rich baggage of their officers, perished in the flames.
Some of those who made their escape met with a fate ’
equally unhappy; for after the repulse of Agathocles the
Africans deserted him, and were at that instant coming
over in a body to the Carthaginians. But these the per¬
sons who were flying from the flames took to be the whole
Syracusan army advancing in order of battle to attack
their camp; upon which a dreadful confusion ensued,
some taking to their heels, while others fell down in heaps
one upon another, and many engaged their comrades,
mistaking them for the enemy. Five thousand men lost
their lives in this tumult, and the rest thought proper to
take refuge within the avails of Carthage; nor could the
appearance of daylight for some time dissipate their ap¬
prehensions. In the mean tiriie the African deserters, Panic in
observing the great confusion among the Carthaginians, and that of
not knowing the meaning of it, were so terrified, that they Agtitho-
thought proper to return to the place from which theyc Ci3'
had come. The Syracusans, seeing a body of troops ad¬
vancing towards them in good order, concluded that the
enemy were marching to attack them, and therefore im¬
mediately cried out, “ To arms;” while the flames ascending
from the Carthaginian camp into the air, and the lament¬
able outcries proceeding thence, confirmed them in this
opinion, and greatly heightened their confusion. The
consequence was much the same as in the Carthaginian
camp; for coming to blows with one another instead of
the enemy, they scarcely recovered their senses upon the
return of light; and the intestine tumult proved so bloody
that it cost Agathocles four thousand men.
This last disaster so disheartened the tyrant, that he He escapes
immediately set about contriving means for making his privately,
escape privately, which he at last effected, though with
great difficulty. After his departure his two sons were
immediately put to death by the soldiers, who, choosing a
leader from among themselves, made peace with the Car¬
thaginians upon the conditions that the Greeks should de¬
liver up all the places which they held in Africa, on receiv¬
ing from them three hundred talents; that such of them
as were willing to serve in the Carthaginian army should
be kindly treated, and receive the usual pay; and that
the rest should be transported to Sicily, and have the city
of Selinus allotted for their habitation.
From this time till the commencement of their first war Causes of
with the Romans,we find nothing remarkable in the history th0 first
Punic war.
190 CARTHAGE.
Carthage, of the Carthaginians. The first Punic war, as it is commonly
called, happened about 255 years before Christ. At that
time the Carthaginians were possessed of extensive do¬
minions in Africa; they had made considerable progress
in Spain ; they were masters of Sardinia, Corsica, and all
the islands on the coast of Italy; and they had extended
their conquests to a great part of Sicily. The occasion of
the first rupture between the two republics may be briefly
stated. The Mamertines, being vanquished in battle, and
reduced to great straits, by Hiero, king of Syracuse, had
resolved to deliver up Messina, the only city they now
possessed, to that prince, with whose mild government and
strict probity they were well acquainted. Accordingly,
Hiero was advancing at the head of his troops in order
to take possession of the city, when Hannibal, who at that
time commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily, prevent¬
ed him by a stratagem. He came to meet Hiero as if to
congratulate him on his victory, and amused him, whilst
some of the Carthaginian troops filed off towards Messina.
Meanwhile the Mamertines, seeing their city supported
by a new reinforcement, wqre divided into several opi¬
nions. Some were for accepting the protection of Car¬
thage, and others were for surrendering to the king of
Syracuse; but the greater part declared for calling in the
Romans to their assistance. Deputies were accordingly
dispatched to Rome, offering the possession of the city to
the Romans, and in the most moving terms imploring
protection. This, after some debate, was agreed to; and
the consul Appius Claudius received orders to attempt a
passage to Sicily at the head of a powerful army. Being
obliged to sta}^ some time at Rome, however, one Caius
Claudius, a person of great intrepidity and resolution, was
dispatched with a few vessels to Rhegium. But, on his
arrival there, he observed the Carthaginian squadron to
be so much superior to his own, that he thought it hope¬
less to attempt at that time to transport forces to Sicily.
He crossed the straits, however, and had a conference
with the Mamertines, in which he prevailed with them to
accept the proffered protection of Rome; and upon this
he made the necessarjr preparations for transporting his
forces. The Carthaginians, being informed of the resolu¬
tion of the Romans, sent a strong squadron of galleys un-
Hanno der the command of Hanno, to intercept the Roman fleet;
intercepts and accordingly the Carthaginian admiral, coming up with
the Roman them near the coast of Sicily, attacked them with great
fleet. fury. During the engagement a violent storm arose, which
dashed many of the Roman vessels against the rocks, and
did a vast deal of damage to their squadron ; in conse¬
quence of which Claudius was forced to retire to Rhegium,
which he accomplished with great difficulty. Hanno re¬
stored all the vessels he had taken, but ordered the de¬
puties sent with them to expostulate with the Roman ge¬
neral upon the infraction of the treaties subsisting between
the two republics. This expostulation, however just, pro¬
duced an open rupture ; and Claudius soon afterwards took
possession of Messina.
Carthagi- Such was the beginning of the first Punic war, which
mans and lasted twenty-four years. The first year the Carthagi-
Syracnsansnians and Syracusans laid siege to Messina, but, not act-
tiea e ’ ing in concert, as they ought to have done, were over¬
thrown by the consul Appius Claudius; and this defeat
so much disgusted Hiero with the Carthaginians, that he
soon afterwards concluded an alliance with the Romans.
After this treaty, having no enemy to contend with but
the Carthaginians, the Romans made themselves masters
of all the cities on the western coast of Sicily, and at the
end of the campaign withdrew most of their troops to win¬
ter quarters in Italy.
Agrigen- The second year, Hanno the Carthaginian general fixed
turn taken, his principal magazine at Agrigentum. Strong by na¬
ture, this place had been rendered almost impregnable by CartL;
the new fortification which the Carthaginians had raised '
during the preceding winter, and was defended by a nu¬
merous garrison, commanded by Hannibal, a general of
great experience in war. For five months the Romans
attempted to reduce the place by famine, and had actual¬
ly brought the inhabitants to great distress, when a Car¬
thaginian army of 50,000 foot, 6000 horse, and sixty ele¬
phants, landed at Lilybaeum, and marched thence to He-
raclea, within twenty miles of Agrigentum. There the
general received a deputation from some of the inhabitants
of Erbessa, where the Romans had their magazines, offer¬
ing to put the town into his hands. K It was accordingly
delivered up; and by this means the Romans became so
much distressed, that they would certainly have been ob¬
liged to abandon their enterprise, had not Hiero sup¬
plied them with provisions. All the assistance he was able
to give, however, would not long have supported them, as
their army was so much weakened by famine, that out
of 100,000 men, of whom it originally consisted, scarcely
a fourth part remained fit for service, and could no longer
subsist on such inadequate supplies as were furnished them.
But in the mean time Hannibal acquainted Hanno that the
city was reduced to the utmost distress ; upon which he re¬
solved to venture an engagement, which he had previously
declined. In this, however, the Romans were victorious,
and the city surrendered at discretion, though Hannibal
and the greater part of the garrison made their escape.
This ended the campaign; and the Carthaginians being
greatly chagrined at their bad success, fined Hanno in an
immense sum of money, and deprived him of his command,
appointing Hamilcar to succeed him in the command of the
army, ana Hannibal in that of the fleet.
The third year, Hannibal received orders to ravage the
coast of Italy; but the Romans had taken care to post de¬
tachments in such places as were judged most proper to
prevent his landing, so that the Carthaginian found it im¬
possible to execute his orders. At the same time, the Ro¬
mans, perceiving the advantages of being masters of the
sea, set about building a hundred and twenty galleys.
While this work was in progress they made themselves
masters of most of the inland cities, but the Carthaginians
reduced or kept steady in their interest most of the mari¬
time ones; so that both parties were equally successful
during this campaign.
The fourth year Hannibal by a stratagem made him¬
self master of seventeen Roman galleys; after which he
committed great ravages on the coast of Italy, whither he
had advanced to take a view of the Roman fleet. But he The Oa
was afterwards attacked in his turn, lost the greater partthagim
of his ships, and with great difficulty made his own escape ;^eaate
and soon afterwards he was totally defeated by the con¬
sul Duilius, with the loss of eighty ships taken, thirteen
sunk, 7000 men killed, and as many taken prisoners. After
this victory Duilius landed in Sicily, put himself at the head
of the land forces, relieved Segesta, which was besieged
by Hamilcar, and made himself master of Macella, though
defended by a numerous garrison.
The fifth year a difference arose between the Romans Sicilians
and their Sicilian allies, which proceeded to such a height defeatei
that they encamped separately. Of this Hamilcar availed
himself, and attacking the Sicilians in their entrenchments,
put 4000 of them to the sword. He then drove the Ro¬
mans from their posts, took several cities, and overran
the greater part of the country. In the mean time Han¬
nibal, after his defeat, sailed with the shattered remains
of his fleet to Carthage. But, in order to secure'himself
from punishment, he sent one of his friends with all
speed, before the event of the battle was known there,
to acquaint the senate that the Romans had put to sea
>!
CART
u;age. with a great number of heavy ill-built vessels, each of
them carrying some machine, the use of which the Car¬
thaginians did not understand; and he asked whether it
was the opinion of the senate that Hannibal should at¬
tack them. These machines were the corvi, then new¬
ly invented, and by means of which, chiefly, Duilius had
gained the victory. The senate were unanimous in their
opinion that the Romans should be attacked; upon which
1 the messenger acquainted them with the unfortunate
event of the battles. As the senators had already de¬
clared themselves for the engagement, they spared their
general’s life, and, according to Polybius, even continued
him in the command of the fleet. Accordingly, being re¬
inforced by a good number of galleys, and attended by
some officers of great merit, he in a short time sailed for
the coast of Sardinia. But he had not been long there be¬
fore he was surprised by the Romans, who carried off many
of his ships, and took great numbers of his men prisoners ;
which so incensed the rest, that they seized their unfor¬
tunate admiral, and crucified him. It does not appear
who was his immediate successor.
4and The sixth year the Romans made themselves masters of
tiia the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Hanno, who com-
wd. manded the Carthaginian forces in the latter, defended
himself at a city called Olbia with incredible bravery ; but
being at last killed in one of the attacks, the place was
surrendered, and the Romans soon became masters of the
whole island.
io- The seventh year the Romans took the town of Mytes-
W tratum, in Sicily, whence they marched towards Camarina;
but in their way they were surrounded in a deep valley,
and in the most imminent danger of being cut t)ft' by the
3arv Carthaginian army. In this extremity-a legionary tri-
iik‘. ’ bune, called M. Calpurnius Flamma, desired the general
to give him three hundred chosen men, promising, with
this small company, to find the enemy such employment
as should oblige them to leave a passage open for the Ro¬
man army. He performed his promise with a bravery
truly heroic ; for having seized an eminence in spite of
all opposition, and intrenched himself on it, the Carthagi¬
nians, jealous of his design, flocked from all quarters to
drive him from his post. But the brave tribune kept their
whole army in play, till the consul, taking advantage of the
(aversion, drew his army out of the perilous situation into
which he had imprudently brought it. The legions were
no sooner out of danger than they hastened to the relief
of their brave companions; but all they could do was to
save their bodies from the insults of their enemies ; for they
found them all dead on the spot except Calpurnius, who
lay under a heap of dead bodies covered with wounds, but
still breathing. His wounds were immediately dressed,
and it fortunately happened that none of them proved mor¬
tal ; and lor this glorious enterprise he received a crown
o?gramen. After this the Romans reduced several cities,
and drove the enemy out of the territory of the Agrigen-
tines ; but they were in turn repulsed with great loss before
Lipara.
Ihe eighth year Regulus, who commanded the Roman
fleet, observing that of the Carthaginians lying along the
coast in disorder, sailed with a squadron often galleys, to
reconnoitre their number and strength, ordering the rest
of the fleet to follow him with all expedition. As he drew
too near the enemy, however, he was surrounded by a great
number of Carthaginian galleys. The Romans fought with
their usual bravery ; but being overpowered with numbers,
they were obliged to yield. The consul,’ however, found
means to make his escape, and join the rest of the fleet;
and then he had his full revenge of the enemy, eighteen
of their ships being taken, and eight sunk.
ihe ninth year the Romans made preparations for in-
II A G JE. j (j |
vading Africa. The fleet prepared for this purpose consist- Carthage,
ed of 330 galleys, each of them having on board 120 sol-
diers and 300 rowers. The Carthaginian fleet consisted of He invades
360 sail, and was much better manned than that of the Ah'lca-
Romans. Ihe two fleets met near Ecnomus, a promontory
of Sicily; where, after a bloody engagement, which lasted
the greater part of the day, the Carthaginians were entire¬
ly defeated, with the loss of thirty galleys sunk and sixty-
three taken. Ihe Romans lost only twenty-four galleys,
which were all sunk. After this victory, the Romans
having refitted their fleet, set sail for the coast of Africa
with all expedition, and arrived before Clupea, a city
to the east of Carthage, where they made their first de¬
scent. No words can express the consternation of the
Carthaginians on the arrival of the Romans in Africa.
Ihe inhabitants of Clupca were so terrified, that they
abandoned the place, which the Romans immediately
took possession of, and having left there a strong gar¬
rison to secure their shipping, and keep the adjacent ter¬
ritory in awm, moved nearer Carthage, taking a great num¬
ber of towns in their advance. They likewise plundered a
prodigious number of villages, laid many noblemen’s seats
in ashes, and took above 20,000 prisoners. In short, having
plundered and ravaged the whole country, almost to the
gates of Carthage, they returned to Clupea loaded with
an immense booty which they had acquired in the expe¬
dition.
The tenth year Regulus pushed on his conquests with Success of
great rapidity. To oppose his progress, Hamilcar was re- Regulus.
called from Sicily, and with him Bostar and Asdrubal were
joined in command. Hamilcar commanded an army about
equal to that of Regulus. The other two commanded se¬
parate bodies, which were to join him or act separately as
occasion required. But before they were in a condition to
take the field, Regulus, pursuing his conquests, arrived on
the banks of the Bagrada, a river which empties itself into
the sea at a small distance from Carthage. Having pass-The Car¬
ed this river, he besieged Adis, or Adda, not far from thaginians
Carthage, which the enemy attempted to relieve; but as defeated,
they lay encamped among hills and rocks, where their
elephants, in which the main strength of their army con¬
sisted, could be of no use, Regulus attacked them in their
lines, killed 17,000, and took 5000 prisoners and eighteen
elephants. On receiving the tidings of this victory, depu¬
tations came from all quarters, insomuch that the con¬
queror in a few days became master of eighty towns,
among which were the city and port of Utica. This in¬
creased the alarm at Carthage, which w'as reduced to de¬
spair when Regulus laid siege to Tunis, a'great city about
nine miles distant from the capital. The place was taken in
sight of the Carthaginians, who, from their walls, beheld all
the operations of the siege, without making the leastattempt
to raise it. And, to complete their misfortunes, the Numi-
dians, their neighbours and implacable enemies, entered
their territories, committing everywhere the most dread¬
ful devastations. In this extremity Regulus advanced to j-jig pro_
the very gates of Carthage ; and, having encamped under posals of
the walls, sent deputies to treat of a peace with the senate, peace re-
The deputies were received with inexpressible joy; but theiectec**
conditions which they proposed were such that the senate
could not listen to them without the greatest indignation.
They were, that the Carthaginians should relinquish all
claims to Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily; that they should
restore to the Romans all the prisoners they had taken
since the beginning of the war ; that if they wished to re¬
deem any of their own prisoners, they should pay as much
a head for them as Rome should judge reasonable ; that
they should for ever pay the Romans an annual tribute ;
and that for the future they should fit out but one man of
war for their own use, and fifty triremes to serve in the
192
CART H AGE.
taken.
Carthage. Roman fleet, at the expense of Carthage, when required
by any of the future consuls. These extravagant demands
provoked the senators, who loudly and unanimously reject¬
ed them ; the Roman deputies, however, told them that
Regulus would not alter a single letter of the proposals, and
that they must either conquer the Romans or accept them.
Xanthip- In this desperate emergency some mercenaries arrive
pus ap- from Greece, among whom was a Lacedemonian, by name
pointed to Xanthippus, a man of approved valour and experience in
command. wan This man having informed himself of the circum¬
stances of the late battle, declared publicly that their ovet-
throw was more owing to their own misconauct than to the
superiority of the enemy. This discourse having spread
abroad, came at last to the knowledge of the senate, by
whom, with the concurrence even ot the Carthaginian ge¬
nerals themselves, Xanthippus was appointed commander-
in-chief of their forces. The first care of this officer was
to discipline his troops in a proper manner. He taught
them how to march, encamp, widen and close their ranks,
and rally after the Lacedemonian manner under theii pio-
per colours. He then took the field with 12,000 foot, 4000
horse, and 100 elephants. The Romans were surprised at
the sudden alteration which they observed in the enemy’s
conduct; but Regulus, elated with his former success,
came and encamped at a small distance from tne Carthagi¬
nian army, in avast plain, where their elephants and hoise
had room to act. The two armies were separated by a
river, which Regulus boldly passed, thus leaving no room
The Ito- f°r a retreat in case of any misfortune. The engagement
mans de- began with great fury, but ended in the total defeat of the
feated, and Romans, who, with the exception of 2000 who escaped to
Hegulus Clupea, were all killed or taken prisoners ; and among the
latter was Regulus himself. The loss of the Carthaginians
scarcely exceeded 800 men. The Carthaginians lemained
on the field of battle till they had stripped the slain ; and
then entered their metropolis, which was almost the only
place left them, in great triumph. They treated all their
prisoners with great humanity, except Regulus ; but as for
him, he had so insulted them in his prosperity, that they
could not forbear showing him the highest marks of their
resentment. According to Zonaras and others, he was
thrown into a dungeon, where he had only sustenance al¬
lowed him sufficient to keep him alive ; while his cruel
masters, in order to heighten his other torments, directed
a huge elephant, at the sight of which animal he was it
seems greatly terrified, to be constantly placed near him,
and thus prevented him from enjoying any tranquillity or
repose.
In the eleventh year of this war, the Carthaginians,
elated with their victory over Regulus, began to talk in a
very high strain, threatening Italy itself with an invasion.
To prevent this, the Romans took care to garrison all their
maritime towns, and fitted out a new fleet. In the mean
time, the Carthaginians besieged Clupea and Utica in vain,
being obliged to abandon their enterprise upon hearing
that the Romans were equipping a fleet of 350 sail. The
Carthaginians having with incredible expedition refitted
their old vessels, and built a considerable number of new
ones, met the Roman fleet off Cape Hermea. An engage¬
ment ensued, in which the Carthaginians were utterly de¬
feated ; 104 of their ships being sunk, thirty taken, and
15,000 of their soldiers and rowers killed in the action.
The Romans pursued their course to Clupea, where they
had no sooner landed than they found themselves at¬
tacked by the Carthaginian army under the two Hannos,
father and son. But the brave Xanthippus no longer com¬
manded their army; and, notwithstanding the Lacedemo¬
nian discipline he had introduced among them, they were
routed at the very first onset, with the loss of 9000 men,
among whom were many of their chief lords.
Carthagi¬
nians de¬
feated by
sea and
land.
Notwithstanding all their victories, however, the Ro-
mans found themselves obliged, for want of provisions,
to evacuate both Clupea and Utica, and abandon Africa. Roma?
But being desirous of signalizing the end of their consulate aband.;
by some important conquest in Sicily, the consuis steered^™3
for that island, contrary to the advice of their pilots, who
represented the danger they incurred on account ol the
season being far advanced. Their obstinacy, however, ledy^
to the destruction of the whole fleet; tor a violent storm destro
arising, out of 370 vessels only eighty escaped shipwreck, in a st'..
the rest being swallowed up by the sea, or dashed in pieces
against the rocks. This was by far the greatest loss that
Rome had ever sustained; for besides the ships which
were cast away with their crews, a numerous army was
destroyed, with all the riches of Africa, which had been
amassed by Regulus and deposited in Clupea, and w’ere
now being transported thence to Rome. The whole coast
from Pachinum to Camerina was covered with dead bodies
and wrecks of ships; so that history scarcely affords an
example of a more dreadful disaster.
The twelfth year the Carthaginians, hearing of this mis¬
fortune of the Romans, renewed the wmr in Sicily with
fresh fury, hoping the whole island, which was now left
defenceless, would fall into their hands. Carthalo, a Car¬
thaginian commander, besieged and took Agrigentum.
He laid the town in ashes, and demolished the avails, ob¬
liging the inhabitants to fly to Olympium. Upon the news
of this success, Asdrubal was sent to Sicily with a large
reinforcement of troops and 150 elephants. Ihey like¬
wise fitted out a squadron, with which they retook the
island of Corcyra, and marched a strong body of forces
into Mauritania and Numidia, to punish the people^ of
those countries for showing a disposition to join the Ro¬
mans. In Sicily the Romans possessed themselves of Ce-
phalodium and Panormus, but were obliged by Carthalo
to raise the siege of Drepanum with great loss.
The thirteenth year the Romans sent out a fleet of 260Anew
galleys, which appeared off Lilybaeum in Sicily ; but find-fjeet gti
ing this place too strong, they steered from thence to the out,
eastern coast of Africa, where they effected several de-also
scents, surprised some cities, and plundered several townsslro'e
and villages. They arrived safely at Panormus, and in a
few days set sail for Italy, having a fair wind till they came
off Cape Palinurus, where a violent storm overtook them,
and 160 of their galleys, with a great number of their
transports, were lost; upon which the Roman senate de¬
creed, that in future not more than fifty vessels should
be equipped, and that these should be employed only in
guarding the coast of Italy, and in transporting troops into
Sicily.
The fourteenth year the Romans made themselves mas¬
ters of Himera and Lipara in Sicily; and the Carthagi¬
nians conceiving new hopes of conquering that island, be¬
gan to make fresh levies in Gaul and Spain, and to equip
a new fleet. Their treasures were exhausted, and they
applied to Ptolemy, king of Egypt, intreating him to lend
them two thousand talents; but he, being resolved to re¬
main neutral, refused to comply with their request, telling
them that he could not, without a breach of fidelity, assist
one friend against another. However, the republic of
Carthage, by a great effort, equipped a fleet of 200 sail,
raised an army of 30,000 men, with 140 elephants, and
appointed Asdrubal commander-in-chief both of the fleet
and army. Meanwhile the Romans, finding the great ad-
vantage of a fleet, resolved to equip one, notwithstanding
all former disasters; and whilst the vessels were building,
two consuls, men of valour and experience, were chosen
to supersede those acting in Sicily. But Metellus, one o
the former consuls, being continued with the title of pro-
consul, found means to draw Asdrubal into a battle on dis-
CARTHAGE.
•gi-
war
}
advantageous terms near Panonnus, and then sallying out,
overthrew him with a terrible slaughter. Twenty thousand
of the enemy were killed, and many elephants destroyed.
A hundred and four elephants, with their leaders, were
taken, and sent to Rome, where they were hunted and put
to death in the circus.
The fifteenth year the Romans besieged Lilybaeum, and
the siege continued during the rest of the first Punic war,
being the only thing remarkable that happened during
that time. The Carthaginians, on the first news of its
being besieged, sent Regulus with some deputies to Rome
to treat for a peace; but instead of forwarding the nego¬
tiation, Regulus hindered it; and notwithstanding he knew
the torments prepared for him at Carthage, could not be
prevailed upon to stay at Rome, but returning to captivity,
was put to death in a most cruel manner. During this
siege, the Roman fleet under Claudius Pulcher was utterly
defeated by Adherbal the Carthaginian admiral. Ninety
of the Roman galleys were lost in the action, 8000 men
were either killed or drowned, and 20,000 taken and sent
prisoners to Carthage; while the Carthaginians gained this
signal victory without the loss of a single ship, or even a
single man. Another Roman fleet met with a still harder
fate. It consisted of 120 galleys and 800 transports, and
was laden with all sorts of military stores and provisions.
Every one of these vessels was lost in a storm, with all
they contained, not a single plank being saved that could
be used again; so that the Romans found themselves once
more deprived of their whole naval force.
In the mean time the Carthaginian soldiery having
shown a disposition to mutiny, the senate sent Hamilcar
Barcas, father of the celebrated Hannibal, into Sicily.
He received carte blanche from the senate to act as he
thought proper; and by his excellent conduct and resolu¬
tion, he showed himself the greatest general of his aije.
Eryx, which he had taken by surprise, he defended with
such vigour that the Romans would never have been able
to make themselves masters of it, had they not fitted out,
at the expense of private citizens, a fleet which utterly
defeated that of the Carthaginians; so that Hamilcar,
notwithstanding all his valour, was obliged to yield up the
place which he had long and bravely defended. Articles
of peace were immediately agreed to between the two
commanders.. The Carthaginians were to evacuate all
the places which they occupied in Sicily, and entirely quit
that island; to pay the Romans in twenty years, and by
year’ 2^00 talents of silver, or about
LA37,„oO sterling; to restore the Roman captives and
deserters without ransom, and redeem their own prisoners
with money; and to refrain from making wrar upon Hiero
ingo Syi acuse or his allies. Ihese articles being agreed
to, Hamilcar surrendered Eryx upon condition that all
his soldiers should march out with him, on his paying for
each of them eighteen Roman denarii. Hostages were
mutually given, and deputies sent to Rome to procure
a ratification of the treaty by the senate. When the
senators had thoroughly informed themselves as to the
tw innn ,s’ tw0 more articles were added, namely,
99no ° u ta ents should be Paid immediately, and the
f 0° 1 sPace °i ten years in equal payments; and
tnat the Carthaginians should quit all the little islands
anout Italy and Sicily, and never more approach them
1 s ips of war, or raise mercenaries in those places,
ecesshy obliged Hamilcar to consent to these terms;
t0 ^rthage with a hatred of the Romans,
min a *.e i ^ n0t even suder t0 die with him, but trans-
mitteci to his son the illustrious Hannibal.
* e Carthaginians were no sooner freed from this sangui-
expensive war than they found themselves en-
& vol 1“ianother of the most dangerous kind. It is called
193
by ancient historians the Libyan War, or the War with the Carthage.
Mercenaries. The principal cause of this war may be '
shortly stated. When Hamilcar returned to Carthage, he
found the republic so much impoverished, that, far from
being able to give these troops the largesses and rewards
promised them, it could not pay them their arrears. He
had committed the care of transporting them to one Cisco,
an officer of great penetration, who, as if he had foreseen
what would happen, did not ship them off all at once, but
in small and separate parties, in order that those who
landed first might be paid off and sent home before the
arrival of the rest. The Carthaginians, however, did not
act with the same prudence as Cisco. As the state was al¬
most entirely exhausted by the late wrar, and the immense
sum of money paid to the Romans in consequence of the
peace, they judged it proper to endeavour to save some¬
thing to the public, and with this view they did not pay off
the mercenaries as they arrived, thinking it better to wait
till they had all arrived, in the hope of obtaining some re¬
mission of their arrears. But, being soon made sensible of
their error, by the frequent disorders of which these bar¬
barians were guilty in the city, they with some difficulty
prevailed on the officers to take up their quarters at Sicca,
anu canton their troops in that neighbourhood. To induce
them to do so, however, they gave them a sum of money
for their present subsistence, and promised to comply
with their demands when the remainder of the troops
should have arrived from Sicily. But the troops, being
wholly immersed in idleness, to which they had long been
strangers, a neglect of discipline ensued, and of course a
petulant and licentious spirit immediately showed itself.
I hey were now determined not to acquiesce in receiving
their bare pay, but to insist upon the rewards which Ha-
milcar had promised them, and even to compel the state
of Carthage by force of arms to comply with their de¬
mands. The senate being informed of the mutinous dis¬
position of the soldiery, dispatched Hanno, one of the
sunetes, to pacify them. Upon his arrival at Sicca, he
expatiated largely on the poverty of the state, and the
heavy taxes with which the citizens of Carthage were load¬
ed ; and, instead of answering their extravagant expecta¬
tions, he desired them to be satisfied with receiving part
of their pay, and to remit the remainder in consideration
of the pressing exigencies of the republic. But the mer¬
cenaries, highly provoked that neither Hamilcar nor any
other of the principal officers who commanded them in
Sicily, and were the best judges of their merit, made their
appearance on this occasion, but only Hanno, a person ut¬
terly unknown, and above all others disagreeable to them,
immediately had recourse to arms; and assembling in a
body, to the number of 20,000, they advanced to Tunis,
and immediately encamped before that city.
I he Carthaginians, being greatly alarmed at the ap¬
proach of so formidable a body to Tunis, made large con¬
cessions to the mercenaries, in order to bring them back
to their duty; but, far from being softened, the latter
grew more insolent upon these concessions, considering
them as the effects of fear, and therefore became altogether
averse to thoughts of accommodation. Making a virtue
of necessity, the Carthaginians showed a disposition to
satisfy them in all points, and agreed to refer the points at
issue to the opinion of some general in Sicily, as they had
all along desired, leaving the choice of such commander
entirely to the soldiery themselves. Gisco was according¬
ly pitched upon to mediate this affair, the mercenaries
believing Hamilcar to have been a principal cause of the
ill tieatment they had met with, since he never appeared
amongst them, and, according to the general opinion, had
voluntarily resigned his commission. Gisco soon arrived
at Tunis with money to pay the troops ; and, after confer-
2 B
CARTHAGE.
194
Carthage, ring with the officers of the several nations apart, he ha-
'-Y'i—' rangued them in such a manner, that a treaty was upon
the point of being concluded, when Spendius and Mathos,
two of the principal mutineers, occasioned a tumult in
every part of the camp. Spendius was by nation a Cam¬
panian, and had been a slave at Rome, whence he tied to
the Carthaginians. The apprehensions he entertained ot
being delivered up to his old master, by whom he was
sure to be hanged or crucified, prompted him to break oil
the accommodation. Mathos was an African, and tree
born: but as he had been active in raising the rebellion,
and was well acquainted with the implacable disposition
of the Carthaginians, he knew that a peace must infallibly
prove his ruin. He therefore joined with Spendius, and
insinuated to the Africans the danger of concluding at
that juncture a treaty, which could not but leave them
exposed singly to the rage of the Carthaginians. I his so
incensed the Africans, who were much more numerous
than the troops of any other nation, that they immediate¬
ly assembled in a tumultuous manner, and the foreigners
soon joined them, being inspired by Spendius with an equal
degree of fury. Nothing was now to be heard but the
most horrid oaths and imprecations against Gisco and the
Carthaginians. Whoever offered to make any remon¬
strance, or lend an ear to temperate counsels, was stoned
to death by the enraged multitude; and many persons
lost their lives for attempting to speak, before it could be
known whether they were in the interest ol Spendius or ot
the Carthaginians. _
In the midst of these commotions Gisco behaved with
great firmness and intrepidity, and left no methods untried
to soften the officers and calm the minds ot the soldieiy,
but the torrent of sedition was now so strong, that there
was no possibility of keeping it within bounds. They there¬
fore seized upon the military chest, dividing the money
among themselves as part payment of their arrears; put
the person of Gisco under an arrest; and treated him, as
well as his attendants, with the utmost indignity. Mathos
and Spendius, in order to destroy all hopes of an accom¬
modation with Carthage, applauded the courage and reso¬
lution of their men, loaded the unhappy Gisco and his
followers with irons, and formally declared war against
the Carthaginians. The cities of Africa to which deputies
had been sent to exhort them to recover their liberty soon
came over to them, except Utica and Hippo Diarrhytus.
And the army being thus greatly increased, they divid¬
ed it into two parts, with one of which they moved to¬
wards Utica, whilst the other marched to Hippo, in order
that both places might be simultaneously besieged. The
Carthaginians, in the mean time, found themselves ready
to sink under the pressure of their misfortunes. After
they had been harassed twenty-four years by a most cruel
and destructive foreign war, they entertained some hopes
of enjoying repose. I he citizens ot Carthage drew theii
individual subsistence from the rents or revenues of their
lands, and the public expenses from the tribute paid by
Africa; all which they were not only deprived of at once,
but, what was worse, had it directly turned against them.
They were destitute of arms and forces either by sea or
land, and had made no preparations for sustaining a siege,
or the equipping of a fleet. They suffered all the calamities
incident to the most ruinous civil war; and, to complete
their misery, had not the least prospect ot receiving as¬
sistance from any foreign friend or ally. Notwithstand¬
ing their deplorable situation, however, they did not de¬
spair, but pursued all the measures necessary to put them¬
selves in a suitable posture of defence.
Hanno was dispatched to the relief of Utica with a con¬
siderable body of forces, 100 elephants, and a large train
of battering engines. Having reconnoitred the enemy, he
immediately attacked their intrenchments, and, after an oh- Car%
stinate contest, forced them. The mercenaries lost a vast
number of men, and consequently the advantages gained
by Hanno were so great, that they might have proved
decisive had he made a proper use of them; but victory
having rendered him too confident, and his troops ne¬
glecting their duty, the mercenaries rallied their forces, fell
upon him, cut off many of his men, forced the rest to fly
into the town, x-etook and plundered the camp, and seized
all the provisions and military stores brought to the relief
of the besieged. Nor was this the only instance of Hanno’s
military incapacity. Notwithstanding he lay encamped in
the most advantageous manner, near a town called Gorza,
where he twice overthrew the enemy, and had it in his
power to ruin them totally, he yet neglected to improve
these advantages, and even suffered the mercenaries to pos¬
sess themselves of the isthmus which joined to the con¬
tinent of Africa the peninsula on which Carthage stood.
These repeated mistakes induced the Carthaginians
once more to place Hamilcar Barcas at the head of their
forces. This commander marched against the enemy with
10,000 men, horse and foot, being all the troops the Cartha¬
ginians could then assemble for their defence; a proof of
the very low state to which they had at that time been
reduced. As Mathos, after the occupation of the isthmus,
had posted proper detachments in the passes of two hills
facing the continent, and guarded the bridge over the Ba-
grada, which through Hanno’s neglect he had taken, Ha¬
milcar saw little probability of engaging him upon equal
terms, or indeed of even getting at him. Observing, how¬
ever, that on the blowing of certain winds the mouth ot
the river was choked up with sand, so as to become pass¬
able, though with no small difficulty, while these winds
continued, he halted at the river s mouth, without com¬
municating his design to any person. As soon as the
wind favoured his project, he crossed the river privately
by night, and immediately atter his passage drew up the
troops in order of battle ; and advancing into the plain,
where his elephants were capable of acting, moved to¬
wards Mathos, who was posted at the village near the
bridge. This daring action greatly surprised and intimi¬
dated the Africans. However, Spendius, receiving intelli¬
gence of the enemy’s motions, drew a body of 10,000 men
out of Mathos’s camp, with which he attended Hamilcar
on one side, and ordered 15,000 from Utica to observe him
on the other ; thinking by this means to surround the Car¬
thaginians, and cut them off at one stroke. But by feign¬
ing a retreat, Hamilcar found means to engage them at
a disadvantage, and gave them a total overthrow, with the
loss of 6000 killed and 2000 taken prisoners, while the
rest fled, some to the town at the bridge, and others to the
camp at Utica. He did not give them time to recover
from their defeat, but pursued them to the town near the
bridge before mentioned, which he entered without oppo¬
sition, the mercenaries flying in great confusion to lunis;
and upon this many towns submitted of their own accord
to the Carthaginians, whilst others were reduced to sub¬
jection by force of arms.
Notwithstanding these disasters, Mathos pushed on the
siege of Hippo with great vigour, and appointed Spendms
and Autaritus, commanders of the Gauls, with a strong
body, to observe the motions of Hamilcar. ihese com¬
manders-, therefore, at the head of a choice detachment
of 6000 men drawn out of the camp at Tunis, and 200
Gallic horse, attended the Carthaginian general, approach¬
ing him as near as they could with safety, and keeping
close to the skirts of the mountains. At last Spendius
having received a strong reinforcement of Africans an
Numidians, and occupied all the heights surrounding t >e
plain in which Hamilcar lay encamped, resolved not to le
g ° r a
CARTHAGE.
195
iage. slip so favourable an opportunity of attacking him. Had
, a battle now ensued, Hamilcar and bis army must in all
probability have been cut off; but, by the desertion of one
Naravasus, a young Numidian nobleman, with 2000 men,
he found himself enabled to offer his enemies battle. The
fight was obstinate and bloody; but at last the mercenaries
were entirely overthrown, with the loss of 10,000 men kill¬
ed and 4000 taken prisoners. All the prisoners who were
willing to enlist in the Carthaginian service Hamilcar re¬
ceived into his army, supplying them with the arms of the
soldiers who had fallen in the engagement; and to the rest
he gave full liberty to go where they pleased, upon condi¬
tion that they should never for the future bear arms against
the Carthaginians; informing them, at the same time, that
every violator of this agreement who fell into his hands
must expect no mercy.
Mathos and his associates, fearing that this affected
lenity of Hamilcar might occasion a defection among the
troops, thought that the best expedient would be to put
them upon some action so execrable in its own nature that
no hopes of reconciliation should remain. By their advice,
therefore, Gisco, and all the Carthaginian prisoners were
put to death ; and when Hamilcar sent to demand the re¬
mains of his countrymen, he received for answer, that who¬
ever presumed hereafter to come upon that errand, should
meet with Cisco’s fate; after which they came to a reso¬
lution to treat with the same barbarity all Carthaginians
who should fall into their hands. In return for this enor¬
mity, Hamilcar delivered up all the prisoners who fell into
his hands to be devoured by wild beasts ; being convin¬
ced that compassion served only to render his enemies more
fierce and untractable.
The war was now carried on generally to the advantage
of the Carthaginians ; nevertheless, the malcontents still
found themselves in a capacity to take the field with an
army of 50,000 men. They watched Hamilcar’s motions,
but kept on the hills, carefully avoiding to come down into
the plains, on account of the Numidian horse and Cartha¬
ginian elephants. But Hamilcar, being much superior in
skill to any of their generals, at last shut them up in a post
so situated that it wras impossible to get out of it. Here
he kept them strictly besieged ; and the mercenaries, not
daring to venture a battle, began to fortify their camp,
and surround it with ditches and intrenchments. But they
were soon pressed so sorely by famine, that they were ob¬
liged to eat one another ; yet as they were rendered despe¬
rate by the consciousness of their guilt, they did not
desire any terms of accommodation. At last, being re¬
duced to the utmost extremity of misery, they insisted
that Spendius, Autaritus, and Zarxas, their leaders, should
in person have a conference with Hamilcar, and make pro¬
posals to him. Peace was accordingly concluded, upon the
conditions that ten of the ringleaders of the malcontents
should be left entirely to the mercy of the Carthaginians,
and that the troops should all be disarmed, every man
retiring only in a single coat. The treaty was no sooner
concluded than Hamilcar, by virtue of the first article,
seized upon the negotiators themselves; and the army
being informed that their chiefs were under arrest, had
immediately recourse to arms, suspecting they were be-
e trayed; but Hamilcar, drawing out his army in order of
battle, surrounded them, and either cut them to pieces or
. tro(l them to death with his elephants. The number of
wretches who perished on this occasion amounted to above
40,000.
After the destruction of the army, Hamilcar invested
Tunis, whither Mathos had retired with his remaining
forces. The former had another general, named Hannibal,
joineu in the command with him. Hannibal’s quarters were
on the road leading to Carthage, and Hamiicar’s on the
opposite side. The army was no sooner encamped, than Carthage.
Hamilcar caused Spendius and the rest of the prisoners
to be led out in the view of the besieged, and crucified
near the walls. Mathos, however, observing that Hanni¬
bal did not keep so good a guard as he ought to have done,
made a sally, attacked his quarters, killed many of his
men, made several prisoners, among whom was Ifannibal
himself, and plundered his camp. Taking down the body of
Spendius from the cross, Mathos immediately substituted
Hannibal in its stead; and thirty Carthaginian prisoners
of distinction were crucified around him. After this dis¬
aster, Hamilcar decamped, and posted himself along the
sea coast, near the mouth of the river Bagrada.
The senate, though greatly terrified by so unexpected a
blow, omitted no means necessary for their preservation.
They sent thirty senators, with Hanno at their head, to
consult with Hamilcar about the proper measures for put¬
ting an end to this unnatural war; conjuring Hanno in
the most pressing manner to be reconciled to Hamilcar,
and to sacrifice his private resentment to the public bene¬
fit. This was effected with some difficulty ; and the two
generals came to a full resolution to act in concert for the
good of the public. The senate, at the same time, ordered
all the youth capable of bearing arms to be pressed into the
service ; and by these means a strong reinforcement be¬
ing sent to Hamilcar, he soon found himself in a condition
to act offensively. He now defeated the enemy in every
rencounter, drew Mathos into frequent ambuscades, and
gave him one notable overthrow near Leptis. This re¬
duced the rebels to the necessity of hazarding a decisive
battle, which proved fatal to them. The mercenaries fled
almost at the first onset, and most of their army fell either
in the field of battle or in the pursuit. Mathos, with a few,
escaped to a neighbouring town, where he was taken alive,
carried to Carthage, and executed; and then, by the re¬
duction of the revolted cities, an end was put to this w'ar,
which, from the excesses of cruelty committed in it, went
among the Greeks by the name of the inexpiable war.
During the Libyan war, the Romans, upon some absurd
pretences, wrested from the Carthaginians the island of Sar¬
dinia ; and the latter, not being able to resist, were oblig¬
ed to submit to the loss. Hamilcar, finding his country not Hamilcar’s
in a condition to enter into an immediate war with Rome, scheme to
formed a scheme to put it on a level with that haughty equal Car-
republic. This w?as by making an entire conquest of ^aSe with
Spain, by which means the Carthaginians might havelt0mc’
troops capable of contending with the Romans. In order
to facilitate the execution of this scheme, he inspired both
his son-in-law Asdrubal, and his son Hannibal, wfith an
implacable aversion to the Romans, as the great enemies
of his country’s grandeur. And having completed all
the necessary preparations, Hamilcar, after greatly en¬
larging the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, entered
Spain, where he commanded nine years, during wdiich
time he subdued many warlike nations, and amassed an
immense quantity of treasure, which he distributed partly
amongst his troops and partly amongst the great men at
Carthage, by wdiich means he supported his interests
with these two powerful bodies. At last he was killed in
a battle, and was succeeded by his son-in-law Asdrubal. ^scjrutjai.
This general fully answered the expectations of his coun¬
trymen, having greatly enlarged their dominions in Spain,
and built the city of New Carthage, now Carthagena. He
made such progress in his conquests that the Romans be¬
gan to be alarmed. They did not, however, choose at pre¬
sent to come to an open rupture, on account of the appre¬
hensions which they entertained of an invasion by the
Gauls. They judged it most proper, therefore, to have re¬
course to milder methods; and prevailed upon Asdrubal
to conclude a new treaty with them, upon the conditions
]96 CART
Carthage, that the Carthaginians should not pass the Iberus; and
that the Saguntines, a colony of Zacynthians, and a city
situated between the Iberus and that part of Spain sub¬
ject to the Carthaginians, as well as the other Greek colo¬
nies there, should enjoy their ancient rights and privileges.
Murder of Asdrubal, after having governed the Carthaginian do-
Asdrubal. minions in Spain for eight years, was treacherously mui-
dered by a Gaul, whose master he had put to death.
Hannibal. Three years before this happened, he had written to Car¬
thage to desire that young Hannibal, then twenty-two
years of age, might be sent to him. 1 his request was
complied with, notwithstanding the opposition ot Hanno;
and, from the first arrival of the young man in the camp,
he became the darling of the whole army. The great re¬
semblance he bore to Hamilcar rendered him extremely
agreeable to the troops. He seemed to possess every
talent and qualification that contribute towards forming a
great commander. After the death of Asdrubal, he was
saluted as general by the army with the highest demon¬
strations of joy. He immediately put himself in motion ;
and in the first campaign conquered the Qlcades, a nation
situated near the Iberus. The next year he subdued the
Vaccsei, another nation immediately adjoining. Soon after¬
wards, the Carpaetani, one of the most powerful nations in
Spain, declared against the Carthaginians. Their army
consisted of 100,000 men, with which they proposed to
attack Hannibal on his return from the Vaccaei; but by a
stratagem they were utterly defeated, and the whole na¬
tion obliged to submit.
Nothing now remained to oppose the progress of the
Carthaginian arms but the city of Saguntum, the modern
Murviedro. Hannibal, however, for some time did not
think proper to come to an open rupture with the Romans
by attacking that place. At last he found means to em¬
broil some of the neighbouring cantons, especially the
Turdetani, or, as Appian calls them, the Torboletae, with
Siege of the Saguntines, and thus furnished himself with a pretext
Saguntum. for attacking their city. On the commencement of the
siege, the Roman senate dispatched two ambassadors to
Hannibal, with orders to proceed to Carthage in case the
general refused to give them satisfaction. But they had
scarcely landed, when Hannibal, who was carrying on the
siege of Saguntum with great vigour, sent them word that
he had something else to do than to give audience to am¬
bassadors. At last, however, he admitted them, and, in
answer to their remonstrances, told them that the Sagun¬
tines had drawn their misfortunes upon themselves, by
committing hostilities against the allies of Carthage; at
H A G E.
the same time he desired the deputies, if they had any Cariliaj. C
complaints to make of him, to carry them to the senate of -
Carthage. They did so, and on their arrival in that ca¬
pital, demanded that Hannibal might be delivered up to
the Romans, to be punished according to his deserts.
This of course was not complied with, and war was imme¬
diately declared between the two nations.
The Saguntines are said to have defended themselves
for eight months with incredible bravery. At last, how¬
ever, the city was taken, and the inhabitants were treated
with the utmost cruelty. After this conquest, Hannibal
put his African troops into winter quarters at New Car¬
thage ; but, in order to gain the affection of the Spaniards,
he permitted them to retire to their respective homes.
The next campaign, having taken the necessary mea-Hannib.
sures for securing Africa and Spain, he passed the Iberus, sets out
subdued the different nations betwixt that river and thetorItak
Pyrenees, appointed Hanno commander of all the new
conquered districts, and immediately began his march for
Italy. Upon mustering his forces, after they had been
weakened by sieges, desertion, mortality, and a detach¬
ment of 10,000 foot and 1000 horse left with Hanno to
support him in his new post, he found them to amount to
50,000 foot and 9000 horse, all veteran troops, and the
best in the world. As they left their heavy baggage with
Hanno, and were all light armed, Hannibal easily crossed
the Pyrenees; passed by Ruscino, a frontier town of the
Gauls; and arrived on the banks of the Rhone without
opposition. This river he passed, notwithstanding some
opposition by the Gauls, and for some time remained
in doubt whether he should advance to engage the Ro¬
mans, who, under Scipio, had landed near the mouth of
the Rhone, or continue his march for Italy. But he was
soon induced to adopt the latter course by the arrival of
Magilus, prince of the Boii, who brought rich presents with
him, and offered to conduct the Carthaginian army across
the Alps. Nothing could have happened more favourable
to Hannibal’s affairs than the arrival of this prince, since
he possessed a local knowledge of the difficult region to
be traversed, and there was no room to doubt the sincerity
of his intentions; for the Boii bore an implacable enmity
to the Romans, and had even come to an open rupture
with them upon the first news that Italy was threatened
with an invasion from the Carthaginians.
It is not known with absolute certainty where Hannibal He cross
began to ascend the Alps, although the subject has been the A!PS
critically examined and discussed by many very able
writers.1 As soon as he began his march, the petty kings
1 The commonly received opinion now is, that Hannibal, having passed the Rhone in the manner described by Polybius and Livy, ad¬
vanced northwards along its left bank, cutting across the neck of the peninsula formed by the incurvation of the Rhone towards Lyons,
but observing the general direction of the stream ; that he then entered the Insula Allobrogum, a tract included between the Rhone
and the Isere, which he traversed, still keeping a northerly direction ; that having cleared the space between the two rivers, he turn¬
ed off suddenly to the right, proceeded along the valley of the Isere, crossed the Alps by the Little St Bernard, and descended into
Insubria, now Piedmont, between the Doria Baltea and the Orca. This route was first traced out by General Melville, who, with
Polybius in his hand, surveyed the whole line of march, from the passage of the Rhone to the descent into Piedmont, and found it to
agree in almost every particular with the account given by the military historian. As Polybius is remarkable for his general histori¬
cal fidelity, and as he had himself personally investigated Hannibal’s route little more than half a century after the Carthaginian com¬
mander had achieved his celebrated passage, his authority in this matter was justly assumed by the general as decisive; and hence,
in order to discover what line Hannibal had actually followed, it was only necessary to find one which should, upon, the whole, coin¬
cide better than any other with the description of Polybius. But of all the lines by which the Alps could have been crossed in the
time of Hannibal, that of the Little St Bernard alone answered this condition ; and, therefore, General Melville concluded that he
had fully resolved the interesting question which he had proposed to himself in regard to this great achievement. The general him¬
self, however, published nothing on the subject. He gave his notes to M. de Luc of Geneva, by whom they were very skilfully work¬
ed up into the form of a regular discourse, in which are embodied many additional illustrations of the general’s theory, which are due
to the learning and research of the redacteur himself. The same subject is treated with much ability and cogency of reasoning in tne
dissertation of Messrs Wickham and Cramer, which in fact comprehends all that is necessary to be known respecting it. \V ith re¬
gard to the theory of Whitaker, who contends that Hannibal went round by Lyons, and crossed the Alps by the Great St Bernaru,
it is so demonstrably irreconcilable both with time and distance, to say nothing of insurmountable physical obstacles, that it carries
its own refutation along with it. A new theory, differing in some respects from all former ones, has been proposed in a small volume
recently published at Cambridge ; but the anonymous author has failed as signally in the exposition of his own views of the subject,
as in the attack he has thought proper to make, in no measured terms, on the joint production of Messrs Wickham and Cramer ; and
of the route he has proposed, it is sufficient to say, that it is impracticable in itself, and inconsistent with historical authority.
CARTHAGE.
;S
ir Um
:n
of the country assembled their forces in great numbers,
and, taking possession of the eminences over which the
Carthaginians must necessarily pass, continued harassing
them, and were no sooner driven from one eminence than
they seized on another, disputing every foot of ground
with the enemy, and, by the local advantages they possess¬
ed, destroying great numbers of them. Hannibal, however,
having found means to possess himself of an advantageous
post, defeated and dispersed the enemy, and soon after¬
wards took their capital city, where he found the prisoners,
horses, and baggage, that had before fallen into their
hands, and likewise corn sufficient to serve the army for
three days. At last, after a most fatiguing march of nine
days, he arrived at the highest point in the route. Here
he encamped, and halted two days, to give his wearied
troops some repose, and to wait for the stragglers. But
as the snow had recently fallen in great quantity, and co¬
vered the ground, this sight terrified the Africans and
Spaniards, who were much affected with the cold. In or¬
der, therefore, to encourage them, the Carthaginian gene¬
ral led them to the top of the highest rock on the side of
Italy, and thence gave them a view of the large and fruit¬
ful plains of Insubria, informing them that the Gauls, whose
country they .then beheld, were ready to join them. He
also pointed out to them the place whereabout Rome
stood, telling them, that by climbing the Alps they had
scaled the walls of that rich metropolis ; and, having thus
animated his troops, he began to descend the mountains.
The difficulties the troops met with in their descent were
much greater than those which had occurred in the ascent.
They had indeed no enemy to contend with, except some
scattered parties who came to steal rather than to fight;
but the deep snows, the mountains of ice, craggy rocks,
and frightful precipices, proved more terrible than any
enemy. After they had marched for some days through
narrow, steep, and slippery pathways, they came at last
to a place which neither elephants, horses, nor men could
pass. The way, which lay between two precipices, was
exceedingly narrow; and the declivity, which was natu¬
rally very steep, had still become more dangerous by the
falling away of the earth. Here the guides stopped ; and
the whole army being terrified, Hannibal proposed at first
to march round about, and attempt to turn the obstacle
which appeared insurmountable; but all places around
being covered with snow, he found himself reduced to the
necessity of cutting a path into the rock itself, through
which his men, horses, and elephants might descend.
This work was accomplished with incredible labour; when
Hannibal, having spent nine days in ascending, and six in
descending the Alps, at length gained Insubria, and, not¬
withstanding the disasters he had met with by the way,
entered the country with all the boldness of a conqueror.
Hannibal, on his entry into Insubria, reviewed his army,
when he found that of the 50,000 foot with whom he had
set out from New Carthage five months and fifteen days
before, he had now only 20,000, and that his 9000 horse
were reduced to 6000. His first care after entering Italy
was to refresh his troops, who, after so long a march, and
such inexpressible hardships, looked like as many skeletons
raised from the dead, or savages born in a desert. He
did not, however, suffer them to languish long in idleness ;
but, joining the Insubrians, who were then at war with
the Taurinians, laid siege to Taurinum or Turin, the only
city in the country, and in three days carried it by storm,
putting all who resisted to the sword. This struck the
neighbouring barbarians with such terror, that of their own
accord they submitted to the conqueror, and supplied his
army with all sorts of provisions.
In the mean time, Scipio, the Roman general, who had
been sent in quest of Hannibal to the Rhone, and who had
197
even had an affair with his rear-guard on the banks of that Carthage,
river, was surprised to find that his antagonist had crossed
the Alps and entered Italy. He therefore returned with
the utmost expedition; and an engagement ensued near Battle near
the river Ticinus, in which the Romans were worsted, the Tici-
The immediate consequence was, that Scipio repassed that nus.
river, and Hannibal continued his march to the banks of
the Po, where he was detained two days before he could
cross by means of a bridge of boats. He then sent Mago
in pursuit of the enemy, w'ho had rallied their scattered
forces, repassed the Po, and encamped at Placentia. He
next concluded a treaty with several of the Gallic can¬
tons, and having joined his brother with the rest of the
army, again offered battle to the Romans; but this they
thought proper to decline; and at last the consul, intimi¬
dated by the desertion of a body of Gauls, abandoned his
camp, passed the Trebia, and posted himself on an emi¬
nence near that river, where he drew lines round his camp,
and waited the arrival of his colleague with the forces from
Sicily.
Hannibal being apprised of the consul’s departure, sent
the Numidian horse in advance to harass him on his march,
and himself moved at the head of the main body to sup¬
port them in case of need. The Numidians arrived before
the rear of the Roman army had quite passed the Trebia,
and put to the sword or made prisoners all the stragglers
they found there; and Hannibal coming up soon after¬
wards, encamped in sight of the Roman army on the op¬
posite bank. Here, having learned the character of the Romans
consul Sempronius, who had lately arrived, he soon brought again de-
him to an engagement, and entirely defeated him. Tenfeated.
thousand of the enemy retired to Placentia; but the rest
were either killed or taken prisoners. The Carthaginians
pursued the flying Romans as far as the Trebia, but did
not think proper to repass that river, on account of the
excessive cold.
After this action upon the Trebia, Hannibal ordered
the Numidians, Celtiberians, and Lusitanians, to make in¬
cursions into the Roman territories, where they committed
great devastations. During his state of inaction, he en¬
deavoured to win the affections of the Gauls, and likewise
of the allies of the Romans, declaring to the Gallic and
Italian prisoners, that he had no intention of making war
upon them, being determined to restore them to their
liberty, and protect them against the Romans; and to
confirm them in a good opinion of him, he dismissed them
all without ransom.
Next year, having crossed the Apennines, and pene-Battle near
trated into Etruria, Hannibal received intelligence thatLakeThra-
the new consul Flaminius lay encamped with the Roman symenus.
army under the walls of Aretium; and having learned the
true character of this general, who was of a haughty,
fierce, and rash disposition, he doubted not of being soon
able to bring him to a battle. In order to inflame the im¬
petuous spirit of Flaminius, the Carthaginian general took
the road to Rome, and leaving the Roman army behind
him, laid waste with fire and sword the country through
which he passed; and as that part of Italy abounded with
all the elegancies as well as necessaries of life, the Ro¬
mans and their allies suffered an incredible loss on this
occasion. The headstrong consul was inflamed with rage
at seeing the ravages committed by the Carthaginians,
and therefore approached them with great temerity, as
if confident of victory. Hannibal in the mean time kept
still advancing towards Rome, having Crotona on the left,
and Lake Thrasymenus on the right; and at last having
drawn Flaminius into an ambuscade, entirely defeated him.
The general himself, with fifteen thousand of his men, fell
on the field of battle ; a great number were taken prisoners;
and a body of six thousand men, who had fled to a town in
198
Carthage.
CARTHAGE.
Fabius
Maximus
appointed
dictator.
He is out.
witted by
Hannibal.
Etruria, surrendered to Maherbal the next day. Hanni¬
bal lost only fifteen hundred men on this occasion, most of
whom were Hauls ; though great numbers both ot his sol¬
diers and of the Romans died of their wounds. Being
soon afterwards informed that the consul Servilius had
detached a body of four thousand, or, according to Appian,
eight thousand horse, from Ariminum, to reinforce his col-
league in Etruria, Hannibal sent out Maherbal, with all
the cavalry, and some of the infantry, to attack him. The
Roman detachment consisted of chosen men, commanded
by Centenius, a patrician. Maherbal soon fell in with the
enemy, and after a short contest entirely defeated them.
Two thousand Romans were left dead on the spot; and
the rest retiring to a neighbouring eminence, were sur¬
rounded by Maherbafs forces, and obliged next day to
surrender at discretion. This disaster happening within
a few days after the defeat at Lake Thrasymenus, gave
almost the finishing stroke to the affairs of Rome.
The Romans being now in the utmost consternation,
named a dictator, as was their custom in seasons of great
emergency. The person they chose on this occasion was
Fabius Maximus, surnamed Verruscosus, a man as cool
and cautious as Sempronius and Flaminius were warm and
impetuous. Fabius set out with a design not to engage
Hannibal, but only to watch his motions and cut off his
provisions, which he knew was the most proper way to de¬
stroy him in a country so far from his own. Accordingly
he followed him through Umbria and Picenum into the
territory of Adria, and then through the territories of the
Marucini and Frentani into Apulia. When the enemy
marched he followed them; when they encamped he did
the same, but for the most part on eminences, and at some
distance from their camp, watching all their motions, cut¬
ting off their stragglers, and keeping them in a state of
continual alarm. This cautious method of proceeding
greatly distressed the Carthaginians, but at the same time
raised discontents in the Roman army. But neither these
discontents, nor the ravages committed by Hannibal, could
prevail upon Fabius to alter his measures. The former,
therefore, entered Campania, one of the finest countries of
Italy; and the ravages he committed there raised such
complaints in the Roman army, that the dictator, for fear
of irritating his soldiers, was obliged to pretend a desire
of coming to an engagement. Accordingly he followed
Hannibal with greater expedition than usual; but at the
same time avoided, under various pretences, an engage¬
ment, with more care than the enemy sought it. Hanni¬
bal finding he could not by any means bring the dictator
to a battle, resolved to quit Campania, which he found
more abundant in fruit and wine than in corn, and to re¬
turn to Samnium through the pass called Eribanus. Con¬
cluding from his march that such was his design, Fabius
got there before him, and encamped on Mount Calicula,
which commanded the pass, after having placed several
bodies in all the avenues leading to it.
Hannibal was for some time at a loss what to do; but
at last contrived a stratagem, which Fabius could neither
foresee nor guard against. Being encamped at the foot
of Mount Calicula, he ordered Asdrubal to pick out from
among the cattle taken in the country two thousand of the
strongest and nimblest oxen, to tie faggots to their horns,
and to have them with the herdsmen ready without the
camp. After supper, when all was quiet, the cattle were
brought in good order to the hill, where Fabius had placed
some Roman parties in ambush to stop up the pass. Upon
a signal given the faggots upon the horns of the oxen were
set on fire; and the herdsmen, supported by some bat¬
talions armed with small javelins, drove them on quietly.
The Romans seeing the light of the fires, imagined that
the Carthaginians were marching by torch-light. How¬
ever, Fabius kept close in his camp, depending on the troops Cartiia*
he had placed in ambuscade; but when the oxen, feeling
the fire on their heads, began to run up and down the hills,
the Romans in ambush thought themselves surrounded
on all sides, and climbing the paths where they saw least
light, returned to their camp, leaving the pass open to
Hannibal. Fabius, though rallied by his soldiers for being
thus overreached by the Carthaginian, still continued to
pursue the same plan, marched directly after Hannibal,
and encamped on some eminences near him.
Soon after this, the dictator was recalled to Rome ; and
as Hannibal, notwithstanding the ravages he had commit¬
ted, had all along spared the lands of Fabius, the latter
was suspected of holding a secret correspondence with
the enemy. In his absence, Minucius, the general of the
horse, gained some advantages, which greatly tended to
increase the dissatisfaction with the dictator, insomuch that
before his return Minucius was placed upon an equal foot¬
ing with himself. The general of the horse proposed that
each should command his day; but the dictator chose ra¬
ther to divide the army, hoping by that means to save at
least part of it. Hannibal soon found means to draw Mi-Mimic.,
nucius into an engagement, and, by his masterly skill in relieve
laying ambuscades, the Roman general was surrounded onFablus-
every side, and would have been cut off with all his troops,
had not Fabius hastened to his assistance, and relieved him.
Then the two armies uniting, advanced in good order to
renew the fight; but Hannibal, not caring to venture a
second action, sounded a retreat, and retired to his camp;
and Minucius, ashamed of his rashness, resigned the com-
mand of the army to Fabius.
The year following the Romans augmented their army Battle c
to 87,000 men, horse and foot, under the command ofCanns,
Aimilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, the consuls for the
year; and Hannibal being reduced to the greatest straits
for want of provisions, resolved to abandon Samnium and
penetrate into the heart of Apulia. Accordingly he de¬
camped in the night; and as he left fires burning, and
tents standing in his camp, the Romans for some time be¬
lieved that his retreat was only feigned. When the truth
was discovered, iEmilius declared against pursuing him;
but in this he was seconded by few besides Servilius, one
of the consuls of the preceding year; Terentius and all
the other officers being obstinately bent on pursuit. They
accordingly overtook the enemy at Cannae, till this time
an obscure village in Apulia, and a battle ensued at this
place, as memorable as any mentioned in history. In this
desperate conflict the Romans, though almost twice the
number of the Carthaginians, were put to flight with ter¬
rible slaughter, about 45,000 being left dead on the field
of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners in the action or pur¬
suit. The night was spent in Hannibal’s camp in feasting
and rejoicings, and next day in stripping the dead bodies
of the unhappy Romans ; after which the victorious gene¬
ral invested their double camp, where he found 4000 men.
The immediate consequence of this victory, as Hanni-Conse-
bal had foreseen, was a disposition on that part of Italy ^r‘t^
called the Old Province, Magna Graecia, Tarentum, and^.
part of the territory of Capua, to submit to him. The
neighbouring provinces likewise discovered an inclination
to shake off the Roman yoke, but wanted first to see whether
Hannibal was able to protect them. The latter, accord¬
ingly, being informed that the Hirpini and other neigh¬
bouring nations were disposed to enter into an alliance
with the Carthaginians, marched into Samnium, and ad¬
vanced to Compsa, which opened its gates to him. In
this place he left his heavy baggage, as well as the im¬
mense plunder he had acquired; after which he ordered
his brother Mago, with a body of troops destined for that
purpose, to occupy all the fortresses in Campania, the most
CART
;e. delicious province of Italy. The humanity with which
r' Hannibal had all along treated the Italian prisoners, as
well as the fame of the complete victory he had lately
obtained, wrought so powerfully upon the Lucani, Bruttii,
and Apulians, that they expressed an eager desire of being
taken under his protection; nay, even the Campanians
themselves, a nation more obliged to the Romans than
any in Italy except the Latins, discovered an inclination
j ub-to abandon their natural friends. Of this the Carthagi¬
nian general received intelligence, and immediately bent
ll:'a1, his march towards Capua, not doubting but that, by means
of the popular faction there, he should easily make himself
master of the place, which he accordingly did. Soon after
this place had submitted, many cities of the Bruttii open¬
ed their gates to Hannibal, who ordered his brother Mago
to take possession of them. Mago was then dispatched to
Carthage, with the important news of the victory at Can¬
nae, and the consequences attending it. Upon his arrival
there, he acquainted the senate that Hannibal had defeat¬
ed six Roman generals, four of whom were consuls, one
dictator, and a general of horse; that he had engaged six
consular armies, killed two consuls, wounded one, and
driven another out of the field with scarcely fifty men to
attend him ; that he had routed the general of the horse,
who was of equal power with the consuls ; and that the
dictator was esteemed the only general fit to command an
army, merely because he had not the courage to engage
him : and as a demonstrative proof of what he advanced,
he produced, according to some authors, three bushels and
a half of gold rings, taken from knights and senators who
had been killed in the various engagements,
ner Hitherto we have seen Hannibal almost uniformly vic-
1 nl- torious; and, indeed, if we call to mind what he had al¬
ready done, we must consider his exploits as superior to
those of any other general of ancient times. Other com¬
manders have been celebrated for victories gained over
barbarous and uncivilized nations. Alexander the Great,
for instance, invaded and overran the empire of Persia;
but that kingdom was then sunk in debasement and effe¬
minacy ; and if that great commander had turned his arms
against the western nations, which were of a more martial
disposition, it is more than probable he would not have
conquered so easily. Hannibal, on the other hand, lived
at a time when the Romans were not only the most power¬
ful, but the most warlike nation in the world ; yet that
nation he attacked with an army of only 26,000 men, with¬
out resources either of recruits, money, or provisions, ex¬
cept what he could procure in the enemy’s country. With
these means he had for three years resisted the Roman
armies, which had been hitherto invincible by all other
nations. Their armies had been commanded by generals
of different tempers, dispositions, and abilities ; and the
losses they had sustained were by the Roman writers im¬
puted to the faults of the generals themselves; but expe¬
rience had abundantly proved that these commanders,
with all their defects, were able to conquer the most war¬
like nations when commanded by any one but Hannibal.
In the battles fought with the Romans he had destroyed
200,000 of their men, and taken 50,000 prisoners. Yet
from the time of the battle of Cannae, the affairs of this
f great man totally declined. The reason of this, as stated
.:tmeby the Roman historians, is, that when he put his army
J winter quarters in Capua, he so enervated himself
and them by debaucheries in that place, that he became
no longer capable of coping with the Roman forces. But
this seems by no means to have been the case; for the
Roman historians themselves own, that, after the battle
of Cannae, he gave their armies many severe defeats, and
took a great number of towns in their sight.
The true cause of that reverse of fortune which Han-
H A G E. 199
nibal now experienced, was his not having sufficient re* Carthage,
sources for recruiting his army. On the first news, in-
deed, of his success at Carthage, a body of 4000 Numidian
cavalry, 40 elephants, and 1000 talents of silver, were
granted by the senate. A large detachment of Spanish
forces was also appointed to follow them; and that these
last might be ready in due time, Mago set out immediate¬
ly for Spain to raise in that country 20,000 foot and 4000
horse. Had this ample supply been sent with proper ex¬
pedition, it is by no means probable that the Romans
would have had any occasion to reflect upon Hannibal’s
conduct at Capua; for that general would undoubtedly
have obliged the haughty republic to submit to the supe¬
rior force of his arms in the course of the next campaign.
But, notwithstanding the influence of the Barcinian fac¬
tion at Carthage, Hanno and his adherents found means
not only to retard the march of the supplies intended,
but even to diminish their number. Through the artifices
of that infatuated party, Mago could obtain an order for
only 12,000 foot and 2500 horse ; and even with this in¬
considerable body of troops he was sent into Spain. Han¬
nibal being thus deserted by his country, found himself
obliged to act upon the defensive ; his army amounting
now to little more than 26,000 foot and 9000 horse. But
though obliged to act in this manner, he was only prevent¬
ed from conquering; the utmost efforts of the Roman
power were insufficient to drive this small army out of
Italy in less than fourteen years.
Ihe Romans, however, though greatly reduced, were Measures
not yet exhausted. They were still able to send two con-of the lio-
sular armies into the field, fully recruited and in goodmans-
order; and as neither the Gauls nor Italians were natural
allies of the Carthaginians, they did not fail to abandon
them on the first reverse of fortune. After the Romans
had recovered from the consternation into which they were
thrown by the defeat at Cannae, they chose a dictator, and
recalled Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse, from Sicily.
All the young Romans above seventeen years of age, of
whatsoever rank, were obliged to enlist themselves; as
were also those who had already completed their legal
term of service. By these means four legions and 10,000
horse were soon raised in the city; while the allies of
Rome, the colonies, and the municipia, furnished their
contingents as usual. To these were added 8000 of the
youngest and strongest slaves in the city, whom the re¬
public purchased of their masters, but did not oblige to
serve without their own consent, which they gave, by an¬
swering Volo, “ I am willing;” and hence they were called
volones, to distinguish them from the other troops. As
the Romans, after the loss of so many battles, had no
swords, darts, or bucklers, left in their magazines, the
volones were supplied with the arms which had been for¬
merly taken from the enemy, and hung up in the public
temples and porticoes. The finances of Rome were no
less exhausted; but this defect was supplied by the libe¬
rality of her citizens. The senators showing the exam¬
ple, were followed first by the knights, and afterwards by
the tribes ; who, stripping themselves of all the gold they
had, brought it to the public treasury. The senators only
reserved their rings, and the bullce. about their children’s
necks. As for the silver coin, it was now, for the first
time, alloyed with copper, and increased in value. Thus
the finances were put into a tolei’able condition, and a
competent army raised.
This was plainly the last effort the Romans could make ;
and if Hannibal had procured a sufficient supply of men
and money to enable him to cope with their new^rmy,
and to break it as he had done the others before*here
would have been no more resistance on their part. He
began, however, to be in want of money; and, in order to
200
CARTHAGE.
Carthage procure it, gave the Roman prisoners permission to ran- while they were totally unable to hurt their adversaries Garth,
som themsefves. These unhappy men agreed to send ten with the short javelins they carried. Marcellus pursued W
of their body to Rome to negotiate their redemption; them closely, and, before they got to then camp, died
and Hannibal required no other security for their return 5000, and took 600 prisoners, losing himself about 000
but their oath. Carthalo was sent at their head to make men, who were trodden down by the Numidian horse, com-
Asdrubal
defeated
by the
Romans
in Spain.
proposals of peace; but upon the first news of his arrival, manded by Hannibal in person. After this de eat the
thePdictator dispatched a lictor to command him immedi- Carthaginian genera found himself deserted by 1200 of
ately to quit the Roman territory; and it was resolved his best horse, partly Spaniards and partly Numidians,
not ^to redeem the captives. Upon this • Hannibal sent who had rrossed the Alns with him. Phis touched him
the most considerable of them to Carthage; and of the
rest he made gladiators, obliging them to fight with one
another, even relations with relations, for the entertain¬
ment of the troops.
At this time Cneius and Publius Scipio carried on the
war in Spain with great success against the Carthaginians.
Asdrubal had been ordered to enter Italy with his army
who had crossed the Alps with him. Phis touched him
so sensibly, that he left Campania, and retired into Apulia.
The Romans still continued to increase their forces;
and Hannibal, not having the same resources, found it im¬
possible to act at once against so many armies. Fabius
Maximus advanced into Campania, whither Hannibal was
obliged to return, in order to save Capua. He ordered Defea
Hanno, however, at the head of 17,000 foot and 1700 horse, Hann
to assist Hannibal; but being defeated by the Romans, to seize Beneventum; but the latter was utterly defeated,
was prevented doing so. The dictator and senate of and scarcely 2000 of his men were left alive Hannibal^
Rome, encouraged by this news, carried on the prepara- himself, in the mean time, advanced to Nola, where he was
tions for the next campaign with the greatest vigour, whilst again defeated by Marcellus. Pie now began to lose ground
Hannibal remained inactive at Capua. This inaction, how- on all sides. The Romans retook Casihnum, Accua m
ever, seems to have proceeded from his expectation of Apulia, Arpi, and Aternum; but the city of Parentum was
succours from Africa, which never arrived; and this delay delivered up to him by its inhabitants. I he Romans then
occasioned his ruin. The Roman dictator now released entered Campania, and ravaged the whole country, threat-
from prison all criminals, and persons confined for debt, ening Capua with a siege. The inhabitants immediately
who were willing to enlist themselves ; and of these he acquainted Hannibal with their danger; but he w as so in¬
formed a body of 6000 foot, armed with the broad swords tent upon reducing the citadel of larentum, that he could
and bucklers formerly taken from the Gauls. Then the not be prevailed upon to march to their assistance. In the
Roman army, to the number of about 25,000 men, march- mean time Hanno was again utterly defeated by Pulvius,
ed out of the city under the command of the dictator; his camp ta.ken, and he himself forced to fly into Bruttium
whilst Marcellus kept the remains ofYarro’s army, amount- with a small body of horse. I he consuls then advanced
ing to about 15,000 men, at Casilinum, in readiness to with the design of besieging Capua in form. Rut>in their
march whenever there should be occasion for their ser- way, Sempronius Gracchus, a man of great bravery, and
vjceSi an excellent general, was betrayed by a Lucaman, and kili-
Thus the Roman forces were still superior to those of ed; which proved a very great detriment to the republic.
Hannibal; and as they now saw the necessity of following Capua, however, was soon afterwards mvestedon all sides; apiia
the example of Fabius Maximus, no engagement of any and the besieged having once more sent to Hannibal, he
consequence happened during the first year after the bat- now came to their assistance with his horseHus hght-arm-
Marcellus tie of Cannae. Hannibal made a fruitless attempt upon ed infantry, and thirty-three elephants. He also found
gains an Nola, expecting it would be delivered up to him; but this means to apprize the besieged of the moment when he
advantage was prevented by Marcellus, who had entered that city, designed to engage the Romans, and to order them to
oyer Han- an(j who, sallying unexpectedly from three gates upon the make a vigorous sally in support of the attack. Upon the am
nibal. Carthaginians, obliged them to retire in great confusion, first news of the enemy’s approach, the Roman generals,
with the loss of 5000 men. This was the first advantage Appius and Fulvius, divided their troops ; Appius taking
which had been gained by the Romans where Flannibal upon him to make head against the garrison, and Fulvius
commanded in person, and it raised their spirits not a to defend the intrenchments against Hannibal. Ihe for-
little. But they were as much dejected on learning that mer found no difficulty in repulsing the garrison, and
the consul Posthumius Albinus, with his whole army, had would have entered the city pell-mell along with them,
been cut off by the Boii, as he was crossing a forest, had he not been wounded at the very gate, vvhich pre-
Upon this it was resolved to draw all the Roman forces vented him from pursuing his design, hulvius found it
out of Gaul and other countries, and turn them against more difficult to withstand Hannibal, whose troops be-
Hannibal; so that the Carthaginian stood daily more and haved with extraordinary resolution. A body of Spa-
more in need of those supplies which as yet never arrived niards and Numidians had even the boldness to pass the
Hannibal from Carthage. He, however, reduced the cities of Nu- ditch, and, climbing the ramparts, in spite of all opposi-
takes seve- ceria, Casilinum, Petelia, Consentia, Crotona, Locri, and tion penetrated into the Roman camp; but, not being
ral cities, several others in Magna Graecia, before the Romans gain- properly seconded by the rest, they were cut off to a man.
ed any advantage over him, except that before Nola, al- The Carthaginian general was so disheartened at this,
ready mentioned. The Campanians, who had espoused the especially after the garrison was repulsed, that he sound- ^
Carthaginian interest, raised an army of 14,000 of their ed a retreat, which was effected in good order. His nex^eg^0
own nation in favour of Hannibal, and placed one Marius attempt for the relief of Capua was to march to Rome,
Alsius at the head of it; but the latter was surprised by the where he hoped his approach would strike so much terror
consul Sempronius, who defeated and killed him, with 2000 that the armies wrould be recalled from before Capua; and,
of his men. It was now found that Hannibal had con- that the Capuans might not be disheartened by his sud-
cluded a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, with den departure, he found means to apprize them of his de-
Philip king of Macedon ; but, in order to prevent any dis- sign. The news of his approach caused great consterna-
turbance from that quarter, a Roman army was sent to tion in the metropolis. Some of the senators were for re-
He is de- Macedon. Soon after this Marcellus defeated Hannibal calling the armies from all parts of Italy to the neighbour-
feated by in a pitched battle, having armed his men with long pikes, hood of Rome, thinking nothing less sufficient to resist the
Marcellus. used generally at sea, and chiefly in boarding ships; by terrible Carthaginian. But Fabius told them that Hanm-
which means the Carthaginians were pierced through, bafs design was not to take Rome, but relieve Capua; up-
CARTHAGE.
201
mge. on which Fulvius was recalled to Rome with 15,000 foot
and 1000 horse; and this obliged Hannibal again to re¬
tire. He then returned so suddenly to Capua, that he sur¬
prised Appius in his camp, drove him out of it with the
loss of a great number of men, and obliged him to intrench
himself on some eminences, where he expected to be soon
L sub-joined by his colleague Fulvius. As Hannibal, however,
othenow expected to have all the Roman forces upon him, he
pns. Could do nothing more for the relief of Capua, and con¬
sequently it at once w^as obliged to submit to the Romans.
Lius A little before the surrender of Capua, Hannibal came
lade.up with a Roman army commanded by one M. Centenius
Iby Penula, who had signalized himself on many occasions as
iibal; a centurion. This rash man, having been introduced to
the senate, had had the assurance to tell them, that if they
would entrust him wuth a body of only 5000 men, he would
give a good account of Hannibal. They gave him 8000,
and his army was soon increased to double that number.
He engaged the Carthaginians on Hannibal’s first offering
him battle; but, after an engagement of two hours, he was
defeated and slain, with all his men except about a thou¬
sand. Soon afterwards, having found means to draw the
praetor Cneius Fulvius into an ambuscade, Hannibal cut in
pieces almost his whole army, consisting of 18,000 men.
In the mean time Marcellus was making great progress in
Samnium, where the city of Salapia was betrayed to him ;
but he took two others by assault, in the last of which he
found 3000 Carthaginians, whom he put to the sword, at
the same time carrying off 240,000 bushels of wheat and
i. as 110,000 bushels of barley. This, however, was by no
i ma. means a compensation for the defeat which Hannibal soon
y:0 after inflicted on the proconsul Fulvius Centumalus, whom
1' ‘ he surprised and cut off', with 13,000 of his men.
After this defeat Marcellus advanced with his army to
oppose Hannibal; and various engagements took place,
without any decisive result. In one of these the Romans
are said to have been defeated, and in another Hannibal;
but notwithstanding this, it was neither in the power of
a llus Marcellus nor of any other Roman general totally to defeat
i into or disperse the army commanded by Hannibal in person.
!ys" Nay, in the eleventh year of the war, Hannibal found
means to decoy into an ambuscade and cut off Marcellus
himself; the consequence of which was, that the Romans
were obliged to raise the siege of Locri, with the loss of
all their military engines.
of Hitherto the Carthaginians, though no longer the favour-
d oaL ites of fortune, had lost but little ground ; but now they
met with a blow which totally ruined their affairs. This
was the defeat of Asdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, who had
left Spain, and was marching to his assistance. He cross¬
ed the Pyrenees without any difficulty; and as the silver
mines had supplied him with a great quantity of treasure,
he not only prevailed upon the Gauls to grant him a pas¬
sage through their territories, but likewise to furnish him
with a considerable number of recruits. Meeting with
many favourable circumstances to expedite his march,
he arrived at Placentia sooner than either the Romans
or his brother Hannibal expected. Had he continued
to use the same expedition with which he set out, and
hastened to join his brother, it would have been ut¬
terly impossible to save Rome ; but, sitting down before
Placentia, he gave the Romans time to concentrate their
forces in order to attack him. At last he was obliged to
raise the siege, and began his march for Umbria. He sent
a letter to acquaint his brother of his intended move¬
ment ; but the messenger was intercepted ; and the two
consuls, having formed a junction, fell upon the Carthagi¬
nians with their united forces. As the latter were inferior
both in numbers and resolution, they were utterly de¬
feated, and Asdrubal himself was killed. About the same
VOL. VI.
time Hannibal is said to have suffered several defeats, Carthage,
and retired to Canusium ; but on the fatal news of his —.'--w
brother’s overthrow and death he was filled with despair,
and withdrew to the extremity of Bruttium, where, assem¬
bling all his forces, he remained for a considerable time in
a state of inaction, the Romans not daring to disturb him ;
so formidable did they esteem him alone, though every •
thing about him went to wreck, and the Carthaginian af¬
fairs seemed approaching the verge of ruin. Livy tells
us, that it was difficult to determine whether his conduct
was more wonderful in prosperity or in adversity. But
notwithstanding this, Bruttium being a small province,
and many of its inhabitants being either forced into the
service, or forming themselves into parties of banditti,
so that a great part of it remained uncultivated, he found
it a difficult matter to subsist there, especially as no man¬
ner of supplies were sent him from Carthage. The people
of that ill-fated republic were as solicitous about preserv¬
ing their possessions in Spain, and as little concerned
about the situation of affairs in Italy, as if Hannibal had
met with an uninterrupted course of success, and as if no
disaster had befallen him since he first entered that country.
All their solicitude, however, about the affairs of Spain Progress of
was to no purpose ; for their generals, one after another, Scipio Af-
were defeated by the Romans. They had indeed cut offricanus.
the two Scipios; but they found a much more formidable
enemy in the young Scipio, afterwards surnamed Africa-
nus, who overthrew them in conjunction with Masinissa
king of Numidia, who soon afterwards abandoned their in¬
terest ; an example which was shortly after followed by
Syphax king of the Masaesylii. Scipio also inflicted on the
Spanish reguli, or petty princes, a great overthrow, and
reduced the cities of New Carthage, Gades, and many
other important places. At last the Carthaginians be¬
gan to open their eyes, but it was now too late. Ma-
go was ordered to abandon Spain, and sail with all expe¬
dition to Italy. He landed on the coast of Liguria with
an army of 12,000 foot and 2000 horse, where he surpris¬
ed Genoa, and also seized upon the town and port of
Savo. A reinforcement was sent him to this place, and
new levies went on very briskly in Ligui’ia; but the op¬
portunity was past, and could not be recalled. Scipio Scipio
having carried all before him in Spain, passed over into lands in
Africa, where he met with no enemy capable of opposing Africa,
his progress. The Carthaginians, then, seeing themselves
on the brink of destruction, were obliged to recal their
armies from Italy, in order to save their city. Mago, who
had entered Insubria, was defeated by the Roman forces
there; and having retreated into the maritime parts of Mago and
Liguria, met a courier, who brought him orders to return Hannibal
directly to Carthage. At the same time Hannibal wasrecaffe(b
likewise recalled. When the messengers acquainted him
with the senate’s pleasure, he expressed the utmost indig¬
nation and concern ; groaning, gnashing his teeth, and
scarce refraining from tears. Never did banished man,
according to Livy, show so much regret in quitting his
native country, as Hannibal evinced at leaving that of the
enemy.
The Carthaginian general had no sooner landed in Africa Hannibal’s
than he sent out parties to procure provisions for the army, proeeed-
and buy horses to remount the cavalry. He entered intoingsin
a league with the regulus of the Arcacidae, one of the Nu-Africa,
midian tribes ; and four thousand of Syphax’s horse came
over in a body to him; but as he did not think proper to
repose any confidence in them, he put them all to the
sword, and distributed their horses amongst his troops.
Vermina, one of Syphax’s sons, and Macetulus, another
Numidian prince, likewise joined him with a considerable
body of horse ; and most of the fortresses in Masinissa’s
kingdom either surrendered to him upon the first sum-
202 CART
Carthage, mons, or were taken by force. Narce, a city of consider-
v—able note, be obtained possession of by stratagem. Ty-
cbaeus, a Numidian regains, and faithful ally of Sypbax,^
whose territories were famous for an excellent breed ot
horses, reinforced*him also with 2000 of his best cavalry;
and Hannibal advanced to Zama, a town about five days
journey distant from Carthage, where he encamped. He
then sent out spies to observe the position of the Ro¬
mans, and report. They were however made prisoners and
brought before Scipio, who, far from inflicting any pu¬
nishment upon them, which he might have done by the
laws of war, commanded them to be led about the camp, in
order that they might take an exact survey of it, and then
His inter- dismissed them. Hannibal, admiring the noble confidence
view with of his rival, sent a messenger to desire an interview with
Scipio. which, by means of Masinissa, he obtained. Escort¬
ed by equal detachments of horse, the two generals ac¬
cordingly met at Nadagara, where, by the assistance of
interpreters, they held a private conference. Hannibal
flattered Scipio in the most refined and artful manner,
expatiating upon all those topics which he thought calcu¬
lated to influence that general to grant his nation a peace
upon tolerable terms, and protesting that the Carthagi¬
nians would willingly confine themselves to Africa, since
such was the will of the gods, in order to procure a last¬
ing peace, whilst the Romans should be at liberty to ex¬
tend their conquests to the remotest nations. Scipio an¬
swered, that the Romans were not prompted by ambition
nor any sinister views to undertake either the former or
present war against the Carthaginians, but by justice and
a proper regard for their allies. He also observed, that
the Carthaginians had, before his arrival in Africa, not
only made him the same proposals, but likewise agreed
to pay the Romans 5000 talents of silver, to restore all
the Roman prisoners without ransom, and to deliver up
all their galleys. He insisted on the perfidious conduct
of the Carthaginians, who had broken a truce concluded
with them; and added, that, so far from granting them
more favourable, they ought to expect more rigorous
terms, which, if Hannibal would submit to, peace might
be concluded; if not, the decision of the dispute must be
left to the sword.
The battle This conference betwixt two of the greatest generals
of Zama, the world had ever produced thus ending in nothing,
they retired to their respective camps, where they inform-
bal anm" et^ th6’1' troops, that not only the fate of Rome and Car¬
thage, but that of the whole world, was to be determined
by them the next day. An engagement ensued, in which,
as Polybius informs us, the surprising military genius of
Hannibal displayed itself in an extraordinary manner. Sci¬
pio likewise, according to Livy, pronounced a high enco¬
mium upon him, on account of his uncommon capacity in
taking advantages, the excellent arrangement of his forces,
and the manner in which he gave his orders during the
engagement. The Roman general, indeed, not only ap¬
proved his conduct, but openly declared that it was supe¬
rior to his own. Nevertheless, being vastly inferior to the
enemy in horse, and the state of Carthage obliging him to
hazard a battle with the Romans at great disadvantage,
Hannibal was utterly routed, and his camp taken. He
fled first to Thon, and afterwards to Adrumentum, whence
he was recalled to Carthage, where on his arrival he ad¬
vised his countrymen to conclude a peace with Scipio, on
whatever terms he thought proper to prescribe.
Peace con- Thus was the second war of the Carthaginians with the
eluded. Romans concluded. The conditions of peaee.were very
humiliating to the Carthaginians. They were obliged to
give up all the Roman deserters, fugitive slaves, prisoners
of war, and all the Italians whom Hannibal had obliged
to follow" him. They also delivered over all their ships of
H A G E.
war, except ten triremes, and all their tame elephants, and Garth
became bound not to train up any more of these animals for 'w-Yf
the service. They were not to engage in any war without
the consent of the Romans. They engaged to pay to the
Romans in fifty years 10,000 Euboic talents, in equal pay¬
ments. They were to restore to Masinissa all they had
usurped from him or his ancestors, and to enter into an
alliance with him. They were also to assist the Romans
both by sea and land whenever they were called upon
to do so, and never to make any levies either in Gaul or
Liguria. These terms appeared so intolerable to the po¬
pulace, that they threatened to plunder and burn the
houses of the nobility; but Hannibal having assembled a
body of 6000 foot and 500 horse at Marthama, prevented
an insurrection, and by his influence completed the ac¬
commodation.
The peace between Carthage and Rome was scarcely
signed when Masinissa unjustly made himself master ofnianscii
part of the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, on the pre-pressei
tence that these had formerly belonged to his family. TheMasina
Carthaginians, through the sinister mediation of the Ro¬
mans, found themselves under the necessity of ceding these
countries to that ambitious prince, and of entering into an
alliance with him. An apparent good understanding be¬
tween the twro powers continued for many years after¬
wards ; but at last Masinissa violated the treaties subsist¬
ing betwixt him and the Carthaginian republic, and not a
little contributed to its subversion.
After the conclusion of the peace, Hannibal still kept
up his credit among his countrymen ; and he was intrusted
with the command of an army against some neighbouring
nations in Africa; but this being disagreeable to the Ro¬
mans, he wTas removed from it, and raised to the dignity
of praetor in Carthage. Here he continued for some time,
reforming abuses, and putting the affairs of the republic in¬
to a better condition ; but as this likewise proved disagree-Hannillj
able to the Romans, he was obliged to fly to Antiochus, flies to;
king of Syria. After his flight the Romans began to looktioclius,
upon the Carthaginians with a suspicious eye; though, to
prevent every thing of this kind, the latter had ordered
two ships to pursue Hannibal, had confiscated his effects,
razed his house, and by a public decree declared him an
exile. Soon afterwards, disputes having arisen between the Proceeil1
Carthaginians and Masinissa, the latter, notwithstandingingsofJlj
the manifest iniquity of his proceedings, was supported bysjniM
the Romans. That prince, grasping at further conquest,
endeavoured to embroil the Carthaginians with the Ro-m
mans, by asserting that the former had received ambassa¬
dors from Perseus, king of Macedon ; that the senate had
assembled in the temple of iEsculapius in the night time, in
order to confer with them ; and that ambassadors had been
dispatched from Carthage to Perseus, in order to conclude
an alliance with him. Not long after this, Masinissa made
an irruption into the province of Tysca, where he soon
possessed himself of seventy, or, according to Appian, fifty
towns and castles. This obliged the Carthaginians to ap¬
ply with great importunity to the Roman senate for re¬
dress ; their hands being so tied up by an article in the
last treaty that they could not repel force by force, in
case of an invasion, without their consent. Their ambas¬
sadors requested that the Roman senate would settle once
for all what dominions they were to have, that they might
from thenceforth know what they had to depend upon ; or,
if their state had in any way offended the Romans, they
begged that the latter would punish them themselves, ra¬
ther than leave them exposed to the insults and vexations
of a merciless tyrant; and then prostrating themselves on
the earth, they burst out into tears. But, notwithstanding
the impression made by their speech, the matter was left
undecided ; so that Masinissa remained at liberty to pur-
CART
nage. sue what course he pleased. But whatever designs the
^ Romans might have entertained with respect to the re¬
public of Carthage, they affected to show great regard to
the principles of justice and honour. They therefore sent
Cato, a man who scrupled not to commit enormities under
the specious pretence of public spirit, into Africa, to ac¬
commodate all differences betwixt Masinissa and the Car¬
thaginians. The latter very well knew their fate had they
submitted to such a mediation; they therefore appealed
to the treaty concluded with Scipio, as the only rule by
which their conduct and that of their adversary ought to
be tried. But this reasonable appeal so incensed the righ¬
teous Cato, that he pronounced them a devoted people,
and from that instant resolved upon their destruction. For
some time he was opposed by Scipio Nasica ; but the people
of Carthage knowing that the Romans were their inveterate
enemies, and reflecting upon the iniquitous treatment which
they had met with from them ever since the commence¬
ment of their disputes with Masinissa, were under great
apprehensions of an invasion. To prevent a rupture as
much as possible, they, by a decree of the senate, impeach¬
ed Asdrubal, general of the army, and Carthalo, command¬
er of the auxiliary forces, together with their accomplices,
as guilty of high treason, and as being the authors of the w'ar
against the king of Numidia. They sent a deputation to
Rome to discover what sentiments were entertained there
of their late conduct, and to ascertain what satisfaction the
Romans required; and their envoys meeting with a cold
reception, others were dispatched, who returned with the
same success. This led the unhappy citizens of Carthage
to believe that their destruction was resolved upon, and
consequently threw them into the utmost despair. And
indeed they had but too just grounds for such a melan¬
choly apprehension, as the Roman senate now discovered
an inclination to adopt the measures suggested by Cato.
About the same time the city of Utica, the second in
Africa, and famous for its immense riches, as well as its
commodious and capacious port, submitted to the Ro¬
mans. On obtaining possession of so important a fortress,
which, by reason of its vicinity to Carthage, might serve
as a place of arms in the attack of that city, the Romans
declared war against the Carthaginians without the least
a le. hesitation ; and in consequence of this declaration, the con-
•! a- sals M. Manlius Nepos and L. Marcius Censorious were
11 Car-dispatched with an army and fleet to commence hostilities
with the utmost expedition. The land forces consisted of
80,000 foot and 4000 chosen horse; and the fleet of fifty
quinqueremes, besides a vast number of transports. The
consuls had secret orders from the senate not to conclude
the operations but by the destruction of Carthage, without
which, it was pretended, the republic could not but look
upon all her possessions as insecure. Pursuant to the plan
they had formed, the troops were first landed at Lilybaeum
in Sicily, whence, after receiving a proper refreshment, it
was proposed to transport them to Utica,
msa- ihe answer brought to Carthage by the last ambassa-
ivnt dors had not a little alarmed the inhabitants of that city;
1;c- hut they were not as yet acquainted with the resolutions
adopted at Rome. They therefore sent new ambassadors
thither, whom they invested with full powers to act as
they thought proper for the good of the republic, and even
to submit themselves without reserve to the pleasure of
the Romans. But the more sensible persons among them
expected no great success from this condescension, since
the early submission of the Uticans had rendered it infi¬
nitely less meritorious than it would have otherwise been.
However, the Romans seemed to be in some measure sa¬
tisfied with it, since they promised them their liberty, the
enjoyment of their laws, and, in short, every thing that was
dear and valuable to them. This threw them into a trans-
H A G E. 203
port of joy, and they began to extol the moderation of Carthage,
the Romans. But the senate immediately dashed all their
hopes, by acquainting them that this favour was granted
upon condition of their sending three hundred young
Carthaginian noblemen of the first distitiction to the prae¬
tor Fabius at Lilybaeum, within the space of thirty days,
and complying with all the orders of the consuls. These
hard terms filled the whole city with inexpressible grief;
but the hostages were delivered, and as they arrived at
Lilybaeum before the thirty days were expired, the am¬
bassadors were not without hopes of softening their hard¬
hearted enemy. But the consuls only told them that
upon their arrival at Utica they should learn the further
orders of the republic.
The ministers no sooner received intelligence of the Conduct o/
Roman fleet appearing off Utica than they repaired thi-thelto-
ther in order to know the fate of their city. The con-mans-
suls how’ever did not judge it expedient to communicate
all the commands of the republic at once, lest they should
appear so harsh and severe that the Carthaginians would
refuse to comply with them. They first, therefore, de¬
manded a sufficient supply of corn for the subsistence of
their troops; secondly, that the Carthaginians should de¬
liver up into their hands all the triremes they were then
masters of; thirdly, that they should put them in pos¬
session of all their military machines; and, fourthly, that
they should immediately convey all their arms into the
Roman camp.
As care was taken that there should be a convenient
interval of time betwixt every one of these demands, the
Carthaginians found themselves ensnared, and could not
reject any one of them, though they submitted to the last
with the utmost reluctance and concern. Censorinus,
now imagining them incapable of sustaining a siege, com¬
manded them to abandon their city, or, as Zonaras says,
to demolish it; but kindly gave them permission to build
another eighty stadia from the sea, but without walls or
fortifications. 1 his barbarous decree threw the senate
and every one else into despair; and the whole city be¬
came a scene of horror, madness, and confusion. The
citizens cursed their ancestors for not dying gloriously in
the defence of their country, rather than concluding such
ignominious treaties of peace, that had been the cause of
the deplorable condition to which their posterity was then
reduced. At length, when the first commotion had a little The Car-
abated, the senators assembled, and resolved to sustain athaginians
siege. They were stripped of their arms, and destitute ofresolve to
provisions; but despair raised their courage, and madesllsta^n a
them find out expedients. They took care to shut thesie^e’
gates of the city, and gathered together on the ramparts
great heaps of stones, to serve them instead of arms in case
of a surprise. They released the malefactors from prison,
gave the slaves their liberty, and incorporated them in the
militia. They recalled Asdrubal, who had been sentenced
to death only to please the Romans ; and he was invited to
employ in defence of his country 20,000 men whom he had
raised against it. Another Asdrubal was appointed to com¬
mand in Carthage ; and all seemed resolute, either to save
their city or perish in its ruins. They wanted arms; but,
by order of the senate, the temples, porticoes, and all pub¬
lic buildings, were turned into workhouses, where men and
women were continual!}' employed in making arms. As
they encouraged one another in their work, and lost no
time in procuring to themselves the necessaries of life,
which wrere brought to them at stated hours, they every
day made*144 bucklers, 300 swords, 1000 darts, and 500
lances and javelins. As to balistm and catapultae, they
wanted proper materials for them ; but their industry sup¬
plied that defect. Where iron and brass were wanting,
they made use of silver and gold, melting down the sta-
CARTHAGE.
The city
attacked,
and the
Romans
repulsed.
The Ro¬
man fleet
destroyed,
tues, vases, and even the utensils of private families; for
on this occasion even the most covetous became liberal.
As tow and flax were wanting to make cords for working
the machines, the women, even those of the first rank,
freely cut off their hair and dedicated it for that purpose.
Without the walls, Asdrubal employed the troops in get¬
ting together provisions, and conveying them safely into
Carthage; so that there was as great plenty there as in
the Roman camp.
In the mean time the consuls delayed drawing near to
Carthage, not doubting but the inhabitants, whom they ima¬
gined destitute of necessaries for sustaining a siege, would,
upon cool reflection, submit; but at length, finding them¬
selves deceived in their expectation, they appeared before
the place and invested it. As they were still persuaded that
the Carthaginians had no arms, they flattered themselves
that they should easily carry the city by assault. Accord¬
ingly they approached the walls in order to plant their
scaling ladders ; but to their great surprise they discover¬
ed a prodigious multitude of men on the ramparts, shining
in the armour which they had newly made. The legion¬
aries were so terrified at this unexpected sight, that they
drew back, and would have retired, if the consuls had
not led them on to the attack, which, however, proved un¬
successful ; the Romans, in spite of their utmost efforts,
being obliged to abandon the enterprise, and lay aside all
thoughts of taking Carthage by assault. In the mean
time Asdrubal, having collected from all places subject
to Carthage a prodigious number of troops, came and en¬
camped within reach of the Romans; whom he soon re¬
duced to great straits for want of provisions. As Marcius,
one of the Roman consuls, was posted near a marsh, the
exhalations of the stagnant waters, and the heat of the
season, infected the air, and caused a general sickness
among his men. Marcius, therefore, ordered his fleet to
draw as near the shore as possible, in order to transport
his troops to a healthier place. But Asdrubal being in¬
formed of this movement, ordered all the old barks in the
harbour to be filled with faggots, tow, sulphur, bitumen,
and other combustible materials ; and then, taking advan¬
tage of the wind, which blew towards the enemy, let them
drift against their ships, which were for the most part con¬
sumed. After this disaster, Marcius was recalled in order
to preside at the elections ; and the Carthaginians looking
upon the absence of one of the consuls as a good omen,
made a brisk sally in the night, and would have surprised
the consul’s camp, had not iEmilianus, with some squa¬
drons, marched out by the gate opposite to the place where
the attack was made, and, coming round, fallen unexpect¬
edly on their rear, which obliged them to return in dis¬
order to the city.
Asdrubal having posted himself under the walls of a city
named Nepheris, twenty-four miles distant from Carthage,
and situated on a high mountain, which seemed inacces¬
sible on all sides, made incursions thence into the neigh¬
bouring country, intercepted the Roman convoys, fell upon
their detachments sent out to forage, and even caused
parties to insult the consular army in their camp. The
consul, therefore, resolved to drive the Carthaginian from
his advantageous position, and with this view set out for
Nepheris. As he di-ew near the hills, Asdrubal suddenly
appeared at the head of his army in order of battle, and
fell upon the Romans with incredible fury. The consular
army sustained the attack with great resolution ; and As¬
drubal retired in good order to his position, hoping the
. Romans would attack him there. But the consul, being
now convinced of his danger, resolved to retire ; which
Asdrubal no sooner perceived than he rushed down the
hill, and falling upon the enemy’s rear, cut a great number
of them to pieces. But the whole Roman army was saved
by the bravery of Scipio iEmilianus. At the head of 300 carth^
horse he sustained the attack of all the forces commanded Cy,
by Asdrubal, and covered the legions while they passed a The R(.
river in their retreat before the enemy; after which hemanan:
and his companions threw themselves into the stream, and®aJedb
swam across it. When the army had crossed the river, it^jg^
was perceived that four manipules were wanting ; and soon
after they were informed that these companies had retired
to an eminence, where they resolved to sell their lives as
dearly as possible. Upon receiving this intelligence, Mml-
lianus, taking with him a chosen body of horse, and provi¬
sions for two days, crossed the river, and flew to the as¬
sistance of his countrymen. He seized a hill over against
that on which the four manipules were posted, and, after
some hours’ repose, marched against the Carthaginians, who
kept them invested ; fell upon them at the head of his de¬
tachment with the boldness of a man determined to con¬
quer or die ; and, in spite of all opposition, opened a way
for his fellow-soldiers to escape. On his return to the ar¬
my, his companions, who had given him over for lost, car¬
ried him to his quarters in a kind of triumph ; and the
manipules he had saved gave him a crown of gramen. By
these and some other exploits, fEmilianus gained such re¬
putation, that Cato, who is said never to have commended
any body before, could not withhold from him the praises
he deserved ; and, moreover, foretold that Carthage would
never be reduced till Scipio fEmilianus was employed in
that expedition.
The next year the war in Africa fell by lot to the con¬
sul L.Calpurnius Piso ; and he continued to employ iRmi-
lianus in several important enterprises, which, under the
conduct of the latter, were attended with uncommon suc¬
cess. He took several castles ; and in one of his excursions
found means to obtain a private conference with Phameas,
general, under Asdrubal, of the Carthaginian cavalry; and
brought him over, together with 2200 of his horsfe, to the
Roman interest. Under the consul Calpurnius Piso him¬
self, however, the Roman arms were unsuccessful. He
invested Clupea, but was obliged to abandon the enter¬
prise, with the loss of a great number of men killed by the
enemy in their sallies. He then proceeded to vent his
rage against a city newly built, and thence called Neapolis,
which professed a strict neutrality, and had even a protec¬
tion from the Romans. The consul, however, plundered the
place, and stripped the inhabitants of all their effects. Af¬
ter this he laid siege to Hippagretta, which occupied the
Roman fleet and army the whole summer ; and, on the
approach of winter, he retired to Utica, without performing
a single action worth notice during the whole campaign.
The next year Scipio fEmilianus being chosen consul, Scipio is
was ordered to proceed to Africa; and, upon his arrival,chosen
the face of affairs was soon changed. At the time of hisconsu'
entering the port of Utica, 3500 Romans were in imminent
danger of being cut in pieces before Carthage. 1 hey had
seized upon Megalia, one of the suburbs of the city ; but,
as they had not furnished themselves with provisions to
subsist there, and could not retire, being closely invested
on all sides by the enemy’s troops, the praetor Mancinus,
who commanded the detachment, seeing the danger into
which he had brought himself, dispatched a light boat to
Utica to acquaint the Romans in that place with his situa¬
tion. fEmilianus received his letter a few hours after land¬
ing, and immediately flew to the relief of the besieged
Romans, obliged the Carthaginians to retire within their
walls, and conveyed his countrymen safely to Utica. Hav¬
ing then drawn together all the troops, fEmilianus applied
himself wholly to the siege of the capital.
His first attack was upon Megalia, which he carried byCrw
assault, the Carthaginian garrison retiring into the citadel o
of Byrsa. Asdrubal, who had commanded the Carthagi-
--z " ?
CARTHAGE. 205
iage. nian forces in the field, and now acted as governor of the
city, was so enraged at the loss of Megalia, that he caused
all the Roman captives taken in the two years during
which the war had lasted to be brought upon the ramparts,
and thrown headlong from the top of the wall; after hav¬
ing, with an excess of cruelty, commanded their hands and
feet to be cut off, and their eyes and tongues to be torn
out. He was of a temper remarkably inhuman; and it is
said that he even took pleasure in seeing some of these
unhappy men flayed alive. iEmilianus, in the mean time,
was busy in drawing lines of circumvallation and contra-
vallation across the neck of land which joined the isthmus
ige on which Carthage stood to the Continent. By this means
ded all the avenues on the land side of Carthage were shut
iamlup, so that the city could receive no provisions from the
interior. His next care was to raise a mole in the sea, in
order to block up the old port, the new one being already
blockaded by the Roman fleet; and this great work he
effected with immense labour. The mole reached from
the western neck of land, of which the Romans were mas¬
ters, to the entrance of the harbour, and was ninety feet
broad at the bottom, and eighty at the top. The besieged,
when the Romans first began this surprising work, laughed
at the attempt; but they were no less alarmed than sur¬
prised, when they beheld a vast mole appearing above
water, and the port thereby rendered inaccessible to ships,
and useless. Prompted by despair, however, the Carthagi¬
nians, with incredible industry, dug a new basin, and cut a
passage into the sea, by which they could receive the provi¬
sions which were sent them by the troops in the field. With
the same diligence and expedition they fitted out a fleet
of fifty triremes, which, to the great surprise of the Ro¬
mans, appeared suddenly advancing into the sea through
this new canal, and even ventured to give the enemy
battle. The action lasted the whole day, with little ad¬
vantage on either side. The day after, the consul endea¬
voured to make himself master of a terrace which covered
the city on the side next the sea; and on this occasion
the besieged signalized themselves in a most remarkable
manner. Great numbers, naked and unarmed, plunged
et into the water in the dead of the night, with unlit torches
10 in their hands ; and having, partly by swimming, partly
c ies. ^ wading, got within reach of the Roman engines, they
struck fire, lit their torches, and threw them with fury
against the machines. The sudden appearance of these
naked men, who looked like so many monsters that had
started out of the sea, so terrified the Romans who guard¬
ed the machines, that they began to retire in the utmost
confusion. The consul, who commanded the detachment
in person, and had continued all night at the foot of the
terrace, endeavoured to stop his men, and even ordered
those who fled to be killed. But the Carthaginians, per¬
ceiving the confusion among the Romans, threw themselves
upon them like so many furies ; and having put them to
flight by means of their torches alone, they set fire to the
machines, and entirely consumed them. This, however,
did not discourage the consul; he renewed the attack a
few days after, carried the terrace by assault, and effected
a lodgment upon it with 4000 men. As this was an import¬
ant post, because it hemmed in Carthage on the sea side,
-Tmilianus took care to fortify and secure it against the
sallies of the enemy ; and then, winter approaching, he
suspended all further attacks upon the place till the return
of good weather. During the winter season, however, the
consul was not inactive. The Carthaginians had a very
numerous army under the command of one Diogenes,
strongly encamped near Nepheris, whence convoys of pro¬
visions were sent by sea to the besieged, and brought in
by the new basin. To take Nepheris, therefore, was to
deprive Carthage of her chief magazine. This zEmilianus
undertook, and succeeded in the attempt. He first forced Carthage,
the enemy’s intrenchments, put 70,000 of them to the v—
sword, and made 10,000 prisoners; all the inhabitants Great
of the country who were prevented from retiring to Car-slaughter
thage having taken refuge in this camp. After this he laid”.* th.e ^ar'
• siege to Nepheris, which was reduced in twenty-two days/ akrmi:>ns-
Asdrubal, disheartened by the defeat of the army, and
touched with the misery of the besieged, who were now
reduced to the utmost extremity for want of provisions,
offered to submit to such conditions as the Romans pleased
to dictate, provided the city were spared; but this was
absolutely refused.
Early in the spring iEmilianus renewed the siege ofCotho
Carthage ; and in order to open a passage into the city, betaken,
ordered Laelius to attempt the reduction of Cotho, a small
island which divided the two ports. iEmihanus himself
made a false attack on the citadel, in order to distract the
enemy, and withdraw them from the place where the main
effort was to be made. The stratagem had the desired
effect; for the citadel being a place of the greatest im¬
portance, most of the Carthaginians hastened thither, and
made the utmost efforts to repulse the aggressors; and
in the mean time Laelius having, with incredible expedi¬
tion, built a wooden bridge over the channel which di¬
vided Cotho from the isthmus, entered the island, scaled
the walls of the fortress which the Carthaginians had built
there, and made himself master of that important post.
The proconsul, who was engaged before Byrsa, no sooner
understood, by the loud shouts of the troops of Laelius,
that he had made himself master of Cotho, than he aban-The lio-
doned the false attack, and unexpectedly fell on the neigh- mans enter
bouring gate of the city, which he broke down, notwith-the city,
standing the showers of darts that were incessantly dis- ancf set it
charged upon his men from the ramparts. The approach011 l!e‘
of night prevented him from proceeding farther, but he
effected a lodgment within the gate, and waited there for
the return of day, with the design of advancing through the
city to the citadel, and attacking it on that side, which was
but indifferently fortified. Pursuant to this design, at day¬
break he ordered four thousand fresh troops to be sent
from the camp; and having solemnly devoted to the in¬
fernal gods the unhappy Carthaginians, he began to ad¬
vance at the head of his men through the streets of the
city, in order to attack the citadel. Having advanced to
the market-place, he found that the way to the citadel lay
through three exceedingly steep streets ; while the houses
on both sides were of great height, and filled with Cartha¬
ginians, who overwhelmed the Romans as they advanced,
with darts and stones. It therefore became necessary
first of all to clear the houses and streets. With this view
ZEmilianus in person, at the head of a detachment, attack¬
ed the first house, and made himself master of it, sword
in hand. Llis example was followed by the officers and
soldiers, who went on from house to house, putting all
whom they met to the sword. As fast as the houses were
cleared on both sides, the Romans advanced in order of
battle towards the citadel, but met with a vigorous re¬
sistance from the Carthaginians, who on this occasion be¬
haved with uncommon resolution. From the market-place
to the citadel two bodies of men fought their way step by
step ; one above on the roofs of the houses, the other be¬
low in the streets. The slaughter was inexpressibly hor¬
rible. The air rung with shrieks and lamentations. Some
were cut in pieces, while others threw themselves down
from the tops of the houses; so that the streets were fill¬
ed with dead and mangled bodies. But the destruction
was yet greater when the proconsul commanded fire to be
set to that quarter of the town which lay next to the cita¬
del. Incredible multitudes who had escaped the sword
of the enemy perished in the flames or by the fall of the
✓
206 CAR CAR
Cartha- houses. After the fire had lasted six days, and consumed
gen a. a sufficient number of houses, iEmilianus ordered the rub-
bish to be removed, and a large area to be made, where all
the troops might have room to act. He then appeared,
with his whole army before Byrsa; which so terrified the
Carthaginians, who had fled thither for refuge, that fiist
twenty-five thousand women, and then thirty thousand
men, came out of the gates in such a condition as moved
pity even in the Romans, and threw themselves prostrate
before the general, asking no favour but life, hhis was
readily granted, not only to them, but to all that were in
Byrsa except the Roman deserters, whose number amount¬
ed to nine hundred.
Cruelty Asdrubal’s wife earnestly entreated her husband to suf-
and cow- fer her to join the suppliants, and carry with hei to the
ardice of proconsul her two sons, who were as yet very young; but
Asdrubal. tjie barbarian denied her request, and rejected her remon¬
strances with menaces. The Roman deserters seeing them¬
selves excluded from mercy, resolved to die sword in hand,
rather than deliver themselves up to the vengeance of their
countrymen. Finding them all resolved to defend them¬
selves to the last breath, Asdrubal committed to their care
his wife and children, after which, in a most cowardly and
mean-spirited manner, he went privately and threw himself
at the conqueror’s feet. The Carthaginians in the citadel
no sooner understood that their commander had abandon¬
ed the place, than they threw open the gates and put the
Romans in possession of Byrsa. They had now no enemy
to contend with but the nine hundred deserters, who, re¬
duced to despair, retreated into the temple of vEscula-
pius, which formed a sort of second citadel within the first.
There the proconsul attacked them; and these unhappy
wretches, finding there was no way to escape, set fire to
the temple. As the flames spread they retreated from
one part of the building to another, till they got to the
His wi e roof. There Asdrubal’s wife appeared in her best apparel,
destroys and having uttered the bitterest imprecations against her
herself and husband, whom she saw standing below with Atmilianus,
t wo chil- u gage cowar(l?” she exclaimed, “ the mean things thou
hast done to save thy life shall not avail thee; thou shall
die this instant, at least in thy two children.” Having thus
spoken, she stabbed both the infants with a dagger, and,
while they were yet struggling for life, threw them from
the top of the temple, and then leaped down after them
into the flames.
Carthage fEmilianus delivered up the city to be plundered, but
plundered in the manner prescribed by the Roman military law.
and rased. qqie soldiers were allowed to appropriate to themselves
all the furniture, utensils, and brass money, they should
find in private houses ; but all the gold and silver, the sta¬
tues, pictures, and the like, were reserved in order to be
put into the hands of the quaestors. On this occasion the
cities of Sicily, which had often been plundered by the
Carthaginian armies, recovered a number of statues, pic¬
tures, and other valuable monuments; amongst which the
famous brazen bull which Phalaris had ordered to be cast,
and used as the chief instrument of his cruelty, was re¬
stored to the inhabitants of Agrigentum. As iEmilianus
was greatly inclined to spare what remained of this stately
metropolis, he wrote on the subject to the senate, from
which he received the following orders: 1. The city of
Carthage, with Byrsa and Megalia, shall be entirely de¬
stroyed, and no traces of them left. 2. All the cities which
have lent Carthage any assistance shall be dismantled. 3.
The territories of those cities which have declared for the Cartl
Romans shall be enlarged with the lands taken from the gen:
enemy. 4. All the lands between Hippo and Carthage ^>7
shall be divided among the inhabitants of Utica. 5. All the
Africans of the Carthaginian state, both men and women,
shall pay an annual tribute to the Romans at so much per
head. 6. The whole country formerly subject to the Car¬
thaginian state shall be reduced into a Roman province,
and be governed by a praetor, in the same manner as Sicily.
Lastly, Rome shall send commissioners into Africa, there
to settle jointly with the proconsul the state of the new
province. Before iEmilianus destroyed the city, he per¬
formed those religious ceremonies which were required
on such occasions; he first sacrificed to the gods, and
then caused a plough to be drawn round the walls of the
city. After this the towers, ramparts, walls, and all the
works which the Carthaginians had raised in the course
of many ages, and at a vast expense, were levelled with
the ground; and, lastly, fire was set to the edifices of the
proud metropolis, which were all consumed, not a single
house escaping the flames. Though the fire began in many
quarters at the same time, and burnt with incredible fury,
it continued for seventeen, days before all the buildings
were consumed.
Thus fell Carthage, about 146 years before the birth of
Christ; a city whose destruction ought to be attributed
more to the intrigues of an abandoned faction, composed
of the most profligate part of its citizens, than to the
power of its rival. The treasure which fEmilianus carried
off, even after the city had been delivered up to be plun¬
dered by the soldiers, was immense, amounting, accord¬
ing to Pliny, to 4,470,000 pounds weight of silver. The
Romans ordered Carthage never to be inhabited again,
denouncing dreadful imprecations against those who, con¬
trary to this prohibition, should attempt to rebuild any
part of it, especially Byrsa and Megalia. Notwithstand-Rebuilt
ing this, however, about twenty-four years afterwards, C.
Gracchus, tribune of the people, in order to ingratiate
himself with the multitude, undertook to rebuild it, and
for that purpose conducted thither a colony of 6000 Roman
citizens. The workmen, according to Plutarch, were terri¬
fied by many unlucky omens at the time they were tra¬
cing the limits and laying the foundations of the new city;
and the senate being informed of the circumstance, wish¬
ed to suspend the attempt. But the tribune, little affect¬
ed with such presages, continued to carry on the work,
and finished it in a few days. Hence it is evident that
only slight huts were erected in the first instance; but
whether Gracchus executed his design, or whether the
work was entirely discontinued, it is certain that Carthage
was the first Roman colony ever sent out of Italy. Ac¬
cording to some authors, Carthage was rebuilt by Julius
Csesar; and Strabo, who flourished in the reign of Tibe¬
rius, affirms, that in his time it was equal, if not superior,
to any other city in Africa. It was looked upon as the
capital of Africa for several centuries after the commence¬
ment of the Christian era. Maxentius laid it in ashes
about the sixth or seventh year of Constantine’s reign.
Genseric, king of the Vandals, took it a. d. 439; but about
a century afterwards it was re-annexed to the Roman em- ^
pire by the renowned Belisarius. At last, towards theUtterj
close of the seventh century, the Saracens, under Mahom-g^,
med’s successors, so completely destroyed it that there lscenSi
now scarcely any trace or vestige of it remaining.
CARTHAGENA, a city, sea-port, and arsenal of Spain, cure, both from an enemy and from tempests. Two castles
situated on the banks of the Mediterranean Sea. It is in of great strength defend it from the former, whilst high
the province or kingdom of Murcia. The port is very se- mountains surrounding all its sides, and an island called
CAR
a. Escombra in the centre of the entrance, protect the ship-
■ ping from the effects of the latter.
r-'' As the tide in the Mediterranean does not rise suffi-
cientty high to permit docks to be constructed in the usual
manner, they are kept dry by the help of steam-engines
and pumps. Some of the largest ships in the Spanish navy
were built at this arsenal, and, in prosperous times, every
species of store for the building and equipping of ships of
the line were collected here; but the late disasters have pre¬
vented the re-erection of the store-houses, and the whole
marine service has fallen into decay with most deplorable
rapidity. Carthagena is a presidio, or place in which felons
condemned to slavery are kept at work in chains. These
convicts perform the most laborious offices about the ar¬
senal, and are treated with rigorous severity.
The city has very little trade, except the exportation of
barilla, which is made from the ashes of marine plants,
some of which are cultivated, and others grow naturally
on the sea shore. There are manufactures of sail-cloth
and cordage, both for the royal navy and for the supply of
individuals. The hemp and flax of which these are made
is almost wholly grown within the province, which produces
annually about 12,000 quintals: Considerable quantities
of larger ropes and cables are made from esparto, or broom,
the spartium junceum of Linnaeus. The fibres of this plant,
when spun into cordage, make cables which are buoyant,
and therefore less subject to accidents from rocks at the
bottom of the sea than those made from hemp. Cartha¬
gena is the see of a bishop, and has a handsome cathedral,
besides many other churches and convents. By accurate
observations, its latitude is 37. 35. 50. N. and its longitude
0. 29. 13. W. This city contains 29,000 inhabitants.
Carthagena, a province of Colombia, in South Ame¬
rica. With the provinces of Santa Martha and Rio Hacha
it forms the department of Magdalena, bordering on the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Darien. It is about 300
miles in length by 240 in breadth. The country is com¬
posed of mountains and valleys, the former of which are
clothed with forests. There is a great variety of plants
and trees, and perpetual verdure covers the earth. Wheat
and other kinds of European grain do not flourish well,
but Indian corn and rice are raised in quantities sufficient
J to supply the wants of the inhabitants. The climate is
very hot, and from May to December a great deal of rain
falls. The variety and beauty of the birds is remarkable.
Poultry,^ pigeons, partridges, and geese, are good and plen¬
tiful. 1 his province produces pine-apples, papayas, plan¬
tains, and other tropical fruits. See Colombia.
Carthagena, the capital city of the above province, is
situated on a sandy island, on the shore of a large and very
commodious bay, more than two leagues in length. It
contains a handsome cathedral, besides several churches,
convents, and monasteries. The island, which forms a
narrow strait on the south-west, opens a communication
with that part of the land called Tierra Bomba. To the
eastward the city is joined by a wooden bridge to a large
suburb called Xeximani, which is connected with the con¬
tinent by another bridge. The city and suburbs are well
i laid out, the streets being straight, broad, and uniform.
The houses are for the most part built of stone. They
consist chiefly of one story above the ground floor. All
of them have balconies and lattices of wood, which in
this climate is more durable than iron. The climate is
excessively hot; and, like the whole province, Carthagena
suffers from periodical rains. In former times this city
was the scene of frequent contests, and in the late war of
rp^P611^6110.6 was taken and retaken by both parties.
Ihe population amounts to about 20,000, of whom a great
many are of Indian descent. Long. 77. 30. W. Lat. 10.
2o. N.
CAR 207
CARTHU&IANS, a religious order, founded by one Carthu-
Brudo in the year 1080. The Carthusians, so called from sians
the desert of Chartreux, the place of their institution, are II
remarkable for the austerity of their rides. They are not Cartoon-
permitted to quit their cells, except to go to church, with- ''“''V"'”''
out leave ot their superior, nor speak to any person with¬
out leave.. I hey must not keep any portion of their meat
or drink till next day; their beds are of straw, covered
with a felt; their clothing consists of two hair-cloths, two
cowls, two pairs of hose, and a cloak, all of coarse texture.
In the refectory they are enjoined to keep their eyes on
the dish, their hands on the table, their attention on the
reader, and their hearts fixed on God. Women are not
allowed to come into their churches. The actual number
of houses belonging to'this order cannot be accurately as¬
certained. Ihey are divided into sixteen provinces, each
of which has two visitors. There have been several ca¬
nonized saints of this order, four cardinals, seventy arch¬
bishops and bishops, and a great many very learned wri¬
ters.
C ARTOON, or Carton, in painting, is a design drawn
on thick paper, pasteboard, or other material, which is
used as a model for a large picture in fresco, oil, or tapes¬
try ; it was also formerly employed in glass and mo¬
saic. Cartoons are particularly useful in fresco painting.
Ihey are employed in the following manner : the back of
the design is covered with black lead or other colouring
matter; and this side of the picture is then applied to
the wall, when the artist passes over the lines of the design
with a point, and thus obtains an impression. The folloiv-
ing method has also been practised. The outlines of the
figures are pricked with a needle, and the cartoon being
placed against the wrall, a bag of black colouring matter
is drawn over the perforations, and the outlines are thus
transferred to the wall. In fresco painting the figures
were formerly cut out and fixed upon the moist plaster.
Their contour was then traced with a pointed instrument,
and the outlines appeared upon the plaster after the car¬
toon was withdrawn. In the manufacture of tapestries,
upon which it is wished to give a representation of the
figures of cartoons, these figures are sometimes cut out,
and laid behind or under the woof, to guide the operations
of the artist. In this case the cartoons are coloured.
Cartoons have been executed by some of the most dis¬
tinguished masters, but the greatest performances in this
line of art are those of Raphael. They are seven in num¬
ber, and at present adorn the palace of Hampton Court.
With respect to their merits, they were allowed by Barry
to be the best of Raphael’s productions; and Lanzi pro¬
nounces them to be in beauty superior to any thing the
world has ever seen. Not that they are all endowed with
features of perfect loveliness, and limbs of faultless symme¬
try ; but in harmony of design, in the universal adaptation
of means to one great end, and in the grasp of soul which
they display, they are not equalled by any other productions.
The history of these extraordinary works is curious. In
Catholic countries, particularly in Italy and Spain, the bal¬
conies are generally hung with ornamental tapestries upon
festival days, when processions pass through the streets.
This custom, which is still preserved, is of very old date.
Leo X., that distinguished patron of the arts, employed
Raphael in designing a series of scriptural subjects, which
were first to be finished in cartoons, and then to be imi¬
tated in tapestry by Flemish artists, and used for the pur¬
poses above mentioned. Two principal sets were accord¬
ingly executed at Arras, in Flanders, but it is supposed
that neither Leo nor Raphael lived to see them. The set
which went to Rome was twice carried away by invaders,
first in 1526, and afterwards in 1798. In the* first instance
they were restored in a perfect state; but after their re-
208
CAR
CAR
Cartouche turn in 1811. there was one awantmg, the cupidity of a
II Jew having induced him to destroy it for the sake ot Hie
Carvage. precious metal which it contained. Authorities ditter as
t0 their original number, but there appears to have oeen
twenty-five of them. The cartoons after which the tapes¬
tries were wmven were not, it would seem, returned to
Rome, but remained as lumber about the manufactory
until after the revolution of the Low Countries, when seven
of them which had escaped destruction were purchased
by Charles L, on the recommendation of Rubens, lliey
were found much injured, “ holes being pneked in them
for the weavers to pounce the outlines, and in other paits
they were almost cut through by tracing.” It has never
been ascertained what became of the other cartoons. Ot
the seven which remain, various copies have been painted.
Among the best are those by Sir James Thornhill, which
are placed in the Royal Academy. Engravings have also
been taken of them.
CARTOUCHE, in Architecture and Sculpture, an orna¬
ment representing a scroll of paper. It is usually a flat
member, with wavings to represent some inscription, de¬
vice, cipher, or ornament of armoury. Cartouches are, in
architecture, much the same as modillions ; only the latter
are set under the cornice in wainscotting, and the former
are set under the cornice at the eaves of a house.
Cartouche, in the military art, signifies a case of wood,
about three inches thick at the bottom, girt with mailine,
and containing about four hundred musket balls, besides
six or eight balls of iron of a pound weight, to be fired out
of a hobit, for the defence of a pass, or the like.
A cartouche is sometimes made of a globular form, anu
filled with a ball of a pound weight; sometimes it is made
for the guns, being filled with balls of half or quartei a.
pound weight, according to the nature of the gun, tied in
the form of a bunch of grapes, on a tompion of wood, and
coated over. .These were used instead of partridge-shot.
Cartouche, in hieroglyphics, is the term applied by
the French savans to the elliptical ring or oval which in¬
closes every proper name in a monumental inscription. In
the hieratic and demotic, enchorial, or civil forms of writ¬
ing, the cartouche or oval degenerates into rude brackets.
CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a case of paste¬
board or parchment, holding the exact charge of a fire¬
arm. Those for muskets, carabines, and pistols, contain
both the powder and ball for the charge ; those of cannon
and mortars are sometimes in cases of pasteboard or tin,
sometimes in cases of wood, but most frequently in flan¬
nel bags, which are found in practice much more conve¬
nient.
Cartridge-a case of wood or turned iron, covered
with leather, holding a dozen or more musket cartridges.
It is worn upon a belt, and hangs a little lower than the
right pocket-hole.
CARTWRIGHT, William, a divine and poet of some
eminence, born at North way, near Tewkesbury, in Glou¬
cestershire, in September 1611. He finished his education
at Oxford, afterwards went into holy orders, and became
a most florid preacher in the university. In 1642 he ob¬
tained the place of succentor in the church of Salisbury,
and was afterwards chosen junior proctor in the university.
He was also metaphysical reader there. Wit, judgment,
elocution, with a graceful person and behaviour, elicited
from Dean Fell the encomiastic remark, “ that he was the
utmost that man could come to.” He was an expert lin¬
guist, a good orator, and a respectable poet. There are
extant four of his plays and some poems. He died in
1644, aged thirty-three.
CARUCATURIUS, in ancient law-books, he who held
land in soccage, or by plough tenure.
CARVAGE (parvagium), the same with Carrucage.
Henry III. is said to have taken carvage, that is, two marks
of silver for every knight’s fee, towards the marriage of
his sister Isabella to the emperor. Carvage could only be
imposed on tenants in capite.
Carvage also denotes a privilege by which a man is
exempted from the service of carrucage.
CARVER, a cutter of figures or other devices in wood.
Carvers answer to what the Romans called sculptures, who
were different from ccelatores, or engravers, as the latter
wrought in metal.
Carver is also an officer of the table, whose business it
is to cut up the meat, and distribute it to the guests. The
word is formed from the Latin carptor, which signifies the
same thing. The Romans also called him carpus, sometimes
scissor, scindendi magister, and structor. In the great fami¬
lies at Rome the carver was an officer of some consequence;
and there were masters to teach them the art regularly,
by means of figures of animals cut in wood. The Greeks
had also their carvers, called hiarooi, or distributors. In
the primitive times the master of the feast carved for all
his guests. Thus, in Homer, when Agamemnon’s ambas¬
sadors were entertained at Achilles’s table, the hero himself
carved the meat. In later times the same office was on
solemn occasions executed by some of the chief men of
Sparta. There are persons who derive the custom of dis¬
tributing to every guest his portion, from those early ages
when the Greeks first left off feeding on acorns, and learned
the use of corn. The new diet was so great a delicacy
that, to prevent the guests from quarrelling about it, it was
found necessary to make a fair distribution.
GARVIN, a town in the department of the Pas de
Calais, in France, in the arrondissement of Bethune, with
496 houses and 4920 inhabitants.
CARVING, in a general sense, the art or act of cut¬
ting or fashioning a hard body, by means of some sharp
instrument, especially a chisel. In this sense carving in¬
cludes statuary and engraving, as well as cutting in wood.
Carving, in a more particular sense, is the art of engrav¬
ing or cutting figures in wood. In this sense carving, ac¬
cording to Pliny, is prior both to statuary and painting.
CARWAR, a town of Flindustan, in the province of
North Canara, situated in a bay at the mouth of a naviga¬
ble river. It was formerly a noted seat of European com¬
merce, and exported great quantities of cloth, hut has
lately fallen into decay. An English factory was esta¬
blished in the year 1640, and traded with Persia and
Arabia. During the reign of Tippoo the town fell com¬
pletely into decay. Carwar was ceded to the British in
1799. It is fifty-four miles south by east of Goa. Long.
74. 16. E. Lat. 14. 49. N.
CARY, Lucius, Lord Viscount Falkland, was born in
Oxfordshire about the year 1610, and was a young noble¬
man of great abilities and accomplishments. About the
time of his father’s death in 1633, he was made gentle¬
man of the privy chamber to King Charles I. and nnui'-
wards secretary of state. Before the assembling of the
long parliament, he had devoted himself to literature,
and every pleasure which a fine genius, a generous is*
position, and an opulent fortune, could enable him to gra¬
tify. When called into public life, he stood foremost
in all attacks on the high prerogatives of the crown ; but
when civil convulsions came to an extremity, and it was
necessary to choose a side, he tempered his zeal, and
defended the limited powers that remained to monar¬
chy. Still anxious, however, for his country, he seems o
have dreaded equally the success of the royal party an
that of the parliament, and among his intimate friends
often sadly reiterated the word “ peace.” This excellen
nobleman freely exposed his person for the king in ^
hazardous enterprises, and was killed in the thirty-four
Cary
k
Can.
tar
CAS
year of his age, at the battle of Newberry. He wrote
several things, both poetical and political; and in some of
sa. the king’s declarations, supposed to be penned by Lord
/ Falkland, we find the first regular definition of the Eng¬
lish constitution that occurs in any composition published
by authority. His predecessor, the first Viscount Cary,
was ennobled for being the individual who carried to King
James the earliest tidings of Queen Elizabeth’s death.
Cary, Robert, a learned English chronologer, born in
Devonshire about the year 1615. On the restoration he
was preferred to the archdeaconry of Exeter; but on some
pretext he was ejected in 1664, and spent the remainder
of his days at his rectory of Portlemoth, where he died in
1688. He published Palceologia Chronica, a chronology of
ancient times, in three parts, didactical, apodeictical, and
canonical; and translated the hymns of the church into
Latin verse.
CARYTES, in Antiquity, a festival in honour of Diana,
surnamed Caryatis, held at Caryum, a city of Laconia.
The chief ceremony consisted of a dance said to have been
invented by Castor and Pollux, and performed by the vir¬
gins of the place. During Xerxes’s invasion, the Laco¬
nians not daring to appear and celebrate the customary
solemnity, the neighbouring swains, in order to avoid in¬
curring the anger of the goddess by such an intermission,
are said to have assembled and sung pastorals or bucolismi,
which is supposed to have been the origin of bucolic poetry.
CARYATIDES, or Cariates. See Architecture.
CARYL, Joseph, a divine of the last century, bred at
Oxford, and some time preacher to the society of Lin-
coln’s-inn, an employment which he filled with much dis¬
tinction. He became a frequent preacher before the long
parliament, a licenser of their books, one of the assembly
of divines, and one of the candidates for the approbation
of ministers; in all which capacities he showed himself a
man of considerable parts and learning, but evinced great
zeal against the king’s person and cause. On the restora¬
tion of Charles II. he was silenced by the act of uniformity,
and lived privately in London, where, besides other works,
he distinguished himself by a laborious Exposition of the
Book of Job ; and died in 1672.
CARYLL, John, an English poet, of the Roman Catho¬
lic persuasion, was secretary to Queen Mary, the wife of
James II., and one who followed the fortunes of his abdi¬
cated master; who rewarded him, first with knighthood,
and then with the honorary titles of Earl Caryll and Baron
Hartford. How long he continued in the service of the
exiled monarch is not known, but he was in England in
the reign of Queen Anne, and recommended the subject
of the Rape of the Lock to Mr Pope, who at its publica¬
tion addressed it to him. He was also the intimate friend
of Pope’s Unfortunate Lady. He was the author of two
plays, 1. The English Princess, or the Death of Richard
III. 1667, 4to ; 2. Sir Salomon, or the Cautious Coxcomb,
1671, 4to: and in 1700 he published The Psalms of Da¬
vid, translated from the Vulgate, 12mo. In Tonson’s edi¬
tion of Ovid’s Epistles, that of Briseis to Achilles is said
to be by Sir John Caryll; and in Kichols’ Select Collec¬
tion of Miscellany Poems, vol. ii. p. 1, the first eclogue
of Virgil is translated by the same ingenious poet. He
was living in 1717, and at that time must have been a very
old man.
CASA, in ancient writers, and those of the middle ages,
is used to denote a cottage or house.
Casa, Santa, denotes the chapel of the holy virgin at
Loretto. The Santa Casa is properly the house or rather
chamber in which the blessed virgin is said to have been
born, where she was betrothed to her spouse Joseph, where
the angel saluted her, where the Holy Ghost overshadowed
her, and where, by consequence, the Son of God was con-
VOL. VI.
CAS 209
ceived or incarnated. Of this building the Catholics re- Casa
late many wonderful legends, better calculated to exercise It
faith than to produce conviction. Casas.
Casa Grande, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Sonora, situated on the Rio Gila. Here there is still in
existence an immense edifice, supposed to have been rear¬
ed by the ancient Mexicans. It consists of three floors,
with a terrace above them. There is no entrance to the
under floor; and hence, access being only obtained by
means of a scaling ladder, it is supposed that the building
was designed for a fortress. Long. 113. 23. E. Lat. 33.
40. N.
CAS ALE, one of the provinces into which the Italian
kingdom of Sardinia is divided. It is bounded on the
north by Vercelli, on the east by Moltara, on the south by
Alessandria, and on the west by Asti. It extends over
375 square miles, or 239,360 English acres. Though a
part is mountainous, the province yields corn and pulse
sufficient for its consumption, and a surplus of wine and
fruit for the supply" of its neighbours. The breeding of
cattle is considerable. There are no manufactures except
the first steps in the process of preparing silk. It contains
two cities, eighty-eight towns and villages, some large
farming establishments, and 94,370 inhabitants.
Casale, a city, the capital of the province of the same
name, in Sardinia, on the river Po. It wtis once fortified;
but the defences are now in ruins. It contains near twenty
monasteries. The population is 16,150. It is a place al¬
most without trade, but some w ine and silk are produced in
the vicinity. Long. 8.14. E. Lat. 45.10. N.
CASALNUOVO, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Calabria Ulteriore, with 5490 inhabitants. It is
situated in a rich olive district. By an earthquake in 1783,
nearly one half of the then inhabitants were destroyed.
Casalnuovo, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Otranto, containing 4338 inhabitants.
CASALVIERI, a town of Italy, in the province of
Terra di Lavoro, and kingdom of Naples, with 3636 inha¬
bitants.
CASAI de Caceres, a Spanish town in the province
of Estremadura, with 5000 inhabitants, who enjoy a par¬
tial freedom, and have among themselves rather a demo-
cratical constitution. There are sixteen tanneries here,
which employ fifty-one workmen, who annually tan 10,500
pieces.
CASAS, Bartholomeo de Las, bishop of Chiapa, in
Mexico, was descended of a noble Spanish family, and
born at Seville in 1474. At the age of nineteen he went
to St Domingo with his father, Antonio de Las Casas, who
had accompanied Christopher Columbus in his first voyage
to the New World. On his return to Spain he became
an ecclesiastic, and afterwards entered the order of Domi¬
nicans with the view of being employed as a missionary
for the conversion of the Indians. In 1533 we find him re¬
siding in the monastery of St Dominic, in the island of St
Domingo, where he passed his time in preaching the gos¬
pel to the Indians and negroes, and in inculcating huma¬
nity on their oppressors. The most faithful historian of this
epoch, Oviedo Valdes, a Spanish officer, wdio had passed the
greater part of his life in the New World, informs us that
ever since the year 1519 the Indians had been in a state of
insurrection, in consequence of an outrage which had been
offered by a Spanish officer to the wife of the cacique,
Don Henry, who had embraced Christianity. Having in
vain demanded justice, this cacique retired with his people
to the mountains of Beoruko, whence, during nearly four¬
teen years, he made war upon the Spaniards. Peace was,
however, re-established in 1533, principally through the
influence of Las Casas. Oviedo, conquistador though he
was, and as such almost the natural enemy of a man like
2 D
210 CAS CAS
Casas. Las Casas, concludes the twelfth chapter of his work with
■‘"“Y'''-' a tribute to the virtues and zeal of the missionary, who
scrupled not to betake himself to the forests and tlie moun¬
tains in order to reconcile the offended cacique and the In¬
dians with the Spaniards, and who mainly contributed to
bring about the peace which, unhappily, proved of but shoi t
duration, and was followed by the extermination of near¬
ly the whole of the natives.
Before entering the order of St Dominic, Las Casas had
presented to Charles V. several memoirs in favour of the
Indians. But the efforts which he made to alleviate their
sufferings proving fruitless, he proposed to found a colony,
on principles very different from those which were then
followed by his countrymen; and with this view he pre¬
vailed on the emperor to send him to Cumana in the ca¬
pacity of governor. On his arrival at Porto Ricco in lo!9,
with three hundred Castilian emigrants, he immediately
set out for Cumana, in order to establish his colonists in
that territory ; and being aware that his countrymen were
regarded with horror by the natives, he found it neces¬
sary to distinguish his settlers by a particular dress, orna¬
mented with a white cross, in order that they might not
be confounded with the other Spaniards. To conquer the
affection of the natives, by acting in conformity to the be¬
nevolent spirit of the gospel, and by respecting their liber¬
ty and their property, was the plan adopted by Las Casas
and the men who accompanied him. Unfortunately, some
time before his arrival, Spanish pirates, who took the name
of Conquistadores, having made several descents on the
coasts of Trinidad, Venezuela, and Cumana, and seized and
carried away Indians while in the act of trading with and
even entertaining them, the natives, exasperated at this
inhuman perfidy, revenged themselves by putting to death
every Spaniard who fell into their hands. When Las Ca¬
sas arrived at Cumana with his people, Gonzalo Ocampo,
who had been dispatched thither by the governor of St
Domingo in quality of commandant, refused to recognise
his authority; upon which Las Casas, having lodged his
settlers in a fort surrounded with pallisades, repaired to St
Domingo, in order to make known to the governor-general
of the Indies the rebellion of Ocampo. Meanwhile the
latter, by his exactions and his cruelties, goaded the In¬
dians into insurrection ; and as they could not believe that
there were individuals of respectability and humanity
among the Spaniards, they fell indiscriminately on the co¬
lonists of Las Casas and the satelites of Ocampo, and mas¬
sacred all who were unable to effect their escape to the
small island of Cubagua.
But Las Casas was not discouraged nor disheartened.
In fact, we find him continually going from America to
Spain, and returning from Spain to America, in order to
plead the cause of the oppressed Indians. So much zeal
and virtue, however, exasperated against him the oppres¬
sors of this unhappy race ; and another ecclesiastic, Sepul¬
veda, canon of Salamanca, and historiographer to Charles
V., composed a work, entitled “ Democrates Secundus,
seu de justis belli causis: an liceat bello Indos prosequi,
auferendo ab eis dominia possessionesque et bona tem-
poralia, et occidendo eos si resistentiam opposuerint, ut
sic spoliati et subject!, facilius per praedicatores suadeatur
iis fides.” Charles V. prohibited the publication of this
memoir; but it was nevertheless printed at Rome, and
circulated throughout Spain by the monks, in contempt of
the sovereign authority. Las Casas, now bishop of Chi-
apa, answered this abominable libel, in a work which bears
the impress of his character, and is entitled “ Brevissima
Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias.” But Sepul¬
veda did not consider himself as confuted. He demand¬
ed a public conference with Las Casas, and continued to
maintain, in his discourses and his writings, that, accord¬
ing to political law, Charles V. might compel the Indians Casas
to recognise him as their sovereign ; and that, according ||
to the laws of the church, it was a duty to exterminate Ci«ati
every one who refused to embrace the Christian religion.
Charles V. appointed his confessor, Dominico Soto, to exa¬
mine and report on the merits of this dispute; but being
overwhelmed with more urgent affairs, the emperor never
found time to pronounce any decision. Meanwhile the In¬
dians were hunted down and exterminated, or crowded
into the mines ; and it is even alleged that fifteen millions
of them perished in less than ten years.
The devotion of Las Casas to the cause of the poor op¬
pressed Indians gave rise, according to Herrera, to a very
remarkable accusation ; namely, that it was he who recom¬
mended to the Spaniards the trade in negroes, in order to
substitute the blacks for the Indians in the labours of the
colonies. But M. Gregoire, in a memoir entitled Apologie
de B. de Las Casas, inserted in the fourth volume of the
Memoires de la Classe des Sciences Morales et Politiques
de rinstitut, has refuted this calumnious imputation. On
referring to the Spanish and Portuguese writers of that
period, as well as to the works of English authors who have
written on commerce, it will in fact be found, first, that all
the historians, as Raynal, Pauw, and even Robertson, who
have accused the bishop of Chiapa of this barbarous incon¬
sistency, have followed either Herrera, an elegant but par¬
tial historian, or Charlevoix, who, when he speaks of the
Spanish colonies, merely translates Herrera ; and, second¬
ly, that the Spaniards were in the habit of purchasing ne¬
gro slaves from the Portuguese long before the discovery
of the New World, and that, from the commencement of
their establishment in St Domingo, negroes were regularly
imported into that island. Nor is this the only evidence
which maybe adduced to disprove the calumny in question.
There are still extant three manuscript volumes in folio,
from the pen of Las Casas, containing his memoirs, official
and familiar letters, and political and theological works;
which, so far from countenancing the charge brought
against his memory, not only breathe the most ardent
spirit of philanthropy, but, in many passages, show that
the admirable author deeply compassionated the wrongs
and sufferings of the injured Africans.
Las Casas was distinguished both as a theologian and
an historian. He has been accused of exaggeration in the
recital which he has given of the crimes and murders com¬
mitted by the Spaniards in the New World. But he is
borne out by Clavigero, who reluctantly admits the iniqui¬
ties and cruelties of Cortes, Alvaredo, and the other Spa¬
nish chiefs, and represents Mexico, Tlascala, and the.other
neighbouring states, as exceedingly populous at the time of
the conquest; a point, we may add, on which Cortes himself
is perfectly at one with the good bishop. After having pass¬
ed half a century in the New World, and twelve times cross¬
ed the ocean to plead in Spain the cause of the Indians, Las
Casas renounced his bishopric, and returned, in 1554, to
his native country, where, having immortalized himself by
his beneficence, and the practice of all the virtues, he died
at Madrid in 1566. The works of Las Casas are, 1. Bre¬
vissima Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias, already
mentioned; 2. Principia qucedam ex quibus procedendimi
est in disputatione, ad manifestandam et defende'ndamgusti-
tiam Indorum ; 3. Utrum reges et principes, jure aliquo
vel titido et salva conscientia cives ac subditos a regia co¬
rona alienare et alterius dominii particularis ditioni subji-
cerepossint ? Frankfort, 1571 ; 4. Various tracts and pieces
on theology and morals. The original edition of Las Ob-
ras de D. Barth, de Las Casas, Seville, 1552, printed in
Gothic characters, is now very scarce, and for this reason
eagerly sought after by collectors. .
CASATI, Paul, a learned Jesuit, born at Placentia m
CAS CAS 211
mn. 1617. He entered early among the Jesuits; and after hav-
’■w' ing taught mathematics and divinity at Rome, was sent into
Sweden to Queen Christina, whom he prevailed on to em¬
brace the popish religion. He wrote, 1. Vacuumproscrip-
tum; 2. Terra machinis mota, Rome, 1668, 4to; 3. Me-
chanicorum libri octo; 4. I)e Igne Dissertationes, Parma,
1686 and 1695, 2 vols. 4to ; 5. De Angelis Disputatio The-
ologica ; 6. Hydrostatics Dissertationes ; 7. Optics Dispu-
tationes. It is remarkable that he wrote this treatise on
optics at the age of eighty-eight, and after he was blind.
He also wrote several books in Italian.
CASAUBON, Isaac de, was born at Geneva, on the
18th February 1559, his family, which was originally from
Dauphine, having taken refuge in that city after embra¬
cing the reformed religion. He received the rudiments of
his education from his father, who was* latterly minister of
Crest; and his progress was so rapid that at the age of
nine he spoke Latin with correctness and fluency. He
remained under the paternal roof till he was nineteen,
when he entered upon his academical course at Geneva;
and having devoted himself to the study of jurisprudence,
theology, and the oriental languages, he was in 1582 found
qualified to succeed his master, M. Portus, in the chair of
Greek. He married Florence, daughter of M. Etienne ;
and, in 1596, accepted the chair of Greek and belles-let¬
tres at Montpellier, where, however, he remained only two
years, because the salary which had been promised him
was ill paid. Henry IV. informed of his merit, now called
him to Paris, and gave, him a situation similar to that
which he had held in Languedoc. But his religion, the
jealousy of the other professors, and perhaps also his un-
tractable temper, produced misunderstandings, and occa¬
sioned inconveniences, for which, however, he was amply
indemnified by being appointed librarian to the king, with
a salary of four hundred francs, which was a considerable
sum at that period. He was one of the commissioners at
the conference of Fontainbleau, between Cardinal Duper-
ron and Duplessis Mornai, and gave his opinion in favour
of the former and against the latter. It is known, indeed,
that on various important points he dissented from the te¬
nets of the reformed church; and he was even suspected of
a disposition to reconcile himself to the ancient religion ; a
suspicion which was strengthened when his son embraced
the Romish religion, and became a Capuchin. After the
death of Flenry IV. Casaubon went to England in the suite
of Sir Henry Wotton, ambassador extraordinary of King
James I. and was received with great favour by that mo¬
narch, who gave him two prebends, one at Canterbury and
| the other at Westminster, and, besides, conferred on him
a pension of L.200. Casaubon now established himself
definitively in England, and died at London on the 1st of
July 1614. He was buried at Westminster, where a mo¬
nument was erected to his memory. The Protestants of
France always doubted the sincerity of his attachment to
their party: and Pierre Dumoulin, writing to Montague,
bishop of Bath, said that Casaubon had a great inclination
towards popery; that he only adhered to the reformed
religion by reason of his doubts regarding a small num¬
ber of articles; and that he would end by changing his
religion; a prediction which, however, was not verified.
Nevertheless, Casaubon was an able theologian, a scholar
of the first order, a good translator, and an excellent cri¬
tic. Pithou, De Thou, Heinsius, Grsevius, and other
learned men, have all given him the same character.
Cardinal Duperron said of him that, in the belles-lettres,
be knew more than all the Jesuits put together, which
was manifestly an exaggeration; and added, that when
he spoke French, he appeared to be a peasant, but when
he spoke Latin, he seemed to employ his native tongue,
which was not far from the truth. His Latin, however,
is deformed by Gallicisms, and his historical works are not Casaubon,
free from inaccuracies. A complete list of his works would '+**~\-**'*1
of itself fill several columns. The principal are, 1. In
Diogenem La'drtium Nots, 1583, 8vo; 2. Polysni Strata-
gematum, Gr. et Lat. cum Notts Casauboni, Lyons, 1589,
8vo; 3. Aristotelis Opera, Gr. et Lat. Lyons, 1590; 4.
Theophrasti Characteres, Gr. et Lat. Lyons, 1622; 5.
Suetonii Opera, cum anirnadversionibus, Paris, 1606, 4to;
6. Persii Satyrs, cum Comment. Paris, 1608, 8vo; 7.
Polybii Opera, Gr. et Lat. Paris, 1609; 8. De Satyrica
Grscorum Poesi et Romanorum Satyra, libri duo, Paris,
1605, 8vo; 9. Exercitationcs in Daronium, London, 1614,
folio; \0. De Libertate Ecclesiastica, liber singularis, 1607;
11. Ad Frontonem Ducsum Epistola, London, 1611; 12.
Casauboni Epistols, the best edition of which is that of
Ameloveen, Rotterdam, 1709.
Casaubon, Meric, son of the preceding, was born at
Geneva, on the 14th of August 1599. Having commenced
his studies at the Protestant academy of Sedan, he follow¬
ed his father to England, and went to pursue them at
Christ College, Oxford, where he took the degree of mas¬
ter of arts in 1621. He was appointed curate of Bledon
in the county of Somerset, prebendary of Canterbury, and
rector of Wickham; but the great revolution which con¬
ducted Charles I. to the block deprived him of all his pre¬
ferments. A proposal was afterwards made to him upon
the part of Oliver Cromwell, to write the history of the
civil war, a task in the performance of which he was as¬
sured that he might exercise the greatest impartiality;
and at the same time a pension was offered to him with
reversion to his children, and determinable only by the
death of the youngest of them. But he respectfully de¬
clined to undertake the proposed wrork, upon the ground
that it would be equally unsuitable to his character and
principles, and that he might conceive himself obliged to
introduce reflections which could scarcely fail to be dis¬
pleasing to the protector. Notwithstanding this refusal,
however, Cromwell, sensible of his integrity and worth,
ordered a gratuity of L.400 to be tendered him by a book¬
seller in London; but Casaubon, although his circum¬
stances were then straitened, rejected the offer, which he
could only consider as in reality a bribe. Christina, queen
of Sweden, also attempted, by her ambassador, to induce
him to repair to that country, promising him a suitable
appointment; but with no better success, for he had re¬
solved to spend the remainder of his days in England. At
the restoration he was rewarded for his unalterable fidelity,
bybeing reinstated in all his benefices, whichhe enjoyedtill
the period of his death, which happened on the 14th July
1671. He was interred in the cathedral of Canterbury,
where a monument with a suitable inscription was erected
to his memoiy. Casaubon was a pious man, charitable to
the poor, of an honest and affable character, and ever ready
to communicate the result of his researches. He applied
himself principally to criticism, in which he succeeded
better than in any other pursuit; and his erudition was
varied, though by no means so profound as that of his fa¬
ther, from whose papers, moreover, he derived great be¬
nefit. To the philosophy of Descartes he ascribed the de¬
cline of the taste for the belles-lettres, which formed one
of the characteristics of his time. His principal works
are, 1. Optati Milevitanti libri vii., cum notis et emendatio-
nibus, London, 1631, 8vo; 2. Nots et. Emendationes in
M. Antonini libros xii , ibid. 1643, 8vo; 3. De Verborum
Usu et accurata eorum Cognitionis utilitate Diatriba, 1647,
12mo; 4. De (juatuor Lingvh Commentationis pars prior,
1650, 8vo; 5. De la Necessite de la Reformation au temps
de Luther, London, 1664; 6. De la Credulite et de Cln-
credulite, 1668 and 1670, 8vo; 7. La Cause premiere des
Biens et des Manx qui arrive en ce Monde, 1642, 4to;
CAS
8. Traite de TEnthousiasme, 1655, 8vo; 9. Veritable et fi-
dele Relation de ce qui sest passe entre Jean Dee et certains
Esprits, 1659, fol.; 10. Defense de V Oraison Domimcale,
1669, in reply to Dr Owen. He was also the author or
several produetions on ecclesiastical matters, and or notes
on Terence, Epictetus, Hierocles, Floras, Diogenes Laer¬
tius in the edition of Meibomius, Polybius in the edition
of Gronovius, and Persius in the London edition, 16h7, byo.
Casaubon’s English style is hard and lumbering, being in¬
terlarded with Greek and Latin words, according to_ the
usage of his time. He left a great number of manuscripts,
which are preserved in one of the libraries at Oxford.
CASB1N, or Casween, a city of Persia, in the province
of Irak. It is situated on a great sandy plain, nine miles
west of the highest ridges of Mount Taurus. Although
the largest portion of it was thrown down by an earth¬
quake, it is still regarded as one of the largest and most
populous towns in the kingdom, and carries on a great
trade with Ghilan. It is built in the form of a square,
each side of which is about a mile long, and surrounded by
a wall. There is a palace here built by Nadir Shah, ad¬
joining to an old one erected by Shah Abbas the Great.
It became the capital of Persia during the reigns of the
immediate predecessors of this latter monarch ; and when
visited by Chardin in 1674, contained many magnificent
buildings, which are now mostly in ruins. . It has. manu¬
factures of carpets of different colours, which are in high
repute, and also of sword blades; and still carries on a
considerable trade with Georgia, Azerbijan, Ghilan, and
the Casoian Sea. TLhe population is estimated at (>0,000.
It is 2401 miles N.N.W. of Ispahan, and 180 S.E. of Tabreez.
Long. 49. 33. E. Lat. 36. 12. N. (Kinneir’s Geographical
Memoir of the Persian Empire.)
CASCADE, a steep fall of water from a higher into a
lower place. The word is French, being formed from the
Italian cascata, which has the same signification, being the
participle of cascare, to fall, which again is derived from
the Latin cadere.
Cascades are either natural, as that at Tivoli, or artifi¬
cial, as those of Versailles: they either fall with a gentle
descent, as those of Sceaux; or in form of a buffet, as at
Trianon ; or down steps, in form of a perron, as at St Cloud ;
or from basin to basin, as those in many places that might
be mentioned.
CASCAES, a small town in Portugal. It.is a sea-port,
but principally inhabited by fishermen. It is in the. pro¬
vince of Portuguese Estremadura, not far from the city of
Cintra, and near to the forts Nossa Senhora, Da. Levy, and
S. Martha, and the warm baths of Estoril. The inhabitants
trade to the West Indies, and many of them are engaged
in smuggling. The town contains 605 houses, and has a
population of 2484 souls.
CASCANTE, a city of Spain, in the province or king¬
dom of Navarre. It is on the borders of the river Queiles,
which rises in Aragon, and runs into the Ebro near Tude-
la, where, though in some seasons the bed of the river is
dry, a bridge of seventeen arches is found necessary to
span it in the rainy season.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different in¬
flections or terminations of nouns, serving to express the
different relations they bear to each other, and to the
things they represent.
Case also denotes a receptacle for various articles; as
a case of knives, of lancets, of pistols, and the like.
Case, in printing, a large flat oblong frame, placed
aslope, and divided into several compartments or little
square cells, in each of which are lodged a number of
types or letters of the same kind, whence the compositor
takes them out, each as he needs it, to compose his mat¬
ter. See Printing.
CAS
CisE-Shot, in the military art, musket-balls, stones, old Case-St.
iron, &c. put into cases, and shot out of great guns. |
C ASERT A-NO VA, a city of Italy, in the province Terra
di Lavoro, of the kingdom of Naples. It is situated on a WY'>'
plain highly cultivated. I he rural palace of the king at
this place is one of the most splendid and extensive in
Europe, and has a magnificent collection of paintings, with
a commodious theatre. In the park are the water-works
for conveying the stream from the mountains of Taburno.
The city contains 4500 inhabitants.
CASHAN, or Kashan, a flourishing city of Persia, si¬
tuated in a stony plain, very ill supplied with water. It is
a large town, extending about three miles in length from
east to west, and more than a mile and a half in breadth.
Cashan had for the most part fallen into ruin ; but, by the
exertions of the prftne minister of Persia, it has recovered
from its ruins, and has now become one of the most flou¬
rishing cities of Persia. Its public buildings are a royal
palace, and many fine mosques, bazars, and caravanserais.
CASHEL, a city of Ireland, in the county of Tippe¬
rary, and province of Munster. It is situated about four
miles from the banks of the Suir, in an open and fertile
country. Here is the palace of the archdiocese, to which
a public library is attached, in which are some valuable
manuscripts. The new cathedral is a spacious modern
church, but not possessed of any architectural merit. The
ancient cathedral stands upon the rock of Cashel; it is
the largest, grandest, and most remarkable ecclesiasti¬
cal edifice in Ireland. Besides this, there are several
other magnificent ecclesiastical antiquities, the most sin¬
gular of which is Cormack’s chapel, probably the oldest
stone building in Ireland. The other public buildings of
Cashel are the Roman Catholic chapel, the market-house,
county court-house, infirmary, barrack, and charter school,
Henry II. received the homage of Donald king of Lime¬
rick in this city in the year 1172, and held a synod here;
and King John confirmed some grants of land to the
church founded by Donald O’Brien. The archiepiscopal
see was erected in Ho2, but the bishopric existed in the
tenth century. Emly, an ancient archbishopric, extends
over all Tipperary, and into the counties ot Kilkenny and
Limerick. The want of inland navigation has completely
prevented the growth of trade here. The population
amounts to about 6000. It is distant 100 miles 8.W. of
Dublin. Long. 7. 50. W. Lat. 52. 31. N.
CASHIER, the cash-keeper, he who is charged with
the receiving and paying the debts of a society. In the
generality of foundations the cashier is called treasurer.
Cashiers of the Bank are officers who sign the notes
that are issued out, and examine and mark them when re¬
turned for payment.
CASHMERE, formerly a province of Northern Hin¬
dustan, but in later times an appendage of Afghanistan.
It is an extensive valley, nearly of an oval form, and sur¬
rounded by lofty mountains, and is estimated to extend
ninety miles in a winding direction from the south-east to
the north-west, and is from forty to sixty-nine miles m
breadth. Its situation is between the 34th and 35th de¬
grees of north latitude, and between the 73d and 76th de¬
grees of east longitude. It is divided by its mountainous
barrier from Little Thibet on the north, from Ladauk on
the east, from the Punjab on the south, and from Pukhlee
on the west. This country is universally celebrated m
the east for its romantic beauties, its fertile soil, and its
temperate climate. According to ancient tradition, tins
valley, inclosed by mountains rising above the limit o
perpetual snow, was the bed of a great lake, into whici
flowed all the streams from the adjacent hills, carrying
with them large quantities of soil. The lake at last open¬
ing itself a passage through the mountains, left the valley
CAS
CAS
213
re. covered with a rich alluvial deposit, an admirable field
for human industry. The valley of Cashmere is not ex¬
posed to the periodical rains which deluge the rest of In¬
dia, the clouds being shut out by the height of the moun¬
tains; and it has only light showers. These, however,
are in sufficient abundance to feed some thousands of cas¬
cades, which roll down into the valley from every part of
the lofty barrier that encircles it. The Beirut or Jhelum,
the Hydaspes of Alexander, is the chief river: it runs
through the whole length of the valley with a remarkably
smooth current from east to west, and receives numerous
tributary streams from every quarter. The plains of
Cashmere being abundantly supplied with moisture, yield
rich crops of rice, which form the common food of the
inhabitants. On the higher grounds, among the hills, all
the European grains, namely, wheat, barley, and other
species, arrive at maturity. In this elevated region are
also found most of the plants, fruit and forest trees, and
flowers, common to Europe, such as violets, roses, narcis-
susses, and other flowers, which grow wild, and perfume
the air; and of fruits, the apple, the pear, the plum, the
apricot, and the nut, with abundance of grapes ; and many
kitchen herbs peculiar to cold countries. A species of nut
which grows in the lakes affords an article of food to the
lower classes. A superior sort of saffron is also produced
in some parts ; and iron of an excellent quality is found in
the high lands.
The mountains which surround Cashmere are some of
them of great elevation; and, ascending from the plains,
we find various climates and the productions of distant
regions concentrated within a short space. The lower
ridges of these mountains, which are of a moderate height,
are covered with trees and verdure, and afford excellent
pasturage for cattle of various species, as well as for wild
beasts; while they are entirely unfrequented by the fero¬
cious animals, such as lions and tigers. Above these fer¬
tile and romantic regions, the increasing cold gradually
stunts the vegetation; and the traveller reaches that highest
range of mountains which tower above the clouds into the
regions of perpetual snow. Among these mountains are
interspersed many fruitful and well-watered valleys; and
they afford shelter to a rude and bold class of inhabitants,
who, in these deep recesses, bid defiance to conquering
armies, and who have little intercourse with the inhabi¬
tants of the plains, their poverty offering as little induce¬
ment to the visits of merchants as of warriors.
Cashmere has been long famed for the manufacture of
shawds, which are distributed all over northern and west¬
ern Asia, and are exported in great quantities to Europe.
These shawls owe their peculiar beauty and fine texture
to the wool which is brought from Thibet, lying at a dis¬
tance of a month’s journey to the north-east. The wool
forms the inner coat with which the goat is covered, and
the breed is peculiar to Thibet, all attempts to introduce
it into India or Persia having invariably failed. The wool,
which is originally of a dark gray colour, is bleached in
Cashmere by the help of a preparation of rice-flour. The
process of manufacture is very slow; not more than one
inch being added to the finest shawls in the course of a
flay. It is estimated that about 16,000 looms were at one
time employed in this manufacture ; but of late years the
demand has declined, owing to the decay of the Persian
and Hindustanee empires, and the desolation and poverty
of the eastern countries. When Cashmere was tributary
to Afghanistan, a great portion of the public revenue was
exacted in shawls. The yarn into which the wool is
spun is dyed with various colours, and after being woven,
the piece is once washed, and the border, in which is dis¬
played a variety of figures and colours, is attached to the
shawls in so dexterous a manner that it is hardly possible
to discover the junction. The price varies, in proportion Cashmere,
to the quality, from ten or twelve, to fifty shillings; and
where the shawl is of flowered work, the price sometimes
rises as high as L.5 or L.6. A species of writing paper is
also made in Cashmere, which is highly praised through¬
out the East, and was formerly a great article of traffic ; as
were also its lacquered ware, cutlery, and sugar. A wane
resembling Madeira is manufactured; and a spirituous li¬
quor is distilled from the grape. But very little trade is
now carried on. The internal intercourse of the country is
chiefly maintained by means of the numerous streams by
which it is intersected, and which are navigated in long
and narrow boats moved with paddles. Owing to the dis¬
orderly state of the country, commerce is insecure; and
the course of the river is beset by robbers, who frequent¬
ly set upon and plunder the unwary traveller.
The people of Cashmere are a distinct nation of the
Hindu stock, and differ in appearance, language, and man¬
ners, from all their Tartar neighbours, who are an ugly
race. The men are remarkably stout, active, and indus¬
trious ; while the females have been celebrated for their
beauty and complexions, which approach to the brunette.
They have been on this account much sought after for
wives by the Mogul nobility of Delhi. They are natural¬
ly a gay and lively people ; excessively addicted to plea¬
sure, and notorious for falsehood and cunning all over the
East. They are eager in the pursuit of wealth; and are
considered as much more acute and intriguing than the
natives of Hindustan generally are. They are said to be
addicted to literature and poetry, which is probably limit¬
ed to a few popular Songs. The country, although fer¬
tile, has but a scanty population; both industry and agri¬
culture being retarded by the disorderly habits of the peo¬
ple, and by the want of any efficient police to maintain or¬
der and peace. The total number of inhabitants is not
estimated to exceed half a million, a great proportion of
whom are Hindus. There are also Mahommedans, partly
Soonies, and partly also of the sect of Ali. All Cashmere
is reckoned holy land; and miraculous fountains abound
in all parts. There are numerous temples dedicated to
the various objects of Hindu superstition, as Siva, Vishnu,
Brahma, &c.; though many of these monuments of Brah-
* minical superstition have been destroyed by Mahomme-
dan invaders. The country is subject to the dreadful evil
of earthquakes; and, to guard against their effects, all the
houses are built of wood, which is abundant. The author
of the Ayeen Acbery dwells with rapture on the romantic
beauty of the valley of Cashmere, which was said to be
the favourite retreat of the Mogul emperors when they re¬
laxed from the cares of government; and this description
is so far confirmed by Bernier, who in 1663 visited this
country in the suite of Aurungzebe.
As far as the history of Cashmere can be collected from
imperfect traditions, the people appear originally to have
been Hindus. The period of its subjugation to its Ma-
hommedan conquerors is uncertain. About the year 1012
Mahmoud of Ghizni invaded and plundered the coun¬
try, but does not appear to have taken permanent posses¬
sion of it. In the year 1323 it was invaded by an army
of about seventy thousand Tartars, whose commander es¬
tablished himself as sovereign of the country, and was
soon after converted to Mahommedanism by a priest,
who in return was made his prime minister. His de¬
scendants reigned in Cashmere till the year 1541, when
it was conquered by Mirza Hyder, on the part of the Em¬
peror Humayon, and was annexed by Acbar to his empire
in 1588. It was ruled by the house of Timour for a hun¬
dred and sixty years, after which it was betrayed by the
Mogul governor, about 1754, to Ahmed Shah Duranny,
and constituted a province of the Afghan sovereignty.
214 CAS
Cashmere During the revolutions in that kingdom in 1809, the go-
II vernor, Mohammed Khan, revolted, and still continues
; / 1° maintain his independence. The principal towns are
Cashmere, called also Serinagur; and Islamabad.
Cashmere, the capital of the above province, is a large
city, which extends three miles on each side of the river
Jhelum, over which there are five wooden bridges. It is
of unequal breadth; but in some places it is nearly two
miles. It has a small citadel called Shore Ghur, in the
south-east quarter, where the governor resides. The houses
are mostly builCof wood, with partition walls of brick and
mortar. They are high, being many of them three sto¬
ries, having sloping wooden roofs covered with a bed of
fine earth, which in summer is sown with flowers, and
exhibits a lively appearance. The town, like most of
those in the East, is dirty in the extreme, its narrow
streets being covered with the filth of the inhabitants,
who, even in the East, are proverbially unclean. The river
is, notwithstanding, covered with baths. I he public build¬
ings in the city are not of any consequence ; but in the
environs there are the remains of palaces built by the em¬
perors of Hindustan. There is a beautiful lake near the
town, which extends from the north-east quarter in an
oval circumference of five or six miles, and communicates^
with the Jhelum by a narrow channel near the suburbs.
On the east side of the lake is a detached hill called
Tukhti Solomon. On this eminence stands a mosque de¬
dicated to Solomon, to wdiose miraculous interposition the
Mahommedans ascribe the draining off of the waters from
the valley; whilst the Hindus claim this river for their
divinities. Near this lake stands another hill, which is
covered with orchards and gardens, and has on its summit
a mosque dedicated to a Mahommedan saint held in high
estimation; and in the centre of the lake is an island, on
which the Emperor Jehangire built a palace, which he
adorned with gardens and water-works at an immense ex¬
pense, and to which he frequently retired from the heat
of India and the noise of a court. A heavy fall of rain,
accompanied by a tremendous flood, which took place in
1635, greatly injured the city and all the buildings in the
vicinity. Bernier, who visited Cashmere in 1663, gives a
romantic and interesting description of it. But since it
has come under the dominion of the Afghans, it has fallen
into decay, and its buildings are many of them crumbling
into ruin. The travelling distance from Lahore is 587 miles,
from Agra 724, from Lucknow 866, from Bombay 1277,
from Calcutta 1564, and from Madras 1882. (Rennell’s
Memoir of a Map of Hindustan ; Elphinstone’s Account of
the Kingdom of Caub'ul; Foster’s Journey from Bengal
to England ; Berniei', Hamilton, &c.)
CASHY, a town and district in Northern Hindustan,
tributary to the rajah of Nepaul, and situated between the
28th and 29th degrees of north latitude, and about the
83d of east longitude. The country is mountainous, and
little more is known of it than that it is one of the confe¬
derated states called the country of the twenty-four rajahs.
The town is situated in long. 82. 49. E. and lat. 28. 42. N.
CASIRI, Michael, a very learned orientalist, of the
sect of Syrian Christians called Maronites, was born at
Tripoli in Syria in the year 1710. As the sect of Maro¬
nites were subject to the pope, Casiri came to study at
Rome, and entered into holy orders in 1734. In the fol¬
lowing year he proceeded to Syria to assist at a synod of
the Maronites. He returned to Rome in 1738, and for ten
years thereafter taught the brethren of his convent to
read Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldaic, giving lectures also in
philosophy and theology. In 1748 he passed into Spain,
upon the invitation of Ravago, confessor to Ferdinand VI.,
and was by his means employed in the royal library at
Madrid. In 1749 he was named a member of the royal
CAS
academy of histoi*y; in 1756 he was appointed interpreter
of eastern languages to the king, and soon afterwards joint
librarian of the Escurial, with a royal pension of 200 pias¬
tres, besides the ordinary emoluments of the office. In
1763 he became principal librarian, a situation which he
appears to have held till his death in 1791.
The only work which entitles Casiri’s name to be re¬
corded among the benefactors of literature is his celebrat¬
ed Catalogue of the Arabic Manuscripts, preserved in the
library of which he was keeper. This curious work, en¬
titled Bibliotheca Arabico-Eispana Escurialensis, was pub¬
lished in two volumes folio, at Madrid ; the first volume
in 1760, and the second ten years thereafter. Mr Gib¬
bon expresses himself “ happy in possessing a copy of
this splendid and interesting work,” which constitutes,
indeed, one of the most valuable contributions that modern
Europe has yet furnished towards the illustration of east¬
ern literature. The judicious manner in which it is com¬
piled renders it a sort of digest of the attainments of the
Saracens in science and literature during the most flourish¬
ing eras of their empire. Its contents, as Mr Barington
observes, “ may, under some of its heads, principally re¬
gard Spain ; but they will, however, be found adequately
to represent the general standard of learning, in its full
extent and character, whether at Cordova or Fez, at Cairo
or at Bagdad.” (Literary History of the Middle Ages, p. 652.)
The manuscripts described amount to above 1800, and
are classed in the following order: Grammar, Rhetoric,
Poetry, Philology and Miscellanies, Lexicons, Philosophy,
Politics, Medicine, Natural History, Jurisprudence, Theo¬
logy, Geography, and History. The two last classes, with
a copious index, occupy the whole of the second volume.
As a system of bibliography, this arrangement cannot be
allowed to be very perfect or scientific; but it was not
the learned author’s object to exhibit any such system,
though some French bibliographers seem to view his classi¬
fication in that light, and express no small degree of won¬
der that an ecclesiastic, in the country of the inquisition,
should place so many classes before that of theology,
which in their systems generally holds the first place.
The title of each manuscript is given in the original Ara¬
bic, with a Latin translation, and its age and author, when
these are known, are pointed out. But this is not all; the
title and description of the work is frequently followed
with extracts, also in Arabic and Latin, by which some oi
the most curious or peculiar features of the piece are
brought before the reader, thereby supplying the want of
the original, as well to those who could read it if acces¬
sible, as to those who could not read it though at hand.
The learned author has also collected various interesting
and authentic particulars of Saracenic biography, and cor¬
rected some prevalent errors regarding the lives of these
writers.
In the preface, which is of considerable length, Casiri
gives a general view of his labours, and commemorates
the assistance which he received from the government
and from the learned. Rich as the Escurial is in Arabic
manuscripts, its present stores are small compared to what
they once were ; for Casiri mentions that, by a fire which
happened in 1670, more than three thousand of these in¬
teresting pieces were consumed. They who have not ac¬
cess to this valuable work will find a full view of its con¬
tents, with some political comments, in the first appendix
to Harris’s Philological Inquiries, and in the second ap¬
pendix to Barington’s Literary History of the Middle Ages.
CASK, or Casque, a piece of defensive armour for co¬
vering the head and neck; otherwise called the head¬
piece and helmet. The word is French, casque, from cap¬
sicum or cassicus, a diminutive of cassis, a helmet. Le
Gendre observes, that anciently in France the gens d armes
Ci|,n.
CAS
all wore casques. The king wore a casque gilt, the dukes
and counts silvered, gentlemen of extraction polished steel,
and the rest plain iron. The casque is frequently seen on
ancient medals, where great varieties in its form and fa¬
shion maybe observed. F. Joubert makes it the most an¬
cient of all the coverings of the head, as well as the most
universal. . Kings, emperors, and even gods themselves,
are seen with it. That which covers the head of Rome
has usually two wings like those of Mercury; and that of
some kings is furnished with horns like those of Jupiter
Ammon, and sometimes with bull’s or ram’s horns, to ex¬
press uncommon force.
Cask, or Casque, in Heraldry, the same with helmet.
See Heraldry.
Cask, a vessel of capacity for containing liquors of di¬
vers kinds; and sometimes also dry goods, as sugar, al¬
monds, &c.
CASLON, William, eminent in an art of the great¬
est consequence to literature, the art of letter-founding,
was born in the year 1692, in that part of the town of
Hales Owen which is situated in Shropshire. Though he
justly attained the character of being the coryphaeus in
that employment, he was not brought up to the business ;
and it is observed by Mr Mores that the craft is so
concealed among the artificers of it, that he could not
discover any one who had taught it to another, but every
person who used it had learned it of his own genuine
inclination. Mr Caslon served a regular apprenticeship
to an engraver of ornaments on gun-barrels1; and, after
the expiration of his term, he carried on this trade in Vine
Street, near the Minories. He did not, however, confine
his ingenuity solely to that instrument, but employed him¬
self likewise in making tools for the bookbinders, and for
the chasing of silver plate. Whilst he was engaged in
this business, the elder Mr Bowyer accidentally saw, in a
bookseller s shop, the lettering of a book uncommonly
neat; and inquiring the name of the artist by whom the
letters were made, was thus induced to seek an acquaint¬
ance with Mr Caslon. Not long afterwards Mr Bowyer took
Mi Caslon to Mr James s foundery in Bartholomew-close.
Caslon had never before that time seen any part of the
business ; and being asked by his friend if he thought he
could undertake to cut types, he requested a single day
to consider the matter, and then replied that he had no
doubt but he could. Upon this answer, Mr Bowyer, Mr
ettenham, and Mr Watts, had such a confidence in his
abilities, that they lent him L.500 to begin the undertak¬
ing, and he applied himself to it with equal assiduity and
success.. In 1720 the Society for promoting Christian
Knowledge, in^ consequence of a representation from Mr
^o omon Negri, a native of Damascus in Syria, who was
well skilled in the oriental tongues, and had been profes¬
sor of Arabic in places of note, deemed it expedient to
print, for the use of the Eastern churches, the New Tes-
_ament and Psalter, in the Arabic language. These were
intended for the benefit of the poor Christians in Pales-
ine, yna, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Egypt, countries
ie constitution of which did not permit the exercise of
tne mt 0f printing. Upon this occasion Mr Caslon was
n e le upon to cut the fount; and in his specimens he
distinguished it by the name of English Arabic. Under
nnd MhwenC0Uragement of Mr Bowyer, Mr Bettenham,
" r i ^e. proceeded with vigour in his employ-
lie n l ai r ar”ved at length at such perfection, that
lVnrv.0LT°vi ^ B’eed us from the necessity of importing types
undo i 0i)a.n^ ^ut’ 1° the beauty and elegance of those
artifi ^ 1P’ 80 /ar exCeeded the productions of the best
in ti^n’ vvorkmanship was frequently exported
cess nf °ntment* short, his foundery became, in pro-
nue, one of the best either in this or in foreign
CAS
countries. Having acquired opulence in the course of his
employment, he was put into the commission of the peace
for the county of Middlesex. Towards the latter end of
his life, his eldest son being then in partnership with him,
he retired in a great measure from active business. His
death happened in January 1766.
CASORIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom and pro¬
vince of Naples, with 5760 inhabitants.
, CASPE, a rich and populous city of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Aragon, containing 8200 inhabitants. It is situ¬
ated on the banks of the river Martin, which runs into the
Ebro. Its prosperity has arisen from the mines of iron and
of coal which abound in its vicinity, and which have given
birth to many manufactories, but by no means so many as
the mineral riches of the district would create, or as the
wants of the accessible provinces of Spain could consume.
CASPIAN SEA, a great inland sea of Asia, bounded
on the north by the Russian government of Astracan; on
the east by the great sandy deserts of Tartary; on the
south by the Persian province of Mazanderan ; and on the
west by the Persian province of Ghilan, the ridges of
Caucasus, the principalities of Baku, Derbend, and Cir¬
cassia, together with part of the government of Astracan.
According to the most accurate surveys that have been
made by Russian navigators, under the orders of Peter I.,
this sea extends in length from north to south 646 miles,
in breadth 265 miles in the northern part, and 235 in the
southern ; and the total circuit of the coast, including gulfs
and bays, is 2350 miles. The shore is flat all around, and
there is no depth of water; but beyond this the depth is
very great; and Hanway mentions that he could not find
the bottom with a line of 480 fathoms. It is of very dange¬
rous navigation on account of its frequent shallows along
the shore, and many disasters occur to mariners. Fierce
tempests occasionally burst forth from the high moun¬
tains which inclose it on different sides. There are certain
winds that domineer over it with such absolute sway, that
vessels are often deprived of every resource ; and in the
whole extent of it there is not a port that can truly be
called safe. The north, north-east, and east winds, blow
most frequently, and occasion the most violent tempests.
Along the eastern shore the east winds prevail; for which
reason vessels bound from Persia to Astracan always di¬
rect their course along this shore.
The waters of the Caspian are as salt as those of the
ocean, and very impure ; the vast number of rivers that
run into, it, and the nature of its bottom, affecting it great¬
ly. It is true, that in general the waters are salt; but
though the whole western shore extends from the 46th to
the 35th degree of north latitude, and though one might
conclude from analogy that these waters would contain a
great deal of salt, yet experiments prove the contrary;
and it is certain that the saltness of this sea is diminish¬
ed by the north, north-east, and north-west winds, al¬
though we may with equal reason conclude that it owes
its saltness to the mines of salt which lie along its two
banks, and which are either already known or will be
known to posterity. The depth of these waters also dimi¬
nishes gradually as you approach the shores, and their salt¬
ness in the same way grows less in proportion to their prox¬
imity to the land; the north winds not unfrequently caus¬
ing the rivers to discharge into it vast quantities of trou¬
bled water impregnated with clay. These variations which
the sea is exposed to are more or less considerable, ac¬
cording to the nature of the winds; and they affect the
colour of the river waters to a certain distance from the
shore, till these mix with that of the sea, which then re¬
sumes the ascendency, and the fine green colour appears
which is natural to the ocean, and to all those bodies of
water that communicate with it.
215
Casoria
II
Caspian
Sea.
216
CAS
CAS
Caspian
Sea.
It is well known that, besides its salt taste, all sea-water
has a sensible bitterness, which must be attribute not on y
to the salt itself, but to the mixture of different substances
that unite with it, particularly to different sorts of al™h
and is the ordinary effect of different combinations of acids.
Besides this, the waters of the Caspian have another taste
bitter too, but quite distinct, which affects the tongue w th
an impression similar to that made by the bile of animals ,
a property which k peculiar to this sea, though not equal-
ly^sensible at all seasons. When the north and n h
west winds have raged for a considerable time, this bittei
taste is sensibly felt; but when the wind has been south,
very imperfectly. We shall endeavour to account for this
phenomenon. . , ., ,
1 The Caspian is bounded on its western side by the
mountains of Caucasus, which extend from Derbend to
the Black Sea. These mountains make a curve near As-
tracan, and directing their course towards the eastern
shore of the Caspian, lose themselves near the mouth ot
the Yaik, where they become secondary mountains, being
disposed in strata. As Caucasus is an inexhaustib e ma¬
gazine of combustible substances, it consequently lodges
an astonishing quantity of metals in its bowels. Accord-
inely, along the foot of this immense chain of mountains,
we sometimes meet with warm springs, sometimes springs
of naphtha of different quality ; sometimes we find native
sulphur, mines of vitriol, or lakes heated by internal fires.
Now the foot of Mount Caucasus forming the immediate
western shore of the Caspian Sea, it is very easy to ima¬
gine that a great quantity of the constituent parts of the
former must be communicated to the latter ; but it is
chiefly to the naphtha, which abounds so much in the
countries which surround this sea, that _ we must attri¬
bute the true cause of the bitterness peculiar to its waters ;
for it is certain that this bitumen flows from the mountains,
sometimes in all its purity, and sometimes mixed with other
substances which it acquires in its passage through sub¬
terranean channels, from the most interior parts ot these
mountains to the sea, where it falls to the bottom by its
specific gravity. It is certain, too, that the north and
north-west winds detach the greatest quantities ot this naph¬
tha, whence it is evident that the bitter taste must be
most sensible when these winds prevail. We may also
comprehend why this taste is not so strong at the surtace
or in the neighbourhood of the shore, the waters there
being less impregnated with salt, and the naphtha, w nc i
is united with the water by the salt, being then either car¬
ried to a distance by the winds, or precipitated to the bot¬
tom. But it is not a bitter taste alone that the naphtha
communicates to the waters of the Caspian. These waters
were analysed by M. Gmelin, and found to contain, be¬
sides the common sea salt, a considerable proportion or
Glauber salt, intimately united with the former, and which
is evidently a production of the naphtha.
The Caspian Sea receives the contents of numerous
rivers, which give a tinge to its waters; and it is only at
a distance from their mouths that it presents the deep
azure hue of the ocean. It is probably also owing to the
quantity of extraneous substances carried down by these
rivers that there are so many dangerous shoals and so
few good harbours within its compass; and, considering
the number and size of its numerous rivers, it is not easy
to conceive how so vast a quantity of water can be car¬
ried off by evaporation. On the north is the Yaik, 100 fa¬
thoms wide and eighteen feet deep at the mouth; next
the Yemba, or Jemba, at the distance of sixty-one miles;
the great Oxus flows in at the west side, seventy miles
north of the Gulf of Karabogaskoi. Ninety-three miles GC
south of this gulf the river Doria flows into the Caspian, Jj
forty miles farther south the Ossa or the Orzantes, the
Naren and Asterabad on the south-east extremity, and the
Kizitozein on the south-west. From the vast Caucasian
chain of mountains which forms the western coast descend
numerous rivers, the chief of which is the Thur, which,
after receiving the Araxes, is discharged into the Caspian
by five different mouths; and at the higher extremity is
the Wolga, which pours an immense volume of water into
the same sea by thirty-two different channels. Many of
these rivers run with a furious course into the Caspian;
and in travelling along its shores experienced guides are
necessary to find out the practicable fords in these tor¬
rents, which frequently sweep, by the irresistible fury of
their stream, both man and horse into the ocean. Fraser,
who travelled in Persia in 1822, mentions, that the day
before he passed the river of Chahloos, a woman on horse¬
back was carried away in this manner and perished.
There are numerous islands in the Caspian, some of
them of great extent. lowards the north-east is the
island of Kulaha, with a good harbour; and on the same
side, between lat. 39. and 40., Idak, Deverish, Naphthonia,
which extends about twenty miles in length from north
to south, and contains several wells of naphtha, and abun¬
dance of good water; Dargan, Dagadaw, and Ogiujinskoi
in the Gulf of Balkan, or near its mouth. Chitcheena,
called Czeczeni by D’Anville, and Trenzeni by others,
is the most important of all the islands, in the Caspian.
It is situated on the western coast, opposite to the city ot
Yerki in Circassia. On the same side, and much farther
south, are the islands of Swetoizeloi, foolen, and Kura.
Between 42. and 43. north latitude a sand extends sixty
miles in length by twenty-seven or thirty in breadth, with
twenty fathoms depth of water, which is always discolour¬
ed. There are several islands on this bank, which are
generally of inconsiderable size, and for the most part near
tlic shore.
A great proportion of the northern coast of the Caspian
is low and marshy, or composed of sandy flats ; and there
is no depth of water to float a vessel several miles from the
shore. There are here also many dangerous quicksands,
in which travellers are frequently swallowed up; and
Fraser, the enterprising traveller already mentioned, had
a narrow escape. His horse sunk in a shallow so deep
that the water flowed over his back, and it was only by
turning short and floundering backwards until he got ms
fore-feet on solid ground that he was enabled to regain
the shore. In other parts the coast.is rocky, or high and
mountainous, and has several spacious bays, which are
calculated to afford shelter to shipping. The Gulf ot is-
kawder, or Alexander, towards the northern extremity, is
a fine harbour, twenty miles long and twelve broad.
Gulf of Karabogaskoi, or Carabuga, in lat. 41. 21., extenos
fifty-five miles by fifty-three in an elliptical form, witn
very deep water. The Gulf of Balkan lies at the ase
the mountain of that name ; and in the south-east ex
mity is the Bay of Astrabad, which is formed by a necK 0
land varying in breadth from four to twelve mi es, a
running from a point near Astrabad, and dividing a s p
of water, from eight to forty miles broad, from the ma
body of the Caspian. The Caspian Sea has many po >
but of these, as already stated, there are few which -
ford any secure haven for shipping, owing to the natu
the bottom, or to the prevalence of certain winds. U
south there was formerly a port in Asterabad Bay,
is now in ruins. There are still the harbours of Langa
See Fraser’s Travels and Adventures on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea, chap. viii.
CAS
CAS
217
(
iian and Euzelli; and on the west are those of Baku, Derbend,
a. and Yerki.
The Caspian Sea, in proportion to the great extent of
its surface, produces but few varieties of fish ; and not
communicating with the ocean, it cannot receive from it
any portion of its inexhaustible stores. But the fish which
are found in this lake multiply to such a degree that the
Russians, by their industry, convert them into a never-
failing source of wealth. The fisheries of the Caspian
form the sole occupation and principal trade of the vari¬
ous tribes inhabiting the banks of the Wolga and the
Yaik. These fisheries are divided into the great and
small; the former comprehending the sturgeon, beluga,
and sterlet; the latter the salmon, carp of various species,
tench, and others.
Seals are the principal quadrupeds that inhabit the Cas¬
pian ; but they are there in such numbers as to afford the
means of subsistence to many people in that country, as
well as in Greenland. The varieties of the species are
numerous, diversified however only by the colour. Some
are quite black, others quite white; there are some whit¬
ish, some yellowish, some of a mouse colour, and some
streaked like a tiger. They crawl by means of their fore
feet upon the islands, where they become the prey of the
fishermen, who kill them with long clubs. As soon as one
is dispatched, he is succeeded by several who come to the
assistance of their unhappy companion, but come only to
share his fate. They are exceedingly tenacious of life,
and endure more than thirty hard blows before they die.
They will even live for several days after having received
many mortal wounds. They are most terrified by fire
and smoke, and as soon as they perceive them, retreat
with the utmost expedition to the sea. These animals
grow so very fat that they look rather like oil bags than
animals. At Astracan is made a sort of gray soap with
their fat mixed with pot-ashes, which is much valued for
its property of cleansing and taking grease from woollen
stuffs. The greatest numbers of seals are killed in spring
and autumn. Many small vessels go from Astracan mere¬
ly for the purpose of catching them. A species of otter
is also found in the waters, and on the shores of the Cas¬
pian Sea. It is about three and a half feet long, includ¬
ing a short tail; it has four webbed feet; its head re¬
sembles that of an otter, and its body is covered with
thick and fine brown hair.
If the Caspian has few quadrupeds, it has in proportion
still fewer of those natural productions which are looked
upon as proper only to the sea. There have never been
found in it any zoophytes, nor any animal of the order of
mollusca. The same may almost be said of shells, the
only ones found being three or four species of cockle, the
common muscle, some species of snails, and one or two
others. But to compensate this sterility, it abounds in
birds of different kinds. Of those that frequent the shores
there are many species of the goose and duck kind, of the
stork and heron, and others of the water tribe. Of birds
properly aquatic, it contains the grebe, the crested diver,
the pelican, the cormorant, and almost every species of
gull. Crows are so fond of fish that they haunt the
shores of the Caspian in prodigious multitudes.
Many suppose (and there are strong presumptions in
favour of the supposition), that the shores of the Caspian
were much more extensive in ancient times than they are
Jit present, and that it once communicated with the Black
bea, and also, as Pallas supposes, with the Sea of Azof.
It is probable, too, that the level of the Black Sea was
once much higher than it is at present. If, then, it be al¬
lowed that the waters of the Black Sea, before it procur¬
ed an exit by the straits of Constantinople, rose several
in thorns above their present level, which from many con-
vol. VI.
curring circumstances may easily be admitted, it will fol¬
low, that all the plains of the Crimea, of the Kuman,
of the Wolga, and of the Yaik, and those of Great Tartary
beyond the Lake of Aral, in ancient times formed but one
sea, which embraced the northern extremity of Caucasus
by a narrow strait of little depth, the vestiges of which are
still obvious in the river Mantysch.
CASSANA, Nicolo, called Nicoletto, an eminent
Italian painter, was born at Venice in 1659, and became a
disciple of his father Giovanni Francesco Cassana, a Ge¬
noese, who had been taught the art of painting by Ber¬
nardino Strozzi. Some of the English nobility on their
travels sat to him for their portraits, which being sent to
London, and highly admired, Nicoletto was invited to
England. He had the honour of being introduced to
Queen Anne, and to paint her portrait, in which he suc¬
ceeded so happily, that the queen distinguished him by
many marks of favour and honour; but he had not the
happiness to enjoy his good fortune for any length of time,
as he died in London, universally regretted, in the year
1713.
CASSANDER, king of Macedon after Alexander the
Great, was the son of Antipater. He made several con¬
quests in Greece, abolished democracy at Athens, and
intrusted the government of that state to the orator De¬
metrius. Olympias, the mother of Alexander, having
caused Aridaeus and his wife Eurydice, with others, to be
put to death, Cassander besieged Pydne, whither the
queen had retired, took it by a stratagem, and caused her
to be put to death. He married Thessalonica, the sister
of Alexander the Great, and killed Roxana and Alexan¬
der, the wife and son of that conqueror. Ultimately he
formed an alliance with Seleucus and Lysimachus against
Antigonus and Demetrius, overwEomhe obtained a great
victory near Ipsus, in Phrygia, 301 years before the Chris¬
tian era; and he died three years after, in the nineteenth
year of his reign.
CASSANDRA, in fabulous history, the daughter of
Priam and Hecuba, was beloved of Apollo, who promised
to bestow on her the spirit of prophecy, provided she
would consent to his love. Cassandra seemed to accept
the proposal, but had no sooner obtained that gift than
she laughed at the tempter, and broke her word. Apollo,
being enraged, revenged himself by causing her predic¬
tions to be discredited ; and hence she prophesied in vain
the ruin of Troy. Ajax, the son of Oileus, having ravish¬
ed her in the temple of Minerva, was struck with thun¬
der. Cassandra fell into the hands of Agamemnon, who
loved her to distraction; but in vain did she predict that
he would be assassinated in his own country. Both were
killed by the intrigues of Clytemnestra; but their death
was avenged by Orestes.
CASSANO, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
of Calabria Citeriore, and situated on the sea-shore, with
6000 inhabitants, who produce much oil.
CASSEL, a city, the capital of the dominions of the
Prince of Hesse-Cassel, and of the province of Lower
Hesse. It is one of the most beautiful cities of Germany.
It rises gently from the banks of the river Fulda, which is
navigable for boats to the Weser. The river Drosset,
which passes the upper part of the city, has its water so
directed that it may be made use of to keep the whole
place in a cleanly state. The square and streets are
broad, well paved, and the edifices elegantly constructed.
Under Bonaparte it was the capital of his short-lived
kingdom of Westphalia, and was hastening to decay; but
since the restoration its improvements have been great.
The royal palace, with its picture gallery and museums,
is magnificent and elegant, as are also the other public
buildings. The walks, on what were once the ramparts,
2 E
Cassana
218
Cassine
li
Cassini.
CAS
form an agreeable promenade. Cassel is the capital of a
kingdom in miniature. It contains 1481 dwelling-houses,
and 19,500 inhabitants. There are some manufactures
carried on in the city, but on a small scale, and almost
exclusively confined to the demands of the principality,
of which it is the head. The theatre, the buildings for
balls and masquerades, and other places of amusement,
are quite upon a par with the extent and poverty of tne
country. The institutions for benevolent purposes are
respectable. About two miles from the city the ducal
palace of Wilhelmshoe is a great object of attraction, and
especially on the days when the well-contrived water¬
works of a cascade and fountain are played off. Cassel is
in longitude 9. 22. E. and latitude 51. 29. 20. N.
CASSIMIRE, or Cashmire. See Cashmere.
CASSINE, a town ofltaly, in the province Alessandria,
and kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the river Bor-
mida, and contains 3550 inhabitants.
CASSINI, Johannes Dominicus, an excellent astro¬
nomer, was born at Piedmont in 1635. His early profi¬
ciency in astronomy procured him an invitation to become
mathematical professor at Bologna when he was only fif¬
teen years of age; and a comet having appeared in 1852,
he discovered that bodies of this kind are not accidental
meteors, but of the same nature, and probably governed
by the same laws, as the planets. In the same year he
solved a problem abandoned by Kepler and Bullialdus as
insolvable ; which was to determine geometrically the apo¬
gee and eccentricity of a planet from its true and mean
place. In 1663 he was appointed inspector-general of the
fortifications of the castle of Urbino, and had afterwards
the care of all the rivers in the ecclesiastical states. He
still, however, prosecuted his astronomical studies, in the
course of which he discovered the revolution of Mars
round his own axis; and in 1666 he published his theory
of Jupiter’s satellites. Cassini was invited by Louis XIV.
in 1669 to visit France, where he settled as the first pro¬
fessor in the royal observatory. In 1677 he demonstrated
the line of Jupiter’s diurnal rotation; and in 1684 disco¬
vered four more satellites belonging to Saturn, Huygens
having observed one. Cassini was principally instrumental
in causing the French government undertake the expedi¬
tion to Cayenne, which served to correct many errors re¬
lative to the figure of the earth, at the same time that it
demonstrated the decrease of the intensity of terrestiial
gravity from the equator to the poles; a phenomenon which
exhibits a striking confirmation of the theory of gravita¬
tion. In 1693 he published new tables of the satellites
of Jupiter, more exact than those which he had given to
the world in 1668. In 1693 he went to revisit his meri¬
dian of St Petrone, which he regarded with honest pride ;
but he was now occupied with another and much longer
meridian, commenced in 1669 by Picard,, continued to
the north of Paris in 1683 by He Lahire, and lastly, in
1700, carried by Cassini himself to the extremity of Rous¬
sillon ; being the same line which, forty years after, was
measured anew by Francois Cassini and La Caille, and,
at the same distance of a century, measured a third time
by Mechain and Delambre, with a precision which left
little more to be desired. In the last years of his life he
lost .his sight, a misfortune which befel him in common
with Galileo, and which probably proceeded from the
same cause, namely, excessive application to the delicate
observations of astronomy. Cassini inhabited the royal
observatory at Paris more than forty years, and died on the
14th September 1712, “ sans maladie, sans douleur, uni-
quement par la necessite de mourir.” In Lalande’s JBi-
bliographie Astronomique will be found a complete enu¬
meration of the various works of Cassini; we need only
cite here, 1. Observationes Comeke Arm. 1655 et 1653,
C A • S
Modena, 1653, fok; 2. Opera Astronomica, Rome, 1666; Cast
3. Nuntii Syderei Interpres; 4. Cosmographie.
Cassini, James, another celebrated astronomer, the
only son of the former. Fie was born at Paris on the 18th
February 1677. His early studies were conducted in his
father’s house, where, from the pursuits and studies of his
father, mathematics, and their application to astronomy,
were probably not neglected. He afterwards became a
student at the Mazarin College, at the time that the cele¬
brated Varignon was professor of mathematics. With the
assistance of this eminent man, young Cassini made such
progress, that at fifteen years of age he supported a ma¬
thematical thesis with great honour. At the age of seven¬
teen he was admitted as a member of the Academy of
Sciences ; and the same year he accompanied his father in
a journey to Italy, where he assisted him in the verifica¬
tion of the meridian at Bologna and in other measure¬
ments. After his return he performed similar operations
in Holland, and discovered some errors in the measure¬
ment of the earth by Snell, the result of which was com¬
municated to the academy in 1702. In 1696 he also
made a visit to England, where he was elected a member
of the Royal Society. In 1712 he succeeded his father as
astronomer-royal at the observatory of Paris. In 171'/ he
gave to the academy his researches on the distance of the
fixed stars, in which he showed that the whole annual orbit,
of near two hundred millions of miles diameter, is but as
a point in comparison of their distance. The same year
he also communicated his discoveries concerning the in¬
clination of the orbits of the satellites in general, and
especially of those of Saturn’s satellites and ring. In 1725
he undertook to determine the cause of the moon’s libra-
tion, by which she shows sometimes a little on the one
side, and sometimes a little on the other, of that half which
is commonly behind, or hid from our view.
In 1732 an important question in astronomy engaged
the ingenuity of our author. His father had determined,
by his observations, that the planet Venus revolved about
her axis in the space of twenty-three hours; and M. Bain-
chini had published a work in 1729, in which he settled
the period of the same revolution in twenty-four days eight
hours. From an examination of Bianchini’s observations,
which were upon the spots in Venus, he discovered that
he had intermitted his observations for the space of three
hours, from which cause he had probably mistaken new
spots for the old ones, and so had been led into the mis¬
take. He also determined the nature and quantity of the
acceleration of the motion of Jupiter at halt a second per
year, and of that of the retardation of Saturn at two mi¬
nutes per year; also that these quantities would go on in¬
creasing for two thousand years, and then would decrease
again. In 1740 he published his Astronomical Tables, and
his Elements of Astronomy; both very extensive and ac¬
curate works.
Although astronomy was the principal object of our au¬
thor’s pursuit, he did not confine himself absolutely to
that science, but made occasional excursions into othei
fields. We owe to him Experiments on Electricity; Ex¬
periments on the Recoil of Fire-arms ; Researches on the
Rise of the Mercury in the Barometer at different Heights;
Reflections on the perfecting of Burning-glasses; and
other interesting memoirs.
One of the most important objects of the French acade¬
my was the measurement of the earth. In 1669 Picar
measured a little more than a degree of latitude to the
north of Paris ; but as that extent appeared too small from
which to deduce the whole circumference with sufficient
accuracy, it was resolved to continue the measurement
on the meridian of Paris to the north and the sout ,
throughout the whole extent of the country. Accord-
CAS
CAS
219
;5ini. ingly, in 1683, M. de Lahire continued that on the north
sicle of Paris, and the older Cassini that on the south
side, while, in the continuation of this operation, the lat¬
ter was, in 1700, assisted by his son. The same work was
further continued by the same academicians; and finally,
the part left unfinished by De Lahire in the north was
finished in 1718 by our author, Maraldi, and De Lahire
the younger.
These operations produced a very considerable degree
of precision. From this measured extent of six degrees, it
appeared also that the degrees were of different lengths in
different parts of the meridian ; and our author conclud¬
ed, in the volume published for 1718, that they decreased
more and more towards the pole, and that therefore the
figure of the earth wras that of an oblong spheroid, or hav¬
ing its axis longer than the equatorial diameter. Fie also
measured a perpendicular to the same meridian, and com¬
pared the measured distance with the differences of longi¬
tude as before determined by the eclipses of Jupiter’s satel¬
lites ; from which he concluded that the length of the de¬
grees of longitude was smaller than it would be on a sphere,
and that therefore again the figure of the earth was that
of an oblong spheroid, contrary to the determination of
Newton by the theory of gravity. Newton was indeed of
all men the most averse from controversy ; but the other
mathematicians in Britain did not tamely submit to con¬
clusions in direct opposition to the fundamental doctrine
of this great philosopher. The consequence was, that the
French government sent two different sets of mathemati¬
cians, the one to measure a degree at the equator, the other
at the polar circle; and the comparison of the whole de¬
termined the figure to be that of an oblate spheroid, con¬
trary to the conclusion of Cassini.
After a long and laborious life, James Cassini died in
April 1756, and was succeeded in the academy and obser¬
vatory by his second son. He published, 1. Reponse d la
Dissertation de M. Celsius sur les Observations fades pour
pouvoir determiner la figure de la Terre, 1738, 8vo ; 2.
Elemens d’Astronomic, Paris, 1740, 4to; 3. Tables Astro-
nomiques du Soleil, de la Tune, des Planetes, des Etoiles,
et des Satellites, Paris, 1740, 4to.
Cassini de Thury, Ccc.sar Francois, a celebrated French
astronomer, director of the observatory, and member of
most of the learned societies of Europe, was born at Paris
on the 17th June 1714. He was .the second son of James
Cassini, whose occupations and talents he inherited and
supported with great honour. He received his first les¬
sons in astronomy and mathematics from MM. Maraldi
and Camus; and made such rapid progress, that when
he was not more than ten years of age he calculated the
phases of a total eclipse of the sun. At the age of eigh¬
teen he accompanied his father in his two journeys under¬
taken to draw a perpendicular to the meridian of the obser¬
vatory, from Strasburg to Brest. A general chart of France
was then projected ; and for this purpose it was necessary
to traverse the country by several lines parallel and per¬
pendicular to the meridian of Paris. Our author was charg¬
ed with the conduct of this work, in the execution of which
he w-as so scrupulous as to measure again what had been
previously measured by his father. This great work was
published in 1740, with a chart showing the new meridian
of Paris, by two different series of triangles, passing along
the sea-coasts to Bayonne, traversing the frontiers of Spain
to the Mediterranean and Antibes, and thence passing along
the eastern limits of France to Dunkirk, with par;,1 lei and
perpendicular lines drawn at the distances respectively of
6000 tqises from side to side of the country.
In 1741 he made a tour in Flanders, in the train of the
kuig; and this gave rise, at his majesty’s instance, to the
chart of France; in relation to which Cassini published
different works, as well as a great number of the sheets of Cassiodo-
the chart itself. In 1761 he undertook an expedition into rus-
Germany, for the purpose of continuing to Vienna the per-
pendicular of the Parisian meridian, in order to unite the
triangles of the chart of France with the points taken in
Germany, to prepare the means of extending into that
country the plan adopted in France, and thus to establish
successively for all Europe a most useful uniformity. He
was at Vienna the 6th of June 1761, the day of the transit
of the planet Venus over the sun’s disc, a phenomena which
he observed as accurately as the state of the weather would
permit him to do, and of which he published an account in
his Voyage en Allemagne.
Cassini, always meditating the perfection of his grand
design, profited by the peace of 1783 to propose the join¬
ing of certain points taken upon the English coast with those
which had been determined on the coast of France, and
thus connecting the general chart of the latter with that
of the British isles, as he had before united it with those
of Flanders and Germany. The proposal was favourably
received by the English government, and carried into ef¬
fect by General Roy, under the direction of the Royal So¬
ciety.
Between the years 1735 and 1770, M. Cassini published,
in the memoirs of the French Academy, a great number
of pieces, consisting chiefly of astronomical observations
and questions, among which maybe mentioned researches
concerning the parallax of the sun, the moon, Mars, and
Venus; remarks on astronomical refractions, and the ef¬
fect caused in their quantity and laws by the weather;
numerous observations on the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
on the law of its variations. He cultivated astronomy dur¬
ing half a century, the most important for that science that
ever elapsed, on account of the magnitude and variety of
the objects that had been investigated, in all which Cas¬
sini commonly sustained a principal share.
M. Cassini wras of a very strong and vigorous constitu¬
tion, which carried him through the many laborious opera¬
tions in geography and astronomy which he had conduct¬
ed. An habitual retention of urine, however, rendered the
last twelve years of his life very painful and distressing,
till at length it was terminated by the small-pox, on the
4th of September 1784, in the seventy-first year of his age.
He was succeeded in the academy, and as director of the
observatory, by his only son John Dominic Cassini, the
fourth in order of direct descent who filled that honourable
station. The following is a pretty correct list of his works,
viz. 1. La Meridienne de l Observatoire Royal de Paris, ve-
rifiee dans toute I'etendue du Royaume, avec des Observations
d’Histoire Naturelle par Lemonnier, 1744, 4to ; 2. Cartes
des Triangles de la France (avec Maraldi), 1744, 4to ; 3.
Additions aux Tables Astronomiques de Cassini, 1756, 4to ;
4. Relation de deux Voyages fails en 1761 et 1762 en Al¬
lemagne, pour determiner la grandeur des degres de longi¬
tude, par rapport d la geographic et d Vastronomic, 1763,
4to ; 5. Opuscules Divers, 1771, 8vo; 6. Description d un
instrument pour prendre hauteur, et pour trouver Theure
vraie sans aucun calcul, 1770, 4to; 7. Relation d’un Voy¬
age en Allemagne, qui comprend les operations relatives d
la figure de la terre et d la geographic particuliere du Pa-
latinat, etc. 1775, 4to; 8. Description Geometrique de la
Terre, 1775, 4to ; 9. Description Geometrique de la France,
1784, 4to. He also edited Observations sur la Comete de
1531, pendant le temps de son retour en 1652, faites par J.
D. Cassini, 1759, 12mo.
CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, secretary of
state to Theodoric, king of the Goths, was born at Squil-
lace, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year 470. He
became consul in 514, and was in great credit under the
reigns of Athalaric and Vitiges; but at the age of seven-
220
CAS
Cassiopeia ty he retired into a monastery in Calabria, where he
II amused himself in making sun-dials, water hour-glasses,
Castalio. an(j perpetual lamps. He also formed a library, and com-
posed several works, the best edition of which is that of
Father Garet, printed at Rouen in 1679. Of these the
most esteemed are his Divine Institutions, and his Trea-
. tise on the Soul. He died about the year 562.
CASSIOPEIA, in fabulous histoiy, wife toCepheus, king
of Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda. She thought
herself more beautiful than the Nereides, who desired
Neptune to revenge the affront; so that he. sent a sea
monster into the country, which did much mischief- lo
appease the god, her daughter Andromeda was exposed to
the monster, but was rescued by Perseus, who obtained
leave of Jupiter that Cassiopeia might be placed aftei her
death among the stars ; and hence the constellation of that
name. . „
Cassiopeia, in Astronomy, one of the constellations of
the northern hemisphere, situated next to Cepheus. In
1572 there appeared a new star in this constellation, which
at first surpassed in magnitude and brightness Jupiter
himself; but it diminished by degrees, and at last disap¬
peared at the end of eighteen months. It alarmed all the
astronomers of that age, many of whom, as Tycho Brahe,
Kepler, Maurolycus, LycetusVand Gramineus, wrote dis¬
sertations on it. Beza the landgrave of Hesse, Rosa, and
others, wrote to prove it a comet, affirming that it was the
same which had appeared to the Magi at the birth of Jesus
Christ, and that it came to declare his second coming : they
were answered on this subject by lycho.
CASSIS, in Antiquity, a plated or metallic helmet, dif¬
ferent from the galea, which was of leather.
CASSIUS, Spurius, a renowned Roman general and
consul. His enemies having accused him of aspiring to
royalty, he was precipitated from the Tarpeian rock 485
years before Christ, after having thrice enjoyed the con¬
sular dignity, been once general of the horse under the
first dictator created at Rome, and twice received the ho¬
nour of a triumph.
Cassius Longinus, a celebrated Roman lawyer, who
flourished 113 years before Christ. He was so inflexible a
judge, that his tribunal was called the “ Rock of the Im¬
peached.” From the judicial severity of this Cassius, very
severe judges have been called Cassiani.
Cassius, Caius, one of the murderers of Julius Caesar.
After his defeat by Mark Antony at the battle of Philippi,
he ordered one of his freedmen to put him to death with
his own sword, 41 years before Christ.
CASSOCK, or Cassula, a kind of robe or gown, worn
over the rest of the habit, particularly by the clergy. The
word cassock comes from the French Cassaque, a horse¬
man’s coat.
CASSUMBAZAR, a town of India, situated on the
river Ganges, in the province of Bengal. Long. 37. 0. E.
Lat. 24. 0. N.
CAST is peculiarly used to denote a figure or small
statue of bronze or other material.
CASTALIAN Spring. See Castalius.
CASTALIO, Sebastian, was born at Chatillon, on the
Rhone, in the year 1515. Calvin conceived such an
esteem and friendship for him, during the stay he made
at Strasburg in 1540 and 1541, that he lodged him some
days at his house, and procured him a regent’s place in
the college of Geneva. Castalio, after continuing in this
office for nearly three years, was forced to quit it in the
year 1544, on account of some particular opinions which
he held concerning Solomon’s Song, and Christ’s descent
into hell. He retired to Basel, where he was made Greek
professor, and died in 1564, at the age of forty-eight. He
incurred the high displeasure of Calvin and Theodore Beza,
CAS
for differing with them concerning predestination and the Caa Js
punishment of heretics. His works are very considerable,
both on account of their quality and number. In 1545 U
he printed at Basel four books of dialogues, containing V
the principal histories of the Bible, in elegant Latin, so
that youth might thereby make proficiency in piety and
in the Latin tongue at the same time. But his principal
work is a Latin and French translation of the Scripture.
He began the Latin translation at Geneva in 1542, and
finished it at Basel in 1550. It was printed at Basel in
1551, and dedicated by the author to Edward VI., king
of England. The French version was dedicated to Henry
II. of France, and printed at Basel in 1555. The fault
which has been most generally condemned in this Latin
translation is the affectation of using only classical terms.
CASTALIUS Fons, or Castalia, a fountain at the foot
of Mount Parnassus, in Phocis, near the temple of Apollo
at Delphi, sacred to the Muses, thence called Castalides.
Its murmurs were thought prophetic. •
CASTANETS, Castagnettes, or Castanettas, a
kind of musical instrument, with which the Moors, Spa¬
niards, and Bohemians accompany their dances, sara¬
bands, and guitars. It consists of two little round pieces
of wood dried, and hollowed in the manner of a spoon, the
concavities of which are placed on one another, fastened
to the thumb, and beat from time to time with the middle
finger, to direct the motions and cadences. The castanets
may be beat eight or nine times in the space of one mea¬
sure, or second of a minute.
CASTE. By this term is here meant the classificationDefir
and distribution of the members of a community into cer¬
tain classes or orders, for the performance of certain func¬
tions, with the enjoyment of certain privileges, or the endu¬
rance of certain burthens; and the establishment of heredi¬
tary permanence in these orders, the son being ordained
to perform the functions, to enjoy the privileges, or sustain
the burthens, of the father, and to marry only in his own
tribe, without mixture of classes, in regular succession,
throughout all ages.
The term Caste is borrowed from the Portuguese. Itorig|l
was the term applied by that people, who first of the diet.
European nations formed establishments in India, to the
classes which they found established upon this principle
among the inhabitants of that portion of the globe; and
from them, as it was owing to their intercourse that the rest
of the nations of modern Europe first derived their fami¬
liarity with the manners and institutions of the people of
India, the term made its way, and became established in
the other languages of Europe.
The institution itself appears to have been very exten¬
sively introduced even in the early ages of society.
In regard to the ancient Egyptians, the fact is univer-This J
sally and familiarly known. The President tie Goguetjuuii <
who, with singular industry, and no ordinary judgment >
and sagacity, explored the remains of ancient times, com¬
prises a great body of history in a few words. “ We
may farther observe,” says he, “ that, in the Assyrian em¬
pire, the people were distributed into a number of tribes,
and that professions were hereditary, that is to say, chil¬
dren were not permitted to quit their father s occupation
and embrace another. We know not the time nor the au¬
thor of this institution, which from the highest antiquity
prevailed over almost all Asia, as well as in several other
countries.” It is not necessary here to surcharge the
reader »vith the authorities wffiich he quotes. 4he pas¬
sage itself (p. i. b. i. ch. i. art. 3) will be consulted by all
who distrust the legitimacy of his inference, or desire to
prosecute the inquiry.
It is stated in the common histories of Greece that Le-
crops distributed into four hereditary classes or tribes all
e. the inhabitants of Attica. And we are informed by Plu-
tarch, in his Life of Theseus, that by this prince the class
of priests, and that of nobles, in other words, the magi¬
strates or military leaders, were united into one, and there¬
fore the society was composed of three classes : 1, The sa¬
cerdotal, legislating, and ruling class; 2, the class of hus¬
bandmen ; and, 3, the class of tradesmen. “ To the nobi¬
lity,” says the illustrious biographer, “ he committed the
choice of magistrates, the teaching and dispensing of the
laws, and the interpretation of all holy and religious things;
the whole city, as to all other matters, being as it were
reduced to an exact equality; the nobles excelling the
rest in honour, the husbandmen in profit, and the artifi¬
cers in number. And Theseus was the first who, as Aris¬
totle says, out of an inclination to popular government,
parted with the regal power; which Homer also appears
to attest in his catalogue of the ships, where he gives the
name of People to the Athenians alone.” There is a
passage near the beginning of Plato’s Timceus, which,
though in a work of fancy, is not without some weight, as
evidence either of conclusions which were drawn by men
of research, or of traditions which were current among
the people. In this passage not only is it asserted, that
in the primeval state of the inhabitants of Attica they re¬
sembled the Egyptians in their division into hereditary
classes and professions, but a very accurate description is
given of those classes, five in number, viz. 1, The class of
priests; 2, The class of handicrafts ; 3, The class of shep¬
herds and hunters; 4, The class of ploughmen; 5, The
military class. Ilgurov ,u,w ro ruv iegewv .ytvog, omto ruv aXXuv
'/uzig apagitf/iivor [Mira ds rovro to ruv drifuovgyuv, on %aff avro
haarov, a'/.A'M hi oax iKif^iiir/iMvov, hr\iuo\joyu' to ti tuv vofnow
mi toiv Qrigsurcdv' ro rs ruv yfuzyuv xai to {Jjayjihov ys«>g,
aero ercorwi/ rcoi/ ysywy big ovdw aXko irXqv t<k KiPi rov
rdhiijM ii'To tov \)0[Jj0\j rrgoGiTccyQri
We are informed by Aristotle, that the people of Crete
were divided into castes, after the manner of the Egyp¬
tians, by the laws of Minos. Eo/xs oa vvv cuds vscixtn toot
£/va/ yvwifiov roig orsg/ no’kiruag (pi\o<fo(povGiv, bn da 6ir,^Gl.)at
xara yswj rqu ‘ToX/v, xa; ro n [Aa^i/Aov sregov ami, nat to
yiotioyovv sv Aiyu-ffroi re yao eyjt tov roorrov rourov sn xai vvv’
ra, re iregi ttjv Kgtjrfjv. Toe [Jjiv ovv 'irsgi Kiyvirrov, SeGwGrgiog, dig
<paei, ovtoj vofiokrrjGuvrog’ M/vw be roe rregi Kgrjrjjv. Polit. vii. 1.
It is worthy of observation that certain vestiges at least
of that ancient institution are still visible in Egypt. “ La
distinction par families,” says General Reynier (Z)e
I'Egypte, p. 56), “ se retrouve encore dans les villes:
lexercise des arts et metiers est hereditaire: le fils imite
les precedes de son pere, et ne les perfectionne pas.”
We have a remarkable passage to prove that among the
ancient Persians the same division into castes existed which
still obtains among the Hindus. In the Zendavesta, as trans¬
lated by M. Anquetil Duperron, it is said,—“ Ormusd de¬
clared, there are three measures (literally weights, that is,
tests or rules) of conduct, four states, and five places of
dignity. The states are, that of the priest; that of the sol¬
dier; that of the husbandman, the source of riches; and
that of the artizan or labourer.” “ We are told,” says Sir
John Malcolm (Hist, of Persia, i. 205), “ that Jemsheed
| divided his subjects into four classes, and that he allotted
to each a separate and fixed station in life, which seems
to imply that the condition of the ancient Persians was
like that of the modern Hindus; and that the extraordi¬
nary institution of cast which now exists in India was
once known in Persia.” Sir John proceeds to state some
reasons which induce him to doubt the reality of the fact;
in not one of which, however, is there a particle of weight.
Sir John quotes and translates for us a passage from
Strabo, which asserts that a similar institution existed in
Iberia. “ Four kinds or classes of people inhabited that
country. From what they consider the first class, they
appoint their kings, according to nearness of kindred and
seniority; these administer justice, and head their armies.
The second is of priests, who take charge of their politi¬
cal rights with respect to their neighbours; the third of
soldiers and husbandmen ; the fourth of the people in ge¬
neral, who are slaves of the king, and perform every me¬
nial office.” This account of the distinctions of the castes
is evidently incorrect, and by a man who was not well in¬
formed. The fact of the Iberians being distributed in a
remarkable and uncommon manner he knew, otherwise
there would have been no occasion to single out the fact
in the description of this particular people. He knew also
that they were divided into four principal classes. With
regard to the matters of detail, however, his words bear
internal evidence that either his information had been
vague and inaccurate, or that his recollection had be¬
come so.
From a dissertation of Mr Joinville on the religion and
manners of the people of Ceylon (Asiatic Researches, vii.
430), we find that there is sufficient evidence to prove
the existence of a similar institution anciently among
the Buddhists of Ceylon, and by consequence to infer it
among the other Buddhists spread over so large a portion
of Asia.
After this evidence of the general diffusion of the insti¬
tution of castes in the rude ages of the world, especially
in Asia, there is a temptation, from the following passage
of Herodotus (lib. i. cap. 101), to infer its existence
among the Medes at the commencement of the monarchy.
E<rr/ de Mriduv ro6a.be yevea, BouGai, n.ocgi]rax)]voi, Ab/gavroi
Boubioi, Mayo/. There is nothing in the passage which
serves to fix the meaning of the word yevea; and the
names, it is plain, are words of the ancient Median lan¬
guage. But we know that the Mayo/ were the priests;
and hence there is reason to conclude that the other
words also are names of classes and professions; in other
words, of hereditary castes.
The institution of castes may be traced in places with
which we are more intimately connected. Mr Millar, to
whom the world is indebted for almost the first lessons
which it received, in tracing the facts of history up to the
general laws of the human mind, has called our attention
to the fact, that in the ancient condition of our Saxon an¬
cestors they were divided into four classes : 1, The arti¬
ficers and tradesmen ; 2, the husbandmen ; 3, those who ex¬
ercised the honourable profession of arms; and, 4, the clergy.
Mr Millar adds (/historical View of the English Government,
b. i. ch. ii.), “ From the natural course of things, it should
seem, that in every country where religion has had so
much influence as to introduce a great body of ecclesias¬
tics, the people, upon the first advances made in agricul¬
ture and in manufactures, are usually distributed into the
same number of classes or orders. This distribution is ac¬
cordingly to be found, not only in all the European na¬
tions formed upon the ruins of the Roman empire, but
in other ages and in very distant parts of the globe. The
ancient inhabitants of Egypt are said to have been divid¬
ed into the clergy, the military people, the husbandmen,
and the artificers. The establishment of the four great
castes, in the country of Indostan, is precisely of the same
nature.”
Human nature is very uniform in the phenomena which
it exhibits. The new world displays a striking resem¬
blance to the old. The same stage of society presents
nearly the same results. There is reason to conclude
that something which resembled the institution of castes
existed among the ancient inhabitants of Peru and Mexi¬
co. The Count Carli, the celebrated author of the Lettres
Americaines, when treating (Lett. xiii. and xiv.) of the
222
CASTE.
Caste, laws of the Peruvians, says, “ Les citoyens furent chstnbues
en classes ou tribus. II n’etoit pas permis, m par
manage, ni par changement d’habitation, de confondre
une cfasse avec 1’autre; car la loi defendoit de se marier
dans une autre famille que celle d’ou 1’on sortoit.
N’oublions pas le soin qu’on avoit de 1’education des en-
fans. C’etoit toujours le pere qui elevoit son fils. L’edu-
cation consistoit a apprendre aux enfans roturiers le me¬
tier que chaque pere de famille exercoit, &c. We aie
informed by Clavigero {Hist, of Mexico, b. iv. § 5), that
“ the sons in general learned the trades of their fatheis,
and embraced their professions; thus they perpetuated
the arts in families, to the advantage of the state.” _
Such is the extent to which this institution has existed
on the surface of the globe. We shall next endeavour to
ascertain the state and condition of the human mind, to
which it may be considered as owing its origin.
Origin and The lowest and rudest state in which the human race
causes of are found to exist, may, in a certain general way, be de-
the diffu- scribed as the hunter state. That ol the shepherd is
Sion of tliisthe next stage ;n tiie progress toward the advantages
institution. cjvijjze(j q'pg agricultural state succeeds ; when
men begin to cultivate the ground for the means of sub¬
sistence, and experience the benefit of fixed habitations.
As long as they continue in the condition of hunters or of
shepherds, the division of labour is unknown, and all the
multitude of blessings which it brings. Every family is
itself the author of all the simple accommodations_ which
it knows. The tent or hovel, the waggon or cart, is con¬
structed by the men ; the coarse garment is spun and even
woven by the women. In this situation of things, the ac¬
commodations with which it is possible for human beings
to supply themselves are few and imperfect, and life is a
scene of privation.
When population has so far multiplied as to render the
produce of flocks and herds insufficient for the means of
subsistence, and the cultivation of the land has become
necessary, the inconveniences arising from the want of the
division of labour become still more sensible and oppres¬
sive. The labours of the field are neglected while the fa¬
mily are engaged at the loom or in repelling the incursions
of an enemy. The accommodations of lodging, of clothing,
of taste, and fancy, are wretchedly supplied, when the busi¬
ness of extracting the means of subsistence from the soil
requires the greater part of their time and attention.
The progress, however, of human improvement, though
not necessarily, is commonly, in point of fact, at least in
the more uncultivated ages, exceedingly slow. Men con¬
tinue to suffer under the inconveniences which their present
condition imposes upon them, complaining of their mise¬
ries, but unable to form a clear conception of the means
of exemption, and doubtful of all the remedies which are
pointed out to their attention. In the mean time, as the
human mind is essentially progressive, and, unless in very
extraordinary circumstances, never fails to make progres¬
sion, the uneasiness which is felt under the inconveniences
of a state to which the mind has become superior, and
above which it is rising higher and higher every day, is
continually increasing, and at last rises to such a height
that some change is unavoidable; and the society are pre¬
pared to welcome the most plausible of the schemes which
are proposed to them.
The grand steps which are made in improving the con¬
dition of mankind, though essentially the result of a pro¬
gression in the minds of the society taken as a whole, are
commonly the immediate suggestion of some one indivi¬
dual, or small number of individuals, whose conception of
the necessity of a change, and of the means of relief, is
more clear and determinate than that of the rest of the
community.
In the earliest stages, when the human mind is weak, C:
and prone to superstition, the individuals wdio project the w]
great improvements in the state of society endeavour to
accelerate the consent of the people, and overcome their
reluctance to innovation, by giving to their projects the
character of a divine revelation and command. The first
legislators of almost every country we find to have repre¬
sented themselves as depositaries of the divine will, and
intrusted with a revelation from heaven.
If we take the Hindus as a model, the people divided
into castes with whom our acquaintance is the most com¬
plete, we shall conclude that some individual, wise enough
to perceive the cause of the inconveniences under which
men suffer while the division of labour is unknown, and
placed in circumstances which enabled him to clothe him¬
self with a divine authority, overcame in most places the
reluctance of the people to so great a change of their
manners and habits, and accelerated the date of their im¬
provement, by persuading them that the divine power or
divine powers now commanded them to be divided into
classes for the performance of certain offices.
In the early stages of society, however, the wants of
men are few; and the ideas of the legislator himself are
incapable of extending to a great variety of cases. In
such periods the power of superstition is always exceed¬
ingly great. Unacquainted with the laws of nature, and
exposed to the most dreadful vicissitudes, which they are
altogether unable to foresee, human life appears to men in
that situation to hang altogether upon invisible powers.
The human mind is incessantly occupied with conjectures
respecting what those unknown powers will produce, and
with tormenting apprehensions that they will produce evil
rather than good. The persons who, in this state of things,
are skilful enough to create a persuasion that they are
better acquainted than others with the will of these powers,
more especially if accompanied with a persuasion that
they have an influence over that will, and can turn it
more or less whichever way they please, become an object
of supreme regard. Nothing can be done without them.
They are the most important class in the community.
When society is first divided into classes for the sake of the
division of labour, the priests, therefore, are always a se¬
parate class, and always in the place of highest distinction.
After the evils to which men in the rude state of society
conceive themselves liable from the unknown and invisi¬
ble authors of physical events, the evils to which they are
liable from the incursions of hostile men appear the next
in magnitude. While the institutions of society are im¬
perfect, and the human mind is weak, these evils are very
great, and present a terrific picture to an imagination
perpetually haunted with fear ; and, in the same circum¬
stances, the advantages derivable from hostile incursions
upon others appear the greatest. In the rude ages of so¬
ciety, therefore, the soldier is always a character of great
importance. He is the barrier against those evils which
rank next in order after the evils against which the priest
affords relief. When classes are first formed, the military
are, therefore, always a separate class, and next in rank
and veneration to the class of the priests. It is remark¬
able that the rank and consequence of both classes are
chiefly founded upon fear. It is also remarkable, though a
natural consequence, that, in all ages, they are most apt to
be venerated by the most timid persons, the most timid sex,
for example, over whose imagination the priest and the
soldier have a proverbial sway. It is further observable,
and a necessary consequence, that since the fears with
respect to invisible powers, and with respect to the in¬
cursions of hostile men, gradually decline as society ad¬
vances, and have less and less effect upon the imagina¬
tions even of those who are most apt to be governed by
CASTE.
the passion of fear, the respect for the castes of priest and
soldier are destined to sink in relative importance as the
institutions of society are improved, and the human mind
becomes strong.
After provision is made, in that early stage of society
which we are endeavouring to describe, against the two
classes of fears to which the priest and the soldier oppose
their respective shields, the care of subsistence is the ob¬
ject of greatest importance. A class of husbandmen, there¬
fore, is a necessary and never-failing institution; and, in the
scale of rank and consequence, this order follows immedi¬
ately after the sacerdotal and the military castes.
Besides the means of subsistence, other accommoda¬
tions are required. But at first very few are so much
as known, and, by consequence, very few are demanded.
One class of the community are, therefore, supposed to be
sufficient for the supply of all other wants, and the per¬
formance of all other services.
It is obvious, that reflection upon the laws of human
nature would lead us to draw a picture nearly the same
with this, if we were called upon to describe the state of
society at the time when the division of labour is first in¬
troduced, even if we had no specific facts to direct our in¬
quiries. In a remarkable passage in Plato, in his second
book De Republica, he ascribes the origin of political as¬
sociation and laws to the benefits which are sought for by
the division of labour. F/yi/sra/ tfoAig, £jg ij oj/Aai, tTsidav,
rvyycau riuwv kxuffrog, om avrag^qg, aXka mXXuv ivdtrjg. As
men cannot be supplied with accommodations in any to¬
lerable degree but by the division of labour and employ¬
ments, one man producing one thing, another producing
another, and every man getting what he wants, by exchange
with other men, an association of a certain number of men
is necessary for the common well-being ; and hence society
and laws. In exact coincidence with the deduction which
we have presented above, he says that the simplest form of
a society would consist of four or five orders of men. AXXa,
fiiv vgurri ys kui /Myidrri rm XSSIUV % Tr^ T^(prjg ‘Tagaffxiu)], dtvrsga,
Si oiK7]Seug, rpryj strfyrog xai ruv toidvtuv Eiq d’ av % yg
amyxciioTurri vroXig ex rsrrugwv q ‘Tsi/ts avdpuv. The coinci¬
dence is very nearly complete between the speculation
and the practice; between what is in this manner infer¬
red, and what is recorded of ancient nations, and witness¬
ed among the Hindus.
Amidst all the difficulties under which, especially in rude
ages, human society and the human mind make progress,
small are the steps which can be taken at once. When
professions were separated, and the vast benefits derived
from the separation began to be felt, the human mind was
not sufficiently strong to perceive that there was no dan¬
ger whatsoever that they should ever again be combined
and confounded. No; it was imagined to be another grand
effort of the same wisdom which had made the separation,
to take care of its permanence, and to make provision for
securing the benefits of it throughout all ages. With this
view it was thought necessary to ordain and sanction, by
divine authority, that the son should follow the profession
of the father, and be subject to the severest punishment
if he engaged in any other occupation. To secure also, in
each profession, the due succession of sons to fathers, it
was necessary that marriage should be strictly regulated;
and the method which obviously enough suggested itself
tor that purpose was, that the members of each class, male
and female, should be compelled, under the severest pe¬
nalties, to marry only among themselves, and never, by
intermarriage, to ruin and confound the separate castes.
So far the aim, at any rate, was good. The benefit of
. e wh°le society was the object which all these regula¬
tions w'ere accounted useful to promote; and no degrada¬
tion of any of the classes was either intended by any of
223
these enactments, or necessary for the ends which they Caste,
were destined to serve. 'w—y-w'
The degradation of one set of the castes, in comparison
of another, was the result of an after-thought, and in
the pursuit of ends of a different description. When one
of the castes, as that of the priests, or the soldiers, found
itself possessed of an influence over the minds of the rest
of the community, such that it could establish certain
points of belief in its own favour, it was never long before
it availed, itself of that advantage, and pushed it to the
utmost. If it could inspire the belief that it was more
noble, and worthy of higher privileges and greater ho¬
nour, than the rest of the community, it never failed to
get this point established as an incontrovertible right, not
the result of the mere will of the community, but of an ab¬
solute law of nature, or even a revelation and command
from God.
As every elevation of one class implies a correspondent
degradation of another, and as there is no end to the ele¬
vation which one class will aim at, there is no end to the
degradation which will be imposed upon another, if the
state of the human mind is sufficiently weak to give to
one class an unbounded influence over the belief of ano¬
ther. How naturally this extreme degradation is grafted
upon the institution of castes, will immediately appear.
As we derive our most minute and practical acquaint-Of the In-
ance with the shape into which society is moulded by thedian castes
establishment of castes, from our intercourse with thein Particu'
Hindus, the particulars-which are at this day exhibited inlar-
Hindustan, and provided for by their laws, afford the rpost
certain means of acquiring precise and specific ideas con¬
cerning this remarkable institution.
According to the sacred law book, entitled the Ordi¬
nances of Menu, the Creator, “ that the human race might
be multiplied, caused the Brahmin, the Cshatriya, the
Vaisya, and the Sudra (so named from scripture, protec¬
tion, wealth, and labour), to proceed from his mouth, his
arm, his thigh, and his foot.” “ For the sake of preserving
this universe, the Being, supremely glorious, allotted se¬
parate duties to those who sprung respectively from his
mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot. To Brahmins he
assigned the duties of reading the Veda, of teaching it, of
sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving aims if
they be rich, and, if indigent, of receiving gifts ; to defend
the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the Veda, to
shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a few
words, the duties of a Cshatriya; to keep herds of cattle,
to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to read the Scripture, to
cany on trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate land,
are prescribed or permitted to a Vaisya. One principal
duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a Sudra, namely, to
serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating
their worth.” Such is the employment of the castes, and
such the authority whence it is derived.
The next great peculiarity is, the degree of elevation
which one set of the castes was enabled to usurp, and the
correspondent degradation of the others.
1. The Brahmins, or the priests. “ Since the Brahmin priestg.
sprung from the most excellent part,” says the same di¬
vine code immediately quoted, “ since he was the first
born, and since he possesses the Veda, he is by right the
chief of this whole creation. Him the Being who exists of
himself produced in the beginning, from his own mouth,
that having performed holy rites, he might present cla¬
rified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the proge¬
nitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world. What
created being, then, can surpass him, with whose mouth
the gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified
butter, and the manes of ancestors on hallowed cakes ? Of
created things, the most excellent are those which are ani-
224
CASTE.
Caste.
Military.
caste.
mated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelli¬
gence ; of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sa¬
cerdotal class. When a Brahmin springs to light he is
born above the world, the chief of all creatures. What¬
ever exists in the universe, is all in effect the wealth of
the Brahmin; since the Brahmin is entitled to it all by
his primogeniture and eminence of birth.
As the Brahmin exclusively, or at least to a supreme
decree, engrosses the regard and favour of the deity, so
he is entitled to the respect and veneration of mortals.
Kings themselves, and the most exalted of men, are inn-
nitely inferior to the meanest of the Brahmins. Let
the king,” we again quote the ordinances of Menu, “ ha¬
ving risen at early dawn, respectfully attend to Brah¬
mins learned in the three Vedas, &c. . . . and by then de¬
cision let him abide. Constantly must he show respect
to Brahmins who have grown old, who know the Scrip¬
tures, who are pure.” “ The king must appoint seven or
eight ministers, &c To one learned Brahmin, distin¬
guished among them all, let the king impart his momen¬
tous counsel. To him, with full confidence, let him in¬
trust all his transactions; and with him, having taken his
final resolution, let him begin all his measures.” “ Let
him not, although in the greatest distress, provoke Brah¬
mins to anger, by whom Brahma, the all-devouring fire,
was created, the sea with waters not drinkable, and the
moon with its wane and increase. What prince would
gain wealth by oppressing those who, if angry, could frame
other worlds, and agents of worlds,—could give being to
new gods and mortals? What men desirous of life would
injure those by the aid of whom worlds and gods perpe¬
tually subsist,—those who are rich in the knowledge of the
Veda? A Brahmin, whether learned or ignorant, is a
powerful divinity, even as fire is a powerful divinity, whe¬
ther consecrated or popular. Thus, though Brahmins
employ themselves in all sorts of mean occupations, they
must invariably be honoured ; for they are something trans*
cendently divine.”
The least disrespect shown to one of the sacred order is
the most atrocious of crimes. “ For contumelious language
to a Brahmin,” says the code of Menu, “ a Sudra must
have an iron style, ten fingers long, thrust red-hot into his
mouth; and for offering to give instruction to priests, hot
oil must be poured into his mouth and ears.”
The laws give to the Brahmins the most remarkable ad¬
vantages over the other classes of the community. Nei¬
ther the person, nor so much as the property of the Brah¬
min, can ever be touched, in awarding punishment for the
most atrocious crimes. “ Never shall the king,” says one
of the ordinances of Menu,slay a Brahmin, though con¬
victed of all possible crimes; let him banish the offender
from his realm, but with all his property secure, and his
body unhurt.” This privileged order was entirely exempt
from taxes. One of the most important of all duties is to
bestow wealth upon the Brahmins, by incessant gifts and
donations. See article Brahmin.
2. The Cshatriyas, or the military caste. Though the
Brahmins look down upon this class, they are looked up
to by all the rest of the classes with a veneration in¬
ferior only to that with which the Brahmins are regard¬
ed. The difference of rank in India is not a mere cere¬
monial distinction. The advantages which are confer¬
red by it, or the injuries endured, are immense, and to
the suffering party unspeakably degrading. Any infringe¬
ment, even of the external marks of the abjectness of the
degraded party, is punished as a heinous crime. “ If a
man of an inferior caste,” says Halhed’s Gentoo Code,
“ proudly affecting an equality with a person of superior
caste, should speak at the same time with him, the magi¬
strate in that case shall punish him to the extent of his
abilities.” It is unnecessary, under this head, to enter (\
into details, which would occupy a disproportionate space.
3. The Vaisyas, the agricultural and commercial class. Agr ,,
It is still less necessary to multiply particulars under this ™cjj
head. When the two extremes are sufficiently explained,
what modifications of respect or disrespect belong to the
intermediate stages may be easily inferred.
4. As much as the Brahmin is an object of intense ve-gen
neration, so much is the Sudra an object of contempt, andcasti
even of abhorrence, to the other classes of his country¬
men. The business of the Sudras is servile labour, and
their degradation inhuman. The most abject and grovel¬
ling submission is imposed upon them as a religious duty,
and enforced by the most dreadful punishments. They are
so completely deprived of an equal share in the advan¬
tages of the social union, that few of those advantages are
reserved to them. The classes above them are restrained'
from injuring them, even in the case of the greatest crimes,
by punishments far slighter than those which are appoint¬
ed for injuries done to the superior classes. The crimes
which they commit are punished with much heavier in¬
flictions than equal crimes committed by individuals of
the classes above them. Neither their persons nor their
labour is free. “ A man of the servile caste,” says the
sacred ordinance of Menu, “ whether bought or unbought,
a Brahmin may compel to perform servile duty; because
such a man was created by the Self-existent for the pur¬
pose of serving Brahmins.”
According to the principles of the same code, the Su¬
dra was excluded from the benefits of property. “ No col¬
lection of wealth must be made by a Sudra, even though
he has power, since a servile man who has amassed riches
gives pain even to Brahmins.” “ A Brahmin may seize
without hesitation the goods of his Sudra slave ; for as that
slave can have no property, his master may take his goods.
The degradation of the wretched Sudra extends not
only to every thing in this life, but even to religion, and
the prospect of future happiness. “ Let not a Brahmin,
says the above code, “ give advice, nor what remains Irom
his table, nor clarified" butter of which part has been of¬
fered, nor let him give spiritual counsel to such a man,
nor inform him of the legal expiation for his sin; sure¬
ly he who declares the law to a servile man, and he who
instructs him in the mode of expiating sin, sinks with that
very man into the hell named Asamvrita. Not only are
the Sudras not allowed to read any of the sacred books;
but, “ if,” says the Gentoo Code, “ a man of the Sooder
reads the Beids of the Shaster, or the Pooran, to a Brah¬
man, a Chehteree, or a Bice” (Halhed’s mode of spelling
the names of the four castes), “ then the magistrate shall
heat some bitter oil, and pour it into the aforesaid Sooder s
mouth ; and if a Sooder listens to the Beids of the Shas¬
ter, then the oil, heated as before, shall be poured into his
ears, and arzeez and wax shall be melted together, and
the orifice of his ears shall be stopped up therewith,
a Sooder gets by heart the Beids of the Shaster, the ma¬
gistrate shall put him to death. . If a Sooder gives much
and frequent molestation to a Brahman, the magistrate
shall put him to death.” From this specimen of particu¬
lars a judgment may be formed with regard to the rest.
Though this is the primary and original formation of castes, jnc0,
the institution, unless where it happens to be early broken niem
up, does not rest here. The distribution of the members thw
of the community into four classes only, and the aPPr0's|Jcie
priation of their services to four species of employment,^
though a great step in improvement at the time they
were instituted, must have become productive of manyin-
conveniences as the wants of society multiplied. e
bare necessaries of life, with a few of the rudest accom
modations, are all the means of gratification which it a -
CASTE.
e, fords, or is capable of affording, to mankind. As the de-
O sires of mankind, however, speedily extend beyond such
narrow limits, a struggle must have early ensued between
the first principles of human nature and those of the po¬
litical establishment.
And this was not the only evil to which,( under this
primary institution, society was exposed. The different
castes were strictly commanded to marry with those ex¬
clusively of their own class and profession; and the mix¬
ture of the classes by the union of the sexes was guarded
against by the most sanguinary laws. This, however, was
a result which laws were not sufficiently powerful to pre¬
vent. Irregularities occurred, and children were born who
belonged to no caste, and for whom there was no occupa¬
tion. A more calamitous event could not fall upon hu¬
man society. Unholy and infamous, on account of that
violation of the sacred law to which they owed their un¬
welcome birth, these wretched outcasts had no resource
for subsistence except two ; either the bounty of the re¬
gular classes, to whom they were objects of contempt and
abhorrence, not of sympathy; or the plunder of those classes
by whom they were oppressed—a resource to which they
would naturally betake themselves with all the ingenuity of
necessitous, and all the ferocity of injured men.
When a class of this description became numerous, they
must have filled society with the greatest disorders. The
nature of the case would have drawn the philosophical
mind to this conclusion had no testimony existed. It so
happens, however, that this is one of the few facts in the
ancient history of the Hindus which can be ascertained
from their record. In the preface to that compilation of
the Hindu Laws which was translated by Mr Halhed, it
is stated that, after a succession of good kings, who se¬
cured obedience to the laws, and under whom the people
enjoyed felicity, came a monarch, evil and corrupt, under
whom the laws were violated, the mixture of the classes
was perpetrated, and a new and impious race were pro¬
duced. The Brahmins put this wicked king to death,
and, by an effect of miraculous power, created a succes¬
sor, endowed with the most excellent qualities. Never¬
theless the kingdom did not prosper, by reason of the
Burren Sunker (so were the impure and irregular brood
denominated) ; and it required all the wisdom of this sage
and virtuous king to devise a remedy. He resolved to
form a classification of the mixed race, and to assign them
occupations. This accordingly was the commencement
of arts and manufactures. The Burren Sunker became
all manner of artizans and handicrafts. Of the classes
into which they were distributed, one was appointed to
the weaving of cloth, another to works in iron, and so in
all other cases, till the subdivisions of the race were ex¬
hausted, and the wants of the community were provided
for. Among the Hindus thirty-six castes of the impure
race are enumerated, all inferior in rank and privileges
even to the Sudra. To proceed farther in the detail
would be inconvenient and useless. By this supplement
to the institution of the four primary castes, two great
evils were remedied at once ; the increasing wants of an
improving society were supplied, and a class of men, who
had been the pest of the community, were converted to
its service.
How nearly the actual state of things among the Hindus
did ever correspond with the written accounts of the in¬
stitution ol castes, we do not know. But even at the time
when Europeans first became acquainted with them, many
points of the separation were disregarded; and this has
been in constant progress ; so that at present the principal
interruptions to the business of life, occasioned by the
niceties of caste, are removed ; and the distinctions are felt
on certain limited occasions only.
VOL. VI.
225
The only remaining inquiry with respect to the institu- Caste,
tion of castes, which seems appropriate to this article, is y-,w/
that of its utility or inutility as a part of the social esta¬
blishment. And a few words will, we think, suffice to con¬
vey clear and determinate ideas upon this subject.
It is the distinction of man’s nature, that he is a pro-General
gressive being. It is by this grand characteristic that he view of the
is separated so widely from the inferior animals. When effects of
found in circumstances and situations in which the bene- insti-
fits of progression seem not to have been reaped, he istutl0n-
raised but a slight degree above the condition of some of
the more perfect of the inferior animals. His peculiarity
is, that he is susceptible of progression, and, unless when
he is placed in circumstances which impose extraordinary
restraints upon the principles of his nature, does invari¬
ably and incessantly make progress. Even when he ori¬
ginates in a state little above that of the inferior animals,
he rises, and gradually ascends from one stage to another,
till his elevation above all the other inhabitants of this
globe is immense ; nor is there any limit which our know¬
ledge permits us to set to his final attainments and feli¬
city. In whatever state the other animals originate, in
that state they remain throughout all ages, and seem al¬
together incapable of improvement.
In regard to man, therefore, considered as a class of
beings or an order of existence, every thing is to be con¬
sidered as beneficently important in proportion as it fa¬
vours his progression; every thing is to be considered as
mischievously important in proportion as it obstructs and
impedes that progression. And it is by this grand test of
all that is good and evil in human institutions that we shall
endeavour to estimate the effects of the establishment of
castes.
We shall not here adduce the elevation of one set of the
classes, and the correspondent degradation of another, ob¬
viously the cause of infinite evil; because it may be with
justice maintained, that this horrid elevation, and equally
horrid depression, are not essential parts of the institution
of caste, but arise from other causes, and may, in fact, be
separated from that institution.
First of all, it is evident, that at the time when the num¬
ber of castes and professions is established, unless it could
be foreseen what are all the species of operations or arts
by which the desires of man, in all their possible varieties,
are capable of being gratified, and what are all the pos¬
sible divisions of labour from which any good can arise,
the appointment of fixed, unalterable castes and profes¬
sions must oppose an insuperable barrier to humanadvance-
ment in these two grand instruments of progression, the
division of labour and the practice of new arts, as inven¬
tion may suggest them, or the multiplying desires of an
improving society may create the demand. Since it is
obviously impossible that all these things can be foreseen,
it is abundantly certain that the institution of any fixed
number of arts and trades is exactly an institution for pre¬
venting the progression of mankind. This deduction ap¬
pears to be conclusive, and, if there were no other argu¬
ment, affords a complete answer to the question respect¬
ing the utility of castes.
Even in the trades and arts which are known and pro¬
vided for at the time of the institution, it is by no
means certain that this fixed order of the persons who
are to practise them is a contrivance well adapted for
carrying these arts themselves, whether large in number
or small, to their highest state of perfection. It by no
means follows that a man will do any thing better than
any other man, because his father did it before him. To
establish a caste for any particular art or profession, is
giving a sort of monopoly to that particular description of
men. It is a wide monopoly, to be sure ; but, as far as the
2 F
226
CAS
Caste.
appropriation of the art to one class is calculated to have
any effects, they must so far be such as it is of the nature
of a monopoly to produce, and hence unfavourable to the
progress of the art. The way which presents itself to
the reasoning mind, as that which is best calculated for
improving every branch of human industry or skill, is to
open, as widely as possible, the doors to competition; not
to exclude any man, of whatever origin, who may appear
to have an extraordinary genius for any particular thing,
but to allow him, through competition, to reap the reward
of his superiority, and hence to feel all the motives that
can prompt him to excel. The acquirements of one gene¬
ration are not transmitted to another more surely when
they are transmitted from father to son, than when they
are transmitted in the way of promiscuous instruction.
Nor does it necessarily, or even commonly, happen, that
the learner gets more careful instruction from his father,
than he would from a man who is not his father ; or that
he himself is more intent in his application, and careful to
learn, because it is his father who instructs him.
In the sciences and the fine arts, the power of excelling
in which depends upon rare combinations of ciicumstances,
to limit the number of competitors, and shut up the field
from all but the members of a particular tribe, is obviously
a powerful expedient for diminishing the chance of pio-
gression. In regard to literature and knowledge the case
is clear and decisive. To confine the prosecution of it to
a particular tribe, is to insure a perpetuity of ignorance
and misery to the human race. It will be decidedly the
interest of the knowing class to maintain as much igno¬
rance as possible among the rest of the community, that
they may be able the more easily to turn and wind them
conformably to their own purposes ; and, for that end, to
study, not real knowledge, nor the means of making man¬
kind wiser and happier, but the means of deluding and
imposing upon them the arts of imposture. With this
clear and incontrovertible inference, how exactly does the
historical fact correspond ? How truly and faithfully have
the Brahmins acted up to that rule? I hey have made it
a law revealed from heaven to keep the great bulk of the
community in ignorance. And what branch of know¬
ledge have they ever studied but the science of delusion ?
There is first their theology ; a mass of absurd fictions, to
chain the imagination of ignorant and foolish men. And
then there is astrology, which concludes the circle of all
their studies, and may be justly styled the second part
of the act of imposture ; even their mathematics, in which
they made some little progress, being studied in no other
shape than as a part of the business of astrology.
Another circumstance appears to merit no slight re¬
gard. The institution of castes is calculated to multiply
the evils, so dreadful in magnitude, which are apt to arise
from the principles of population, and is opposed to the
measures which are calculated to lessen or prevent them.
The evils which are apt to be produced by an occasional
superabundance of people in any one of the departments
of industry and subsistence, are exceedingly diminished
when the greatest possible facility is given to the super¬
numerary individuals, of distributing themselves through
all the other departments of industry and subsistence.
And these evils, it is obvious, are all raised to the greatest
height when the possibility of that distribution is taken
away; and individuals, in whatsoever degree superabun¬
dant, are still confined to their own department. As this
is a topic, the elucidation of which it is easy to carry on, we
shall content ourselves with the bare hint which has thus
been given, and leave the development to the reflections
of the reader.
It may be added, as a supplement to what wras said about
the obstruction which, by the institution of castes, is given
CAS
to progression, not only in the division of labour and the ca
multiplication of arts, but even in perfecting the arts
which are known and practised, that the strict confine-Caste
ment of one tribe of men to one tribe of operations must
have a strong tendency to create a habit of routine, and
hence an aversion to all innovation ; a disposition to ac¬
quiesce in what has constantly been done, and hence to
deaden that activity of mind which is on the alert to catch
at every chance of improvement,—that admirable temper,
on which the greatest rapidity in the march of human
amelioration essentially depends.
It was intended, after thus presenting the reasons on
which we conclude that the institution of castes is an ar¬
rangement altogether opposite to the interests of human
nature, to have stated and answered the reasons which
have been advanced by Dr Robertson, in the appendix to
his Historical Disquisition concerning India, and more re¬
cently by the Abbe Dubois in his Description of the Cha¬
racter, &)C. of the People of India, to prove that the insti¬
tution of castes is really beneficial. But after looking over
these reasonings with a view to that answer, they have ap¬
peared to us to be so weak and insignificant as to be alto¬
gether unworthy the trouble of transcription. A sufficient
answer to every point which they adduce will be found
in the considerations which we have already urged upon the
subject; and we doubt not that we may safely intrust the
decision to the judgment of the reader. (a. a. a.)
CASTEL, Lewis Bertrand, a learned Jesuit, was
born at Montpellier in 1688, and entered among the Je¬
suits in 1703. He studied polite literature in his youth,
and at length applied himself entirely to the study of ma¬
thematics and natural philosophy. He distinguished him¬
self by writing on gravity, mathematics, and the music of
colours, a very whimsical idea, which he took great pains
to reduce to practice. His piece on gravity, entitled Traite
de la Pesanteur Universelle, was printed at Paris in D24.
He afterwards published his Mathematique Universelle,
which occasioned his being unanimously chosen a fellovy of
the Royal Society of London, without the least solicitation.
He was also member of the academies of Bordeaux and
Rouen ; but his Clavecin Oculaire made the greatest noise;
and he spent much time and expense in constructing a
harpsichord for the eye, but without success. He also wrote
for and against Sir Isaac Newton; and published several
other works, the principal of which are Le Plan du MatM-
matique abregee, and a treatise entitled Optique des Cou-
leurs. He led a very exemplary life, and died in 1757.
Castel Branco, or Castello Branco, a strong city of
Portugal, in the province of Beyra, on the upper branch
of one of the streams that form the Tagus. This place is
the seat of a bishop, and contains 1114 houses, and about
4000 inhabitants.
Castel de Vide, a town of Portugal, situated on a hill
in the province of Estremadura, two leagues north of Por-
talegre, between that place and the river Tagus. It pos¬
sesses a castle, and contains 1811 houses and 5721 inha¬
bitants.
Castel, Sarrasin, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Tarn and the Garonne, in France, 560 square
miles in extent. It is divided into seven cantons, and
these into 101 communes, containing 69,617 inhabitants.
The capital, which gives name to the arrondissement, is
situated on the river Sanguire, in a fruitful district. It con¬
tains 918 houses and 6895 inhabitants, employed in wool¬
len, linen, and hat manufactures.
CASTELBUONO, a city of Italy, in the intendancy of
Palermo, in the island of Sicily, on the river Pollina. R
contains 7080 inhabitants.
CASTELETON, a town in the hundred of High Peai<e,
in the county of Derby, 198 miles from London. R 1:5
CAS
ell situated at the foot of a lofty range of mountains, and is
celebrated for the extraordinary natural excavations in
elli. them, the most remarkable of which is Peake Hole, a
curiosity elsewhere described in this work. Near to it is
the Speedwell mine, in which is a wonderful subterranean
cataract. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 931, in
1821 to 1428, and in 1831 to 1329.
CASTELL, Dr Edmund, a learned English divine of
the seventeenth century, distinguished by his skill in the
eastern languages. He was educated at Cambridge, where
he became master of Catharine Hall and Arabic profes¬
sor ; and he was at length appointed canon of Canterbury.
He had the greatest share in the Polyglott Bible of Lon¬
don, and wrote the Heptaglotton pro septem Orientalibus.
On this work, which occupied a great part of his life, he
bestowed incredible pains and expense, even to the injury
of his constitution and his fortune, having expended upon
it no less than L. 12,000. At length, when it was printed,
the copies remained unsold upon his hands. He died in
1685, and lies buried in the churchyard of Higham Gobyon,
in Bedfordshire, of which he was rector. It appears from
the inscription on his monument, which he erected in his
lifetime, that he was chaplain to Charles II. He bequeath¬
ed all his oriental manuscripts to the university of Cam¬
bridge, on condition that his name should be written on
every copy in the collection.
CAS TELLAMONTE, a city of Italy, in the province
of Ivrea, on the banks of the Malesino, in the kingdom of
Sardinia. It contains 5000 inhabitants, who are employed
iu potteries, and in cultivating vineyards.
CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or function in Po¬
land. The castellans were senators of the kingdom, but
senators only of the lower class, who, in diets, sat on low
seats, behind the palatines or great senators. They were
a kind of lieutenants of provinces, and commanded a part
of the palatinate under the palatine.
CASTELLANA, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan
province of Bari, containing 6270 inhabitants.
CASTELLANE, an arrondissement of the department
of the Lower Alps, in France, 554 square miles in extent.
It is divided into six cantons and forty-six communes,
containing 2025 inhabitants. The chief place, of the same
name, is a city situated on the river Verdon, and contain¬
ing 1980 inhabitants. Long. 6. 39. E. Lat. 43. 55. N.
CASTELLAHIUS, the keeper, or curator, of a castel-
lum. Gruter gives an ancient sepulchral inscription in
memory of a castellarius.
CASTELLATIO, in the writers of the middle ages, the
act of building a castle, or of fortifying a house, and ren¬
dering it a castle. By the ancient English laws, castella-
tion was prohibited without the king’s special license.
CASTELLAZZO, a town of Italy, in the province of
Alessandria, of the kingdom of Sardinia, at the junction
of the lanaro with the Orba. It contains 4790 inhabit¬
ants, who subsist chiefly by agricultural pursuits.
CAS I ELLI, Bernard, an Italian painter, was born at
Genoa in 1557, and excelled in colouring and in portraits.
He was the intimate friend of Tasso, and took upon him-
self the task of designing and etching the figures of his
Gerusalemme Liberata. He died at Genoa in 1629.
Valerio Castelli, one of his sons, born at Genoa in 1625,
surpassed his father, and particularly excelled in paint¬
ing battles, which he composed with spirit, and executed
with so pleasing a variety, and so great freedom of hand,
as gained him universal applause. His horses are admir¬
ably drawn, and thrown into attitudes that are natural
and becoming, full of motion, action, and life. In that
style of painting he showed all the fire of Tintoretto, unit¬
ed with the fine taste in composition peculiar to Paolo
Veronese. He died in 1659.
CAS
227
Casti.
CASTELLON de la Plana, a city in the Spanish Castellon
province of Valencia, about a mile from the sea-coast. It<le la Plana
is well built, with broad and handsome streets, and con¬
tains six monasteries, two hospitals, and five poor-houses, ,
with a population of 10,733 persons. The cultivation of
hemp is much attended to, and some of the inhabitants
are employed in weaving linen. Lat. 39. 52. N.
CASTELLORUM Operatio, castle-work, or service
and labour done by inferior tenants for the building and
upholding of castles of defence ; towards which some gave
personal assistance, whilst others paid their contributions.
This was one of the three necessary charges to which all
lands among the Anglo-Saxons were expressly subjected.
CASTELNAUDARY, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Aude, in France, extending over 430 square
miles. It is divided into five cantons and seventy-five com¬
munes, and contains 51,597 inhabitants. The chief city,
of the same name, is situated on the south canal, in a fine
situation. It contains 1015 houses, and 9385 inhabitants.
Long. 1. 52. E. Lat. 43. 19. N.
CAS 1ELVEIERANO, a city of Sicily, in the inten¬
dancy of Irapani. It stands on an eminence projecting
into the sea, fifty miles from Palermo, in a healthy spot,
with 14,780 inhabitants.
CAS I ELVE TRO, Luigi, a native of Modena, of the
sixteenth century, famous for his Commentary on Aristotle s
Poetics. He was prosecuted by the inquisition for a cer¬
tain book of Melancthon, which he had translated into
Italian. He retired to Basel, where he died.
CASTI, Giambattista, an Italian poet, was born of
humble parents in the year 1721, at Montefiascone, a small
town in the States of the Church. It was there, too, that
he commenced his studies, in which he made such rapid
progress that he was appointed in early youth a professor
of Greek and Latin in an academy of his native town;
an employment which peculiarly directed his attention to
classical poetry and literature. He soon, however, quit¬
ted this obscure situation, and repaired to Rome in search
of more noble examples of emulation, and a higher recom¬
pense of public esteem, than his birth-place afforded him.
His learning, acuteness, and agreeable disposition, recom¬
mended him to the notice and friendship of the most emi¬
nent individuals of that capital. He was admitted a mem¬
ber of the academy Degli Arcadi; and it is believed he
might easily have risen from a canonship in the cathedral
of Montefiascone, which he had already obtained, to the
enjoyment of much higher church benefices, had such
been the chief objects of his ambition. But his love of
freedom, and his restless inclination for travelling, which
appears to have been characteristic of all the literary men
of Italy, interfered with his ecclesiastical preferment.
He gladly accepted the invitation of Prince Rosenberg
(tutor to the Grand Duke Leopold), with whom he had
become acquainted at Florence, to accompany him to
Vienna, where he was presented to the Emperor Joseph.
After this introduction, he visited almost all the capitals
of Europe, from Petersburg to Lisbon, and from Constan¬
tinople to Stockholm, directing his particular attention to
the manners and civil institutions of the various countries
through which he passed. On his return to Vienna he
was appointed Poeta Cesario or poet-laureate, in the room
of Metastasio; a situation which he held till some time
after the death of the Emperor Leopold, when he resign¬
ed it, and retired to Florence in 1796. During two years'
residence in that city, he composed a great number of his
works. At the end of that period he went to live in Paris ;
and though now far advanced in life, neither his habitual
gaiety nor the ardour of literary composition were in any
degree abated. Scarcely a day passed in which he did not
add something to his principal poem Gli Animali Parlanti,
228 CAS
Casti. or write one of bis poetical novels. At the same time he
'w-v-w delighted the society with which he lived by the unceas¬
ing liveliness of his conversation, which was rendered
highly entertaining and interesting by his knowledge of
the world, and the extensive opportunities he had possess¬
ed of observing the manners and characters of mankind.
Though in 1803 he had passed the age of eighty-two, the
strength both of his mind and body still afforded the pro¬
mise of a yet longer life ; but he died during this yeai, in
consequence of having caught a severe cold in leturning
home at a late hour from a house where he had spent the
evening. His funeral was attended by a great concourse
of French and Italians, distinguished by literary eminence;
and an eloquent funeral oration was pronounced on this
occasion, by Corona, an Italian physician. _
The chief work of Casti is Gli Animali Parlanti, Poema
Epico, Biviso in XXVI. Canti. In 1792 and 1793 the
French revolution had attracted the attention and specu¬
lations of all Europe, and had introduced comparisons be¬
tween new theories of government and ancient institutions.
The rage of innovation, and dislike of established forms,
having infected the minds of so large a proportion of the
community, Casti resolved to exhibit, though under an al¬
legorical veil, what he conceived to be the predominant
feelings of the multitude, their avowed hopes, and secret
designs. With this view, as he himself has expressed it
in his preface, “ he contrived a grand apologue, divided
into parts, and forming a continued poem, in which ani¬
mals being introduced as speakers and actors, a complete
political story might be exhibited, exposing the defects
of various political systems, and the absurdity of many in¬
stitutions which had been from time to time adopted.” Near
the commencement of this apologue the beasts assemble to
choose a king, and, after a good deal of intrigue and va¬
rious harangues, the lion is elected. On his death, the
folly of the lioness regent, and perversity of the royal
cub, excite murmurs, cabals, and at length a successful
insurrection, which is headed by the dog. By thus as¬
signing to animals human speech and passions, the author
has very happily parodied the usual appearances and
events of political revolutions in general, but often with
some allusion to the political events of the day, to the
characters of the reigning princes of Europe, and to that
most portentous of all revolutions, the consequences of
which at the time occupied so large a portion of the
thoughts of mankind.
Accordingly, we find that in this work Casti has por¬
trayed and satirized the hypocrisy so often mixed in po¬
litical pretensions; the secret ambition of leaders who
alternately supplant and succeed each other; the intole¬
rance of cabals and parties, who proscribe all who have
not ranged themselves under their banners, and who re¬
gard the maxims which happen to be then in vogue as
fixed and immutable principles. He has represented with
peculiar felicity the democratic declamations of the dog
once so loyal, the aristocratic surliness of the bear, the
simple good-nature of Lion I., and the caprices of his
cub Lion II., who is obviously intended for a late czar of
Muscovy. It must, however, be confessed, that the plea¬
santry of an apologue of twenty-six cantos, each of about
600 lines, is too much prolonged; and the too frequent
negligence of the style, with the repetition of trivial and
obvious morals, like those at the bottom of the page in the
English VEsops Fables, do not aid in sustaining the cu¬
riosity or interest.
This work of Casti, which raised him to a very high
rank among the modern poets of his country, was begun
at Vienna in 1794'. His situation, however, as poet-lau¬
reate, was unfavourable to the freedom of political satire,
and this obstacle to his favourite pursuit may have been
CAS
one inducement to his resignation of that office. After
his retirement, the poem was continued at Florence with- O-y
out interruption, and completed at Paris, where it was
published in 1802, in 3 vols. 8vo ; an impression which has
been followed by various editions in Italy. It was trans¬
lated into French, Spanish, and German, and we have
also seen a free and abridged English version, executed
with considerable vivacity and spirit. To most of the Ita¬
lian editions four apologues have been added; but these
have no relation to the subject of the Animali Parlanti.
One of them, entitled Della Gatta e del Topo, written, we
believe, before the author was poet-laureate, and publish¬
ed certainly after he had resigned that situation, is sup¬
posed to portray those sinister events which clouded the
prospects of aggrandizement anticipated by Joseph from
his formidable league with Russia against the Turks.
Casti having completed his great work of the Animali
Parlanti, anew directed his attention to the composition
and publication of poetical novels. As far back as the
year 1778 he had written eighteen of these Novelle Ga-
lanti, but his poetical avocations at the imperial court had
interrupted his progress; and meanwhile those which he
had composed were surreptitiously printed, both in Italy
and France, in a manner so inaccurate, and so much altered
from the way in which they had been originally written,
that they could scarcely be recognised by the author, as
we learn from the Protesta dell Autore.
Molti vi son che senza mio permesso
Sparser le mie novelie, e v’han cangiato
Ordine, senso, e versi, e strofe ; e spesso
Mi fan dir cio che non ho mai pensato,
Che appena omai mi vi conosco io stesso.
Some, too, as La Bella Circassa, and La Figlia che non
ha Giudizio, which were not written by Casti, were add¬
ed to these surreptitious publications :
Saran belle e leggiadre poesie,
Tutto quel che si vuol; ma non son mie.
In these circumstances, the injured poet assiduously
prepared himself to enlarge the number of his novels, and
to collect the whole in an edition which might be printed
under his own immediate superintendence. He was pre¬
vented, however, by his sudden death; but his novels,
which, at the period of his decease, amounted to forty-
eight, were published by one of his Parisian friends, in
3 vols. 8vo, 1804, accompanied by a prefatory memoir of
the author. The practice of tale-writing, which commen¬
ced with the author of the Cento Novelle Antiche, and was
brought to such perfection by Boccaccio, had prevailed in
Italy for nearly five hundred years before the age of Casti.
The Italian novelists invariably copied from each other,
and from those inexhaustible stores of fiction, the Fabliaux
of the Trouveurs. But the merit of Casti does not consist
in the invention of his stories, all of which are borrowed,
but in being the first among his countrymen who has
clothed these tales in a poetical garb. His novels are
founded either on mythological stories, or on preceding
Italian tales. To the first class belong Aurora, E Origins
di Roma, Diana ed Endimione, Prometeo e Pandora. Al¬
most all the rest are poetical versions from Boccaccio, Mas*
succio di Salerno, and other Italian novelists. The long¬
est, La Papessa, which is divided into three parts, is
founded on the old story of Pope Joan. These tales are
much admired by the Italians for purity of language and
harmony of versification, and they contain many ingenious
and sarcastic reflections on the hypocrisy, errors, and vices
of men in every age and condition of life. They are dis¬
figured, however, by an unpardonable licentiousness, which
is carried much farther than that of almost any of the prior
novelists of Italy. Some of them also terminate rather
flatly, and the octave stanza, in which they are all written,
CAS
i. and which has a certain degree of heaviness, even in the
—^ hands of Ariosto and Berni, is ill adapted to the gaiety
and levity of the lightest of all species of composition.
One cannot mention the tales of Casti without being na¬
turally led to compare them with those of Fontaine, which
are founded on similar originals, and written in something
of the same spirit. But, if there be more asperity and
caustic raillery in Casti, he is infinitely inferior to the
French poet in ease, naivete, and grace. The language
in which he was obliged to write, whatever may be its
other excellencies, is less expressive of playfulness than
the French; and the octave stanza, which he unfortunately
chose, is not susceptible of the buoyancy and lightness of
Fontaine’s versification.
The Animali Parlanti and the Novelle are the best
known and most popular works of Casti; but he is also
author of the Poema Tartaro, a satiric poem, in twelve
cantos, on the court of Catherine II. The scene of action,
however, is laid in Asia, and all the names are fictitious.
Russia is called Mogollia ; St Petersburg, Caracora ; the
Empress, Cattuna; the Grand Duke Paul, afterwards
Czar, Cajucco; Orloff, Cuslucco; and Potemkin, Toto
Toctabei. The first sketch of this mock heroic poem was
made by the author during his visit to St Petersburg, in
the train of Count Kaunitz, the Austrian ambassador. On
his return to Vienna, the Emperor Joseph having mani¬
fested a desire to hear it read, Casti new-modelled the
composition, struck out whatever might be likely to prove
offensive to crowned heads in general, and inserted a com¬
plimentary episode on the celebrated journey of his im¬
perial patron into the Crimea. Notwithstanding the ap¬
probation which his poem met with from the Austrian
court, Casti would not probably have published it during
the life of the heroine; but numerous manuscripts of it
having been circulated, some of them found their way to
Italy, where it was repeatedly but very incorrectly print¬
ed, none of the impressions having ever been subjected to
the revisal of the author.
In his capacity of poet-laureate, it was the duty of Casti
to provide new dramatic entertainments at stated occa¬
sions and periods. The court and public of Vienna had
probably grown weary, in the course of half a century,
of the elegant moral monotony of Metastasio; and Casti,
whose genius was diametrically opposite to that of his
predecessor, could not have vied with him in the grand
or serious opera. Fie therefore resolved to excite the
mirth of the spectators by the revival of the Opera Bvffa,
in which he obtained great success. One of his produc¬
tions in this line, entitled La Grata di Trofonio, is intend¬
ed to ridicule the pretensions of false philosophers. The
subject of another, 11 Re Teodoro in Venezia, suggested
by an episode in Voltaire’s Candida, was assigned to him
by the emperor himself, who is said to have been much
entertained with the lines
Senza soldi e senza regno
Brutta cosa e I’esser lie.
A third burlesque opera, of which Cicero is the princi¬
pal character, is founded on the plot of Catiline. Here
the characters of the Roman senators and conspirators,
with the orations against Catiline, are so parodied as to
produce something of the same effect as our mock trage¬
dies, or the ancient satiric drama of the Greeks.
On the whole, although neither the novel nor the apo¬
logue was by any means a new species of composition
among the Italians, yet Casti may be regarded as an origi¬
nal author, in so far as he has bestowed a new form on the
first, and has given to the second an extent which it had
not yet received, as well as directed it to an object to
which it had not been previously applied. (q.)
CAS 229
CASTIGATION, among the Romans, the punishment Castigation
of an offender by blows, or beating with a wand or switch. ||
Castigation was chiefly a military punishment, the power Castile,
of inflicting which on the soldiery was given to the tri- old*
bunes. Some make it consist of two kinds; one with a
stick or cane, called fustigatio; and the other with rods,
called jiagellatio. The latter was the more dishonourable.
CASTIGATORYfor Scolds. A woman indicted for
being a common scold, if convicted, shall be placed in a
certain engine of correction, called the trebucket castiga-
tory, or clicking stool, which in the Saxon language sig¬
nifies the scolding stool; though now it is frequently cor¬
rupted into the ducking stool, because the residue of the
judgment is, that when she is placed therein, she shall be
plunged in water for her punishment.
CASTIGLIONE, Giovanni Benedetto, a celebrated
painter, was born at Genoa in 1616. He painted por¬
traits, historical pieces, landscapes, and castles, in the
last of which he is said chiefly to have excelled; as also
in fairs, markets, and all kinds of rural scenes. By this
master we have also a great number of etchings, which
are all spirited, free, and full of taste. His son, I’rancesco,
was bred under himself, and excelled in the same subjects ;
and it is thought that many good paintings which are as¬
cribed to Benedetto, and are frequently seen at sales, or
in modern collections, are copies after him by his son
Francesco, or perhaps originals of the younger Castiglione.
Castiglione delle Stiviere, a market-town of Italy,
in the Austrian delegation of Mantua, celebrated for the
battle fought there between the French and Austrians in
1796. It contains eight churches, and 5290 inhabitants.
C ASTIGLIONI, Balthazar, an eminent Italian noble¬
man, was born qt Casalico, in the duchy of Milan, in 1478.
He studied painting, sculpture, and architecture, as ap¬
pears from a book he wrote in favour of these arts; and
excelled so much in them, that Raphael, Urbino, and Buo-
narotti, though incomparable artists, never thought their
works complete without the approbation of Count Castig-
lioni. When he was twenty-six years of age, Guido Ub-
aldo, duke of Urbino, sent him ambassador to Pope Julius
II. He was dispatched on a second embassy to Louis XII.
of France, and on a third to Henry VII. of England. After
he had terminated his business here, he returned, and be¬
gan his celebrated work, entitled the Courtier, which he
completed at Rome in 1516. This work is full of moral
and political instruction ; and if we seek for the Italian
tongue in perfection, it is said to be nowhere better found
than in this performance. A version of this work, to¬
gether with the original Italian, was published at London
in 1727, by A. P. Castiglioni, a gentleman of the same fa¬
mily, who resided here under the patronage of Dr Gibson,
bishop of London. Count Castiglioni was sent by Cle¬
ment VII. to the court of the emperor Charles V. in qua¬
lity of delegate, and died at Toledo in 1529.
CASTILE, Old, a large division of the kingdom of
Spain. It is of irregular shape, and is bounded by New
Castile in a considerable part. A small portion of it
reaches the shores of the Bay of Biscay; and Leon and
Estremadura bound it on the western side. Its superficial
extent is 1488 square leagues, and it contains a population
of 970,763 souls. It is divided into the four provinces of
Burgos, Soria, Segovia, and Avila, which are described in
their alphabetical stations in this wrork. It is crossed by
the two great rivers the Ebro and the Duero, and has
a few other rivulets, which run into them; but, generally
speaking, it is a peculiarly arid district. It produces, how¬
ever, in favourable seasons, abundance of grain; but in a
summer of great drought its crops of corn are miserably
deficient. A very great proportion of the Merino flocks,
and those which bear the finest wool, are shorn in this
230 CAS
Castile, province; but being migratory, they may be said to feed
New all over the kingdom, passing their time in travelling trom
11. north to south, and back again, according as the pasture
Casting. jn var;ous climates becomes fitted for. their grazing.
s'"^ There ls wine sufficient grown in this province for its own
consumption; and some, but not a sufficiency of olive oil.
The w'hole province is very bare of trees, in consequence
of which it is much exposed to the drying heats of the sun,
and probably enjoys less rain. Its manufacturing industry
was very considerable in the sixteenth century; but it has
been gradually declining since that period, and few traces
of it are now remaining. Besides the four provinces spe¬
cified, Old Castile has a portion of the coast called Canta-
brica within its limits. From this division a considerable
trade is carried on through the ports of Santandei and
Santona, from which chestnuts are exported to Holland,
and lemons and oranges to France. There are also docks,
in which large vessels, and some ships of war, are built at
Guarnizo, on the river Santander. The royal residences
of the Escurial and Ildefonso are in this province..
Castile, New, one of the most considerable divisions
of the kingdom of Spain. It is bounded on the east by
Aragon and Valencia, on the north by Old Castile and
Aragon, on the west by Estremadura, and on the south by
Cordova, Jaen, and Murcia. The superficial extent is
2583 square leagues, and the amount of its population
was, in the year 1804, according to the census, 1,220,114
souls. .
The civil divisions of New Castile are the provinces ot
Madrid, Guadalaxara, Cuenca, Toledo, and La Mancha.
The description of Madrid, the capital of the Spanish
monarchy, will be found under that article, and the other
capitals of these five provinces in their several alphabeti¬
cal places. New Castile may be generally described as a
very healthy district; and though some considerable por¬
tions of it are very mountainous and barren, it is on the
whole a fertile country; and the valleys are eminently so.
It produces abundance of corn, wine, oil, and fruits of all
kinds. It breeds a considerable number of cows, horse,
mules, asses, pigs, and sheep; but it is very deficient in
manufactures of almost every kind.
The most considerable mountains are the range called
Iberica, which, commencing near the fountains of the Ta¬
gus, in the province of Aragon, enter New Castile by Cu¬
enca. From Cuenca they may be traced by Toledo, be¬
tween the rivers Tagus and Guadiana, with various pro¬
jecting ramifications, till they terminate near the latter
river, in the vicinity of Merida. Another range, begin¬
ning near the head of the Ebro, passes the sources of the
Tagus and those of the Xarama, and, called Somosierra
near Madrid, enters the province of Old Castile.
The rivers of this province are, the Manzanares, rising
in the northern part of it, and passing by Madrid, after
which it enters the Xarama, which is further increased
by the streams of the Henares; and the Henares, which
receives the waters of the Tajuna, and then flows into
the Tagus, which latter crosses the province, and runs to
Estremadura. The greatest complaint uttered against
nature in New Castile is the want of water, which, ex¬
cept near these rivers, is very great, and produces much
sterility.
CASTING, in foundery, the running of liquid metal
into a mould prepared for that purpose. See Foundery.
Casting in Sand or Earth, is the running of metals
between two frames or moulds, filled with sand or earth,
in which the figure that the metal is to take has been im¬
pressed en creux, by means of the pattern.
Casting, among sculptors, implies the taking of casts and
impressions of figures, busts, medals, leaves, or the like.
The method of taking casts of figures and busts is most
CAS
generally by the use of plaster of Paris, that is, alabaster Cas?
calcined by a gentle heat. The advantage of using this w-■
substance in preference to others is, that notwithstanding
a slight calcination reduces it to a pulverized state, it be¬
comes again a tenacious and cohering body, by being
moistened with water, and afterwards suffered to dry; by
which means either a concave or a convex figure may be
given by a proper mould .or model to it when wet, and re¬
tained by the hardness it acquires when dry; and, from
these qualities, it is fitted for the double purpose of mak¬
ing both casts, and moulds for forming casts. The par¬
ticular manner of making casts depends on the form of
the subject to be taken. Where there are no projecting
parts, it is very simple and easy; as likewise where there
are such as form only a right or any greater angle with
the principal surface of the body; but where parts pro¬
ject in lesser angles, or form a curve inclined towards the
principal surface of the body, the work is more difficult.
The first step to be taken is the forming of the mould. In
order to this, if the original or model be a bas-relief, or
any other piece of a flat form, having its surface first well
greased, it must be placed on a proper table, and sur¬
rounded by a frame, the sides of which must be at such a
distance from it as will allow a proper thickness for the
sides of the mould. As much plaster as will be sufficient
to cover and rise to such a thickness as to give the neces¬
sary strength to the mould, as also to fill the hollow be¬
twixt the frame and the model, must be moistened with
water, till it be just of such consistence as will allow it to
be poured upon the model. This must be done as soon
as possible; or the plaster will concrete or set, so as to
become more troublesome in the working, or unfit to be
used. The whole must then be suffered to remain in this
condition till the plaster has attained its hardness; and
then the frame being taken away, the preparatory cast or
mould thus formed may be taken off from the subject en-
tire. _ # . :a|‘
Where the model or original subject is of a round or
erect form, a different method must be pursued, and the
mould must be divided into several pieces ; or if the sub¬
ject consists of detached and projecting parts, it is fre¬
quently most expedient to cast such parts separately, and
afterwards join them together.
Where the original subject or mould forms a round or
spheroid, or any part of such round or spheroid, more than
one half the plaster must be used without any frame to
keep it round the model, and must be tempered with wa¬
ter to such a consistence that it may be wrought with
the hand like very soft paste ; but though it must not be
so fluid as when prepared for flat-figured models, it must
yet be as moist as is compatible with its cohering suffi¬
ciently to hold together ; and being thus prepared, it must
be put upon the model, and compressed with the hand, or
any flat instrument, that the parts ot it may adapt them¬
selves in the most perfect manner to those of the sub¬
ject, as well as to be compact with respect to themselves.
When the model is so covered to a convenient thickness,
the whole must be left at rest till the plaster be set and
firm, so as to bear dividing without falling to pieces, or
being liable to be put out of its form by slight violence;
it must then be divided into pieces, in order to its being
taken off from the model, by cutting it with a knife hav¬
ing a very thin blade ; and being divided, it must be cau¬
tiously taken off, and kept till dry; but it must be always
carefully observed, before the separation of the parts be
made, to notch them across the joints or lines of the envi¬
sion, at proper distances, that they may with ease and cei-
tainty be properly conjoined again ; which would be muc i
more precarious and troublesome without such directive
marks. The art of properly dividing the moulds, in order
CASTING.
to make them separate from the model, requires more
dexterity and skill than any thing else in the art of cast¬
ing, and does not admit of rules for the most advanta¬
geous conduct of it in every case. Where the subject is
of a round or spheroidal form, it is best to divide the
mould into three parts, which will then easily come off
from the model; and the same will hold good of a cylin¬
der or any regular curved figure.
The mould being thus formed and dried, and the parts
put together, it must be greased, and placed in such a po¬
sition that the hollow may lie upwards, and then filled with
plaster mixed with wrater, in the same proportion and
manner as was directed for the casting of the mould ; and
when the cast is perfectly set and dry, it must be taken
out of the mould, and repaired where it is necessary; which
finishes the operation.
This is all that is required with respect to subjects
where the surfaces have the regularity above mentioned;
but where they form curves which intersect each other,
the conduct of the operation must be varied with respect
to the manner of taking the cast of the mould from off
the subject or model; and where there are long project¬
ing parts, such as legs or arms, they should be wrought in
separate casts. The operator may easily judge from the ori¬
ginal subjects what parts will come off together, and what
may require to be separated. The principle of the whole
consists only in this, that where under-workings, as they
are called, occur, that is, wherever a straight line drawn
from the basis or insertion of any projection would be cut
or crossed by any part of such projection, this part can¬
not be taken off without a division, which must be made
either in the place where the projection would cross the
straight line, or, as that is frequently difficult, the whole
projection must be separated from the main body, and
divided also lengthwise into two parts; and where there
are no projections from the principal surfaces, but the
body is so formed as to render the surface a composition
of such curves, that a straight line being drawn parallel
to the surface of one part would be cut by the outline in
one or more places of another part, a division of the wdiole
should be made, so as to reduce the parts of it into regu¬
lar curves, which must then be treated as such.
In larger masses, where there would otherwise be a
great thickness of the plaster, a core or body may be put
within the mould, in order to produce a hollow in the
cast, which both saves the expense of the plaster, and
renders the cast lighter.
This core may be of wood where the forming of a hollow
of a straight figure or a conical one with the basis outward
will answer the end; but if the cavity require to be round,
or of any curve figure, the core cannot then be drawn
while entire, and consequently should be of such matter
as may be taken out piece-meal. In this case the core is
best formed of clay, which must be worked upon wires to
give it a tenacity, and suspended in the hollow of the
mould by cross wires lying over the mouth ; and when the
plaster is sufficiently set to bear handling, the clay must
be picked out by a proper instrument.
Where it is desired to render the plaster harder, the
water with which it is tempered should be mixed with
parchment size properly prepared, which will make it very
bi'm and tenacious.
In the same manner, figures, busts, and the like, may be
cast of lead or any other metal in the moulds of plaster, only
ie expense of plaster, and the tediousness of its becoming
su ciently dry, when in a very large mass, to bear the
leat of melted metal, render the use of clay, compounded
mti some other proper materials, preferable where large
Su_ •lects are ^ question. The clay in this case should be
was ie over till it be perfectly free from gravel or stones,
and then mixed with a third or more of fine sand to pre¬
vent it cracking; or, instead of sand, coal ashes sifted fine
may be used. Whether plaster or clay be employed for
the casting in metal, it is extremely necessary to have the
mould perfectly dry, otherwise the moisture, being rare¬
fied, will cause an explosion that will blow the metal out
of the mould, and endanger the operator, or at least crack
the mould in such a manner as to frustrate the operation.
Where the parts of a mould are large, or project much,
and consequently require a greater tenacity of the matter
they are formed of to keep them together, flocks of cloth,
prepared like those designed for paper hangings, or fine cot¬
ton plucked or cut till it is very short, should be mixed
with the ashes or sand before they are added to the clay
to make the composition for the mould. The proportion
should be according to the degree of cohesion required;
but a small quantity will answer the end if the other in¬
gredient of the composition be good, and the parts of the
mould properly linked together by means of the wires above
directed.
There is a method of taking casts in metals from small
animals, and the parts of vegetables, which may be prac¬
tised for some purposes with advantage, particularly for
the decorating of grottos or rock works, where nature is
imitated. I he projier kinds of animals are lizards, snakes,
frogs, birds, or insects, the casts of which, if properly co¬
loured, will be exact representations of the originals.
This is to be performed by the following method: A
coffin or proper chest for forming the mould being prepar¬
ed of clay, or four pieces of boards fixed together, the
animal or parts of vegetables must be suspended in it by
a string, and the leaves, tendrils, or other detached parts of
the vegetables, or the legs, wings, and other parts of the ani¬
mals, properly separated and adjusted in their right position
by a small pair of pincers ; a due quantity of plaster of Pa¬
ris and calcined talc, in equal quantities, with some alumen
plumosum, must then be tempered with water to the pro¬
per consistence for casting, and the subject from which
the cast is to be taken, as also the sides of the coffin, mois¬
tened with spirit of wine. The coffin or chest must then
be filled with the tempered composition of the plaster and
talc, putting at the same time a piece of straight stick or
wood to the principal part of the body of the subject, and
pieces of thick wire to the extremities of the other parts,
in order that they may form, when drawn out after the
matter of the mould is properly set and firm, a channel for
pouring in the melted metal, and vents for the air, which
otherwise, by the rarefaction it would undergo from the heat
of the metal, would force its way out or burst the mould.
In a short time the plaster and talc will set and become
hard, when the stick and wires may be drawn out, and the
frame or coffin in which the mould was cast taken away;
and the mould must then be put first into a moderate
heat, and afterwards, when it is as dry as it can be render¬
ed by that degree of heat, removed into a greater, which
may be gradually increased till the whole be red hot. The
animal or part of any vegetable which was included in the
mould will then be burnt to a coal, and may be totally
calcined to ashes, by blowing for some time gently into
the channel and passages made for pouring in the metal,
and giving vent to the air, which will, at the same time that
it destroys the remainder of the animal or vegetable mat¬
ter, blow out the ashes. The mould must then be suffer¬
ed to cool gently, and will be perfect, the destruction of
the substance of the animal or vegetable having produced
a hollow of a figure correspondent to it; but it may be
nevertheless proper to shake the mould, and turn it up¬
side down, as also to blow with the bellows into each of
the air-vents, in order to free it wholly from any remain¬
der of the ashes; or where there may be an opportunity
CASTING.
of filling the hollow with quicksilver without expense, it
will be found a very effectual method of clearing the ca¬
vity, as all dust, ashes, or small detached bodies, will ne¬
cessarily rise to the surface of the quicksilver, and be
poured out with it. The mould being thus prepared, it
must be heated very hot when used if the cast be made
with copper or brass; but a less degree will serve for lead
or tin; and the matter being poured in, the mould must
be gently struck, and then suffered to rest till it be cold,
at which time it must be carefully taken from the cast,
but without the least force ; for such parts of the matter as
appear to adhere more strongly must be softened by soak-
in0- in water till they be entirely loosened, that none of the
more delicate parts of the cast may be broken off or bent.
Where the alumenplumosum cannot easily be procured,
the plaster may be used alone; but it is apt to be calcined
by the heat used in burning the animal or vegetable from
which the cast is taken, and to become of too incohering
and crumbly a texture; or, for cheapness, Stourbridge or
any other good clay, washed over till it be perfectly fine,
and mixed with an equal portion of sand, and some flocks
cut small, may be employed. Pounded pumice-stone and
plaster of Paris, taken in equal quantities, and mixed with
washed clay in the same proportion, is said to make excel¬
lent moulds for this and similar purposes.
Casts of medals, or such small pieces as are of a simi¬
lar form, may be made in plaster by the method directed
for bas-reliefs. Indeed nothing more is required than to
form a mould by laying them on a proper board, and hav¬
ing surrounded them by a rim made by a piece of card,
or any other pasteboard, to fill the rim with soft tempered
plaster of Paris; which mould, when dry, will serve for
several casts. It is nevertheless a better method to form
the mould of melted sulphur, which will produce a sharper
impression in the cast, and be more durable than those
made of plaster. Casts are likewise frequently made of
sulphur, which being melted, must be treated exactly in
the same manner as plaster.
For taking casts from medals Dr Lewis recommends
a mixture of flowers of brimstone and red lead. Equal
parts of these are to be put over the fire in a ladle till
they soften to the consistence of pap; then they are to be
kindled with a piece of paper, and stirred for some Erne.
The vessel being afterwards covered close, and continued
on the fire, the mixture grows fluid in a few minutes. It
is then to be poured on the metal, previously oiled and
wiped clean. The casts are very neat; and their colours
sometimes a pretty deep black, sometimes a dark gray.
They are very durable; and when soiled, may be washed
clean in spirits of wine.
Dr Lettsom recommends tin-foil for taking off casts from
medals. The thinnest kind is to be used. It should be
laid over the subject from which the impression is to be
taken, and then rubbed with a brush, the point of a skew¬
er, or a pin, till it has perfectly received the impression.
The tin-foil should now be pared close to the edge of the
medal, till it be brought to the same circumference. The
medal must then be reversed, and the tin-foil will drop off
into a chip box or mould placed ready to receive it. Thus
the concave side of the foil will be uppermost, and upon
this plaster of Paris, prepared in the usual manner, may
be poured. When dry the whole is to be taken out, and
the tin-foil sticking on the plaster will give a perfect re¬
presentation of the medal, almost equal in beauty to silver.
If the box or mould is a little larger than the medal, the
plaster running round the tin-foil will give the appearance
of a white frame or circular border ; and hence the new
made medal will appear neater and more beautiful.
Casts may likewise be made with iron prepared in the
following manner: “ Take any iron bar, or piece of a si¬
milar form, and, having heated it red not, nom it over a Cas
vessel containing water, and touch it very slightly with a W ,
roll of sulphur, which will immediately dissolve it, and
make it fall in drops into the water. As much iron as
may be wanted being thus dissolved, pour the water out
of the vessel, and pick the drops formed by the melted
iron from those of the sulphur, which contain little or no
iron, and will be distinguishable from the other by their ,
colour and weight.” The iron will by this means be ren¬
dered so fusible that it will run with less heat than is re¬
quired to melt lead, and may be employed for making
casts of medals, and many other such purposes, with great
convenience and advantage.
Impressions of medals having the same effect as casts
may be made also of isinglass-glue, by the following means:
Melt the isinglass, beaten, as when commonly used, in an
earthen pipkin, with the addition of as much water as will
cover it, stirring it gently till the whole is dissolved; then
with a brush of camel’s hair cover the medal, v/hich should
be previously well cleansed and warmed, and then laid
horizontally on a board or table, greased in the part around
the medal. Let them rest afterwards till the glue be pro¬
perly hardened ; and then, with a pin, raise the edge of it,
and separate it carefully from the medal. I he cast will
be thus formed by the glue as hard as horn; and so light
that a thousand will scarcely weigh an ounce. In order
to render the relief of the medal more apparent, a small
quantity of carmine may be mixed with the melted isin¬
glass ; or the medal may be previously coated with leaf-
gold by breathing on it, and then laying on the leaf, which
will by that means adhere to it; but the use of leaf gold
is apt to impair a little the sharpness of the impression.
Impressions of medals may likewise be taken in putty;
but it should be the true kind, made of calx of tin and
drying oil. These may be formed in the moulds, pre¬
viously taken in plaster or sulphur; or moulds may be
made in its own substance, in the manner directed for
those of the plaster. These impressions will be very sharp
and hard ; but the greatest disadvantage that attends them
is their drying very slowly, and being liable in the mean
time to be damaged.
Impressions of prints or other engravings may be taken
from copperplates, by cleansing them thoroughly, and
pouring plaster upon them; but the effect in this way is
not strong enough for the eye; and therefore the follow¬
ing method is preferable, where such impressions on plas¬
ter are desired: Take vermilion, or any other coloured
pigment, finely powdered, and rub it over the plate. Then
pass a folded piece of paper, or the flat part of the hand,
over the plate, to take off the colour from the lights or
parts where there is no engraving; the proceeding must
then be the same as where no colour is used. This last
method is also applicable to the making of impressions of
copperplates on paper with dry colours; for the plate be¬
ing prepared as here directed, and laid on the paper pro¬
perly moistened, and either passed under the rollipg press,
or any other way strongly forced down on the paper, an
impression of the engraving will be obtained.
Impressions may likewise be taken from copperplates,
either on plaster or paper, by means of the smoke of a
candle or lamp; if, instead of rubbing them with any co¬
lour, the plate be held over the candle or lamp till the
whole surface become black, and then wiped off by the
flat of the hand, or paper. .
These methods are not, however, of great use in the
case of copperplates, except where impressions may be
desired on occasions wdiere printing ink cannot be pro¬
cured. But as they may be applied likewise to the taking
of impressions from snuff-boxes, or other engraved subjec s,
by which means designs may be instantly borrowed y
CAS
CAS 233
le. artists or curious persons, they may in such instances be
•~*J very useful.
The expedient of taking impressions by the smoke of a
candle or lamp may be employed also for botanical pur¬
poses in the case of leaves, as a perfect and durable repre¬
sentation not only of the general figure, but of the contex¬
ture and disposition of the larger fibres, may be extempo¬
raneously obtained at any time. The same may be never¬
theless done in a more perfect manner by the use of lin¬
seed oil, either alone, or mixed with a small proportion of
colour, where the oil can be conveniently procured; but
the other method is valuable on account of its being prac¬
ticable at almost all seasons, and in all places, within the
time that the leaves will keep fresh and plump. In tak¬
ing these impressions it is proper to bruise the leaves, so
as to take off the projections of the large ribs, which might
prevent the other parts from plying to the paper.
CASTLE, a fortress or place rendered defensible either
by nature or art. It frequently signifies with us the prin¬
cipal mansion of a nobleman. In the time of Henry II.
there was no less than 1115 castles in England, each of
which contained a manor.
Castles, walled with stone, and designed for residence
as well as defence, are for the most part, according to Mr
Grose, of no higher antiquity than the conquest; for al¬
though the Saxons, Romans, and even, according to some
writers on antiquity, the ancient Britons, had castles built
of stone, yet these were both few in number, and, at that
period, through neglect or invasions, either destroyed or
so much decayed that little more than their ruins remain¬
ed. This is asserted by many of our historians and anti¬
quaries, and assigned as a reason for the facility with
which William the Norman made himself master of this
country.
This circumstance was not overlooked by so good a ge¬
neral as the conqueror ; who, in order effectually to guard
against invasions from without, as well as to awe Ins newly-
acquired subjects, immediately began to erect castles all
over the kingdom, and likewise to repair and augment the
old ones. Besides, as he had parcelled out the lands of
the English amongst his followers, they, to protect them¬
selves from the resentment of the despoiled natives, built
strongholds and castles on their estates. This caused a
considerable increase of these fortresses; and the turbu¬
lent and unsettled state of the kingdom in the succeeding
reigns served to multiply them prodigiously, every baron
or leader of a party building a castle ; insomuch that to¬
wards the latter end of the reign of King Stephen they
amounted to the almost incredible number of 1115.
I As the feudal system gathered strength, these castles
became the heads of baronies. Each castle was a manor;
and its castellan, owner, or governor, the lord of that ma¬
nor. Markets and fairs were directed to be held there;
not only to prevent frauds in the king’s duties or customs,
but also as these were esteemed places where the laws of
the land were observed, and as such had a very particular
privilege. But this good order did not last long; for the
lords of castles began to arrogate to themselves a royal
power, not only within their castles, but likewise in their en¬
virons ; exercising judicature both civil and criminal, coin¬
ing money, and arbitrarily seizing forage and provisions for
the subsistence of their garrisons, which they afterwards
demanded as a right. At length their insolence and op¬
pression grew to such a pitch, that, according to William
of Newbury, “ there were in England as many kings, or ra¬
ther tyrants, as lords of castlesand Matthew Paris em¬
phatically styles them nests of devils and dens of thieves.
Castles were not solely in the possession of the crown
and the lay barons, but even bishops had such fortresses;
though it seems to have been contrary to the canons, from
VOL. VI.
a plea made use of in a general council in favour of King
Stephen, who had seized upon the strong castles of the
Bishops of Lincoln and Salisbury. This prohibition, if
such existed, was, however, very little regarded; and in
the following reigns many strong places were held, and
even defended, by the ecclesiastics; nor was greater obe¬
dience afterwards paid to a decree made by the pope at
Viterbo, on the fifth of the kalends of June 1220, in which
it was ordained that no person in England should keep in
his hands more than two of the king’s castles.
The licentious behaviour of the garrisons of these places
having become intolerable, it was agreed, in the treaty
between King Stephen and Henry II. when only Duke of
Normandy, that all the castles built within a certain pe¬
riod should be demolished; in consequence of which man}^
were actually rased, but not the number stipulated.
The few castles in being under the Saxon government
were probably, on occasions of war or invasion, garrisoned
by the national militia, and at other times slightly guard¬
ed by the domestics of the princes or great personages
who resided in them ; but after the conquest, when all the
estates were converted into baronies held by knight’s ser¬
vice, castle-guard, coming under that denomination, was
among the duties to which particular tenants were made
liable. From these services the bishops and abbots, who
till the time of the Normans had held their lands in frank
almoign, or free alms, were, by this new regulation, not ex¬
empted ; they were not, however, like the laity, obliged
to render personal service, it being sufficient that they pro¬
vided fit and able persons to officiate in their stead. This
was at first stoutly opposed by Anselm, archbishop of Can¬
terbury, who being obliged to find some knights to attend
King William Rufus in his wars in Wales, complained of
it as an innovation and infringement of the rights and im¬
munities of the church.
It was no uncommon thing for the conqueror and the
kings of those days to grant estates to men of approved
fidelity and valour, on condition that they should perform
castle-guard in the royal castles, with a certain number of
men, for some specified time; and sometimes they were
likewise bound by their tenures to keep in repair and guard
some particular tower or bulwark, as was the case at Do¬
ver Castle.
In process of time these services were commuted for
annual-rents, sometimes styled wardpenny, and waytfee,
but commonly castle-guard rents, payable on fixed days,
under prodigious penalties called sursizes. At Rochester,
if a man failed in the payment of his rent of castle-guard
on the feast of St Andrew, his debt was doubled every
tide during the time for which the payment was delayed.
These were afterwards restrained by an act of parliament
made in the reign of King Henry VIII. and finally anni¬
hilated, with the tenures by knight’s service, in the time of
Charles II. Such castles as were private property were
guarded either by mercenary soldiers, or by the tenants of
the lord or owner.
Castles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it either
by forfeiture or escheat, circumstances that frequently
happened in the distracted reigns of the feudal times,
were generally committed to the custody of some trusty
person, who seems to have been indifferently styled go¬
vernor and constable. Sometimes also they were put in¬
to the possession of the sheriff of the county, who often
converted them into prisons. That officer was then ac¬
countable at the exchequer for the farm or produce of the
lands belonging to the places intrusted to his care, as well
as for all other profits; and he was likewise, in case of war
or invasion, obliged to victual and furnish them with mu¬
nitions out of the issues of his county, to which he was
directed by writ of privy seal.
2 G
Castle.
234
Castle.
CAS
The materials of which castles were built varied ac¬
cording to the places of their erection; but the manner of
their construction seems to have been pretty uniform. I he
outside of the walls was generally built of the stones neat¬
est at hand, laid as regularly as their shapes would admit;
and the interior was filled up with the like materials, mix¬
ed with a great quantity of fluid mortar, which was called
by the-workmen grout-work.
The general shape or plan of these castles depended
entirely on the caprice of the architects, or the form of
the ground intended to be occupied; neither do they
seem to have confined themselves to any particular figure
in their towers; square, round, and polygonal oftentimes
occurring in the original parts of the same building.
The situation of the castles of the Anglo-Norman kings
and barons was most commonly on an eminence, and near
a river; a situation on several accounts eligible. The whole
site of the castle, which was frequently of great extent
and irregular figure, was surrounded by a deep and broad
ditch, sometimes filled with water, and sometimes dry,
called the fosse. Before the great gate was an outwork,
called a barbacan or antemural, which was a strong high
wall, surmounted with turrets, designed for the defence
of the gate and drawbridge. On the inside of the ditch
stood the wall of the castle, about eight or ten feet thick
and between twenty and thirty feet high, with a parapet,
and a kind of embrasures called crennels on the top. On
this wall, at proper distances, were built square towers
of two or three stories high, which served for lodging
some of the principal officers of the proprietor of the cas¬
tle, and for other purposes ; and on the inside were erect¬
ed lodgings for the common servants or retainers, gra¬
naries, storehouses, and other necessary offices. On the
top of this wall, and on the flat roofs of these buildings,
stood the defenders of the castle, when it was besieged,
who thence discharged arrows, darts, and stones on the
besiegers. The great gate of the castle stood in the
course of this wall, and was strongly fortified with a tower
on each side, and rooms over the passage, which was clo¬
sed with thick folding doors of oak, often plated with iron,
and with an iron portcullis or grate let down from above.
Within this outward wall was a large open space or court,
called, in the largest and most perfect castles, the outer
bayle, or ballium, in which stood commonly a church or
chapel. On the inside of this outer bayle was another
ditch, wall, gate, and towers, inclosing the inner bayle or
court, within which the chief tower or keep was built.
This was a large square fabric, four or five stories in
height, having small windows in prodigiously thick walls,
which rendered the apartments within it dark and gloomy.
This great tower was the palace of the prince, prelate, or
baron, to whom the castle belonged, and the residence of
the constable or governor. Under ground were dismal
dark vaults, for the confinement of prisoners, and some¬
times called the dungeon or donjon. In this building also
was the great hall, in which the owner displayed his hos¬
pitality, by entertaining his numerous friends and follow¬
ers. At one end of the great halls of castles, palaces, and
monasteries, there was a place raised a little above the
rest of the floor, called the dais, where the chief table
stood, at which persons of the highest rank dined. Though
there were unquestionably great variations in the struc¬
ture of castles, yet the most perfect and magnificent of
them seem to have been constructed nearly on the plan
here described. Such, for example, was the famous cas¬
tle of Bedford, as appears from the account of the man¬
ner in which it was taken by Henry III. A. d. 1224. The
castle fell after four assaults. In the first was taken the
barbacan ; in the second the outer ballia; in the third at¬
tack, the wall by the old tower was thrown down by the
CAS
miners, where, with great danger, they possessed them- Cas
selves of the inner ballia, through a chink; in the fourth wy
assault the miners set fire to the tower, so that the smoke
burst out, and the tower itself was rent so as to show visi¬
bly some broad chinks; upon which the enemy surren¬
dered.
Before the accession of James VI. to the throne of Eng¬
land, the situation of Scotland was such that every baron’s
house was more or less fortified, according to the power
or consequence of its lord, or according to the situation of
the castle. Near Edinburgh or Stirling, where the inhabi¬
tants were somewhat polished in their manners, and over¬
awed by the seat of government, no more was necessary
than towers capable of resisting the cursory attacks of
robbers and thieves, who never durst stop to make a re¬
gular investment, but plundered by surprise, and, if re¬
pulsed, instantly fled. But, when further removed, as in
Perthshire, Inverness-shire, or Aberdeenshire, then it was
necessary to be better defended; and the aids of a peel
or dungeon, with outer walls, moat, wet ditch, and bar-
nakin, were added, to enable the lord of the keep to resist
the formidable attack of his powerful adversary. The his¬
tory of Scotland, so late as the reign of the Stuart family,
affords a number of melancholy instances of inveterate
feuds among the greater and lesser barons of that period,
when every mode of fortification then in use was seldom
adequate to the defence of the castle against the storm or
blockade of the enraged chieftain. The third kind of for¬
tresses which we meet with in Scotland consists of those
situated on the borders of England, or on the sea-coasts
of the kingdom, and in the Western Isles, and in very re¬
mote places. Many of the old castles in Scotland were
situated on an island in a deep lake, or on a peninsula,
which, by a broad deep cut, was made an island. This
kind of fortress was only accessible in a hard frost, or by
boats, which were not easily transported by a people des¬
titute of good roads and wheel-carriages. In fact they
could only be taken by surprise or blockade, the first of
which was difficult, and the second tedious; so that, be¬
fore the use of artillery, they might be deemed almost
impregnable. On this account their situation was very
desirable in the inland parts of Scotland. On the sea-
coasts of Scotland we generally find the strongest and
most ancient, as well as the most impregnable castles,
since these had to defend themselves from the invasion of
the foreign enemy, as well as the attacks of the domestic
foe. Thus the barons, whose lands extended to the sea-
coast, perched, like the eagle, on the most inaccessible
rocks that lay within their possessions.
Castle, in ancient writers, denotes a town or village
surrounded with a ditch and wall, furnished with towers
at intervals, and guarded by a body of troops. The word
is originally Latin, castellum, a diminutive from castrum.
Castellum seems originally to have signified a smaller fort
for a little garrison; though Suetonius uses the word
where the fortification was large enough to contain a co¬
hort. The castella, according to Vegetius, were often like
towns, built on the borders of the empire, where there
were constant guards and defences against the enemy.
Horsley considers them as much the same with what were
otherwise denominated stations.
Castle, or Castle-Steed, is also an appellation given by
the country people in the north to the Roman castella, as
distinguished from the castra stativa, which they usually
call chesters. Horsley represents this as a useful crite¬
rion, by which to discover or distinguish a Roman camp or
station. There are several of these castella on Severus s
wall. They are generally sixty feet square; their northern
side is formed by the wall itself, which falls in with them;
the intervals between them are from six furlongs and a
CAS
CAS
235
le half to seven; and they seem to have stood closest where iirg condition. It is distant ten miles north-east of Kirk- Castle
the stations are widest. The neighbouring people call cudbright. " Island
k- them castles, or castle-steeds, by which it seems probable CASTLE-ISLAND, a town of Ireland, in the county of II
^ that their ancient Latin name had been castellum. Some Kerry, pleasantly situated near the river Mang. It nos- Castor,
modern writers call them mile castles, or military castella ; sesses a market-house, a parish-church, a Roman Catho-
Horsley sometimes denominates them exploratory castles, lie chapel, and a sessions-house. The castle, which o-ives
In these castella were stationed men whose business was name to the place, was erected in 1226, and was frequent-
to make incursions into the enemy’s country and give in- ly the subject of violent contention. It is distant 197 miles
telligence of their motions. south-west of Dublin. The population amounts to about
Castle, in nautical language, is a part of a ship ; the 1600.
forecastle being the elevation "at the prow, and the hind- CASTLE-LYONS, a town of Ireland, in the county of
castle the elevation on the stern, over the 1‘ast deck. Cork, situated near the river Bride, in a beautiful and
CASTLEBAR, a town of Ireland, in the county of fertile valley. The town is neatly built, and has a consi-
Mayo, situated near the picturesque lake of Rahine. It derable trade in linen. The population amounts to about
is a remarkably neat place; the streets are regular, and 1400.
the houses well built. The public edifices are a linen hall, CASTLE-RISING, a borough in Norfolk, only remark-
over which is an assembly room ; the parish church, which able for its antiquity. The inhabitants amounted in 1811
has a lofty steeple ; the Roman Catholic chapel; a bar- to 272, in 1821 to 343, and in 1831 to 358. It is 110 miles
rack for soldiers, this being a permanent military station; from London.
a handsome court-house; and a new jail. There are here CASTLETOWN, a market-town in the Isle of Man,
two breweries and a tannery. The linen trade is pros- and deemed the capital of the island, although it is inferior
perous, and the town is altogether a thriving place. The to Douglas in wealth and commercial importance. The
assizes are held here. It is distant 159 miles west-north- streets are neat, and in the centre of the town is a square
west of Dublin, and 35 north of Galway. The population containing some handsome houses. The commerce of the
amounts to 5404. place is much impeded from the difficult entrance to the
CASTLEBLANEY, a town of Ireland, in the county harbour. A considerable quantity of corn is exported,
of Monaghan, and barony of Cremorne. It lies on the but foreign importations are confined to Port-Douglas.
mail-coach road from Dublin to Derry, and is a rapidly All law proceedings are transacted here, and the fieu-
improving place. It is distant 68 miles north-north-west tenant-governor resides in the town. Castle-Rushen. a
of Dublin. The population amounts to about 1500. building of great strength, founded by a Danish prince in
CASTLE-CAREY, a remarkable Roman station, a few the year 690, is situated in the centre of the place. With-
miles west from Falkirk, on the borders of Stirlingshire, in in its walls are the governor’s house and the barrack. A
Scotland. It comprehends several acres of ground, is of part of it is also fitted up as a prison. Castletown pos-
a square form, and is surrounded with a wall of stone and sesses a bank and a literary society. It is distant nine miles
mortar. All the space within the walls has been occupied south-south-west of Douglas. The population amounts to
by buildings, the ruins of which have raised the earth about 2100.
eight or ten feet above its natural surface. In 1770 some CASTOR, in Astronomy, a moiety of the constellation
workmen employed in searching for stones for the great Gemini, called also Apollo. Its latitude northw ards, for the
canal which passes very near it, discovered several apart- year 1700, according to Hevelius, was 10. 4. 23, and its
ments of stone; and in one of them a great number of longitude of Cancer 17. 4. 14. It is also called Razal-
stones about two feet in length, and standing erect, with genze, Apollo, Aphellan, Avellar, and Anelar.
marks of fire upon them, as if they had been employed in Castor and Pollux, in Pagtin mythology, twin brothers,
supporting some vessel under which fire was put. In a celebrated for the fable of their birth, their fortunes, and
hollow of the rock near this place a considerable quantity their friendships. Jupiter having had an amour with Leda,
of wheat quite black with age was found in 1771, with the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, in the form of a swan,
some wedges and hammers supposed to be Roman. she brought forth tvm eggs, each containing twins. From
CASTLECOMER, a town of Ireland, in the county the one impregnated by Jupiter proceeded Pollux and
of Kilkenny. The towm is handsome, consisting princi- Helena, who were both immortal; from the other Castor
pally of one broad street, inclosed by well-built houses, and Clytemnestra, who being begotten by Tyndarus, were
It possesses a handsome church, a Roman Catholic cha- both mortal. They were all, however, called by the com¬
pel, a market-house, and barracks. About two miles from mon name of Tyndaridce. The two brothers entered into
the town there is a coal mine, in working which and deal- an inviolable friendship; and they went with the other
ing in coals the inhabitants are principally engaged. It is noble youths of Greece in the expedition to Colchis, and on
distant 70 miles south-west of Dublin. The population several occasions signalized themselves by their courage;
amounts to about 1000. but Castor being at length killed, Pollux obtained leave to
CASTLEDERMOT, or Tristle Dermot, a town of share his own immortality with him, so that they were said
Ireland, in the county of Kildare. It is situated upon to live and die alternately; for, being translated into the
the river Lane, on the great southern road from Dublin skies, they form the constellation of Gemini, one of the
to Cork. It was anciently a fortified town, and the resi- stars of which rises as the other sets.
I dence of the kings of Leinster. Here are the remains of A martial dance, called the Pyrrhic or Castorian dance,
an ancient Franciscan abbey, and other antique ruins, was invented in honour of these deities, whom the Cepha-
Ihere is a parish church, a Roman Catholic chapel, and a lenses placed among the Dii Magni, and offered to them
Quaker’s meeting-house. It is distant 43 miles south-west white lambs. The Romans also paid them particular ho-
°f Dublin. The population amounts to about 1500. nours on account of the assistance they are said to have
CASTLE-DOUGLAS, a village of Scotland, in the rendered during an engagement with the Latins, in which,
stewartry of Kirkcudbright. It consists of one principal appearing mounted on white steeds, they turned the scale
street, lying along the public road, and some back streets, of victory in favour of the Romans, lor which service a
composed of good houses, neatly built. It possesses a temple was erected to them in the forum,
post-office, one bank, two branch banks, and a large grain Castor and Pollux, a fiery meteor, which at sea dp-
market, held every Monday. This place is in a very thriv- pears sometimes sticking to a part of the ship, in form of
236
CAS
CAS
Castration one, two, or even three or four fire-balls. W hen one is seen
II alone, it is properly called Helena ; but two are denominat-
Castro. e(j Castor and Pollux, and sometimes Tyndaridse. Castor
and Pollux are called by the Spaniards, San Elmo ; by the
French, St Elme, St Nicholas, St Clare, St Helene ; by the
Italians, Hermo; by the Dutch, Tree Vuuren.
Castor and Pollux are commonly believed to portend a
cessation of the storm, and a succeeding calm, being rarely
seen till the tempest is nearly spent. Helena alone por¬
tends ill, and indicates that the severest part of the stoim
is yet to come. When the meteor sticks to the masts and
yards, it is concluded, from the air not having motion suf¬
ficient to dissipate this flame, that a profound calm is at
hand; if it flutter about, it indicates a storm.
CASTRATION, the operation of depriving a male ani¬
mal of the capacity of generation.
Castration is much in use in Asia, especially among the
Turks, who practise it on their slaves to prevent any com¬
merce with their women. The Persians and other east¬
ern nations have various methods of making eunuchs, dif¬
ferent from those which obtain in Europe ; for the opera¬
tion is not always performed among them by cutting, or
even by collision, cicuta and other poisonous herbs having
the same effect, as is shown by Paulus ,/Egineta. Those
eunuchised in this manner are called thlibice. But there
is another sort called thlasice, in whom the genitals are left
entire, and only the veins which feed them are cut, by
which means the parts do indeed remain, but so lax and
weak as to be of no use. Castration was for some time
the punishment of adultery. According to the laws of the
Visigoths, sodomites were subjected to the same punish¬
ment. By the civil law it is made penal in physicians and
surgeons to castrate, even with consent of the party, who
is himself included in the same penalty, and his effects
forfeited. The offence of mayhem by castration is, ac¬
cording to our old writers, felony, although committed
upon the highest provocation. See a record to this pur¬
pose of Henry III., transcribed by Sir Edward Coke, 3
Inst. 62.
Castration is also in some sort practised on women.
Athenaeus mentions that King Andramytes was the first
who castrated women; and Hesychius and Suidas state
that Gyges did the same thing. Galen observes, that
women cannot be castrated without danger of life; and
Dalechampius, remarking on the passage of Athenaeus al¬
luded to, holds that it is only to be understood of simple
padlocking.
CASTRES, an arrondissement of the department of
Tarn, in France, extending over 775 square miles. It is
divided into fourteen cantons and 106 communes, and
contains 115,252 inhabitants. The capital, a city of the
same name, is situated on the navigable river Agout. It
contains 1681 houses, and 13,717 inhabitants, who are
employed in woollen manufactures, tanneries, paper-mills,
and other industrious pursuits. Long. 2. 9. 50. E. Eat. 43.
37. 10. N.
CASTRIES, Bay of, is situated on the east coast of
Chinese Tartary, in the Channel or Gulf of Tartary, which
separates that part of the continent from the island or
peninsula of Saghalien. The sea is constantly covered
with fogs, and various kinds of volcanic substances are
abundant on the shores, and amongst the islets at the en¬
trance of the bay. The country is covered with wood,
and the inhabitants are thinly scattered. They are of a
very short stature, and feeble in their frame, with shrill
voices. Their principal subsistence is salmon, which they
devour raw with extreme avidity. They are ignorant of
agriculture, and occasionally collect wild roots for their
subsistence.
CASTRO, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of
Otranto. It is situated upon a hill on the Adriatic Sea, and Cas q
contains 7789 inhabitants, who carry on extensive fisheries. Giov; 1)
The neighbourhood is celebrated for the growth of to- |
bacco. Castn l‘ *
Castro Giovanni, a city of the intendancy of Calata- ''“‘Y
nisetta, in the island of Sicily. It stands on the high
mountain of Ena, in the centre of the island, in a healthy
and moderately fertile district. In the neighbourhood are
extensive salt mines, which furnish the vicinity with that
commodity. It is a walled place, in which are the re¬
mains of the celebrated temple of Ceres and Proserpine.
The inhabitants are about 11,000,
Castro Marini, a port in the province of Algarve, in
the kingdom of Portugal. It is situated at the mouth of
the Guadiana, the boundary betwixt Spain and Portugal,
and is not more than two miles from Ayamonte, in Anda¬
lusia. This town contains 450 houses, and 1800 inhabit¬
ants, many of them employed in fishing and in a smug¬
gling trade. Eat. 37. 11. N.
Castro Nuovo, a city of Sicily, in the intendancy of
Girgenti. It is a healthy spot, containing 4700 inhabitants,
who cultivate cotton and grow excellent wine. Near to the
city are some extensive marble quarries, which furnished
that stone for the royal palace of Caserta.
Castro Reale, a city of the intendancy of Messina, in
the island of Sicily, situated on a triangular and rocky
mountain, in a salubrious atmosphere, and on a soil highly
productive of excellent wine and oil. It is 150 miles from
Palermo, and contains about 11,000 inhabitants.
Castro del Rio, a Spanish town in the province of Cor¬
dova, with 4600 inhabitants. Eat. 37. 48. N.
Castro de Urdiales, a sea-port of Spain, in that part
of the province of Old Castile which is called Cantabrica.
It is situated on the river Santona, and, if it were as well
protected from the westerly winds as from every other,
would be a most valuable port.
Castro Villari, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Calabria Citeriore, and situated on the river Cos-
cile. It is well built, and contains 5600 inhabitants, who
carry on a considerable trade in the products of the vici¬
nity, viz. in wine, oil, cotton, mastic, manna, and fruits of
various kinds.
Castro Vireyna, a province of Peru, bounded on the
north-west by the province of Cunete, on the north by
that of Yauyoo, on the north-east by that of Angiraes
and by the jurisdiction of Huamanga and Huanta, on the
west by that of Yilcas Huaman, on the south-west by that
of Lucanas, and on the south-south-west and west by that
of lea. From east to west it is sixty-six miles in length,
and from north to south seventy-five miles in breadth.
This province throughout is barren and uneven. Its pro¬
ductions are wheat, maize, and potatoes ; and in some of
the valleys where the cold is not severe, fruit is plentiful.
Considerable numbers of Peruvian sheep are fed here,
and their wool forms the principal article of traffic. The
population amounts to about 7000. Ihe capital of the
province, which bears the same name, is an insignificant
town, situated on a lofty mountain, and subjected to in¬
tense cold.
CASTRUCCIO Castracani, a celebrated Italian ge¬
neral, was born at Lucca in Tuscany in 1284, and left in
a vineyard covered with leaves, where he was found by
Dianora, a widow lady, the sister of Antonio, a canon of
St Michael in Lucca, who was descended from the illus¬
trious family of the Castracani. The lady having no chil¬
dren, resolved to bring him up, and accordingly educated
him as carefully as if he had been her own. She intendec
him for a priest; but he was scarcely fourteen years old
when he began to devote himself to military sports and
those violent exercises which suited his great strength ot
CAT 237
of Louis XIII. called the books of the casuists expositions Casuistry
of the art of quibbling with God ; and from the multitude II
of distinctions and subtilties they abound withal, this does Catacomb.
not seem far from truth. Mayer has published a biblio-
theca of casuists, containing an account of all the writers
on cases of conscience, ranged under three heads; the
first comprehending the Lutheran, the second the Cal¬
vinist, and the third the Romish casuists.
CASUISTRY, the doctrine and science of conscience
and its cases, with the rules and principles of resolving
the same, drawn partly from natural reason or equity,
partly from authority of Scripture, the canon law, coun¬
cils, fathers, and such like authorities. To casuistry be¬
longs the decision of all difficulties arising about what a
man may lawfully do or not do; what is sin or not sin;
what things a man is obliged to do in order to discharge
his duty, and what he may pretermit without breach of it.
CAT ISLAND, or St Salvador, one of the Bahama
Islands, is about sixty miles in length by twelve in ave¬
rage breadth. It is only remarkable from having been the
first land discovered by Columbus in his voyage of disco¬
very. He landed here on the 12th of October 1492, and
named it St Salvador. By the natives it is termed Gua-
nimina, and by the English Cat Island. Lone;. 75. W.
Lat. 24. 30. N.
Cat’s-Eye, or Sun-stone, a kind of gem found chiefly
in Siberia. Cat’s-eye is by the Latins called oculus cati,
and sometimes onycopalus, as having white zones or rings
like the onyx, with its colours variable like opal, from which
last it differs chiefly by its superior hardness.
Cat-Gut, a denomination given to small strings for fid¬
dles and other instruments, made of the intestines of sheep
or lambs, dried and twisted together, either singly, or se¬
veral together. These strings are sometimes coloured red,
sometimes blue, but are commonly left whitish or brownish,
the natural colour of the gut. They are also used by watch¬
makers, cutlers, turners, and other artificers.
CAT-Salt, a name given by salt-workers to a very beau¬
tifully granulated kind of common salt.
CATABAMBA, a province of Peru, bounded on the
north by the province of Abancay, on the south-west and
south by that of Chilques and Masques, on the west by that
of Chumbivilcas, and on the north-west by that of Aima-
raez. It is seventy-five miles in length from east to west,
and twenty-three in breadth from north to south. This
province is mountainous, and of a cold temperature. In
the valleys and low lands there are a number of pastures,
on which cattle are reared. Wheat, maize, and pulse,
grow here, but not in great abundance. In some parts
plantains, figs, and water melons, are produced. There
is an abundance of that peculiar plant, the leaves of which
are manufactured into hemp, from which are made those
cords and thick ropes used in the construction of bridges
across rivers. There are twenty-five settlements, and the
inhabitants amount to about 10,000. The capital is an in¬
considerable place, of the same name, although sometimes
called Tumbabamba.
CATACHRESIS, in Rhetoric, a trope which borrows
the name of one thing to express another. Thus Milton,
describing Raphael’s descent from the empyrean heaven to
paradise, says,
Down thither prone in flight
He speeds, and through the vast ethereal sky
Sails between worlds and worlds.
CAS
m body. The factions named the Guelfs and Ghibelines then
ois shared all Italy between them; divided the popes and the
emperors; and engaged in their different interests not only
At. the members of the same town, but even those of the same
family. Francisco, a considerable person on the side of
the Ghibelines, observing Castruccio’s uncommon spirit
and great qualities, prevailed with Antonio to permit him
to become a soldier; on which Castruccio soon became
acquainted with every thing belonging to the profession
of arms, and was made lieutenant of a company of foot by
Francisco Guinigi. In his first campaign he gave such
proofs of his courage and conduct as spread his fame all
over Lombardy; and Guinigi, dying soon afterwards, com¬
mitted to him the care of his son and the management of
his estate. Continuing to distinguish himself by his ex¬
ploits, he filled his commander-in-chief with such jealousy
and envy, that he was imprisoned by stratagem in order
to be put to death. But the people of Lucca soon released
him, and afterwards chose him for their sovereign prince.
The Ghibelines considered him as the chief of their party;
and those who had been banished from their country fled
to him for protection, and unanimously promised that if he
could restore them to their estates, they would serve him
so effectually that the sovereignty of their country should
be his reward. Flattered by these promises, he entered
into a league with the prince of Milan ; and kept his army
constantly on foot, employing it as best suited his own
designs. For the services he had rendered the pope, he
was made senator of Rome with more than ordinary cere¬
mony ; but whilst he remained there he x’eceived news
which obliged him to hasten back to Lucca. The Floren¬
tines entered into a war with him ; but Castruccio fought
his way through them ; and the supreme authority of Tus¬
cany was about to fall into his hands, when a period was
put to his life. In May 1328 he gained a complete victory
over his enemies, amounting to 30,000 foot and 10,000
horse; and 22,000 of them were slain, while the loss on
his part fell short of 1600 ; but as he was returning from
the field of battle, tired with the action, and covered with
sweat, he halted a little, in order to thank and caress his
soldiers as they passed; when, the north wind blowing
upon him, he was immediately seized with an ague, which
he at first neglected, but which carried him off in a few
days, in the forty-fourth year of his age. Machiavelli, who
| has written the life of Castruccio, says that he wras not
only an extraordinary man in his own age, but that he
would have been so in any other.
CASTRUM Doloris, in the writers of the middle ages,
denotes a catafalco, or a lofty tomb of state, erected in
honour of some person of eminence, usually in the church
where the body is interred, and decorated with arms, em¬
blems, lights, and the like.
Ecclesiastical writers speak of the ceremony of conse¬
crating a castrum doloris. The edifice was to be construct¬
ed so as to represent the body of the deceased ; and the
priest and deacon were to take their posts, and say prayers
in the same manner as if the corpse were actually present.
CASTS. See Casting.
CASUALTY, in a general sense, denotes an accident,
or a thing happening by chance, not design. It is parti¬
cularly used for an accident producing unnatural death.
Casualty, in Scotch Law, means a condition, accident,
or contingency of feu-holding. The casualties of a supe¬
rior are those duties and emoluments which a superior has
a right to demand out of his vassal’s estate, over and above
the constant yearly duties established by the reddendo of
his charter, upon certain casual events.
CASUIST, a person who proposes to resolve cases of
conscience. Escobar has made a collection of the opi¬
nions of all the casuists before him. M. le Feore, preceptor
CATACOMB, a grotto, or subterranean place for the
burial of the dead.
Some derive the word catacomb from the place where
ships are laid up, which the modern Latins and Greeks
called cumbce. Others say that cata was used for ad, and
catacumbas for adtumbas ; and accordingly Dadin main-
238 CAT
Catacombs, tains that they anciently wrote catatumbus. Others, again,
derive the word from the Greek Tiara, and rv^Zog, a hollow,
cavity, or the like.
Ancientlv the word catacomb was only understood of the
tombs of St Peter and St Paul; and M. Chastelain ob¬
serves, that, among the more intelligent of the people of
Rome, the word catacomb is never applied to the subter¬
ranean burying-places hereinafter mentioned, but only to a
chapel in St Sebastian, one of the seven stational churches,
where, the ancient Roman calendars say, the body of St
Peter was deposited, under the consulate of luscus and
Bassus, in 258.
Catacombs of Italy, a vast assemblage of subterranean
sepulchres near Rome, chiefly about three miles from that
city, in the Via Appia; supposed to be the sepulchres of
the martyrs, and which are accordingly visited by devo¬
tees, and relics thence taken and dispersed throughout
the Catholic countries, after having been first baptized by
the pope under the name of some saint. These catacombs
are said by many to be caves or cells in which the primi¬
tive Christians held their interdicted assemblies, and where
they interred such of their number as were martyred.
Each catacomb is three feet broad and eight or ten feet
high, running in form of an alley or gallery, and commu¬
nicating with others. In many places they extend with¬
in a league of Rome. There is no masonry or vaulting in
them, but each supports itself; and the two sides, which
we may look on as the parietes or walls, were the places
where the dead were deposited lengthwise, three or four
rows, one above another, in the same parallel to
the alley. They were commonly closed with large thick
tiles, and sometimes pieces of marble cemented in a man¬
ner which the moderns have failed to imitate. Sometimes,
though very rarely, the name of the deceased is found on
the tile ; frequently a palm is seen, painted or engraven,
or the cipher Xp, which is commonly read pro Christo.
The opinion entertained by many Protestant authors is,
that the catacombs are heathen sepulchres, being the same
with the puticuli mentioned by Festus Pompeius; that
although it was the practice of the ancient Romans to burn
their dead, they, in order to avoid expense, threw the bo¬
dies of their slaves to rot in holes of the ground ; that the
Roman Christians, observing at length the great venera¬
tion paid to relics, resolved to have a stock of their own;
and that, entering the catacombs, they added what ciphers
and inscriptions they pleased, and then shut them up
again, to be opened on a favourable occasion ; while those
in the secret dying or removing, the contrivance was for¬
gotten, till chance opened them at last. But this opinion
has even less of probability than the former. Mr Monro,
in the Philosophical Transactions, supposes the catacombs
to have been originally the common sepulchres of the early
Romans, and excavated in consequence of the belief that
shades hate the light, and that they love to hover about
the places where the bodies are laid.
The Catacombs of Egypt are still extant, and have
been described by various travellers, particularly by Rel-
zoni. The bodies found in them are called mummies.
The chambers containing these extend a great way under
ground. In some of the chambers the walls are adorned
with figures and hieroglyphics ; in others the mummies
are found in tombs ranged around the apartment, and hol¬
lowed out in the rock.
The Egyptians seem to have excelled in the art of em¬
balming and preserving their dead bodies, as the mum¬
mies found in the catacombs of Egypt are in a better state
than the bodies found either in the Italian catacombs or
in those of any other part of the world.
Depositing the bodies of the dead in caves is certainly
the original way of disposing of corpses, and appears to
CAT
have been introduced by the Phoenicians in the countries Car i
to which they sent colonies; interment, as now practised i:
in the open air or in temples, was first introduced by the
Christians. When an ancient hero died, or was killed in^ e.
a foreign expedition, as his body was liable to corruption, ‘i
and for that reason unfit to be transported entire, they
fell on the expedient of burning, in order to bring home
the ashes, and oblige the manes to follow ; that so his coun¬
try might not be destitute of the benefit of his tutelage.
It was thus that cremation seems to have had its origin;
and by degrees it became common to all who could afford
the expenses of it, and displaced the ancient method of
interment. Thus catacombs became disused among the
Romans after they had borrowed the manner of burning
from the Greeks, and then none but slaves were laid in the
ground.
CATADROMUS, from %ara, and 1 run, in Anti¬
quity, a rope stretched in a sloping direction in the thea¬
tres, down which the funambuli walked to show their skill.
Some have taken the word to signify the hippodrome or
decursorium, wherein the Roman knights used to exercise
themselves in running and fighting on horseback. But
the most natural meaning is that of a rope fastened at
one end to the top of the theatre, and at the other to the
bottom, to walk or run down, which was the highest glory
of the ancient schcenobates, or funambuli. Elephants were
also taught to descend the catadromus. Suetonius speaks
of the exploit of a Roman knight, who passed down the
catadromus mounted on an elephant’s back.
CATAGOGION, a heathen festival at Ephesus, cele¬
brated on the 22d of January, in which the devotees ran
about the streets, dressed in various antic and unseemly
modes, with huge cudgels in their hands, and carrying
with them the images of their gods; while in this guise
they ravished the women they met with, abused and often
killed the men, and committed many other disorders, to
which the religion of the day gave a sanction.
CATAGRAPHA, in Antiquity, denote oblique figures
or views of men’s faces ; answering to what the moderns
call profiles.
Catagrapha are said to be the invention of Simon Cleo-
naeus, who first taught painters to vary the looks of their
figures, and sometimes direct them upwards, sometimes
downwards, and sometimes sidewards or backwards.
CATALOGUE, a list or enumeration of the names of
books, men, or other things, disposed according to a cer¬
tain order.
Catalogues of books are digested in different manners,
some according to the order of the times when the books
were printed, as that of Mattaire ; others according to their
form and size, as the common booksellers’ catalogues;
others according to the alphabetical order of the authors’
names, as Hyde’s catalogue of the Bodleian library; others
according to the order of matters or subjects, which are
called classed catalogues. See Bibliography.
Catalogue of the Stars is a list of the fixed stars, dis¬
posed in their several constellations, with the longitudes,
latitudes, &e. of each, or according to their right ascen¬
sions, that is, the order of their passing over the meridian.
The first who undertook to reduce the fixed stars into a
catalogue was Hipparchus Rhodius, about 120 years before
Christ; a work in which he made use of the observations of
Timocharis and Aristyllus for about 180 years before him.
Ptolemy retained Hipparchus’s catalogue, containing 1026
fixed stars, though he himself made abundance of obser¬
vations with a view to a new catalogue. About the year
of Christ 880, Albategni, a Syrian, brought down the same
to his own time. In the year 1437, Ulugh Beigh, king
of Parthia and India, made a new catalogue of 1022 fixed
stars, since translated from the Persian into Latin by Pr
J E
CAT CAT 239
a. Hyde. The third who made a catalogue from his own ob-
^ servations was Tycho Brahe, who determined the places
of 777 stars for the year 1G00, which Kepler, from other
observations of Tycho, afterwards increased to the number
of 1000 in the Rudolphine tables ; adding those of Ptolemy
omitted by Tycho, and of other authors, so that his cata¬
logue amounts to above 1160. At the same time, Wil¬
liam, landgrave of Hesse, with his mathematicians, Chris¬
topher Rothmannus and Justus Byrgius, determined the
places of 400 fixed stars by his own observations, with
their places rectified for the year 1593; which Hevelius
prefers to those of Tycho. Ricciolus, in his Astronomia
Keformata, determined the places of 101 stars for the year
1700 from his own observations; and for the rest he fol¬
lowed Tycho’s catalogue, altering it where he thought fit.
In the year 1667, Dr Halley, in the island of St Helena,
observed 350 southern stars not visible in our horizon; and
the same labour was repeated in 1710 by F. Noel, who pub¬
lished a new catalogue of the same stars constructed for
the year 1687.
Bayer, in his Uranometria, published a catalogue of 1160
stars, compiled chiefly from Ptolemy and Tycho, in which
every star is marked with some letter of the Greek alpha¬
bet, the biggest star in any constellation being denoted by
the first letter, the next by the second, and so on; and if
the number exceeds the Greek alphabet, the remaining
stars are marked by letters of the Roman alphabet; which
letters are preserved by Flamsteed, and by Senex on his
globes. The celebrated Hevelius composed a catalogue
of 1888 stars, 1553 of which were observed by himself;
and their places are computed for the year 1660. There
have been various other and more extensive catalogues of
stars by Flamsteed, De la Caille, Mayer, Bode, Zach, and
Herschel. See Astronomy.
CATALONIA, a province of Spain. Though not the
first in extent or population, it far exceeds any other in
its activity, industry, wealth, and cultivation. The south¬
ern boundary is the river Cenia, which divides it from
Valencia; on the east it is bounded by the Mediterra¬
nean Sea; on the north by the Pyrenees, which separate
it from France ; and on the west by Aragon. Its surface
is 1003 square leagues; and the number of its inhabitants
in 1804 was 858,818. The people of Catalonia are of a
uiifeient race from the rest of Spain; and the traces of
their distinct origin are visible, not only in their language,
which is preserved in the smaller villages and among all
the labouring classes, but in their manners, their dress,
and their superior activity and intelligence.
Although the province is intersected by various ranges
mountains, and many sterile tracts, yet the laborious
lands of its inhabitants have subdued by cultivation even
toe most ungrateful districts. The soil produces vines,
o ives, fruit trees of all kinds, wheat, maize, rice, hemp,
ax, almonds, nuts, beans, and all horticultural vegetables.
»-ie corn grown is not quite sufficient for the consumption
the province; and the deficiency in that, as well as in
animal food, is supplied from the adjoining provinces. The
pioduce or the vineyards far exceeds the domestic con¬
sumption ; and its export forms a very valuable branch of
commerce in wine, brandy, and vinegar. The mineral
lic Catalonia are rock-salt and some coals; and very
400 marbles of various kinds are found in some parts of
ue piovince. The quantity of wool and of silk which
r lef Pyovince yields is insufficient for the various manu-
ones those articles which are established in it; but
'ey procure such abundant supplies of the former from*
is 1 e, and of the latter from Valencia and Murcia, as to
116 numerous looms in perpetual activity. Many
m 1C er. co^on are manufactured here better than in
y other part of the dominions of Spain. The paper of
Catalonia is conveyed to every part of Spanish America, Catuna
where it is preferred to every other description. Iron- it
mongery, cutlery, laces, and leather, are prepared here to Catania,
a considerable extent, and form valuable branches of the ''-'■"V'*-'
export trade to America. Its woods also furn’sh materials
for commerce, both in the timber they yield for the con¬
struction of ships, and in the bark of that species of oak
distinguished by die name of alcomoqui, which furnishes
cork, with which in general upwards of twenty-five vessels
are annually loaded for foreign ports. The fisheries on the
coast are valuable sources ofwealth, and are conducted with
success and to a great extent. The numerous ports on the
coast of Catalonia are favourable for the promotion of na¬
vigation ; and accordingly the ships belonging to the dif-
feient ports of this province are found in great numbers
in every part of the Mediterranean, and are also employ¬
ed in the more distant voyages to foreign countries.
The principal rivers of Catalonia are the Ebro and the
Llobregat. The first of these, rising in Castile, and cross¬
ing Navarre and Aragon, and in its course receiving tri¬
butary streams from all the ranges of mountains between
which it runs, enters this province near Llerida, and, in¬
creased by the waters of the Segre, enters the Mediter¬
ranean sea near I ortosa. The attempts to improve the
lower navigation of this river, to people the delta which
exists at its mouth, and to create a good harbour at San
Carlos, have cost enormous sums, but hitherto with very
little obvious success. The river Llobregat is of short
course, and navigable only for small craft. The history
of this province is highly interesting. The ardent attach¬
ment of its natives to their customs and liberties, as dis¬
played in their early opposition to the Moors, in their re¬
luctant submission to the Bourbon family, and their per¬
severing resistance to the attempts of Bonaparte, will be
found in the general history under the article Spain. Its
yearly exports amount in value to 3,409,081 guldens’
worth of woollen and half woollen goods, 2,362,500 gul¬
dens’ worth of brandy, 2,186,907 guldens’ worth of cork,
708,750 guldens’ worth of shoes, 590,625 guldens’ worth
of silks, 240,000 guldens’ worth of oil, 254,000 guldens’
wmrth of filberts, 61,875 guldens’ worth of house-brooms,
24,000 casks of wine, 12,000 pairs of woollen stockings,
worth 4500 guldens, besides flints, pins, almonds, and va¬
rious small articles, making together 11,607,301 guldens’
worth.
CATANA, or Catina, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Sicily, situated opposite to JEtna, to the south-east,
and one of the five Roman colonies. It was anciently
founded by the people of Naxus, seven years after the
building of Syracuse, and 728 years before Christ. Ca-
tana was tne country of Charondas the famous lawgiver.
The town is still called Catanea or Catania. See Ca¬
tania.
CATANDUANES, a large island of the Philippine
group, lying to the east of the island of Luzon, about
thirty-six miles in length by above twenty in breadth. It
is subject to the Spaniards. The inhabitants are a barba¬
rous race, and live by hunting and fishing. Long. 124. 30.
E. Lat. 29. 40. N.
CATANIA, a city in the island of Sicily, the chief of
the intendancy and district of the same name. It is one
of the oldest cities of Europe, though, from its situation
under Mount AStna, exposed to the tremendous operations
of nature, by which it has been several times visited. It
is now a large and well-built city. The streets are broad,
straight, and well paved with lava. The market-place or
square is spacious, and surrounded with magnificent build¬
ings. There is a well-conducted university, two colleges,
a museum, a cabinet of natural history, and several appro¬
priate institutions for instruction. The environs, except
240
CAT
Catania where buried by the lava of 1669, are fertile and well cul-
II tivated. It contains a population of 4)5,000, but, including
Catapulta. the suburbs, of 74,000 persons. These find employment in
various manufactures, particularly in those of linen and o
silk. There is also an export trade in corn, wine, soda,
nuts, hemp, flax, liquorice, and fruits. J^ere is no har¬
bour, and merely a roadstead, but boats discharge their
cargoes at a mole. It is 120 miles from Palermo. Long.
15. 5. 15. E. Lat. 37. 28. 20. N. < , . , ^ .
Catania, one of the intendancies into which the island
of Sicily is divided, and which comprehends the valleys of
Demona and Mazza, and the whole Mount of fEtna. It is
bounded on the north by Messina, on the east by the sea,
on the south by Seragossa, on the west by Calatamsetta,
and on the north-west by Palermo. It is divided into the
three districts of Catania, Caltagerone, and Nicosia, and
contains 289,406 inhabitants. . , „ ,
CATANZARO, a city of Italy, the capital of the Nea¬
politan province of Calabria Ulteriore. It is situated be¬
tween the rivers Alti and Corace, on an elevation about five
miles from the Gulf of Squillace. It is walled, and has
a castle. It is the seat of a bishop, of the civil, ciimi-
nal, and appeal courts, and of some institutions for educa¬
tion ; and it contains 11,464 inhabitants, some of whom
are employed in silk manufactures. Long. 16. 50. E. Lat.
38 58. N.
CATAPHRACTA (from jcara and pgaovw, I fortify or
arm), in the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defen¬
sive armour, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron
scales or links, with which sometimes the breast, some¬
times the whole body of the rider, and sometimes the
horse also, were covered. It was in use among the Sarma-
tians, Persians, and other barbarians. The Romans early
adopted it for their foot, and, according to Yegetius, re¬
tained it till the time of Gratian, when the military discip¬
line becoming relaxed, and field exercises and labour being
discontinued, the Roman foot thought the cataphracta,
as well as the helmet, too heavy a load to bear, and there¬
fore threw it aside, choosing rather to march against the
enemy bare-breasted; so that in the war with the Goths
multitudes were destroyed.
CATAPHRACTiE Naves, ships armed and covered in
fight so that they could not be easily damaged by the
enemy. They were covered over with boards or planks,
on which the soldiers were placed to defend them; the
rowers sitting underneath entirely sheltered from the ene¬
my’s weapons.
CATAPHRACTUS denotes a thing defended or co¬
vered on all sides with armour.
Cataphractus, or Cataphractarius, more particularly
denotes a horseman, or even horse, armed with a cata¬
phracta. The cataphracti equites were a sort of cuirassiers,
not only fortified with armour themselves, but having their
horses guarded with solid plates of brass or other metal,
usually lined with skins, and wrought into plumes or other
forms. Their use was to bear down all before them, to
break in upon the enemy’s ranks, and spread terror and
havoc wherever they went, as being themselves invulner¬
able and secure from danger. But their disadvantage con¬
sisted in their unwieldiness; for, if once unhorsed, or on the
ground, they were unable to rise, and thus fell a prey to
the enemy.
CATAPHRYGIANS, a sect in the second century, so
called as being of the country of Phrygia. They were
orthodox in every thing, except this, that they took Mon-
tanus for a prophet, and Priscilla and Maximilla for true
prophetesses, to be consulted in every thing relating to re¬
ligion, supposing that the Holy Spirit had abandoned the
church.
CATAPULTA, in Antiquity, a military engine con-
CAT
trived for throwing arrows, darts, and stones, against the C 5u
enemy. Some of these engines were of such force that
they would throw stones of a hundredweight. Josephus
takes notice of the surprising effects of these engines, and
says that the stones thrown out of them beat down the
battlements, knocked off the angles of the towers, and
would level a whole file of men from one end to the other,
were the phalanx ever so deep.
Catapulta/or Arrows, Spears, or Darts. Some of the
spears and darts thrown by these engines are said to have
been eighteen feet long, and to have been thrown with such
velocity as to take fire in their course. This, however, is
absurd ; but it is by no means improbable that spears, with
fire-brands attached to them, were projected from these
engines.
CATARACT, in Hydrography, a precipice in the chan¬
nel of a river, caused by rocks or other obstacles stop¬
ping the course of the stream, whence the water falls with
great noise and impetuosity. The word is derived from
xarccggaotfw, I tumble down with violence; compounded of
xara, down, and ga<r<rw, dejicio, I throw down. Strabo calls
that a cataract which we call a cascade ; and what we call
a cataract the ancients usually called a catadupa. Hermi-
nius has an express dissertation, “ De admirandis mundi
Cataractis supra et subterraneis where he uses the word
in a new sense, meaning by cataract any violent motion
of the elements.
CATARA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital of the ter¬
ritory of the same name, with a strong castle and a bishop’s
see. It is subject to Venice, and is seated on a gulf of the
same name. Long. 19. 19. E. Lat. 42. 25. N.
CATARRH, in Medicine, a distillation or defluxion
from the head upon the mouth and aspera arteria, and
through them upon the lungs.
CATASTASIS, in Poetry, the third part of the ancient
drama, being that in which the intrigue or action set forth
in the epitasis is supported, carried on, and heightened,
till it be ripe for the unravelling in the catastrophe. Sca-
liger defines it the full growth of the fable, while things
are at a stand, and in that confusion to which the poet has
brought them.
CATASTROPHE, in Dramatic Poetry, the fourth arid
last part in the ancient drama, or that immediately suc¬
ceeding the catastasis, or, according to others, the third
only, the whole drama being divided into protasis, epita¬
sis, and catastrophe, or, in the language of Aristotle, pro¬
logue, epilogue, and exode. The catastrophe clears up
every thing, and is nothing else but the discovery or wind¬
ing up of the plot. It has its peculiar place, for it ought
to be entirely contained, not only in the last act, but in the
very conclusion of it; and, when the plot is finished, the
play should be so likewise.
CATCH, in the musical sense of the word, a fugue m
unison, in which, to humour some conceit in the words,
the melody is broken, and the sense interrupted in one
part, and caught again or supported by another, as in the
one in Shakspeare’s play of the Twelfth Night, whem
there is sung by three persons a catch, in which the u-
mour is, that every one who sings, calls and is called
/ewave in turn. According to Mr Jackson, a catch is a
piece for three or more voices, one of which leads and the
others follow in the same notes. It must be so contnvec
that rests, which are made for the purpose, in the music
of one line may be filled up with a word or two from ano
ther line, and that these may form a cross purpose oi
catch ; and hence the name.
Catch-Po/c {(quasi one who catches by the poll),
term used, by way of reproach, for the bailiff’s follower or
assistant. . , .
Catch- Word, among printers, that placed at the
CAT
teau tom of each page, being always the first word of the fol-
II lowing page.
schu- CATEAU, Le, a city of France, in the department of
en- the North, and arrondissement of Cambray. It stands on
^ the river Selles, and contains 741 houses, with 4133 inha¬
bitants. The finest thread for making lace, and for the
finest cambric, is spun here, and occupies a long space of
time, as well as the minutest degree of care.
CATECHESIS, in a general sense, denotes instruction
given to any person in the first rudiments of an art or
science, but more particularly of the Christian religion. In
the ancient church catechesis was instruction given viva
voce, either to children or adult heathens, preparatory to
their receiving baptism. In this sense catechesis stands con¬
tradistinguished from mystagogica, which formed a higher
kind of instruction given to those already initiated, and
containing the mysteries of faith. The dispensers of such
instruction are called catechists, and those who receive it
catechumens.
CATECHETIC, or Catechetical, something that re¬
lates to oral instruction in the rudiments of Christianity.
Catechetic schools were buildings appointed for the office
of the catechist, adjoining to the church, and called cate-
chumena ; such was that in which Origen and many other
famous men read catechetical lectures at Alexandria.
CATECHISM, in its primary sense, means instruction
or institution in the principles of the Christian religion, de¬
livered viva voce, and so as to require frequent repetitions,
from the disciple or hearer, of what has been said. The
word is formed from a compound of xara, and
T/Ji, q. d. circumsono, alluding to the noise or din made in
this sort of exercise, or to the zeal and earnestness with
which things are to be inculcated over and over on learn¬
ers. Anciently the candidates for baptism were only to
be instructed in the secrets of their religion by tradition,
viva voce, without writing; as had also been the case
among the Egyptian priests, and the British and Gaulish
druids, who only communicated the mysteries of their
theology by word of mouth.
Catechism is more frequently used in modern times
, for an elementary book, in which the principal articles of
religion are summarily delivered in the way of question
and answer.
CATECHIST (x.ari^i0T7](, catecheta), he who catechises,
that is, he who instructs novices in the principles of reli¬
gion.
Catechist more particularly denotes a person appoint¬
ed by the church to instruct those intended for baptism,
by word of mouth, in the fundamental articles of the Chris¬
tian faith. The catechists of churches were ministers
usually distinct from the bishops and presbyters, and they
had their auditors or catechumena apart. Their business
was to instruct the catechumens, and prepare them for the
reception of baptism. The catechists, however, did not con¬
stitute any distinct order of the clergy, but were chosen
out of. any other order. The bishop himself sometimes
performed the office; at other times presbyters, or even
readers or deacons, were the catechists. Origen seems to
have had no higher degree in the church than reader when
he was made catechist at Alexandria, being only eighteen
)ears of age, and consequently incapable of the deacon-
CATECHUMEN, a candidate for baptism, or one who
prepares himself for receiving that rite.
I he catechumens, in church history, were the lowest
order of Christians in the primitive church. They had
some title to the common name of Christian, being a de¬
gree above pagans and heretics, though not consummated
)y baptism. They were admitted to the state of catechu¬
mens by the imposition of hands and the sign of the cross.
VOL. VI.
CAT
241
The children of believing parents were admitted as cate-Categorical
chumens whenever they were capable of receiving instruc- II
tion ; but at what age those of heathen parents might be Catharine,
admitted is not so clear. As to the time uf their continu-
ance in this state, there were no fixed general rules, but
the practice varied according to the difference of times and
places, and the readiness and proficiency of the catechu¬
mens themselves.
There were four orders or degrees of catechumens. The
first consisted of those instructed privately without the
church, and kept at a distance for some time from the pri¬
vilege of entering the church, to make them the more eager
and desirous of doing so. The next degree consisted of
the audientes, so called from their being admitted to hear
sermons and the Scriptures read in the church, but they
were not allowed to partake of the prayers. The third
sort of catechumens included the genu-jlectentes, so called
because they received imposition of hands kneeling. The
fourth order was that of the competentes et electi, denoting
the immediate candidates for baptism, or such as were ap¬
pointed to be baptized at the next approaching festival;
before which, strict examination was made into their pro¬
ficiency in the several stages of catechetical exercises.
After examination, they were exercised for twenty days
together, and were obliged to fast and confess ; some days
before baptism they went veiled, and it was customary to
touch their ears, saying, Ephatha, be opened; as also to
anoint their eyes with clay; both ceremonies being in imi¬
tation of our Saviour’s practice, and intended to shadow out
to the catechumens their condition both before and after
their admission into the Christian church.
CATEGORICAL, in a general sense, is applied to those
things ranged under a Category.
Categorical also imports a thing to be absolute, and
not relative; in which sense it stands opposed to hypothe¬
tical. We say, a categorical proposition, a categorical syl¬
logism, and the like.
A categorical answer denotes an express and pertinent
answer made to any question or objection proposed.
CATEGORY, in Logic, a series or order of all the pre¬
dicates or attributescontained under any genus. The school
philosophers distribute all the objects of our thoughts and
ideas into certain genera or classes, which the Greeks call¬
ed categories, and the Latins predicaments. See Aristo¬
tle’s Philosophy.
CATERPILLAR, in Zoology, the name of all winged
insects when in their reptile or worm state. See Ento¬
mology.
CATERVA, in ancient military writers, a term used in
speaking of the Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a
body of 6000 armed men. The word caterva, or caterva-
rius, is also frequently used by ancient writers to denote
a party or corps of soldiers in disorder or disarray, and
therefore it is distinguished from cohort or turma, which
means troops in a certain order.
CATHARINE. Knights of St Catharine of Mount Si¬
nai, an ancient military order, instituted for the assistance
and protection of pilgrims going to pay their devotion to
the body of St Catharine, a virgin of Alexandria, distin¬
guished for her learning, and said to have suffered mar¬
tyrdom under Maximin. The body of the martyr having
been discovered on Mount Sinai, caused a great concourse
thither of pilgrims; and travelling being very dangerous, by
reason of the Arabs, an order of knighthood was instituted
in 1063, on the model of that of the holy sepulchre, and
under the patronage of St Catharine, the knights of which
obliged themselves by oath to guard the body of the saint,
keep the roads secure, observe the rule of St Basil, and
obey their grand-master. Their habit was white, and on
it were represented the instruments of martyrdom bv
2 h
242
CAT
Catharine which the saint had suffered, namely, a half wheel armed
II with spikes, and traversed with a sword stained with blood.
Catherine. Catharine. Fraternity of St Catharine at Sienna, &
sort of religious society, instituted in that city in honoui
of St Catharine, a saint famous for her revelations, and for
her supposed marriage with Jesus Christ, whose wedding-
ring is preserved as a valuable relic. . This fraternity
yearly endows a certain number of destitute virgins, and
has the privilege of redeeming annually two criminals con¬
demned for murder, and the same number of debtors by
paying their debts. .
CATHARTICS, in Medicine, remedies which promote
evacuation by stool. .
CATHEDRA, in a general sense, a chair., ihe word
is more particularly used to denote a professor s chan or a
preacher’s pulpit. . , , ,
Cathedra is also used for the bishops see? 01 tin one
in a church. . ,
CATHEDRAL, a church in which is a bishop s see or
seat. The word comes from the Greek xaOtdga, a chair,
from xudi^ofiut, sedeo, I sit. The denomination of cathedial
seems to have taken its rise from the manner of sitting in
the ancient churches, or assemblies of primitive Christians.
In these the council, that is, the elders and priests, was call¬
ed presbyterium ,* at the head of that body was the bishop,
w ho held the place of chairman, cathedralis, or cathedrati-
cus ; and the presbyters, who sat on either side, vvere also
called by the ancient fathers assessores episcoporum. The
episcopal authority did not reside in the bishop alone, but
in all the presbyters, of whom the bishop was the president.
A cathedral, therefore, originally wras different from what
it is now ; the Christians, till the time of Constantine, hav¬
ing no liberty to build any temple; and hence, by their
churches they only meant their assemblies, and by cathe¬
drals nothing more than consistories.
CATHEM, Kadhema, or Koufit, a sea-port town
of Arabia, in the province of Lachsa, situated on a small
river which flows into the Persian Gulf. At this port
some of the English East India cruizers frequently lie for
the purpose of receiving overland dispatches from Europe.
A scheik exercises authority in the town, near which is a
pearl fishery. It is 132 miles south of Bussora, and 4*20
south of Ispahan. Long. 48. 10. E. Lat. 29. 13. N.
CATHERINE Parr. See Parr.
Catherine Empress of Russia, was the natural daugh¬
ter of a country girl, and was born at Ringen, a small vil¬
lage upon the Lake Yirtcherve, near Dorpt, in Livonia.
The year of her birth is uncertain ; but according to her
own account she came into the world on the 5th of April
1687. Her original name w'as Martha, which she changed
for Catherine when she embraced the Greek religion.
Count Rosen, a lieutenant-colonel in the Swedish service,
who owned the village of Ringen, supported, according to
the custom of the country, both the mother and the child,
and was for that reason supposed by many persons to have
been her father. She lost her mother when she w'as only
three years old; and as Count Rosen died about the same
time, she wras left in so destitute a situation that the parish-
clerk of the village received her into his house. Soon
afterwards Gluck, Lutheran minister of Marienburg, hap¬
pening, in a journey through those parts, to see the found¬
ling, took her under his protection, brought her up in his
family, and employed her in attending his children. In
1701, or about the fourteenth year of her age, she es¬
poused a dragoon of the Swedish garrison of Marienburg.
Many different accounts are given of this transaction.
One author affirms that the bride and bridegroom remain¬
ed together eight days after their marriage; while ano¬
ther asserts, that on the morning of the nuptials, her hus¬
band being sent with a detachment for Riga, the marriage
CAT
was never consummated. This much is certain, that the Catb e
dragoon was absent when Marienburg surrendered to the
Russians, and Catherine, who was reserved for a higher
destiny, never saw him more.
Upon the taking of Marienburg, General Bauer saw
Catherine among the prisoners; and being smitten with
her youth and beauty, took her to his house, where she
superintended his domestic affairs, and was supposed to
be his mistress. Soon afterwards she was received into
the family of Prince Menzikof, who was no less struck
with the attractions of the fair captive. With him she
lived until 1704; when, in the seventeenth year of her
age, she became the mistress of Peter the Great, and won
so much upon his affections, that he espoused her on the
29th of May 1711. The ceremony was secretly perform¬
ed at Jawerof, in Poland, in the presence of General
Bruce; and on the 20th of February 1712 it was publicly
solemnized with great pomp at Petersburg.
Peter expired on the morning of the 28th of January
1725. This event being made known, the senate, the ge¬
nerals, the principal nobility and clergy, hastened to the
palace to proclaim the new sovereign. It was previously
settled by Menzikof and his party that Catherine should
be empress; and the guards, who surrounded the palace
with drums beating and colours flying, effectually van¬
quished all opposition. The only circumstance, therefore,
which remained, was to give a just colour to her title,
by persuading the assembly that Peter intended to have
named her his successor. 'For this purpose Menzikof de¬
manded of that emperor’s secretary whether his late mas¬
ter had left any written declaration of his intentions. The
secretary replied, that a little before his last journey to
Moscow he had destroyed a will; that he had frequently
expressed his design of making another, but had always
been prevented by the reflection, that if he thought his
people, whom he had raised from a state of barbarism
to a considerable degree of power and glory, could be
ungrateful, he would not expose his final inclinations to
the insult of a refusal; and that if they recollected what
they owed to his labours, they would regulate their con¬
duct by his intentions, which he had disclosed with more
solemnity than could be manifested by any writing. An
altercation now began in the assembly, and some of the
nobles having the courage to oppose the accession of Ca¬
therine, Theophanes, archbishop of Plescoff, called to
their recollection the oath which they had all taken in
1722 to acknowledge the successor appointed by Peter;
and added, that the sentiments of that emperor delivered
by the secretary were in effect an appointment of Cathe¬
rine. The opposite party, however, denied that those sen¬
timents were so clear as the secretary chose to insinuate;
and insisted, that as their late monarch had failed to no¬
minate his heir, the election of the new sovereign should
revert to the state. Upon this the archbishop further tes¬
tified, that the evening before the coronation of the em¬
press at Moscow, Peter had declared, in the house of an
English merchant, that he should place the crown upon
her head with no other view than to leave her mistress
of the empire after his decease. This attestation being
confirmed by many persons present, Menzikof cried out,
“ What need have we of any testament? A refusal to
conform to the inclination of our great sovereign, thus
authenticated, would be both unjust and criminal. _ Long
live the Empress Catherine!” These words being in¬
stantaneously repeated by the greater part of those who
were present, Menzikof, saluting Catherine by the title o
empress, paid his first obeisance by kissing her hand; and
his example was followed by the whole assembly7. n
next presented herself at the window to the guards ant
to the people, who shouted acclamations of “ Long live
CAT
i erine. Catherine ! ” whilst Menzikof scattered among them hand-
^ fuls of money. Thus, says a contemporary, the empress
was raised to the throne by the guards, in the same man¬
ner as the Roman emperors were by the praetorian co¬
horts, without either the appointment of the people or of
the legions.
The reign of Catherine may be considered as the reign
of Menzikof; for that empress having neither inclination
nor abilities to direct the helm of government, placed the
most implicit confidence in a man who had been the ori¬
ginal author of her good fortune, and the sole instrument
of her elevation to the throne. During her short reign her
life was exceedingly irregular ; she w^as extremely averse
to business ; would frequently, when the weather was fine,
pass whole nights in the open air; and was particularly
intemperate in the use of tokay. These irregularities,
joined to a cancer and a dropsy, hastened her end; and
she expired on the 17th of May 1727, a little more than
two years after her accession to the throne, and in about
the fortieth year of her age.
Catherine II. Empress of Russia, whose original name
was Sophia Augusta Frederica, was the daughter of Chris¬
tian Augustus of Anhalt Zerbst, a small district in Upper
Saxony, and was born in the castle of Zerbst on the 23d
of May 1829. She was educated under the eye of her pa¬
rents, along with her brother Prince Frederic Augustus,
and at an early period displayed a masculine spirit. Her
person was at once majestic and handsome, her com¬
plexion clear and bright, and the expression of her coun¬
tenance dignified, yet tempered by a smile of beneficence.
But it was early observed that under this exterior she con¬
cealed a certain austerity of disposition, and an ambition,
which was even then considered as excessive, and which
proved afterwards insatiable.
The Empress Elizabeth, who had pitched upon her ne¬
phew the duke of Holstein Gottorp Oldenburg as her suc¬
cessor, was also desirous to choose a consort for him, and
the princess of Anhalt Zerbst was selected upon this oc¬
casion, when only fourteen years of age. She was chiefly
indebted for this unexpected honour to the tender regard
which her imperial majesty always entertained for the me¬
mory of the princess’s uncle, who had been her lover ; and
in an evil hour she united the fate of the prince, better
known afterwards by the name of Peter III. to that of the
princess of Anhalt Zerbst. In consequence of a special
invitation, the future empress repaired to St Petersburg,
accompanied by her mother, and being admitted into the
bosom of the Greek church, the ceremonial of marriage,
after some delay, took place; upon which these august
personages were formally acknowledged, by her imperial
majesty and the senate, as Grand Duke and Duchess of
Russia.
The empress hoped that the name and pretensions of
Prince Iwan would be obliterated by the issue of the grand
duke; and the whole empire impatiently wished for and
now expected an heir to the throne of Peter the Great. But
a marriage of eight years was not productive of any issue;
and strange suspicions began to be entertained. This
alarmed the court; for a formidable rival, who possessed a
superior claim to the throne, still existed; and although
he was in bondage, yet, in a country like Russia, the inter¬
nal is sometimes small between a dungeon and a throne.
ut the birth of a son and a daughter, soon afterwards,
put an end to all apprehensions of this kind, and tended
not a little to give stability to the empire.
The grand duke, who at times discovered noble and
even magnanimous sentiments, had about this period form-
e a most unfortunate connection with Elizabeth Yoron-
s° > a lady of high rank, but celebrated neither for her
eauty nor for her talents. He seldom saw his consort in
CAT 243
private, and all the hours which were not occupied either Catherine,
by military exhibitions or the pleasures of the table were
entirely devoted to his mistress.
The grand duchess, on the other hand, is said to have
spent much of her time in company with a young Pole,
whose history, like that of Catherine’s, has since been in¬
terwoven with the annals of Europe. This was Count
Poniatowski, afterwards known as Stanislaus Augustus,
king of Poland. He was the third son of a grandee of the
same name, the favourite of Charles XII. of Sweden, by
the Princess Ezatoryska, who boasted the possession of the
noblest blood in Poland, as she traced her descent from the
Jagellons, the ancient sovereigns of Lithuania. His person
was of exquisite symmetry, his air was noble, his manners
weie agreeable, and his mind, a circumstance extremely
rare, was not less graceful than his person. At this pe-
liod he vyas in no higher station than that of a gentleman
in the suite of the minister plenipotentiary from England,
who had formed an intimacy with his family during a for¬
mer mission at Warsaw. But being now taught to look
higher, he returned to his native country, and appeared
soon afterwards at Petersburg as ambassador from the
king of Poland. In this new capacity he did not forget
to pay his respects at the little court of Oranienbaum;
and the young plenipotentiary, with a view of ingratiating
himself with the grand duke, smoked, drank, and praised
the king of Prussia. At length Paul Petrowitsch received
the Polish minister with coolness, and he was actually for¬
bidden to visit at the palace. This, however, it is said, did
not deter him from concealing the order of the white eagle,
and disguising himself as a mechanic, under which as¬
sumed character he repaired one summer evening to the
gardens in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Cronstadt;
but he was discovered by his highness, who ordered him
to be brought before him, and, after affecting to repri¬
mand the captain of his guard for his disrespect to the
representative of a crowned head, told him he was at li¬
berty to depart.
from this moment the grand duchess is said to have
changed both her system and her conduct. She had for¬
merly aspired only to direct the counsels of the future em¬
peror ; she now resolved, if possible, to obtain the crown for
her son, and the regency for herself. Such a task would
have discouraged a common mind; for it was impossible
to achieve it without prevailing on the empress to consent
to dethrone her own nephew. But Bestuchef, the grand
chancellor, who hated the heir apparent, joined cordially
in the scheme; and Elizabeth, who had herself obtained
the crown by means of a revolution, was taught to tremble
for her life, in consequence of the designs of her succes¬
sor, who was represented as having resolved to shorten
her days by poison. An unexpected revolution in the
ministry, however, put an end to these intrigues. Bes¬
tuchef was driven into exile, and Poniatowski was recalled.
A long and melancholy interval now ensued, during
which the ambition of the grand duchess was rather sus¬
pended than annihilated. In the midst of the gloom which
overspread her, however, she had recourse to, and soothed
her anguish by means of, books; and it w'as in her closet
that she laid the foundation of her future greatness, and
rendered herself in some measure deserving of a throne.
During her leisure moments she found means to gain par¬
tisans ; and she acquired the favour of the soldiery, who did
duty around her person, by means of her liberality and
condescension. Peter, on the other hand, to the personal
exertions of a common soldier added the orgies of a bac¬
chanalian. Surrounded by his male and female favourites,
he consumed whole days and nights in intoxication, and
forgot that he was a prince. There were some few mo¬
ments, however, when he appeared great, and even mag-
244
CAT
Catherine, nanimous; but unhappily these were of short duration ;
and it was his misfortune to have a weak woman for his
mistress, and an able and ambitious one for his w ife.
Such was the situation of the court when Elizabeth died,
on the 5th of January 1762. The grand duke now ascend¬
ed the throne by the name of Peter III. The following
answer to a letter from the king of Prussia, who had re¬
quested him to be on his guard against the plot which
was then hatching, conveys no unfavourable opinion or
his heart: “ Touching the interest you express for my
safety, I request you will rest contented. I am called the
father of my soldiers; they prefer a male to a female go¬
vernment. I walk alone constantly in St Petersburg: if
any mischief is meditated, it would have been effected
long since; but I am a general benefactor. I repose my¬
self on the protection of heaven; trusting to that, I have
nothing to fear.” . . . ,
This false security proved his ruin. Whilst his mind
was occupied with plans of reform, and he aspired to rival,
nay even to excel, his illustrious predecessor, whose name
he had assumed, a person who had sworn fidelity to him
at the altar, and who owed him allegiance by the double
ties of wife and subject, was actually employed in planning
a conspiracy, and organizing a revolt against him. It has
been said that he intended to have shut up his consort and
son in a convent. But it is known that, so far from, this
being the intention of Peter, he was preparing for a jour¬
ney to Holstein, and had actually empowered his consort
to act as regent during his absence.
The mistakes of the emperor did not escape the penetra¬
tion of his enemies. He purposed to carry his guards into
Holstein, with a view to recover the possessions wrested
from his ancestors. But the regiments which had hither¬
to done duty at the palace, and were inured to the indul¬
gences of the capital, revolted at the idea of a foreign
war; they had been accustomed to be governed by wo¬
men, and they were taught to fix their eyes on the con¬
sort of the czar.
It is not the least wonderful part of her conduct, that
previously to the great catastrophe now meditating, Ca¬
therine had contrived to appear abandoned by all the world.
She knew how interesting a female, and more especially
an empress, appeared whilst in distress ; and she took care
to heighten the sensibility of the public, by bursting at
times into a flood of tears. This artful woman had found
means to attach many persons to her destiny; it must be
owned, however, that her adherents were neither so power¬
ful nor so numerous as to afford her any well-founded
hopes of success. She had gained several subalterns, and
some privates, of the guards; but her principal partizans
consisted of the Princess D’Aschekof, niece to the new
chancellor; Prince Rozamouski, who had risen from obscu¬
rity, having been originally a peasant; Odart, an intrigue-
ing Italian; and Panin, governor to the grand duke. The
arrest of Passick, one of the conspirators, seemed to lead
to a discovery which would have proved fatal to the mal¬
contents ; but this very circumstance induced them to de¬
clare instantly, and in the end crowned an apparently des¬
perate attempt with complete success.
The empress, who was asleep at the castle of Peterhof,
received intimation of their design by a common soldier,
who soon afterwards returned with a carriage and eight
horses. On the faith of this man, and accompanied only
by a few peasants, a German female domestic, and a
French valet-de-chambre, she arrived at eight o’clock in
the morning in the capital, and stopped opposite the bat-
racks of the regiment of Ismailof. There she addressed
the soldiers in an eloquent speech, intermingled with sighs
and tears, and actually found means to persuade them that
she and her son had but that moment escaped from the
CAT
hands of assassins, sent by the emperor to murder them. Cat
This story, by agitating the passions of the troops, had a Wv'
wonderful effect on them ; and they all swore, with the ex¬
ception of only one regiment, to die in defence of her and
the young archduke. Upon this the empress ordered a
crucifix to be brought, and commanded the priests to admi¬
nister a new oath of allegiance. She afterwards repaired
to one of the principal churches, where she was met by
the Bishop of Novogorod and the clergy, and, having re¬
turned thanks to Almighty God, ascended a balcony, and
presented her son to the people. In a few hours she was
again seen, dressed in the uniform of the guards, riding at
the head of a numerous and well-appointed army against
her husband.
On the first intelligence of the plot, Munich had repair¬
ed to his benefactor, and advised him to march directly
to the capital, at the head of his German troops. “ I shall
precede you,” said the generous veteran, “ and my dead
body shall be a rampart to your sacred person.” But, on
the other hand, the emissaries of the empress, bathing his
hands with their hypocritical tears, deprecated resistance,
magnified the danger, and invited him to repose in the in¬
violable fidelity of his consort. In short, on the 14th of
July 1762, he was taken prisoner by the orders of his own
wife, to whom he had been married fourteen years; pre¬
vailed on by the threats and intreaties of Count Panin to
renounce his crown; conveyed to the castle of Robscha;
and, three days afterwards, put to death. The empress,
on her assumption of the crown, now rendered vacant by
murder, notified the event to all the courts of Europe,
under her new name of Catherine Alexiewna II. But
there was still a competitor for the empire; and suspi¬
cion never slumbers near a throne. This was Prince Iwan,
son of the princess of Mecklenburg, and grand nephew of
Peter the Great and the empress Anna Iwanowna, who
had destined him as her successor; but in consequence of
a former revolution, he had been seized while yet an in¬
fant, and doomed to lead a life of captivity. During eigh¬
teen years of precarious existence, he had been shut up
in the castle of Schlusselburg, and never in all that time
had he breathed the open air, or beheld the sky, but once.
This prince was visited by Peter III., who, finding him
in an arched room twenty feet square, determined to set
him at liberty ; but his generous intentions were unavail¬
ing ; the youth, in consequence of his long and solitary
confinement, had been deprived of his senses. In this si¬
tuation the emperor determined to build a house for him,
with a convenient terrace, where he might take the air
daily within the fortress. Such, however, are the changes
of fortune, that, in three weeks, Peter himself was preci¬
pitated from a throne, and suffered a violent death. This
event was but the prelude to that of Iwan; for, as orders
had been given, in case of an attempt to rescue him, that
an end should be put to his life, and as a real or pretend¬
ed plot had been hatched for this purpose, the motives
and details of which have hitherto been involved in the
most profound obscurity, the unhappy prince experienced
the same fate as his generous protector.
Catherine being now firmly seated on tbe throne, wise¬
ly determined to divert the thoughts of the nation from
the late horrid scenes, and fix them upon more agreeable
objects. Having soothed Prussia, acquired a preponder¬
ance in the cabinet of Denmark, which had for some time
been an absolute monarchy, and entered into a league with
the popular party in Sweden, not yet bereft of its liberties,
she cast her eyes on Courland, then governed by Prince
Charles of Saxony, the second son of Augustus III. king ot
Poland, and, finding that country admirably situated lor
the increase of her present and the extension of her future
power, she, in 1762, expelled the lawful sovereign, and in-
CAT
CAT
Ot i»e;
vested Biron, a creatute of her own, with the ducal cap.
Nor was she content with this; for the new duke, soon re¬
duced to the most abject dependence, was prevented from
resigning his precarious power, and the states assembled at
Mittau were actually interdicted from nominating a succes¬
sor. This, however, was only a prelude to scenes of greater
importance; for she had scarcely dethroned one sovereign
before she undertook to create another. Augustus II., or,
as he is called by some, Augustus III. of Poland, having
died at Dresden in 1763, her imperial majesty did not let
slip so favourable an opportunity for interfering in the ap¬
pointment to the vacant throne, and even placing upon it
one of her own dependents. Count Poniatowski, on the
elevation of Catherine, had sent a friend to Petersburg
to sound the disposition of the empress about his return
to that capital, where he naturally hoped to participate in
her power, and bask in the sunshine of the imperial smiles.
But the more prudent German, who was at this very mo¬
ment meditating a splendid provision for him elsewhere,
prohibited the journey from political motives. Accord¬
ingly, notwithstanding the opposition of the grand chan¬
cellor Bestuchef, and indeed of all her ministers, she de¬
termined to invest him with the ensigns of royalty. The
head of the house of Brandenburg, being swayed by his
hatred to Saxony and Austria; or, what is still more like¬
ly, the Prussian eagle having perhaps, even now, scented
his future prey; Catherine w'as enabled to send into Po¬
land 10,000 men, who, encamping on the banks of the Vis¬
tula, overawed the deliberations of the diet, assembled on
the 9th of May 1764, and placed Stanislaus Augustus on
the throne.
Having thus conferred the crown of Poland on an ami¬
able and accomplished prince, who, on account of his
youth, his poverty, and even his dependence on Russia,
would have been excluded from that painful pre-emi¬
nence had the free suffrages of the nation been collect¬
ed, and who, in consequence of the hatred of his coun¬
trymen, vras still more subjected to the dominion of the
empress, she began to prepare for a war against the
Turks, which was accordingly declared in 1768. During
this contest the Greek cross w'as triumphant both by sea
and land.
In the mean time a dangerous insurrection broke out
in the very heart of her dominions, instigated by a Cos¬
sack of the name of Pugatschef, who pretended to be Pe¬
ter III. After displaying great valour and considerable
talents, which had enabled him, at the head of raw and
undisciplined levies, to contend against veteran troops and
experienced generals, this unfortunate man was at length
seized, inclosed in an iron cage, and beheaded at Moscow
on the 21st of July 1775.
On the 21st of July in the preceding year, a peace had
been concluded with the porte, which proved highly ho¬
nourable to Russia; but it was productive of little bene-
U to the latter; for the liberty of navigating the Black
oea, and a. free trade with all the ports of the Turkish
empire, which would have affoi’ded inestimable advantages
to a civilized people, proved of but little consequence to a
nation unacquainted alike with commerce and manufac¬
tures.
Accordingly, we find her imperial majesty still unsatis-
neu. Scarcely had four years elapsed, when, after an
nimed negociation, a new treaty of pacification was agreed
to by the reluctant sultan, on the 21st of March 1789, by
u ich the Crimea was declared independent; an event
n° Calculated to allay ancient jealousies, but, on the con-
'uiy, to produce fresh dissensions, as it afforded an open-
lng into the very heart of the Turkish empire, and a ready
pretext for future interference. New claims and new con-
essions immediately followed. Russia insisted on esta-
245
Wishing consuls in the three provinces of Moldavia, Wal-Catherine,
lachia, and Bessarabia ; which she was accordingly per- t
mitted to do by the treaty of 1781. But mortifying as
this compliance was, it produced only a short respite.
The emperor Joseph was now brought upon the political
stage, and the Roman and Russian eagle.s, after hovering
over the carcass of the Turkish empire, and meditating
to devour the whole, were at last content with part of the
prey. The empress, as it may be readily believed, was
not inattentive to her own interests; and by the treaty
of Constantinople, signed on the 9th of January 1784, the
entire sovereignty of the Crimea, which then received its
ancient name of Taurica, the isle of Taman, and part of
Cuban, were ceded to Russia.
Thus, in the fifty-eighth year of her age, and the twenty-
fifth of her reign, Catherine may be said to have attained
the very summit of her wishes. Knowing the effect of
splendour upon ignorance, she ushered in the year 1787
with a brilliant journey to Cherson. Accompanied thither
at once by a court and an army, with foreign ambassa¬
dors, an emperor and a king, in her train, she intended
to have assumed the high-sounding titles of Empress of
the East, and Liberator of Greece. At Kiow, where she
remained during three months, she was received under
triumphal arches ; and, having heard the petitions of the
deputies from distant nations, and extended the walls of
that city, she inscribed in Greek characters, on the quar¬
ter next to Constantinople, “ T hrough this gate lies the
road to Byzantium.”
Scarcely, however, had the empress, after visiting Mos¬
cow, returned to her capital, when the Porte thought pro¬
per to declare war. Her majesty, long prepared for an
event which was far from being displeasing, called forth
the stipulated succours of her ally the emperor; and the
combined army under the Prince de Cobourg made itself
master of Choczin after a siege of three months. Ocza-
kow, after a still more obstinate resistance, was assaulted
and taken by the Russians alone. Having concluded a
final treaty of peace with the Turk on the 9th of Janu¬
ary 1792, by which the river Dniester became the boun¬
dary of the two empires, and was to be navigated by both,
the empress had more time to apply her mind to Euro¬
pean politics. Part of Poland had been dismembered and
partitioned during the year 1792; not only in contraven¬
tion of the unalienable rights of nations, but in direct op¬
position to the most solemn treaties on the part of Russia,
Prussia, and Austria. The revolution which took place in
that ill-fated country on the 3d of May 1791, and which
afforded the prospect of a happy and stable government
to the remains of the republic, was the signal of its anni¬
hilation. The imperial and royal spoilers seized this op¬
portunity to fall once more in concert on their prey, which
was in no condition to resist this detestable confederacy;
and they shared it at their pleasure. Another great ob¬
ject had for some time engaged the attention of Catherine.
This was the French revolution. With a treasury nearly
exhausted by the war with the Ottoman porte, which had
not then terminated, and at a distance from the scene of
action, the empress could not well engage in the contest;
but she readily entered into the coalition, and soon after¬
wards subsidized the king of Sweden. She also launched
forth a menacing manifesto against France, and prepared
for a new war. Afterwards, at the instigation of'Zuboff, she
formed the design of giving effectual assistance to the con¬
federated kings; and, as a proof of her intentions, issued
orders for a squadron of men-of-war to join the English
fleet, and commanded a levy of 60,000 troops. But she
at the same time prosecuted a war on the frontiers of Per¬
sia, where her army, under the command of a near rela¬
tion of the grand master of the artillery, had experienced
246 C AT
Cathe- a most humiliating defeat; and she was now preparing to
rine’s, St. send fresh succours to his assistance.
But while the mind of Catherine was occupied with
projects for the overthrow of the French republic, and
the subjugation of the distant Persians, she was smitten
by the hand of death. On the morning of the 9th of No¬
vember she rose at her usual hour, and breakfasted, ac¬
cording to custom, on coffee. Some time afterwards she
retired to her closet; and her long absence exciting the
suspicion of her attendants, they entered the apartment
and found her lying speechless. Dr Ilogerson, her phy¬
sician, being sent for, treated her disease as apoplexy,
and considerable relief seemed to ensue after the appli¬
cation of the lancet. But the empress never entirely re¬
covered her senses, and did not utter a single word during
the remainder of her life, which was prolonged till ten
o’clock in the evening of the 10th of November 1797.
Catherine was the only sovereign of Russia who ever
exhibited a taste for letters. Nor was this all. She was an
author herself, and did not disdain to compose little trea¬
tises for her grandchildren, whose education she superin¬
tended. She also possessed an exquisite relish for music,
and brought Gabrielli and a number of singers of great
note from Italy, allowing them liberal salaries, and treating
them with great attention. Throughout the whole of her
long reign Catherine also evinced a marked^ predilection
for painting. In the midst of a war with the Turks she pur¬
chased pictures in Holland to the amount of 60,000 ru¬
bles, all of which were lost by the ship which carried them
being wrecked on the coast of Finland. This, however,
served rather to stimulate her to fresh exertions, and her
agents accordingly procured whatever was to be found in
Italy worthy of notice. The Houghton collection from
England was also transferred, by an act of her munificence,
to the shores of the Baltic; and, whilst it added to her
glory, lowered this nation in the eyes of foreigners. Her
conduct to learned men was truly worthy of a woman of
genius. She was proud of the correspondence and friend¬
ship of Voltaire; she invited Diderot to her court, and
lived with him while there in habits of the utmost famili¬
arity ; to D’Alembert she looked up as to a superior be¬
ing, and endeavoured, although in vain, to induce him to
fix his residence at St Petersburg. Her political charac¬
ter has been variously estimated; and no sovereign of
modern times has attracted a greater share of censure
and eulogium than Catherine. As a female she appears
at times the slave of lust and the puppet of her courtiers ;
as a sovereign we behold her towering like an immense
colossus, with one foot placed on Cherson, and another on
Kamtschatka, waving her iron sceptre over the subject
nations, and regulating the destiny of a large portion of
mankind. The world, however, shudders at the untimely
fate of Peter and of Iwan, and posterity will not easily
pardon the partition of Poland and the massacres of Is-
mailof and of Praga.
Catherine, St, Order of, in modern history, belongs
to ladies of the first quality in the Russian court. It was
instituted in 1714, by Catherine, wife of Peter the Great,
in memory of his signal escape from the Turks in 1711.
The emblems of this order are a red cross, supported by
a figure of St Catherine, and fastened to a scarlet string
edged with silver, on which are inscribed the name of St
Catherine, and the motto Pro fide et patria.
CATHERINE’S, St, an island in the South Atlantic
Ocean, contiguous to the coast of Brazil. It is six miles
in breadth from east to west, and twenty-four in length
from north to south. A channel, in some places scarcely
a mile and a half in breadth, separates it from the main
land. The soil of this island is extremely fertile, and pro¬
duces in abundance rice, maize, mandioca, coffee of excel-
CAT
lent quality, oranges equal to any in the world, and a va- C;
riety of other fruits. Small quantities of sugar and indigo rin; ^
are also raised. The climate is genial, and accordingly a
profusion of the finest flowers, amongst which are myrtles ^ ic.
and a beautiful specimen of the passion flower, variegate w
the ground. All the land capable of improvement is in a
high state of cultivation. From the demand for timber
for ship-building, the extensive tracts of wooded land have
been cleared; and that article, at least of a good quality,
has now become scarce. There is much low sw’ampy land,
which is favourable for the production of rice. Flax, of
which the fishermen make their lines, nets, and cordage,
is also raised. The surrounding seas abound in excellent
fish, which are accordingly very cheap on the island, as
are most other articles of food. The climate is healthy,
the solstitial heats being moderated by breezes from the
south-west and north-east, which generally prevail here.
The island is divided into four parishes, and contains
above 30,000 inhabitants. It is defended by several for¬
tresses, the most considerable of which is Santa Cruz.
Long. 47. 15. W. Eat. 27. 10. S.
Catherine’s, St, the capital of the foregoing island,
and situated on its eastern shore. It has a harbour which
is guarded by the fort of Santa Cruz, and may be entered
by ships of three hundred tons burden. The town con¬
sists of several streets. The houses are well built, and
generally of two or three stories in height. It is an agree¬
able retirement for merchants who have secured an in¬
dependence, and wish to enjoy it undisturbed. I he tiade
of this place is inconsiderable, as the produce does not
much exceed the demand of the inhabitants. The latter
are estimated at about 6000.
CATHETUS, in Geometry, a line or radius falling per¬
pendicularly on another line or surface. Ihus the catheti
of a right-angled triangle are the two sides that include
the right angle.
Cathetus of Incidence, a right line drawn from a point
of the object, perpendicular to the reflecting line.
Cathetus of Reflection, or of the Eye, a right line
drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the reflecting plane.
Cathetus of Obliquation, a right line drawn perpen¬
dicular to the speculum, in the point of incidence or re¬
flection.
Cathetus, in Architecture, a perpendicular line sup¬
posed to pass through the middle of a cylindrical body,
as a baluster, column, &c.
CATHNESS. See Caithness.
CATHOLIC, in a general sense, denotes any thing that
is universal or general. . . , , t.
Catholic Church. The rise of heresies induced the
primitive Christian church to assume to itself the appella¬
tion of catholic, to distinguish itself from all sects, who,
though they had party names, sometimes sheltered them¬
selves under the name of Christians. .
The Romish church distinguishes itself now by the
name of Catholic, in opposition to all those who have se¬
parated from her communion, and whom she considers
as heretics and schismatics, regarding herself as the only
true and Christian church. In the strict sense of the
word, there is no Catholic church in being, that is, no
universal Christian communion. See Roman Catholic.
Catholic King is a title which has long been hereditary
to the king of Spain. Mariana pretends that Reccarede
first received this title after he had destroyed Ananisrn
in his kingdom, and that it is found in the council o o
ledo for the year 589. Vasce ascribes the origin of it to
Alphonsus in 738. Some allege that it has been use
only since the time of Ferdinand and Isabella; and uo-
lombiere says it was given them on occasion of the expu
sion of the Moors. The Bollandists pretend it had been
CAT
borne by their predecessors the Visigoth kings of Spain,
and that Alexander VI. only renewed it to Ferdinand and
Isabella. Others say that Philip de Valois was the first
who was honoured with the title, which, it seems, w-as
given him after his death by the ecclesiastics, on account
of his favouring their interests. In some epistles of the
ancient popes, the title catholic is given to the kings of
France and of Jerusalem, as well as to several patriarchs
and primates.
CATILINE, Lucius Sergius, a Roman of a noble fa¬
mily, who, having spent his whole fortune in debauchery
and vice, formed the design of oppressing his country, de¬
stroying the senate, assassinating the consuls, seizing the
public treasury, setting Rome on fire, and usurping a
sovereign power. In order to prosecute this design, he
drew into his plot some young noblemen, whom he pre¬
vailed upon, it is said, to drink human blood as a pledge
of their union. His conspiracy, however, was discovered
by the vigilance of Cicero, who was then consul; upon
which, retiring from Rome, he, with several of the conspi¬
rators, put himself at the head of an army, and fought
with incredible valour against Petreius, lieutenant to An¬
tony, who was the colleague of Cicero in the consulship;
but he was defeated and killed in battle.
CATMANDOO, or Catamandog, a city of Northern
Hindustan, the capital of the Nepaul country, and the re¬
sidence of the Goorkhali rajah. It is situated in a romantic
valley of Nepaul proper, on the east bank of the Bishen-
mutty river, forty miles south of the Himalaya Mountains,
and about a hundred and fifty miles north of the British
possessions. It extends about a mile along the river, and
is in its greatest breadth about half a mile ; but.in gene¬
ral it does not exceed a quarter of a mile. The houses,
which are of two, three, and four stories, are built of
brick, with pent roofs, and have in general a mean appear¬
ance, not even excepting the palace of the rajah, which is
but a poor edifice. The streets are very narrow, and fully
as filthy as those in other eastern towns. The temples
are almost as numerous as the houses, and are all provi¬
ded with idols. The greater part are constructed of wood,
but several are built of brick and stone. The Brahmini-
cal religion is professed in all these. There is a very an¬
cient temple dedicated to Boodh, which is highly celebrat¬
ed among the Tartars for its sanctity, and is a great re¬
sort of pilgrims. It is built of stone, and consists of three
lofty pyramids with two square apartments. It is of great
antiquity, having been erected when Nepaul was in pos¬
session of the Thibetians. The possession of this temple
has been always claimed by the sovereign pontiff', the Dalui
Lama, on the ground of its being in the immemorial posses¬
sion of his predecessors ; but in consequence of disputes
the Lamas vicar was obliged to retire, and it is now held
by a legate of the ruler of Bootan, who is a Boodhist. The
city has good markets, well supplied with every conve¬
nience, and is estimated to contain 50,000 inhabitants.
Long. 85. 29. E. Lat. 27. 33. N.
CATO, Marcus Portius, the Censor, one of the great¬
est men among the ancients, was born at Tusculum in the
year of Rome 519, about the 232d before Christ. He
began to bear arms at seventeen, and on all occasions
showed extraordinary courage. He was a man of great
sobriety, and reckoned no bodily exercise unworthy of him.
He had but one horse for himself and his baggage, and he
ooked after and dressed it himself. On his return from
us campaigns he betook himself to plough his ground; not
tiat he was without slaves to do it, but because such
v'as his inclination. He also dressed like his slaves, sat
own at the same table with them, and partook of the
same fare. . He did not in the meanwhile neglect to cul-
ivate his mind, especially in regard to the art of speak-
C A T
247
ing; and he employed his talents, which were very great,
in generously pleading causes in the neighbouring cities
without fee or reward. Valerius Flaccus, who had a coun¬
try seat near Cato, conceiving an esteem for him, persuad¬
ed him to go to Rome, where Cato, by his own merits,
and the influence of so powerful a patron, was soon taken
notice of, and promoted. He was first of all elected tri¬
bune of the soldiers for the province of Sicily; and he
was next made questor in Africa under Scipio. Having
in this last office reproved the general for his profuseness
to his soldiers, the latter answered that he did not want
so exact a questor, but would make war at what expense
he pleased; nor was he to give an account to the Roman
people of the money he spent, but only of his enterprises,
and the execution of them. Cato, provoked at this an¬
swer, left Sicily, and returned to Rome.
Cato was afterwards made pretor, and fulfilled the du-
ties of that office with the strictest justice. He conquered
Sardinia, governed with admirable moderation, and was
created consul. Being tribune in the war of Syria, he
gave distinguished proofs of his valour against Antiochus
the Great; and on his return stood candidate for the of¬
fice of censor. But the nobles, who not only hated him
as a new man, but dreaded his severity, set up against
him seven powerful competitors. Valerius Flaccus, who
had introduced him into public life, and had been his col¬
league in the consulship, was a ninth candidate, and these
two united their interests. On this occasion Cato, far
from employing soft words to the people, or giving hopes
of gentleness or complaisance in the execution of his of¬
fice, loudly declared from the rostra, with a threatening
look and voice, that the times required firm and vigo¬
rous magistrates, to put a stop to that growing luxury
which menaced the republic with ruin ; censors who would
cut up the evil by the roots, and restore the rigour of
ancient discipline. It is to the honour of the people of
Rome, that, notwithstanding these startling intimations,
they preferred him to all his competitors, who courted
them by promises of a mild and easy administration. The
comitia also appointed his friend Valerius his colleague,
without whom he had declared that he could not hope to
compass the reformations he had in view. Cato’s merit,
upon the whole, was superior to that of any of the great
men who stood against him. He was temperate, brave,
and indefatigable ; frugal of the public money, and wholly
incorruptible. There is scarcely any talent requisite for
public or private life which he had not received from
nature, or acquired by industry. He was a great soldier,
an able statesman, an eloquent orator, a learned historian,
and very skilful in rural affairs. Yet with all these ac¬
complishments he had very great faults. His ambition
being poisoned with envy, disturbed both his own peace
and that of the whole city as long as he lived. Though
he ref used to take bribes, he was unmerciful and uncon¬
scionable in amassing wealth by all means which the law
did not punish as criminal.
No part of the censor’s conduct seemed so cruel to the
nobles and their wives as the taxes he laid upon luxury in
all its branches, including dress, household furniture, wo¬
men’s toilets, chariots, slaves, and equipage. The people,
however, were in general pleased with his regulations; in¬
somuch that they ordered a statue to be erected to his ho¬
nour in the Temple of Flealth, with an inscription which
mentioned nothing of his victories or triumphs, but im¬
ported only, that by his wise ordinances in his censorship
he had reformed the manners of the republic. Plutarch
relates, that before this, upon some of Cato’s friends ex¬
pressing their surprise, that when many persons without
merit or reputation had statues, he had none, he answer¬
ed, “ I had much rather it should be asked why the people
Cato.
248
Cato.
CAT
have not erected a statue to Cato, than why they have.
Cato was the occasion of the third Punic war. Being dis¬
patched to Africa to terminate a difference betvyeen the
Carthaginians and the king of Numidia, he, on his return
to Rome, reported that Carthage had grown excessively
rich and populous, and warmly exhorted the senate to de¬
stroy a city and republic, during the existence of which
Rome could never be safe. Having brought from Africa
some very large figs, he showed them to the conscript fa¬
thers in one of the lappets of his gown. “ The country,’’
says he, “ where this fine fruit grows, is but a three days
voyage from Rome.” We are told that from this time he
never spoke in the senate upon any subject, without con¬
cluding with these words, “ I am also of opinion that
Carthage ought to be destroyed.” He judged, that for a
people debauched by prosperity, nothing was more to be
feared than a rival state, always powerful, and now, from
its misfortunes, grown wise and circumspect. He held it
necessary to remove all dangers that could be apprehend¬
ed from without, when the republic had within so many
distempers threatening her destruction.
Cato died in the year of Rome 604, aged eighty-five.
He wrote several works, as, 1. A Roman History ; 2. Con¬
cerning the Art of War; 3. Of Rhetoric; 4. A Treatise
of Husbandry. Of these the last only is extant.
Cato, Marcus Portius, or Cato of Utica, was great-
grandson of Cato the Censor. It is said that from his in¬
fancy he discovered, by his speech, his countenance, and
even by his childish sports and recreations, an inflexibi¬
lity of mind; for he forced himself to execute whatever
he had undertaken, though the task was ill suited to his
strength. He was rough towards those who flattered him,
and quite untractable when threatened; he was rarely
seen to laugh, or even to smile, and not easily provoked to
anger; but if once incensed he was scarcely to be pacified.
Sylla having conceived a friendship for the father of Ca¬
to, sent often for him and his brother, and talked familiar¬
ly with them. Cato, who was then about fourteen years
of age, seeing the heads of great men brought there, and
observing the sighs of those who were present, asked his
preceptor, why does nobody kill this man ? Because, said
the other, he is more feared than he is hated. The boy
replied, why then did you not give me a sword when you
brought me hither, that I might have stabbed him, and
freed my country from this slavery ?
He learned the principles of the Stoic philosophy, which
so well suited his character, under Antipater of Tyre, and
applied himself diligently to the study of it. Eloquence
he likewise cultivated as a necessary means of defending
the cause of justice, and made considerable proficiency in
that art. To increase his bodily strength, he inured himself
to suffer the extremes of heat and cold ; and used to make
journeys on foot and bare-headed in all seasons. When
he was sick, patience and abstinence were his only reme¬
dies ; he shut himself up, and would see nobody till he
became well. Though remarkably sober in the beginning
of his life, making it a rule to drink but once after supper
and then retire, he insensibly contracted a habit of drink¬
ing more freely, and of sitting at table till morning. His
friends endeavoured to excuse this, by saying that the af¬
fairs of the public engrossed his attention during the day,
and that, being ambitious of knowledge, he passed the
night in the conversation of philosophers. He affected
singularity; and, in things indifferent, sought to act di¬
rectly contrary to the taste and fashions of the age. Mag¬
nanimity and constancy are generally ascribed to him ; and
Seneca would fain make that haughtiness and contempt
for others, which, in Cato, accompanied those virtues, a
subject of praise. Cato, says Seneca, having received a
blow in the face, neither took revenge nor was angry; he
CAT
did not even pardon the affront, but denied that he had
received it. His virtue raised him so high that injury 'w. t
could not reach him. He served as a volunteer under
Callus in the war of Spartacus ; and when military rewards
were offered him by the commander, he refused them, be¬
cause he thought he had no right to them. Some years
afterwards he went a legionary tribune into Macedonia,
under the praetor Rubrius; in which station he appeared, in
dress, and during a march, more like a private soldier than
an officer: but the dignity of his manners, the elevation
of his sentiments, and the superiority of his views, set him
far above those who bore the titles of generals and pro-
consuls. .
Cato laboured to bring about a reconciliation between
Caesar and Pompey ; but seeing it in vain, he took part with
the latter. When Pompey was slain he fled to Utica, and
being pursued by Caesar, advised his friends to be gone,
and throw themselves on Caesar’s clemency. His son, how¬
ever, remained with him ; and also Statilius, a young man,
remarkable for his hatred of Caesar. The evening before
the execution of the purpose he bad formed with regard
to himself, after bathing, he supped with his friends and
the magistrates of the city. They sat late at table, and
the conversation was lively. The discourse falling upon
this maxim of the Sl-oics, that the wise man alone is free,
and that the vicious are slaves, Demetrius, who was a
Peripatetic, undertook to confute it from the maxims of
his school. Cato, in answer, treated the matter very am¬
ply, and with so much earnestness and vehemence of voice,
that he betrayed himself, and confirmed the suspicion of
his friends that he designed to kill himself. When he
had done speaking, a melancholy silence ensued ; and Cato
perceiving it, turned the discourse to the present situation
of affairs, expressing his concern for those who had been
obliged to put to sea, as well as for those who had deter¬
mined to make their escape by land, and had a dry and
sandy desert to pass. After supper, the company being
dismissed, he walked for some time with a few friends,
and gave his orders to the officers of the guard; and go¬
ing into his chamber, he embraced his son and his friends
with more than usual tenderness, which further confirmed
the suspicions of the resolution he had taken. He then laid
himself down on his bed, and took up Plato s Dialogue on
the Immortality of the Soul. Having read for some time,
he looked up, and missing his sword, which his son had
removed while he was at supper, he called a slave, and
asked who had taken it away ; and receiving no pertinent
answer, he resumed his reading. Some time afterwards
he asked again for his sword, and, without showing any
impatience, ordered it to be brought to him ; but having
read out the book, and finding nobody had brought him
his sword, he called for all his servants, fell into a rage,
and struck one of them on the mouth with so much vio¬
lence that he very much hurt his own hand, crying out m
a passionate manner, “ What! do my own son and family
conspire to betray me, and deliver me up naked and un¬
armed to the enemy ?” Immediately his son and friends
rushed into the room, and began to lament, and to be¬
seech him to change his resolution. Cato raising himself,
and looking fiercely at them, “ How long is it, said he,
“ since I have lost my senses, and my son is become mV
keeper ? Brave and generous son, why do you not bine
your father’s hands, that when Caesar comes he may hn
me unable to defend myself? Do you imagine that with¬
out a sword I cannot end my life ? Cannot I destroy m)-
self by holding my breath for some moments, or by stn -
ing my head against the wrall ?” His son answered wit
his tears, and retired. Apollonides and Demetrius remain¬
ed wdth him; and to them he addressed himself in the
following words: {< Is it to watch over me that ye si
CAR
CAR
Cat
ics silent here ? Do you pretend to force a man of rny years
to live ? or can you bring any reason to prove that it is
e- not base and unworthy of Cato to beg his safety of an ene-
^ my ? or why do you not persuade me to unlearn what I
have been taught, that, rejecting all the opinions I have
hitherto defended, I may now, by Caesar’s means, grow
wiser, and be yet more obliged to him than for life alone ?
Not that I have determined any thing concerning myself;
but I would have it in my power to perform what I shall
think fit to resolve upon; and I shall not fail to ask your
counsel when I have occasion to act up to the principles
which your philosophy teaches. Go tell my son that he
should not compel his father to what he cannot persuade
him.” They withdrew, and the sword was brought by a
young slave. Cato drew it, and finding the point to be
sharp, “ Now,” said he, “ I am my own masterand, laying
it down, he took up his book again, which it is reported he
read twice over. After this he slept so soundly that he
was heard to snore by those who were near him. About
midnight he called two of his freedmen, Cleanthes his pl^-
sician, and Butas, whom he chiefly employed in the manage¬
ment of his affairs. The last he sent to the port to see whe¬
ther all the Romans were gone; to the physician he gave
his hand to be dressed, which was swelled by the blow
he had given his slave. This being regarded as an inti¬
mation that he intended to live, gave great joy to his fa¬
mily. Butas soon returned, and brought word that they
were all gone except Crassus, who had staid upon some
business, but w^as just ready to depart. He added that
the wind was high and the sea rough. These words drew
a sigh from Cato. He sent Butas again to the port to
know whether there might not be some one who, in the
hurry of embarkation, had forgotten some necessary pro¬
visions, and had been obliged to put back to Utica. It was
now break of day, and Cato slept yet a little more, till
Butas returned to tell him that all was perfectly quiet.
He then ordered him to shut the door, and flung him¬
self upon his bed, as if he meant to finish his night’s rest;
but immediately he took his sword and stabbed himself a
little below his chest; yet not being able to use his hand so
well, by reason of the swelling, the blow did not kill him. It
threw him into a convulsion, in which he fell from his bed,
and overturned a table near it. The noise gave the alarm,
and his son and the rest of the family entering the room,
found him weltering in his blood, and his bowels half out
of his body. The surgeon, upon examination, found that
his bowels were not 'cut, and was preparing to replace
them and bind up the wound, when Cato, recovering his
senses, thrust the surgeon from him, and tearing out his
bowels, immediately expired, in the forty-eighth year of
a8'p; This was the insanity of political fanaticism.
CATOPTRICS is that part of optics which explains
the properties of reflected light, and particularly that
which is reflected from mirrors. See Optics.
CATOP TROMANCY, Karowr^am/a, a kind of divi¬
nation among the ancients, so called, because consisting
in the application of a mirror. The word is formed from
xurovToov, speculum, a mirror, and [Mayraa, divinatio, divina¬
tion. Pausanias says it was in use among the Achaians,
| v'’“ere those who were sick, and in danger of death, let
town a mirror, or looking-glass fastened by a thread, into
a ountain before the temple of Ceres, then looking in the
g ass, if they saw a ghastly disfigured face, they took it as
a sure sign of death ; on the contrary, if the flesh appear-
o fresh and healthy, it was a token of recovery. Some-
unes glasses were used without water, and the images of
1 rv\STDtUre rePr®sented in them. See Gastromancy.
AIRINE, a village of Scotland, in the centre of Ayr-
A lr.e> P easan^y s‘tuated on the northern bank of the river
- yi, about fourteen miles distant from that town. The
VOL. VI,
population may amount to about 3000, who are chiefly
employed at the cotton-mills of the place.
CATROU, Francis, a famous Jesuit, born at Paris in
1659. He was engaged for twelve years in the 'Journal
de Trevoux, and applied himself at the same time to other
works, which rendered him distinguished among the learn¬
ed. He wrote a general history of the Mogul empire, and
a Roman history, in which he was assisted by Father Rou-
ille, a brother Jesuit. Catrou died in 1737, and this last
history was continued by Rouille, who died in 1740. The
titles of his works are, \ ~Histoire Generale du Mogol, 1705,
4to, with UHistoire du Regne d'Aurengzeb, 1715 ; 2. His¬
toire du Fanatisme dans la Religion Protestante, contenant
VHistoire des Anabaptistes, du Davidisme, et des Trem-
bleurs, Paris, 1733, 3 vols. 12mo; 3. Traduction du Vir-
gile, with notes critical and historical, 1729, 4 vols. 12mo ;
4. Histoire Romaine, 1725-37, 21 vols. 4to; besides his
productions inserted in the Journal de Trevoux.
CATTARO, the southernmost of the circles into which
the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia is divided. It‘is sur¬
rounded, except on the sea frontier, by the Turkish do¬
minions, and comprehends the district distinguished as
the Mouths of the Cattaro. It extends over 585 square
miles, or 366,000 English acres, and contains about 30,000
inhabitants. Although sufficient corn for the consump¬
tion of only five months is raised, the other products, which
furnish a considerable export trade, are both valuable and
abundant. It affords oil, wine, figs, silk, wool, tallow, wax,
honey, and fish. Ihe inhabitants also buy many sheep and
oxen of the people of Montenegro, which they salt and ex¬
port, as they do much cheese, chiefly from the Turks.
Cattaro, a small city, the capital of the district of the
same name, on the shores of the Adriatic. It is strongly
fortified both by sea and land. It is the seat of a Catho¬
lic bishop, and contains, besides the cathedral, a Catholic
collegiate church, a Greek church, a Franciscan monastery,
and three female convents. There are about 600 houses,
and nearly 3000 inhabitants. The harbour is good and se¬
cure, and frequented by many ships. Lone. 18.58. E. Lat.
42. 22. N.
CATTY, a peopleofGermany, very widely diffused, reach¬
ing on the east to the river Sala, on the north to Westpha¬
lia, and occupying, besides Hesse, the Wetterau, and part
of the tract on the Rhine and on the banks of the river
Lohne. The Hercynian forest began and ended in their
country.
CATTIVELLAUNI, anciently a people of Britain, who
occupied the country which is now divided into the coun¬
ties of Hertford, Bedford, and Bucks. The name of this
ancient British people is written in several different ways
by Greek and Roman authors, by whom they are called
Catti, Cassii, Catticulcani, Cattidudani, Catticludani, &c.
CAllOLICA, a city of Siciljq in the intendancy of
Girgenti, situated on the river ITatani, on the side of a
hill on the sea shore, with 7200 inhabitants, who grow and
spin cotton, and obtain and refine sulphur from an exten¬
sive mine in the vicinity.
CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, a Latin poet, born at
Verona in the year of Rome 666. The harmony o£ his
numbers acquired him the esteem and friendship of Cicero,
and other great men of his time. Many of his poems,
however, abound with gross obscenities. He wrote sati¬
rical verses against Caesar, under the name of Marmoro.
Catullus spent his whole life in a state of poverty, and died
in the flower of his age and the height of his reputation.
Joseph Scaliger, Passerat, Muret, and Isaac Vossius, have
written learned notes on this poet.
CATZ, James, a distinguished civilian, politician, and
Dutch poet, was born at Browershaven, in Zealand, in the
year 1577. After having made several voyages, he fixed
2 i
249
Catrou
11
Catz.
250
C A U
C A U
Caucasus, at Middleburg, and acquired by his pleadings such repu¬
tation, that the city of Dort chose him as its pensions y ,
and sometime afterwards Middleburg followed its example.
In 1634 he was nominated pensionary of Holland and \\ .
Friesland, and in 1648 he was elected keeper ot the seal
of the same state, and stadtholder of the bets; but some
time afterwards he resigned these employments, £ order
to enjoy the repose which his advanced age demanded. As
the post of grand pensionary had been fatal to almost a
those who had held it, from the beginning of the republic
till that time, Catz delivered up his charge upon his knees,
before the whole assembly of the states, weeping for joy,
and thanking God for having preserved him from the m-
conveniences which seemed attached to the duties of that
office. But though he was resolved to spend the lest o
his days in retirement, the love of his country induced him
to comply with the desires of the states, who importuned
him to go on an embassy to England, at the delicate con¬
juncture when the republic found itself compromised dur¬
ing the protectorate of Cromwell. On his return, he re¬
tired to his fine country seat at Sorgvhet, where he lived
in tranquillity till the year 1660, in which he died. He
wrote a great number of poems in Dutch, most of which
are on moral subjects, and so greatly esteemed that they
have been often reprinted in all different sizes ; and, next to
the Bible, there is no work so highly valued by the Dutch.
CAUBUL. See Afghanistan.
CAUCASUS, a vast chain of mountains in Western
Asia, commencing to the south of the fortress of Kopil, at
the mouth of the river Kuban, which falls into the Black
Sea, and, after running to the south, traverses Mingre-
lia in an easterly direction to the town of Georgiefsk, and
the source of the river Kuma. Here the ridge, diverg¬
ing towards the south, enters Georgia near the source of
the river Kur, and afterwards taking an easterly course,
runs along the western shores of the Caspian Sea, and
through the Persian provinces of Daghestan and Schirvan ;
and thence penetrating Ghilan, is connected with the
Hindoo Coosh Mountains, a branch of the great Himalaya
chain. The mountains of Causasus are not, however, un¬
derstood to extend beyond the isthmus that lies between
the Black and the Caspian Seas. In this restricted sense,
the length of the chain is calculated at 644 miles, but its
breadth is various; from Mosdok to 1 iflis, however, it is com¬
puted at 184 miles. This region is described by Sir R. Ker
Porter as exhibiting nature in her most sublime aspect ot
rude and terrific grandeur. In many parts it is one con¬
tinued chain of precipices, or of craggy and impassable
mountains, in which the mountain torrent is seen tumbling
in cataracts over rocks, or roaring and foaming in the
dark and unfathomable abysses through which it makes
its way in its progress to the plains. At other times the
dreadful avalanche, descending from the mountains, spreads
death and desolation around. These awful phenomena of
nature are often exhibited in the mountains of Caucasus
on a tremendous scale. Vast masses of snow falling from
the mountains obstruct the torrents, until they gradual¬
ly accumulate, and, bursting through with the most feai-
ful desolation, ravage and destroy all that occurs in their
course. In other parts these mountains stretch out into
level plains. This great ridge is divided into two paral¬
lel chains, the highest summits of which rise to an ele¬
vation, according to a Russian measurement, of 16,000
and 17,000 feet. The Elburz, which is on the western
declivity, is 16,700 feet high; and the Casibeg is 17,388
feet in height. The highest summits of these mountains
are covered with perpetual snow and ice ; the lower parts
are clothed with thick forests. There are two passes
into these mountains, which, from their narrowness, are
called gates; namely, the Caucasian Pass, and the Al¬
banian or Caspian Pass. This great chain of mountains Caucj;
is the dividing ridge between the rivers which run with
an easterly course to the Caspian Sea, and those which
flow west into the Black Sea. The Terek, on the north-
ern declivity, flows into the former ; while the Kuban, on
the southern declivity, flows into the latter; and beyond
these rivers the mountains by degrees decline into the sandy
plains of Southern Russia. On the southern declivity the
Kur and the Rioni flow respectively into the Caspian and
Black Seas ; and beyond these rivers are seen the moun¬
tain chains of Turkish and Persian Armenia, which con¬
nect the Caucasus with the other chains of Western Asia.
The southern declivity of these mountains is highly fer¬
tile, abounding in forests and fountains, orchards, vine¬
yards, corn-fields, and pastures, in rich variety. Grapes,
chestnuts, figs, &c. grow spontaneously in these countries;
as well as gram of every description, rice, cotton, hemp,
&c. But the inhabitants are barbarous and indolent. They
consist of mountain tribes, remarkably ferocious, whose de-
li'dit is in war, and with whom robbery is a hereditary
trade ; and their practice is to descend from their fast¬
nesses, and to sweep every thing away from the neighbour-
jng plains, not only grain and cattle, but men, women, and
children, who are carried into captivity. The names of the
different tribes are the Georgians, Abassians, Lesghians,
Ossetes, Circassians, Taschkents, Khists, Ingooshes, Cha-
rabulaks, Tartars, Armenians, Jews, and in some parts
wandering Arabs. They are mostly barbarous in their
habits, and idolatrous in their religion, worshipping stars,
mountains, rocks, and trees. There are among them Greek
and Armenian Christians, Mahommedans, and Jews. Se¬
veral of the tribes, particularly the Circassians and Geor¬
gians, are accounted the handsomest people in the world;
and the females are much sought after by the eastern
monarchs, to be immured in their harams. The inhabit¬
ants amount to about 900,000, who are partly ruled by
petty sovereigns, and partly by their seniors. The most
famous are the Uesghians, who inhabit the eastern le¬
gions, and, living by plunder, are the terror of the Ar¬
menians, Persians, Turks, and Georgians. Their sole oc¬
cupation is war; and their services can at any time be
purchased by every prince in the neighbourhood for a
supply of provisions and a few silver rubles. Since the
extension of the Russian empire in this quarter, many of
these mountain tribes have been restrained in their pre¬
datory habits. Under the iron rule of that powerful state
thev have been taught to tremble and obey; military
posts have been dispersed over the country, fortresses
have been erected, towns have arisen, and commerce and
agriculture begin slowly to supplant the barbarous pursuits
of war and plunder, in which these mountain tribes have
hitherto been engaged. But the work of civilization in
these wild regions is still slow ; it is difficult to reclaim
the people from their long-settled habits of violence and
disorder ; and it would not be safe for any traveller to pass
alone through the$e countries, where he would be exposed
to robbery and murder.
All the regions on and about the Caucasus^ are com¬
prehended under the name of Caucasian countries, they
are supposed to extend over an area of 116,078 squaie
miles, and to contain 1,673,500 inhabitants. 1 he provin
which are under the dominion of Russia are six in numD ,
namely, ls£, the province of Tiflis, or Georgia, containing^
population of 390,000 ; 2d, Imiretta, 270,000 : 3d, Circas¬
sia, 550,000 (here are Russian military posts, t0 S"
against the attacks of the mountain tribes) : 4f/«, DaS
tan, or the mountain land, on the Caspian Sea, of w
Derbent is the capital, 184,000: 5th, Schirvan, with 6a-
kou, the best harbour on the Caspian, 133,000.
neighbourhood are the fountains ot naphtha to wu
C A U
jsc Parsees perform pilgrimages from India. Beyond the Te¬
rek, on the northern side of the Caucasus, lies, 6M, the
's‘ province of Caucasia, which, previously to 1822, was the go-
^ vernment of Georgiefsk. Of the inhabitants of this pro-
* vince, amounting to 146,500, 21,000 are Russians, and
48,000 colonists. Here are twenty-two fortified places,
among which are Georgiefsk, Kizhar, a commercial city
with a population of 9000, and Alexandrovsk, which form,
along with the Kuban, the Kama, and the Terek, defences
against the inroads of savage tribes. Since 1825 Stavropol
has been the capital of this province. Here is the Scot¬
tish missionary station of Kara, founded in 1803, and en¬
larged by Moravians from Sarepta, with schools and a print¬
ing office. Hitherto the efforts of the missionaries have
not been very successful in disseminating the Christian
faith among the savage tribes. (f.)
CAUDEBEC, a city of the department of the Lower
Seine, in France, at the foot of a hilly district, on the left
bank of the Seine. It contains 460 houses, and 2507 in¬
habitants. Long. 0. 37. E. Lat. 49. 30. N.
CAUFIRISTAN, a mountainous country of Asia, si¬
tuated partly upon the Hindoo Coosh, and partly upon the
Beloor Taugh. Its boundaries are Caubul, Budukshaun,
and Bulkh. This territory consists of vast mountains
covered with snow, inclosing a few narrow but fertile val¬
leys. It is inhabited by a singular people, the Caufirs,
who, in religion, manners, and institutions, have remained
entirely distinct from all their neighbours. Their religion
is entirely Pagan, and they cherish the deadliest antipa¬
thy against the Mahommedan name. To have killed a
Mussulman is the highest glory to which a Caufir can as¬
pire. Their religious observances bear no resemblance
to those established in any part of India. They acknow¬
ledge a supreme deity, whom they call Imra, and in their
ceremonies represent him by a stone called Imrtan, or
the holy stone ; but they observe, “ this stands for him,
but we know not his shape.” They have, besides, nume¬
rous inferior deities, consisting chiefly of deceased Caufirs,
who have distinguished themselves by some eminent qua¬
lities. The best mode of securing an apotheosis, is by giv¬
ing numerous feasts to the village, hospitality and good
cheer being held by this people in the highest veneration.
The Caufirs are at almost continual war with their neigh¬
bours. They sometimes attack openly, but more common¬
ly seek to surprise, their enemy. On succeeding, they
set up a war-cry, sing a song of triumph, and massacre all
without distinction. Numerous privileges are attached to
the having killed a Mussulman. He who has performed
this exploit may wear a turban stuck with feathers, may
flourish his axe over his head in the dance, and may set
up a pole before his door, with a pin stuck in it for every
slaughtered enemy. Their arms are bows, four and a half
feet long, with light arrows, sometimes poisoned. When
pursued, they unbend their bows, and use them as poles,
by the aid of which they leap from rock to rock with as¬
tonishing agility. About thirty years ago all their neigh¬
bours united in a general confederacy for the extirpation
of the Caufirs. They penetrated the country in every di¬
rection, but found themselves unable to maintain their
ground, and were soon obliged to retire with considerable
loss.
The Caufirs are hospitable in the extreme. A stranger
arriving at one of their villages is not only welcomed, but
is expected to visit each of the principal men, where he
is regaled with every dainty which the house can afford.
Their wealth consists of cattle and slaves ; the latter are
always their own countrymen, as they never spare the life
of a Mussulman. The government is chiefly conducted
by consultations among the rich men. Their dress con¬
sists principally of goats’ skins, with the hair turned out-
C A U 251
wards, two of which form a vest, and other two a kind of Cauking
petticoat. They are less addicted to hunting than the II
Afghans. The favourite amusement is dancing, of which Cause,
they never tire. They cannot accommodate themselves to'^^v^^'
the Asiatic practice of seating themselves cross-legged on
the ground, but sit in the European manner on benches
and stools. They also use tables, and drink wine copious¬
ly, though not to intoxication, out of silver cups. These
European habits have given rise to the hypothesis of their
being a Greek colony, left during the expedition of Alex¬
ander ; and the probability of this conjecture is greatly in¬
creased by the circumstance that their language is closely
allied to Sanscrit, which answers to Greek as face answers
to face in a glass. The two chief towns, or rather villages,
of the Caufirs, are Caumdaish and Tsokooee. The former
contains five hundred houses.
CAUKING, or Caulking of a Ship, is driving a quan¬
tity of oakum, or old ropes untwisted and drawn asunder,
into the seams of the planks, or into the intervals where
the planks are joined together in the ship’s decks or sides,
in order to prevent the entrance of water or leakage. After
the oakum is driven very hard into these seams, it is.cover¬
ed with hot melted pitch or rosin, to keep the water from
rotting it. Among the ancients, the first who made use
of pitch in caulking were the inhabitants of Phaeacia, after¬
wards called Corsica. Wax and rosin appear to have been
commonly used previously to that period; and the Poles
at one time used a sort of unctuous clay for the same pur¬
pose on their navigable rivers.
CAULABAGIi, a town of Afghanistan, in the province
of Caubul. It is a singularly built place, the houses being
situated on terraces cut out of the declivity of the hill.
Here it is that the country of the real Afghans commences;
and that country as far as Peshavver is inhabited by a va¬
riety of tribes. In the vicinity of the town are large rocks,
which yield an inexhaustible store of the pure rock salt;
and there is, besides, a considerable manufacture of alum ;
in both of which articles an extensive trade is carried on
with the neighbouring provinces, and proves highly bene¬
ficial to the inhabitants. The river Indus here flows in one
channel, and is about 400 yards wide, but deep and rapid.
The proper name of the town is Khara Bagh, or Garden
of Salt. Long. 70. 46. E. Lat. 32. 11. N.
CAULIFLOWERS, in Gardening, a much esteemed
species of cabbage. See Horticulture.
CAUNE, La, a town of the department of Tarn, in
France, on the Sigon, with 340 houses, and 2830 inhabit¬
ants, chiefly Protestants, who are employed in the manu¬
facture of wmollen fabrics.
C AURSINES, or Caursini, were Italians who came into
England about the year 1235, terming themselves the
pope’s merchants, but driving no other trade than that of
lending money ; and, having great banks in England, they
differed little from Jews, save that they were rather more
merciless to their debtors. Some think that they were
called Coursines, quasi Causa Ursini, bearish, or cruel in
their causes ; and others Caorsini or Corsini, as coming
from the isle of Corsica; but Cowel affirms that they de¬
rived their name from Caorsium, Caorsi, a town in Lom¬
bardy, where they first practised their arts of usury and
extortion, and whence they carried their unpopular trade
through most parts of Europe, and were regarded as a
common plague to every nation which they visited. The
then bishop of London excommunicated them; and King
Henry III. banished them from the kingdom in the year
1240. But, being the pope’s solicitors and money changers,
they were permitted to return in the year 1250; though
in a very short time they were again driven out of the king¬
dom on account of their usurious exactions.
CAUSE, that from which any thing proceeds, or by vir-
252
C A U
Cause tue of which any thing is done, or an antecedent relatively
11 to an invariable consequent. It stands opposed to effect.
Cauteriza-gee Metaphysics.
turn. CAUSEWAY, or Causey, a massive construction ot
stones, stakes, and fascines, or an elevation.of fat viscous
earth, well beaten, serving either as a road in wet marshy
places, or as a mole to retain the waters of a pond, or pre-
ventariverfrom overflowing the lower grounds. See Road.
The word is derived from the French chaussee, anciently
written chaulsee ; and that, again, from the Latin calceata,
or calcata, which, according to Somner and Spelman, comes
a calcando. Bergier rather takes the word to have had its
rise a peditum calceis, quibus teruntur. Some derive it trom
the Latin calx, or French chaux, supposing it to have pri¬
marily denoted a way paved with chalk stones.
Causeway, calcetum or calcea, commonly denotes a com¬
mon hard raised way, maintained and repaired with stones
and rubbish. .
Devil's Causeway, a famous work of this kind, which
ranges through the county of Northumberland, commonly
supposed to be of Roman origin, though Mr Horsley sus¬
pects it to be a work of later times.
Giant's Causeway is a denomination given to a huge
pile of basaltic columns in the district of Coleraine in Ire¬
land. See Giant’s Causeway.
CAUSSADE, a city of the department of the Tarn and
•the Garonne, in France, on the river Comte, containing
443 houses, and 5121 inhabitants, by whom much linen and
woollen cloth is manufactured.
CAUSSIN, Nicholas, surnamed the Just, a French Je¬
suit, was born at Troyes in Champagne, in the year 1580,
and entered into the order of Jesuits when he was tv/enty-
six years of age. He taught rhetoric in several of their col¬
leges, and afterwards began predication, by which he gain¬
ed great reputation. He increased this reputation by pub-
lishing books ; and in time was preferred to the office of
confessor to the king. But he did not discharge this office
to the satisfaction of Cardinal Richelieu, though he did so
to that of every honest man ; and therefore it is not to^be
wondered at that he was at length removed from it. He
died in the Jesuits’ convent at Paris in 1651. None of
his works is held in so great estimation as that entitled
La Cour Sainte, in 5 vols. 12mo. It has been printed a
great many times, and translated into Latin, Italian, Spa¬
nish, Portuguese, German, and English. The popularity
of this work, on its first appearance, was immediate and
unbounded; which led some one, at the time, to remark,
“ que le P. Caussin avec mieux fait ses affaires a la cour
sainte qu’a la cour de France.” He published several
other books both in Latin and French ; particularly, 1. De
Eloquentia Sacra et Humana ; 2. La Vie Neutre des Filles
devotes qui font etat de n'etre ni mariees ni religieuses, Paris,
1644, 12mo ; 3. Reponse d la Theologie des Jesuites; 4.
Symbolica HSgyptiorum sapientia, Paris, 1618 and 1634,
4to and 8vo.
CAUSTICITY, a quality belonging to several sub¬
stances, by means of which the parts of living animals
may be corroded and destroyed.
CAUSTICS is an appellation given to substances of so
hot and fiery a nature, that, being applied, they consume,
and as it were burn, the texture of the parts, like hot iron.
Caustics are generally divided into four sorts ; the common
stronger caustic, the common milder caustic, the antimo-
nial caustic, and the lunar caustic or nitrate of silver.
Caustic Curve, in the higher geometry, a curve formed
by the concourse or coincidence of the rays of light re¬
flected from some other curve.
CAUTERIZATION, the act of burning or searing some
morbid part, by the application of fire either actual or po¬
tential.
C A V
CAUTERY, in Surgery, a medicine for burning, eat- Caut-
ing, or corroding any solid part of the body. |
CAUTIONER, in Scotch Law, that person who becomes Gv?
bound for another to the performance of any deed or ob-
ligation.
CAVAILLON, a city of the department of Vaucluse, in
France, on the river Durance, in a place which has been
called the Garden of France. The streets are narrow, and
the houses ancient; but much industry prevails, especially
in the various branches of the silk trade, in gardening, pa¬
per-making, and cotton-spinning. It contains 1500 houses,
and 7440 inhabitants. Near it are some remarkable Ro¬
man antiquities. Long. 4. 40. E. Lat. 44. 9. N.
CAVALCADE, a formal pompous march or procession
of horsemen and equipages, by way of parade or ceremony,
to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like.
CAVALER-Maggiore, a town of Italy, in the province
of Saluzzo, and kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the
river Grana, and contains 4950 inhabitants.
CAVALIER, a horseman, or person mounted on horse¬
back ; especially if he be armed withal, and have a mili¬
tary appearance. Anciently the word was restricted to a
knight or miles. The French still use chevalier in the same
sense.
CAVALIERE, Cape, a lofty promontory of Asia Mi¬
nor, on the coast of Caramania. It rises to the height of
600 or 700 feet above the level of the sea, and consists of
white marble cliffs. An isthmus about 400 yards across,
and fortified at every accessible point, connects this cape
with the main land.
CAVALIERI, Bonaventure, an eminent mathemati¬
cian of the seventeenth century, a native of Milan, and a
friar of the order of the Jesuati of St Jerome, was pro¬
fessor of the mathematics at Bologna, where he published
several mathematical books, particularly daz Method of In¬
divisibles. He was a scholar of Galileo. His Directorium
generale Uranornetricum contains a great variety of useful
practices in trigonometry and astronomy. His trigonome¬
trical tables in that work are excellent.
CAVALLO, Tiberius, an electrician and natural phi¬
losopher, born at Naples on the 30th March 1749, and son
of a physician established in that city.
His father died when he was only eleven years old, but
he received a liberal education through the kindness of
his friends, and completed his studies at the university of
Naples. He was originally destined for commerce, and
came to England in 1771, in order to obtain more com¬
plete information respecting the various objects of mer¬
cantile pursuit. But he soon abandoned his intention of
adopting that mode of life, and determined to devote his
time almost exclusively to the cultivation of science, and to
the literary employments connected with it. The splendid
improvements which had been lately made in electricity
easily directed his earliest attention to that amusing de¬
partment of natural philosophy ; but his studies were by
no means confined to that subject, and the extent of his
diversified researches may be understood from an enume¬
ration of his principal publications.
1. Extraordinary Electricity of the Atmosphere in Octo¬
ber 1775. Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 407. This observation
was made at Islington, where the author then resided;
and he seems to have been in some danger of becoming,
like another Richmann, a martyr to his zeal in pursuit of
his favourite science ; for he says that he felt a number ot
severe shocks wdiile he was holding the wire of his kite.
2. An account of some new Electrical Experiments. Phn.
Trans. 1777, p. 48. He here describes two atmospherical
electrometers, and an exhausted tube containing some
quicksilver*, for illustrating the nature of electrical excita¬
tion. A paper of Mr Henly, in the same volume, contains
C A V
>. also some communications from Mr Cavallo, and in parti-
,:J cular a remark on the opposite electricities which he de¬
tected in the bow and strings of his violin.
3. New Electrical Experiments. Phil. Trans. 1777,
p. 388. Relating to changes of the colours of pigments,
with a description of a pocket electrometer.
4. A complete Treatise on Electricity, 8vo. London, 1777.
German by Gehler, 8vo. Leipz. 1785. French by Silves-
tre, 8vo, Paris, 1785. Ed. 4, 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1795.
This essay contains a clear and familiar account of the
principal facts respecting electricity, which had been dis¬
covered at the time of its publication, as well as of the
best apparatus and of the most interesting experiments.
The first part relates to the general laws of the science ;
the second to the hypothetical theories by which differ¬
ent authors have attempted to explain them, but without
any mention of the calculations of Alpinus and Cavendish ;
the third part gives an account of the practical arrange¬
ment of electrical apparatus, and the fourth of some ori¬
ginal experiments and instruments; the fifth part in the
later editions is a republication of the author’s Essay on
Medical Electricity. To the fourth edition a third volume
is added, containing an account of the recent discoveries
respecting animal electricity; of the author’s multiplier
for detecting the presence of small quantities of electri¬
city, by the repeated operation of two condensers con¬
nected together; and of some original and very important
experiments relating principally to the effect of the con¬
tact of different metals with each other, and exhibiting an
imperfect outline of those properties, which have since
furnished Volta and Davy with their ingenious explana¬
tions of the phenomena of the electrochemical battery.
Mr Cavallo has inadvertently attributed to Nollet the
honour of having first entertained the opinion of the electri¬
cal nature of thunder and lightning; and the German trans¬
lator has thought it necessary to vindicate the scientific
character of his own country, by laying claim to this con¬
jecture on behalf of Winkler; but Mr Silvestre has re¬
marked, with a laudable impartiality, that both Germany
and France must on this occasion give way to England,
since the first suggestion of the identity is found in a
paper of Stephen Gray, published in the Philosophical
Transactions about 1735.
5. An account of some new Experiments in Electricity.
j Thil. Trans. 1780, p. 15. Consisting of remarks on Pro¬
fessor Lichenberg’s discovery of the peculiarity of the
figures exhibited by strewing powders on the cake of the
electrophorus; with an account of two improved electro¬
meters.
6. Thermometrical Experiments and Observations. Phil.
Trans. 1780, p. 585. This w7as a Bakerian lecture, deli¬
vered by appointment of the president and council of the
Royal Society, an appointment which entitles the lecturer
to a small fee, left by the will of Mr Henry Baker, but
which is commonly considered as rather complimentary
than lucrative. These experiments relate to the effect
produced by colouring the bulb of a thermometer exposed
to the sun’s rays, and to the intensity of heat at different
distances from its source. The most refrangible colours
appeared to absorb the most heat; and it was observed
that even the day-light, without sunshine, occasioned a
perceptible difference in the indications of the different
thermometers.
7. An Essay on Medical Electricity, 8vo, London, 1780.
it is seldom that persons not medical have been sufficient-
y lncredulous in their opinions respecting the operations
o remedies; and the whole of the expectation held out
in this work has certainly not been fulfilled by later expe-
nence; but, as a candid and distinct relation of cases, it
may still have its value.
C A v 253
8. Account of a Luminous Appearance. Phil. Trans. Cavallo.
1781, p. 329. One of the permanent arches since found s—-y-w
to be connected with the aurora borealis. It was so bright
that the stars could not be seen through it, and lasted
about an hour.
9. Thermometrical Experiments. Phil. Trans. 1781, p.
509. A Bakerian lecture, relating to the evaporation of
ether, to the expansion of mercury, and to a thermome¬
trical barometer; that is, a very delicate thermometer for
ascertaining the temperature of boiling water at different
heights above the level of the sea, according to the idea
then suggested by Sir George Shuckburgh, and very late¬
ly resumed by other natural philosophers. Mr Cavallo
observes that the instrument has the advantage of being
very portable; but that unless the quantity of water be
considerable, its boiling temperature will be somewhat
unsteady.
10. A Treatise on the Air, and other Permanently Elas¬
tic Fluids, 4to, Lond. 1781. This elaborate work com¬
mences with the principles of chemistry and of hydrosta¬
tics, and proceeds to relate all the known properties of
the different kinds of elastic fluids, many of which had
been very lately discovered. These are followed by an ac¬
count of some original experiments, for example, on the
gas produced by the deflagration of gunpowder, which is
found to be chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid, without
any nitric oxide ; on the explosion of hydrogen mixed with
atmospheric air, and on the evolution of gas from plants,
respecting which the author finds some reason to differ
from the opinions of Dr Ingenhurz. Considering that Mr
Cavendish had not then discovered the composition of the
nitric acid, it must be allowed that the experiments on
gunpowder may justly be deemed an important step in
the progress of chemical science.
11. Description of an Improved Air-Pump. Phil. Trans.
1783, p. 435. The improvement was made by Haas and
Hurter, and consisted in a mode of opening the valve of
oiled silk mechanically, when the elasticity of the air be¬
came too weak to raise it. The rarefaction obtained went
to about the thousandth of an atmosphere. In this state
the air transmitted electricity, with a light equably dif¬
fused ; and the balls of the electrometer exhibited no di¬
vergence. Some later improvements are said to have car¬
ried the rarefaction to ^oo.
12. Description of a Meteor. Phil. Trans. 1784, p. 108.
This observation was made at Windsor, and is highly va¬
luable, from the circumstance of a noise like thunder hav¬
ing been heard, about ten minutes after the explosion of
the meteor was seen ; hence the author concludes that its
direct distance was 130 miles, and its height 56A.
13. The History and Practice of Aerostation, 8vo, Lond.
A work of temporary rather than of permanent interest;
but which it was the more natural for Mr Cavallo to un¬
dertake, as he was one of the first who had made experi¬
ments on the means of employing hydrogen for raising-
bodies into the air by its levity.
14. Mineralogical Tables, f. Explanation, 8vo, Lond.
1785 ; containing a compai’ison of the different systems of
mineralogical arrangement then most generally adopted,
but at present almost wholly superseded by later methods.
15. 16. Magnetical Experiments and Observations. Phil.
Trans. 1786, p. 62; 1787, p. 6. Two Bakerian lectures.
The former relates chiefly to the magnetism of brass, and
of some other metals, generally rendered discoverable by
hammering them. In the latter the same subject is con¬
tinued ; and it is shown that the same powers may be de¬
tected in the metals in question without hammering them,
if they are placed on a very clean and wide surface of
quicksilver. The limit at which red hot iron begins to be
attracted by a magnet is found to be the heat at which it
254
C A V
Cavallo. ceases to be visible in the day-ligbt. A considerable change
' is observed in the magnetic powers of iron during its so¬
lution in acids; and the author endeavours to apply these
experiments to the explanation of the variation of terres¬
trial magnetism, as derived from the effects of heat, and
from internal changes in the constitution of the eaith.
Mr Bennet has endeavoured to explain the phenomena
observed bv Mr Cavallo, from the accidental operation of
foreign causes; but he has not been perfectly successful
in the attempt. . m j r>
17. A Treatise on Magnetism in Theory and practice,
8vo, Lond. 1787, ed. 3, 1800. The arrangement resembles
that of the Treatise on Electricity. Under the head of
Theory the name of Alpinus is mentioned with due re¬
spect. The original experiments are chiefly reprinted
from the Philosophical Transactions. There is also a de¬
scription of an improved mode of suspension for a magne¬
tic needle ; and there are several letters from Dr Lorimer
on the terrestrial variation.
18. Of the Methods of manifesting the presence of small
quantities of Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 1. In this
Bakerian lecture, Mr Cavallo proposes an improvement on
Volta’s condenser, and makes some remarks on Mr Ben-
net’s doubler, which he thinks objectionable on account of
the impossibility to deprive the plate of a small quantity
of electricity adhering to it. His own instrument has the
advantage of avoiding the friction to w hich the condensers
and doublers in their original form were liable.
19. Of the Temperament of Musical Intervals. Phil.
Trans. 1788, p. 238. The author’s particular object is to
calculate the exact scale for the division of a monochord,
according to the system of a perfectly equal tempera¬
ment ; but he very candidly remarks, that, “ for playing
solos,” the usual temperament is the best, “ giving the
greatest effect to those concords which occur most fre¬
quently and he says, that when a harpsichord was tuned
according to the scale laid down on this monochord, the
harmony was perfectly equal throughout, and the effect
“ the same as if one played in the key of E natural on a
harpsichord tuned in the usual manner.”
20. Description of a new electrical Instrument, capable
of collecting together a diffused quantity of Electricity.
Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 255.' This collector consists of a
fixed plate of tin, situated between two movable ones;
it is said to be more certain in its operation than the con¬
denser, the results of which are liable to considerable ir¬
regularities from various accidents, and to be more free
from the inconvenience of permanent electricity than the
doubler.
21. Description of a Micrometer. Phil. Trans. 1791, p.
283. Description and use of the Mother of Pearl Micro¬
meter, 8vo, Lond. 1793. A thin slip of mother of pearl
with a fine scale engraved on it, placed in the focus of the
eye-piece of a telescope. Its principal use is for ascertain¬
ing the distance of an object of known dimensions by its
apparent magnitude thus measured ; for instance, to enable
one to judge of the distance of a body of troops in military
operations. The mother of pearl is found to be more con¬
venient than glass for receiving the divisions, and to be
sufficiently transparent for transmitting the images of the
respective objects.
22. On the Multiplier of Electricity. Nicholson’s Jour¬
nal, i. p. 391, 1797. In this letter Mr Cavallo attempts
to show the advantage of his instrument over doublers of
all kinds. Mr Nicholson, in a very respectful answer, ex¬
presses his doubts whether the objections to the doubler
do not arise from its extreme sensibility only, as demon¬
strating the existence of an electricity too weak to affect
the other instruments compared with it. Mr Cavallo had
however remarked, that the inconvenience partly arose
C A V
from the greater intensity of the charge committed to the Cavr
plate of the doubler during the operation, which required
a longer time for the restoration of the natural equilibrium.
23. An Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious
Airs, with an Appendix on the Nature of the Blood. 8vo,
London, 1798. The modern improvements in pneumatic
chemistry have been still less productive of advantage to
practical medicine than the discovery of the powers of
electricity, and this work can scarcely be considered as
having conferred any material benefit on the public. The
observations on the blood are chiefly the result of a mi¬
nute and careful microscopical examination of its parti¬
cles, but the author was not particularly happy in the light
which he employed for viewing them.
24. Elements of Natural or Experimental Philosophy,
4 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1803. This work, the last and most
valuable of the author’s publications, will long serve as a
useful manual of the most important parts of the mecha¬
nical and physical sciences. The first volume is devoted
to mathematical and practical mechanics, beginning with
matter and motion, and proceeding to simple machines.
The second relates, first, to fluids, to the principles of
hydrostatics, cohesion, hydraulics, pneumatics, sound, and
music; and, secondly, to the most important parts of che¬
mistry. In the third volume we find the doctrine of heat,
optics, electricity, and magnetism ; and the fourth, besides
astronomy and the use of the globes, contains a compen¬
dium of the history of aerostation ; an account of meteors,
including the recent discoveries respecting aeroliths; and
a collection of useful tables.
25. Mr Cavallo was also an occasional contributor to
several periodical publications, and his critical articles
were not in every instance anonymous. He was made a
member of the Royal Academy of Naples in 1779, and a
fellow of the Royal Society of London in the month of
December of the same year.
It is impossible to hesitate in attributing to Mr Cavallo
the possession of very considerable powers of mind; but
these powers seem to have been of a different nature from
those which have distinguished some other individuals,
remarkable for the faculty of acute reasoning and bril¬
liant invention, and apparently born to succeed in the
highest flights of genius. Mr Cavallo’s talents appear to
have had more of the imitative character, and to have
been rather calculated for the attainment of excellence
in the fine arts than in science; but his memory was un¬
commonly retentive, and his industry seems to have been
indefatigable. He used to relate, that when he was first
compelled to study Euclid, he felt himself utterly incapa¬
ble of comprehending the train of argumentation, and he
was obliged to get the whole work by heart, both propo¬
sitions and demonstrations, in order to impress the conclu¬
sions strongly on his mind. This expedient answered his
purpose very well, as long as the impression lasted; but
after some years he had forgotten his task, and he was
obliged to go through the whole again in the same man¬
ner, still finding it easier to commit the eight entire books,
with all the unmeaning letters of reference, to the care o
his ever-faithful memory, than to acquire the spirit of the
mode of reasoning, and to anticipate the steps of the de¬
monstration ; although, after having performed this se¬
cond labour, he felt himself sufficiently master of the sub¬
ject. It may be observed that he possessed considerab e
skill in music; and music was called by the ancients an
imitative art, a description which may indeed be some¬
what objectionable with regard to the province of the ori¬
ginal composer, who creates something altogether unlike
what had ever before existed, but which may not improper¬
ly be applied to the occupation of a performer; indeed 1 r
Cavallo, even when his hearing was impaired, still retain-
C A V
C A V
255
ed a very correct taste in the execution of vocal music.
L; j{e possessed also his country’s aptitude for the painter’s
art; and he was particularly happy in cutting out striking
likenesses of his acquaintances in paper. The principal
object of his life was to collect and arrange the labours of
others; and he was so much in the habit of collecting,
that he had for many years made it his amusement to col¬
lect specimens of the handwriting of eminent persons,
which he had extended to an immense number of indivi¬
duals of different ages and countries. But he was by no
means incapable of copying from the great book of nature ;
and he made, in the course of his various researches, a
number of original experiments, well calculated to illus-
strate particular questions relating to the sciences which
he cultivated. In the latter part of his life he had dis¬
continued his attendance at the meetings of the Royal
Society, as well as his contributions to the Transactions ;
but he was in the habit of frequenting some other literary
conversations, at which he constantly met some of his
oldest and kindest friends. A short time before his last
illness, he was engaged in some experiments on Mr De-
luc’s perpetual pile of paper, and on the electricity of dif¬
ferent specimens of crystals; but he does not appear to
have obtained any new results from these investigations.
He died at his residence in Wells Street, on the 26th of
December 1809, and was buried in St Pancras church¬
yard, near the tomb of General Paoli, with whom he had
long been on terms of the greatest intimacy. (Literary Me¬
moirs of Living Authors ; Dance’s Collection of Portraits;
Gentlemans Magazine, 1809 ; Supplement to the Monthly
Magazine, 1810, p. 86 ; Aikin’s General Biography, vol. x.;
Chalmers’ Biographical Dictionary, vol. vii.) (l. l.)
CAVALRY, a body of soldiers who act on horseback.
See Army.
CAVAN, the most southern county of the province of
Ulster, in Irelend, is bounded by the counties of Leitrim,
Fermanagh, Monaghan, Louth, Meath, Westmeath, and
Longford. Its form is nearly circular, with the exception
of the barony of Tullaghagh, which projects in a north¬
western direction between the two first named of the sur¬
rounding counties. It lies nearly in the centre of Ireland,
midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea,
its extremities being less than eighteen miles from either
I of these waters. According to the latest and most accu-
! rate calculation, its contents are estimated at 473,450
acres, or 740 square miles.
The most ancient geographers speak of it as being inha¬
bited by the tribe of the Erdini. At the period of the arri¬
val of the English, and for some centuries afterwards, it was
known by the name of the Brennie, Brennie O’Reylie, or
O’Reylie’s country. Under a commission issued by James
I. for the subdivision of the county, it was portioned out
into seven baronies, two of which were assigned to Sir
John O'Reylie, three to his brother, uncle, and the repre¬
sentatives of another of the family, while the two remain¬
ing baronies, possessed by the septs of M‘Rernon and
M‘Gaurol, being remote, and bordering on O’Rorke’s coun¬
try, now the county of Leitrim, were allowed to continue
subject to the exactions of the Irish lords, the crown re¬
serving two hundred beeves upon the whole county for
the lord-deputy’s provision. There was also an ancient
subdivision of the county into small portions called polls,
each containing twenty-four acres. It is now divided into
the baronies of Castleraghan, Clonkee, Clonmaghon, Up¬
per and Lower Loughtee, Tullaghgarvey, Tullaghagh, and
lullaghonoho. At present the county rates are levied
according to a peculiar measurement. A certain number
of town lands are united under the name of a carvagh, of
which each barony contains a thousand, making eight
thousand carvaghs for the whole county. Hence, if these
were all of an equal size, which is not the case, as they Cavan,
vary with the superficial contents of their respective ba-
ronies, each would contain something less than sixty
acres.
The county, according to its civil arrangements, under
which the local taxes are levied, contains twenty-nine pa¬
rishes, besides four parts of parishes, the remaining parts
of which are in the adjoining counties, three in Meath,
and one in Fermanagh ; but, according to its ecclesiastical
arrangement, into thirty-three, of which twenty-nine are
in the diocese of Kilmore, three in that of Ardagh, and
one in that of Meath. The bishopric of Kilmore extends
over the whole of the county. The seat of the see is at
Kilmore, a small town nearly in the centre of Cavan. Ac¬
cording to the latest return made to parliament, the see
lands amounted to 47,361 acres, but no statement was
then sent in as to the pecuniary value of the see.
The population was estimated by Beaufort in 1792 at
81,570 souls ; in 1813, according to the imperfect census
then taken, it was supposed to be 164,000 ; in 1821, by
the census of that year, it amounted to 195,076 ; and, ac¬
cording to the late but imperfect census of 1831, it was
228,050, giving an increase, in forty years, of 146,480
souls, or nearly double of its amount at the earliest of these
dates.
The county sends two representatives to the imperial
parliament. Before the union it sent six, two for the coun¬
ty, and two each for the towns of Cavan and Belturbet.
The surface of the country is very uneven, consisting
altogether of hills and valleys, without any level ground.
The hills rise to a considerable elevation in the interior.
The highest land in the county is the mountain of Slieve
Russel, in the barony of Tullaghagh, on the confines of
Fermanagh. In the same barony is Quilca Mountain,
which is held in great veneration by the inhabitants, who
relate many traditionary fables connected with the ancient
superstitions of the country. It was also the place for in¬
stalling the M‘Guires, the chieftains of Fermanagh.
The valleys are, in many parts, the receptacles of lakes,
which, though not of very extended dimensions, are ob¬
jects of much interest, from the picturesque beauties of
their scenery. Lough Ramor, one of the largest, is in the
southern extremity of the county, near Virginia. It con¬
tains several islands, once well wooded, but now mostly
bare. Lough Gawnagh, in the south-west, may be con¬
sidered rather as a boundary between Cavan and Ferma¬
nagh, than as exclusively belonging to either county. The
same observation applies to Lough Shillin. Lough Ough-
ter lies between the towns of Cavan and Killeshandra.
Though not of very imposing dimensions, the irregularity
of its form, the large and beautiful islands imbedded in its
waters, and the many deep recesses studded with over¬
hanging woods that wind among its high banks, produce
a rich variety of prospect. The interest excited by its
natural beauties is augmented by a circumstance of his¬
torical notoriety. Bishop Bedel, when taken prisoner du¬
ring the civil wars of 1641, was confined in Cloghoughter,
one of its islands. The castle, which was used as the pri¬
son of this venerable prelate, is still pointed out to stran¬
gers. Bedel’s remains were deposited in Kihnore church.
The most remarkable of the smaller lakes, which are to be
met with in most parts of the county, is Lough Swillan,
in the neighbourhood of Shercock, it being considered
by many as the principal source of the river Erne. Ac¬
cording to others, this river, the largest in the county, de¬
rives its origin from the Lake of Scrabo, one of the minor
sheets of water that form Lough Gawnagh. The river
itself takes a northerly direction by Killeshandra and Bel¬
turbet, being enlarged during its course by the Croghan,
Ballyhayes, Annalee, and other streams. It enters Lough
256
C A V
C A V
Cavan. Erne at its most southern extremity, passes through it, temperature during the severest winters. The water at cj
and discharges itself into the Atlantic at Ballyshannon, in the surface is clear; but within a foot downwards it be- '—■
the county of Donegal. Woodside River, which skirts the comes clogged with mud, which thickens as the lake de¬
county on the side of Fermanagh, falls into Lough Erne scends, to a depth hitherto unascertained. The mud is
at the same place. The Shannon is said by some topo- drawn up for medical purposes from a depth of thirty feet,
oraphers to take its rise in Quilca Mountain, under the by means of a pole with a hay-rope twisted round it, to
name of the Owenmore, which it changes for its more ce- which it adheres, exhibiting, when exposed to the atmo-
lebrated appellation on its junction with the Doubally, at sphere, a greasy shining surface like tar. _ The water is
the point where it enters the county of Leitrim, a few miles slightly chalybeate. The best season for its use is from
before it discharges its united streams into Lough Allen. June to August. It is said to have been effectual in the
The climate of this county is chilly, and the weather cure of leprosy. Other mineral springs of inferior note
often boisterous, particularly in the mountainous districts, are those of Derrylester, containing sulphur and natron;
The soil is a stiff wet clay, cold and spongy, producing a Owen Bruen, containing sulphur and calcareous nitre; and
coarse rushy pasturage, beneath which is usually a thick Carrickmore, containing calcareous nitre, alkali, and some
stratum of brown clay, resting upon a heavy yellow argil- sulphur. The water of the last named is extremely cold,
laceous substratum. The soil is much improved by drain- The general character of the people is highly favour¬
ing, for which its undulating surface affords great facili- able. They are much inclined to acts of kindliness towards
ties, and by gravelling or liming. Limestone is scarce each other; their hospitality to strangers is proverbial,
in some districts, yet much sought after; so that it is at and they testify the most laudable anxiety for the educa-
times drawn from distances of ten or twelve miles. In tion of their children. Crimes of atrocity are uncommon,
other parts, particularly throughout the baronies of Castle- According to a parliamentary return in 1830, the total
raghan, Clonkee, and Clonmoghan, marl, which is met number of individuals committed for offences during that
with very generally, is preferred to lime, as the latter year was 171, of whom only 61 were convicted; of these
forms hard lumps when mixed with the clay soil, while thirty were for illicit distillation, seventeen for larceny,
the former renders the soil loose and friable. A very fine and the rest for assaults, cattle-stealing, and vagrancy,
kind of manure, formed of decayed limestone, is found in Domestic manufactures are generally combined with agri-
the mountainous parts of Tullaghagh. In the banks of ri- cultural occupations. The culture of flax and the fabric
vers it is in great plenty; and "about a mile from Swad- of linens of coarser qualities formerly employed much of
lingbar there is a large pile of it, which, when used judi- the time not required for the external labours of the farm;
ciously, produces most luxuriant crops. but this source of profitable employment has gradually de-
Bog of the best quality, the red ashes of which form an dined with the general depression of the linen manufac-
excellent manure, is abundant. The upper part next the ture in Ireland. The farms are small, from thirty to seven
surface is dense and close, and makes the best fuel; that acres, the smallest being the more numerous, in the pro-
immediately under is friable, and therefore less valued as portion of ten to one. In the mountainous parts, where
fuel. The bottom is solid and serviceable. In the moor- the land is chiefly under grazing, the farms are more ex-
ish bogs, in which argillaceous strata are met with through- tensive. Wheat and barley are but little cultivated. The
out the peat, marl abounds, and is very easily raised. hilly grounds are chiefly under oats, of which the more
A rich iron ore was raised from Quilca Mountain, and elevated parts produce a very hardy species, quite black,
long wrought with considerable profit. The ore was smelt- They are sown after one or two crops of potatoes; and
ed at Swadlingbar, where mills were erected for the pur- these two vegetables form the principal part of the food
pose ; but the works were ultimately relinquished, in con- of the peasantry. In the mountainous parts the plough is
quence of the failure of timber for fuel. At Ortnacullagh, never used, in consequence of the rocky nature of the
near Ballyconnel, fragments of lead and silver ore are car- ground. The loy, a kind of spade long in the blade, with
ried down the stream. Pure sulphur is also found there, a peculiar curve to prevent the adhesion of the soil, is
In this and in other parts of Tullaghagh barony, fullers’ used in its stead. With this instrument the grain is
earth, pipe-clay, potters’ clay, and brick-clay, are frequent- trenched in high ridges. Twelve men can dig an acre in
ly met with. Fine white and red transparent spars have also a day. The undulating nature of the ground, and the
been occasionally picked up near Fermanagh. There are copious supply of water from the numerous small lakes
indications of coal in Lugnaguilla, the most north-western and rivers, render the land well suited for draining; but
point of the county. It is also said that this mineral has this and other modes of improvement are in many instan-
been found in the mountain of Slieve Russel, where it has ces checked, in consequence of the short and unsatisfac-
been dug out of the side of the hill in blocks near the tory tenure by which much of the land in this country is
surface. Another vein is said to exist at Glasleek, near held under church and school land leases. The general
Shercock, of a very sulphureous quality, burning well, and character of the farming may be summed up in the ex-
emitting a bright blue flame. pression, that the people are by no means wanting in ex-
These indications of minerals are accompanied with ertion, but their modes of culture are defective. Most
their usual concomitants, mineral springs. The most re- farmers prefer the old Irish breed of black cattle, because,
markable is that of Swadlingbar, which has long main- though less inclined to fatten, they give a larger quantity
tained a high character for its efficacy in restoring debi- of milk. The oxen of Loughtee barony are an exception
litated constitutions. Its predominant ingredient is sul- to this remark.
phur. Near the same village there is a chalybeate spring. Illicit distillation was carried on here to a great extent.
The small lake of Lough Leighs, or Lough-an-Leighaghs, The lakes afforded great facilities to its practice. The
which signifies the healing lake, on the summit of a moun- grain was steeped in them, and the portable and cheap
tain between Bailieborough and Kingscourt, is celebrated apparatus employed in the process was set up close to
for its antiscorbutic qualities. Its waters are used for their borders; so that, in case of alarm, the whole could
drinking and bathing; but the most beneficial effects are be flung into the wrater at a moment’s notice, and remain
said to be produced by the mud raised from the bottom concealed till raised again for future service. The prac-
of it being rubbed on the diseased part. The level of the tice, so injurious to industry and moral improvement, is
lake never varies. It has no visible supply nor vent for considerably on the decline.
its discharge; neither is it ever frozen or changed in The soil, in those districts not well adapted for tillage,
' £ A \
n. is peculiarly favoivable for trees. Shrubs, which flourish
'"mJ vigorously in spi^ of the inclemency of the climate, spring
out of the fissu-es of the rock on the mountainous districts.
Throughout die barony of Loughtee, and more particular¬
ly along tfc rich tract watered by the Erne, timber trees
are to be seen in great numbers. They are chiefly to be
found i-i demesnes, where the gentry seem to vie with one
another in their cultivation; so that the bareness of the
Jano’scape, too long a glaring drawback upon the natural
beauties of the county, is every day less observable. The
seats of the resident gentry are numerous and elegant.
Lord Farnham has a noble mansion at Cavan. A fine see-
house, now building by the Bishop of Kilmore, is nearly
completed. Villas of much architectural and rural ele¬
gance are to be seen in various parts of the county.
According to the returns made under the population
act in 1821, and by the commissioners of education in
1824-5, the state of education was as follows:
GMs* ascertained. Total-
1821 6080 2726 8806
1824-5 11001 6492 245 17738
The religious persuasions of the pupils in the latter of
these two statements were as follows :—Of the established
church, 4004; dissenters, 922; Roman Catholics, 12,648;
religion not ascertained 164. The number of schools was
346 : of these, 280, containing 12,700 pupils, were wholly
maintained by the fees of the pupils; and the remaining 66,
containing 5039 pupils, were supported by the contribu¬
tions of the higher classes, or by grants or endowments of
public money. *
The population of the county is chiefly rural. None of
its towns contains 3000 inhabitants, and but five contain
more than 1000 each.
Cavan, the capital of the above county, has little to re¬
commend it to special notice. It is situated near the cen¬
tre of the county, in the parish of Urney, and barony of
Upper Loughtee, on one of the tributary streams of the
Erne. Its situation is pleasant and healthful, being a
large valley, surrounded on every side by elevated grounds.
A hill immediately above the town, on the Dublin side,
commands a very extended prospect. The town was
burnt down in 1791. The consequence has been that it
has risen from its ashes in an improved form, except¬
ing some of the suburbs, which consist of a succession of
mud-built hovels, the seats of squalor and destitution too
often to be seen in similar situations in other country
towns of Ireland. The court-house is elegant in its pro¬
portions, and convenient in its internal arrangements. The
church, built on an elevated site, at one extremity of the
town, is also an elegant erection. Not far from the church
is a large Roman Catholic chapel, which, together with a
dissenting house, was erected at the expense of Lord
Farnham, the proprietor of the town. In another quarter
is the county infirmary, to the support of which the sur-
rounding gentry contribute liberally. Six alms-houses for
destitute widows have been founded by a bequest of a
member of the Lanesborough family. The most conspi¬
cuous budding is the grammar-school, one of the royal
foundations of Charles I. It was rebuilt about thirty years
ago, at an expense of L.7500, on an eminence overlooking
one of the main entrances into the town. It is large and
mndsome, though by no means highly ornamented, and is
capable of accommodating upwards of one hundred resident
pupds. Ihe master enjoys a salary of L.300 per annum,
esides the fees from pupils, with an additional allowance
o L.100 for an assistant.; he has also the produce of ten
acres of land adjoining the house. Notwithstanding these
a vantages, the residents of the town and neighbourhood
ave for some years reaped little benefit from this noble
VOL. VI.
C A V 257
endowment, in consequence of the very advanced age ofCavanilles.
the head master; nor have their remonstrances to the
board of education under whose superintendence it is, and
which consists of the four archbishops, and several of the
bishops, nor their application to the lord lieutenant, in whose
gift is the disposal of the mastership, as yet been effectual
in procuring for them the benefits of liberal education for
their children contemplated by its royal founder. The
sons of the neighbouring gentry, and of the respectable
resident inhabitants, are therefore sent, at much expense
and inconvenience, to distant places for their literary im¬
provement. The county jail is a substantial building, but
rather small for the average number of its inmates. A
monastery of Dominican friars, founded by O’Reilly, chief¬
tain of the Brennie, existed here; and it wras the place of bu¬
rial of the celebrated Irish general Owen Roe O’Neal, who
died by poison at Cloghoughter in 1649. The town was
incorporated by a royal charter of James L, dated 15th
November, in the eighth year of that monarch’s reign.
The population in 1821 amounted to 2320, and in 1831 to
2322. (Coote’s Statistical Survey of Cavan ; Shaw Ma¬
son’s Parochial Survey of Ireland ; Rutty’s Mineral Wa¬
ters ; Lynch’s Geography of Ireland; lleports of Commis¬
sioners of Education?)
CAVANILLES, Antonio Jose, a Spanish ecclesiastic,
who devoted himself with great assiduity to the study of
botany, and has published several important works, was
born in 1745, at Valencia. He received his first educa¬
tion among the Jesuits in that university, and he ever
afterwards retained the urbanity of character and man¬
ners characteristic of that celebrated order of men. But
this was, in him, accompanied with more estimable quali¬
ties of the heart than are usually attributed to that order,
or than any other exclusively possesses. He early de¬
voted himself to the studies of divinity and philosophy,
and was distinguished for diligence and ability, not only
in these pursuits, but in the mathematics, history, and
belles-lettres. He afterwards removed to Murcia, where
he acquired so much credit that he was chosen by the
Duke de ITnfantado to superintend the education of his
sons. In the house of this nobleman he was perfectly do¬
mesticated ; and when, after a course of years, the death of
his patron broke up a circle of more than usual domestic
virtue and felicity, at least in that elevated rank of life,
the Abbe Cavanilles became only a more valuable and con¬
fidential friend of the survivors. Fie accompanied the sons
of the duke, in their father's lifetime, to Paris in 1777,
where he resided twelve years, adding to his various in¬
formation, and particularly cultivating the science of bo¬
tany, with all the aids which that celebrated capital was so
well calculated to afford. Here he was more particularly
associated with the famous Jussieu, and the pupils of his
school. From the Linnsean botanists of Paris he was a
good deal estranged; yet he acquired a great inclination
towards the Swedish school, and imbibed many of its good
principles.
.The first publication of the Abbe Cavanilles was in
French, entitled Observations surVarticle “ Espagne” de m
Nouvelle Encyclopedic. This pamphlet contained a defence
of his country, against what appeared to him an unfair at¬
tack upon it; but we know not the particular subjects of
the discussion. We have no difficulty in conceiving that
they might be manifold, and that there were few opinions
upon which a man of Cavanilles’ correctness and orthodoxy
of character, to say nothing of his patriotism, was likely
to agree with the writers of the above-mentioned celebrat¬
ed work.
He soon afterwards devoted himself to a study which
promised him a less thorny path. In 1785 he published
at Paris his first Dissertation upon Monadelphous Plants, a
2 K
258
C A V
Cavanilles. Latin 4to, containing the species of the genus Sida, with
S some plants nearly related thereto. The plates, uncoloured,
were executed from his own drawings; as were those of
the rest of his numerous publications. The specimens de¬
lineated in this first essay were too small and imperfect.
In that respect his following dissertations, making ten in all,
have a considerable superiority. His subsequent figures
were also better engraved. The descriptions are full and
correct; the new species numerous; and the specific cha¬
racters tolerably classical, though not quite uncontaminat¬
ed by the feebleness and ambiguity of the French school.
This work, in its beginning, not being received by the Lin-
nsean botanists of Paris, and especially by L Heritier, with
any respectful attention, the author, in an evil hour, was
induced to complain, in the Journal de Paris, of neglect
and injustice. L’Heritier had not noticed the book in his
Stirpes Novce; had published the same plants by differ¬
ent names, without citing Cavanilles; and had even ante¬
dated some of his own Fasciculi, in order to conceal, as it
appeared, this literary incorrectness. His reply could not,
in the opinion of unprejudiced witnesses, clear him of il¬
liberal conduct; though, it is very certain, he neither did
nor could borrow any thing from Cavanilles. It would have
been better to have declared the truth, that his own plates
were already engraved with different names, or that he
had at least chosen such as seemed to him preferable.
The authority of L’Heritier’s works, by their transcendent
merit, has prevailed, while Cavanilles has retained all the
credit due to correctness of principle and intention. The
ninth and tenth fasciculi of Cavanilles, on the Monadelphous
Plants, were indeed published at Madrid, to which place
the author returned in 1790. The number of plates in
the whole work are 296, many of which, especially in the
earlier part, contain several species. It cannot be denied
that the merit of this work kept increasing as it advanced.
The abilities of the writer gained strength by exercise,
and his knowledge was enriched by experience. He is
charged with admitting as monadelphous too many plants,
the union of whose stamens is very light or uncertain ; but
it were ungrateful to complain of any book for the riches
of its materials. A more real fault is, the usual one of
too great and artificial a subdivision of genera. This is
also the fault of the school in which he studied, though
the great man at its head is perhaps as free from it as any
leading writer.
Soon afterwards the Abbe Cavanilles began a larger
and more comprehensive publication, in folio, entitled
leones et Descriptiones Plantarum quee aut sponte in His-
pania crescunt, aut in Hortis hospitantur. The first volume
appeared in 1791, containing 100 plates, wdth ample de¬
scriptions. It was followed by five more, of equal size
and merit, the last of which came out in 1801. The whole
work is enriched with critical remarks, and with much
economical, as well as what may be called picturesque
and sentimental, matter, respecting many native Spanish
plants. The exotic part of these volumes is derived from
the highly valuable and novel discoveries of the Spaniards
in Mexico, Peru, and Chili, and the acquisitions of some
voyagers to New Holland and the Philippine Islands.
Hence numerous very fine plants, originally discovered by
our own celebrated circumnavigators, but unfortunately
not yet published by them, have first been made known
in the pages of Cavanilles.
In the course of the botanical tours of our author, he
collected materials for a general History of the Kingdom
of Valencia, which appeared in 1795, in Spanish, making
two volumes. This work, which we have never seen, is
said to be rich, not only in what relates to the three king¬
doms of nature, but likewise in statistical and antiquarian
information.
C A V
Having in June 1801 been intrusttfi with the direc-Cav®
torship of the royal garden at Madrid, he published in
1802 another work in his native tongue, containing the
characters and descriptions of the plants demonstrated in
his public botanical lectures. To these is preixed an ex¬
position of the elementary principles of the science together
with explanations of botanic terms. Cavanilles w^s also a
frequent and important contributor to the periodica?, work
entitled Anales de Ciencias Naturales, published at Madrid.
Some observations of his, translated from this journal,
may be found in Dr Sim’s and Mr Kdnig’s Annals of Bo.
tany, vol. i. 409. The first of these indeed, relative to cer¬
tain seemingly lenticular bodies, supposed to have an im¬
portant share in the impregnation of ferns and mosses, he
has himself contradicted, as arising from an optical decep¬
tion. His candid avowal of this, in a letter to Dr Schwartz,
is published in volume second of the said Annals, p. 587.
We think him also mistaken in the true stigma of the Iris,
his opinion being sufficiently refuted by those of Kolreuter
and Sprengel, given in a note, in the very place just quot¬
ed ; nor is his idea of the stamens of certain Asclepiadea
correct. If he errs, however, he errs with great autho¬
rities.
The subject of our present memoir undoubtedly excell¬
ed more in practical observation than in physiological spe¬
culation. He is said to have prepared, and partly printed,
the first volume of a Hortus Matritensis, being a sort of
sequel to his leones ; for it was intended to contain, not
merely the figures and descriptions of curious or new
plants from the garden, but also of rare dried specimens
from the museum at Madrid. This work, with any other
project in favour of science which he might have formed,
was cut short by his death, in May 1804, in the fifty-ninth
year of his age. An engraved portrait of the Abbe Ca¬
vanilles, at the age of forty-four, is given in Schrader’s
Neues Journal, published at Erfurt in 1805. Dr Schwartz,
in the Annals of Botany above quoted, gives this testimony
to his worth. “ Cavanilles was, like many others, often
rather hasty in his conclusions, but always eager to pro¬
mote science. He was, indeed, a man of a very noble mind,
and of the most generous communicative turn ; so that I
feel I have lost much by his untimely decease, which I
shall ever regret.” (x* x-)
CAVE, any large subterranean hollow. Cases were pro¬
bably the primitive habitations, before men began to build
edifices above ground. The primitive method of burial
was also to deposit the bodies in caves; which seems to
have been the origin of catacombs. Caves long continued
the proper habitations of shepherds. Among the Romans,
the antra used to be consecrated to nymphs, who were
worshipped in caves, as other gods were in temples. Ihe
Persians also worshipped their god Mithras in a natural
cave consecrated for the purpose by Zoroaster. The cave
of the nymph Egeria is still shown at Rome.
Cave, F)r William, a learned English divine, born in
1637, educated in St John’s College, Cambridge, and suc¬
cessively minister of Hasely in Oxfordshire, of All-hallows
the Great in London, and of Islington. He became chap¬
lain to Charles II., and in 1684 was installed as a canon of
Windsor. He compiled The Lives of the Primitive la¬
thers in the three first Centuries of the Church, which is
esteemed a very useful work; and Historia Literaria, m
which he gives an exact account of all who had written
for or against Christianity from the time of Christ to the
fourteenth century ; works which produced a very warm
dispute between Dr Cave and M. le Clerc, who wras then
writing his Bihliotheque Universelle in Holland, and who
charged the doctor with partiality. Dr Cave died in 171 •
Cave, Edward, printer, celebrated as the projector o
the Gentlemans Magazine (the first publication of tie
C A V
. kind, and sincf “ the fruitful mother of a thousand more’ ),
was born in -’691. His father being disappointed of some
small famil; expectations, was reduced to follow the trade
of a shoemaker at Rugby in Warwickshire. The free
school of this place, in which his son had, by the rules of
its foundation, a right to be instructed, was then in high re¬
putation, under the reverend Mr Holyock, to whose care
most of the neighbouring families, even of the highest
rank, intrusted their sons. He had judgment to discover,
and for some time generosity to encourage, the talents of
young Cave; and was so well pleased with his quick pro¬
gress in the school, that he declared his resolution to
breed him for the university, and recommend him as a
servitor to some of his scholars of high rank. But prospe¬
rity which depends upon the caprice of others, is of short
duration. Cave’s superiority in literature exalted him to
an invidious familiarity with boys who were far above him
in rank and expectations; and, as always happens in un¬
equal associations, whatever unlucky prank was played
was imputed to Cave. When any mischief, great or small,
was done, though perhaps others boasted of the stratagem
when it was successful, yet upon detection or miscarriage,
the blame was certain to fall upon poor Cave. The harsh
treatment he experienced on this account, although he
bore it for a time., forced him at last to leave the school and
abandon the hope of a literary education, in order to seek
some other means of gaining a livelihood.
He was first placed under a collector of the excise ; but
the insolence ot his mistress, who employed him in ser¬
vile drudgery, quickly disgusted him, and he went up to
London in quest of more suitable employment. He was
recommended to a timber merchant at the Bankside, and,
while he was there on trial, is said to have given promise
of great mercantile abilities; but this place he soon quit¬
ted and was bound apprentice to Mr Collins, a printer of
some reputation, and deputy-alderman. This was a trade
for which men were formerly qualified by a literary edu¬
cation, and which was pleasing to'Cave, because it fur¬
nished sonrn employment for his scholastic attainments.
Here, therefore, he resolved to settle, though his master
and mistress lived in perpetual discord, and their house
was therefore no comfortable habitation. From the in¬
conveniences of these domestic tumults he was soon re¬
leased, having in two years attained so much skill in his
art, and gained so much the confidence of his master,
that he was sent without any superintendent to conduct a
printing-house at Norwich, and publish a weekly paper.
In this undertaking he met with some opposition, which
produced a public controversy, and procured young Cave
the reputation of a writer.
His master died before his apprenticeship had expired,
and he was not able to bear the perverseness of his mis-
tiess; he therefore quitted her house upon a stipulated
allowance, and married a young widow, with whom he had
lived at Bow. When his apprenticeship terminated he
vvoiked as a journeyman at the printing-house of Mr Bar-
ar, a man much distinguished and employed by the To¬
nes, whose principles had at that time so much influence
with Cave, that he was for some years a writer in Mist’s
Journal. He afterwards obtained by his wife’s interest a
sma 1 place in the post-office; but he still continued, during
ie intervals of attendance, to exercise his trade, or to
emp oy himself in some typographical business. He cor-
iccted the Gradus ad Parnassum, and was liberally re¬
war ed by the Company of Stationers. He wrote an Ac-
eount °f the Criminals, which had for some time a consi-
tera e sale; and published many little pamphlets which
T1 °rou§^t int0 hands, of which it would be
[ •t° ireC0.Ver t^ie By the correspondence
llc us place in the post-office facilitated, he procured
C A \
259
country newspapers, and sold their intelligence to a jour-Cavendish
nalist in London for a guinea a week. He was afterwards
raised to the office of clerk of the franks, in which he
acted with great spirit and firmness, and often stopped
franks which had been given by members of parliament to
their friends, because he thought such extension of a pe¬
culiar right illegal. This raised many complaints; and
the influence which was exerted against him procured his
ejectment from office. He had now, however, collected
a sum sufficient for the purchase of a small printing-office,
and began the Gentleman’s Magazine; an undertaking to
which he owed the affluence in which he passed the last
twenty years of his life, and the large fortune which he
left behind him. When he formed the project he was far
from expecting the success which he met with ; and others
had so little prospect of such a result, that though he
had for several years talked of his plan among printers
and booksellers, none of them thought it worth the trial.
That they were not, says Dr Johnson, restrained by their
virtue from the execution of another man’s design, was
sufficiently apparent as soon as that design began to be
gainful; for in a few years a multitude of magazines arose
and perished; and the London Magazine, supported by
a powerful association of booksellers, and circulated with
all the art and all the cunning of trade, alone exempted
itself from the general fate of Cave’s invaders, and obtain¬
ed a considerable, though by no means an equal sale.
Cave now began to aspire to popularity; and being a
great lover of poetry, he sometimes proposed subjects for
poems, and offered prizes for the best productions which
might be thus elicited. The first prize was fifty pounds,
for which, being but newly acquainted with wealth, and
thinking the influence of fifty pounds extremely great, he
expected the first authors of the kingdom to appear as
competitors, and accordingly offered the allotment of the
prize to the universities. But when the time of decision
arrived, no name appeared in the list of writers that had
ever been seen before; while the universities and several
private individuals declined the task of awarding the prize.
The determination was then left to Dr Cromwell Morti¬
mer and Dr Birch ; and by the latter the award was made,
which may be seen in Gent. Mag. vol. vi. p. 59.
Mr Cave continued to improve his magazine, and had
the satisfaction of seeing its success proportionate to his
diligence, till 1751, when his wife died of an asthma. He
seemed at first not much affected by her death; but in a
few days he became feverish, and lost his appetite, which
he never afterwards recovered. After having lingered for
about two years, experiencing many vicissitudes of amend¬
ment and relapse, he was seized with a diarrhoea by drink¬
ing acid liquors; and afterwards falling into a kind of le¬
thargic insensibility, he died on the 10th of January 175L,
having just concluded the twenty-third annual collection
of his magazine.
CAVENDISH, Thomas, of Suffolk, the second Eng¬
lishman who sailed round the globe, was descended from
a noble family in Devonshire. Having dissipated his for¬
tune, he resolved to repair it at the expense of the Spa¬
niards. He sailed from Plymouth with two small ships
in 1586, passed through the Straits of Magelhaens, took
many rich prizes along the coasts of Chili and Peru, and
near California possessed himself of the St Ann, an Aca¬
pulco ship, with a cargo of immense value. Having com¬
pleted the circumnavigation of the globe, he returned
home round the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Ply¬
mouth again in September 1588. On his arrival it is said
that his soldiers and sailors were clothed in silk, his sails
were damask, and his top-mast was covered with cloth of
gold. But his hastily acquired riches did not last long;
for in 1591 he had reduced himself to the necessity of
260
C A V
Cavendish, undertaking another voyage, which was far from being so
successful as the former. He proceeded no farther than
the Straits of Magelhaens, where the weather obliging him
to return, he died of grief on the coast of Brazil.
Cavendish, Sir William, descended of an ancient and
honourable family, was born about the year 1505,. being
the second son of Thomas Cavendish of Cavendish m Suf¬
folk, clerk of the pipe in the reign of Henry VIII. Hay¬
ing had a liberal education, he was taken into the family
of Cardinal Wolsey, whom he served in the capacity of
gentleman-usher of the chamber, when that magnificent
prelate maintained the style and dignity of a prince. In
1527 he attended his master on his splendid embassy to
France, returned with him to England, and was one of the
few who continued faithful to him in his disgrace. Mi
Cavendish was with him when he died, and delayed going
to court till he had performed the last duty of a faithful
servant, by seeing his remains decently interred. The
king was s*o far from disapproving of his conduct,.that he
immediately took him into his household, made him trea¬
surer of his chamber and a privy counsellor, and afterwards
conferred on him the order of knighthood.. He was also ap¬
pointed one of the commissioners for receiving the surren¬
der of religious houses. In 1540 he was nominated one of
the auditors of the court of augmentations, and soon after¬
wards obtained a grant of several considerable lordships in
Hertfordshire. In the reign of Edward VI. his estates
were much increased by royal grants in seven different
counties; and he appears to have continued in high favour
at court during the reign of Queen Mary. He died in the
year 1557. Sir William was the founder of Chatsworth,
and ancestor of the Dukes of Devonshire. He wrote The
Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey, printed at London in
1.607.
Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle, famous
for her voluminous productions, was born about the latter
end of the reign of James I., and was the youngest sister
of Lord Lucas of Colchester. She married the Duke of
Newcastle abroad in 1645; and on their return alter the
restoration, spent the remainder of her life in writing plays
and poems, together with the life ol her husband, to the
amount of about a dozen of folios. “ What gives the best
idea of her unbounded passion for scribbling,” says Mr
Walpole, “ was her seldom revising the copies of her works,
lest, as she said, it should disturb her following concep¬
tions.” She died in 1673.
Cavendish, William, the first Duke of Devonshire,
and one of the most distinguished of British patriots, was
born in 1640. In 1677, being then member for Derby,
he vigorously opposed the venal measures of the court;
and the following year he was one of the committee ap¬
pointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the
lord-treasurer Danby. In 1679, being re-elected to serve
for Derby in a new parliament, Charles II. thought proper
to make him a privy counsellor; but he soon withdrew
from the board with his friend Lord Russell, when he
found that the Popish interest prevailed. He carried up
the articles of impeachment to the House of Lords against
Lord Chief-justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal
proceedings in the court of king’s bench; and when the
king declared his resolution not to sign the bill for exclud¬
ing the Duke of York, afterwards James II., he moved
the House of Commons that a bill might be brought in
for the association of all his majesty’s Protestant subjects.
He also openly denounced the king’s evil counsellors, and
voted for an address to remove them from his presence
and councils fa1- ever. He nobly appeared at Lord Rus¬
sell’s trial in defence of that great man, at a time when it
was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice than a wit¬
ness. The same fortitude, activity, and love of his coun-
C A V
try, animated this illustrious patriot to oppok> the arbitrary Caver
proceedings of James II.; and when he saw t»at there was
no other mode of saving the nation from imj^nding sla-
very, he was the foremost in the association fo inviting
over the Prince of Orange, and the first noblemaiiwho ap¬
peared in arms to receive him at his landing. 4[e was
created Duke of Devonshire in 1694 by William andMary.
His last public service was assisting in concluding the
union with Scotland, for negotiating of which he had bten
appointed a commissioner by Queen Anne. He died V]
1707, and ordered the following inscription to be put on
his monument:
Willielmus dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
Cavendish, Henry, a great and justly celebrated che¬
mist, natural philosopher, and astronomer; son of Lord
Charles Cavendish, and grandson of William, second duke
of Devonshire; born the 10th of October 1731, at Nice,
where his mother. Lady Anne Grey, daughter of Henry
duke of Kent, had gone, though ineffectually, for the re¬
covery of her health.
Of a man whose rank among the benefactors of science
and of mankind is so elevated as that of Cavendish, we
are anxious to learn all the details both of intellectual cul¬
tivation and of moral character, which the labours of a
biographer can discover and record. Little, however, is
known respecting his early education. He was for some
time at Newcombe’s school, an establishment of consider¬
able reputation at Hackney, and he afterwards went to
Cambridge; but it is probable that he acquired his taste
for experimental investigation in a great measure from his
father, who was in the habit of amusing himself with me¬
teorological observations and apparatus, and to whom we
are indebted for a very accurate determination of the de¬
pression of mercury in barometrical tubes, which has been
made the basis of some of the most refined investigations
of modern times. “ It has been observed, says M. Cu¬
vier, “ that more persons of rank enter seriously into sci¬
ence and literature in Great Britain than in other coun¬
tries ; and this circumstance may naturally be explained
from the constitution of the British government, which
renders it impossible for birth and fortune alone to attain
to distinction in the state without high cultivation of mind;
so that amidst the universal diffusion of solid learning
which is thus rendered indispensable, some individuals
are always found who are more disposed to occupy them¬
selves in the pursuit of the eternal truths of nature, and
in the contemplation of the finished productions of talent
and genius, than in the transitory interests of the politics
of the day.” Mr Cavendish was neither influenced by
the ordinary ambition of becoming a distinguished states¬
man, nor by a taste for expensive luxuries or sensual gra¬
tifications ; so that, enjoying a moderate competence dur¬
ing his father’s life, and being elevated by his birth above
all danger of being despised for want of greater affluence,
he felt himself exempted from the necessity of applying
to any professional studies, of courting the approbation of
the public either by the parade of literature or by the
habits of conviviality, or of ingratiating himself with mix¬
ed society by the display of superficial accomplishments.
It is difficult to refrain from imagining that his mind had
received some slight impression from the habitual recui-
rence to the motto of his family ; the words cavendo tutus
must have occurred perpetually to his eyes; and all the
operations of his intellectual powers exhibit a degree o
caution almost unparalleled in the annals of science; or
there is scarcely a single instance in which he had occa¬
sion to retrace his steps or to recal his opinions. In D
he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and continue!
CAVENDISH.
sh. for almost fift; years to contribute to the Philosophical
U-' Transactions some of the most interesting and important
papers thatoave ever appeared in that collection, express¬
ed in language which affords a model of concise simplicity
and unaffected modesty, and exhibiting a precision of ex-
perimestal demonstration, commensurate to the judicious
selection of the methods of research, and to the accuracy
of the argumentative induction ; and which have been con¬
sidered, by some of the most enlightened historians, as
having been no less instrumental in promoting the further
progress of chemical discovery, by banishing the vague
manner of observing and reasoning that had too long pre¬
vailed, than by immediately extending the bounds of hu¬
man knowledge with respect to the very important facts
which are first made public in these communications.
1. Three Papers, containing Experiments on Factitious
Air. Phil. Trans. 1766, p. 141. It had been observed
by Boyle, that some kinds of air were unfit for respiration ;
and Hook and Mayow had looked still farther forwards into
futurity with prophetic glances, which seem to have been
soon lost and forgotten by the inattention or want of can¬
dour of their successors. Hales had made many experi¬
ments on gases, but without sufficiently distinguishing
their different kinds, or even being fully aware that fixed
air was essentially different from the common atmosphere.
Sir James Lowther, in 1733, had sent to the Royal Society
some bladders filled with coal damp, which remained in¬
flammable for many weeks; little imagining the extent of
the advantages which were one day to result to his pos¬
terity from the labours of that society, by the prevention
of the fatal mischiefs which this substance so frequently
occasioned. Dr Seip had soon afterwards suggested that
the gas which stagnated in some caverns near Pyrmont
was the cause of the briskness of the water; Dr Brownrigg
of Whitehaven had confirmed this opinion by experiments
in 1741; and Dr Black, in 1755, bad explained the opera¬
tion of this fluid in rendering the earths and alkalies mild.
Such was the state of pneumatic chemistry when Mr Ca¬
vendish began these experimental researches. He first
describes the apparatus now commonly used in processes
of this kind, a part of wdiich had been before employed by
Hales and others, but which he had rendered far more per¬
fect by the occasional employment of mercury. He next
relates the experiments by which he found the specific gra¬
vity of inflammable air to be about Jyth of that of common
air, whether it was produced from zinc or otherwise: first
weighing a bladder filled with a known bulk of the gas,
and then in a state of collapse; and also examining the
loss of weight during the solution of zinc in an acid, hav¬
ing taken care to absorb all the superfluous moisture of
the gas by means of dry potass. He also observed, that
the gas obtained during the solution of copper in muriatic
acid was rapidly absorbed by water, but he did not inquire
further into its nature. The second paper relates to fixed
air, which was found to undergo no alteration in its elas¬
ticity when kept a year over mercury; to be absorbed by
an equal bulk of water, or of olive oil, and by less than
half its bulk of spirit of wine ; to exceed the atmospheric
air in specific gravity by more than one half, and to render
this fluid unfit for supporting combustion, even when added
to it in the proportion of 1 to 9 only. Mr Cavendish as¬
certained the quantity of this gas contained in marble and
in the alkalies; but his numbers fell somewhat short of
those which have been determined by later experiments.
He also observed the solubility of the supercarbonate of
magnesia. In the third part, the air produced by fer¬
mentation and putrefaction is examined. Macbride had
shown that a part of it was-fixed air; and our author finds
that sugar and water, thrown into fermentation by yeast,
emit this gas, without altering the quantity or quality of
261
the common air previously contained in the vessel, which Cavendish,
retains its power of exploding with hydrogen, exactly like
common air. He also shows that the gas thus emitted is
identical with the fixed air obtained from marble ; and that
the inflammable air extricated during putrefaction resem¬
bles that which is procured from zinc, although it appears
to be a little heavier.
2. Experiments on Rathbone Place Water. Phil. Trans.
1767, p. 92. In this paper Mr Cavendish shows the so¬
lubility of the supercarbonate of lime, which is found in
several waters about London, and is decomposed by the
process of boiling, tffe simple carbonate being deposited
in the form of a crust. The addition of pure lime water
also causes a precipitation of a greater quantity of lime
than it contains. These conclusions are confirmed by syn¬
thetical experiments, in which the supercarbonate is form¬
ed, and remains in solution.
3. An Attempt to explain some of the principal Pheno¬
mena of Electricity by means of an Elastic Fluid. Phil.
Trans. 1771, p. 584. Our author’s theory of electricity
agrees with that which had been published a few years be¬
fore by xEpinus, but he has entered more minutely into
the details of calculation; showing the manner in which
the supposed fluid must be distributed in a variety of cases,
and explaining the phenomena of electrified and charged
substances, as they are actually observed. There is some
degree of unnecessary complication, from the great genera¬
lity of the determinations ; the law of electric attraction
and repulsion not having been at that time fully ascertain¬
ed, although Mr Cavendish inclines to the true supposi¬
tion, of forces varying inversely as the square of the dis¬
tance. This deficiency he proposes to supply by future ex¬
periments, and leaves it to more skilful mathematicians to
render some other parts of the theory still more complete.
He probably found, that the necessity of the experiments
which he intended to pursue was afterwards superseded
by those of Lord Stanhope and M. Coulomb ; but he had
carried the mathematical investigation somewhat farther
at a later period of his life, though he did not publish his
papers; an omission, however, which is the less to be re¬
gretted, as M. Poisson, assisted by all the improvements
of modern analysis, afterwards treated the same subject
in a very masterly manner. The acknowledged imperfec¬
tions in some parts of Mr Cavendish’s demonstrative
reasoning, have served to display the strength of a judg¬
ment and sagacity still more admirable than the plodding
labours of an automatical calculator. One of the corol¬
laries seems at first sight to lead to a mode of distinguish¬
ing positive from negative electricity, which is not justified
by experiment; but the fallacy appears to be referable
to the very comprehensive character of the author’s hy¬
pothesis, which requires some little modification to accom¬
modate it to the actual circumstances of the electric fluid,
as it must be supposed to exist in nature.
4. A Report of the Committee appointed by the Royal
Society to consider of a Method for securing the Powder
Magazine at Purfleet. Phil. Trans. 1773, p. 42. Addi¬
tional Letter, p. 66. Mr Cavendish, and most of his col¬
leagues on the committee, recommended the adoption of
pointed conductors; Mr Wilson protested, and preferred
blunt conductors; but the committee persisted in their
opinion. Later experiments, however, have shown that
the point in dispute between them was of little moment.
5. An Account of some Attempts to imitate the Effects of
the Torpedo by Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 196.
The peculiarity of these effects is shown to depend in some
measure on the proportional conducting powers of the sub¬
stances concerned, and on the quantity of electricity, as
distinguished from its intensity. Iron is found to conduct
400 million times as well as pure water, and sea water 720
262
CAVENDISH.
Cavendish, times as well; and the path chosen by the electric fluid
depending on the nature of all the substances within its
reach, an animal not immediately situated in the circuit
will often be affected, on account of the facility with which
animal substances in general conduct the fluid. The shock
of a torpedo, producing a strong sensation, but incapable
of being conveyed by a chain, was imitated by the effect
of a weak charge of a very large battery ; and an artifi¬
cial torpedo of wood being made part of the circuit, the
shock diffused itself very perceptibly through the water m
which it was placed ; but the experiment succeeded better
when the instrument was made of wet leather, which con¬
ducts rather better than wood, the battery being more
highly charged, in proportion to the increase of conducting
power. T
6. An Account of the Meteorological Instruments used at
the Royal Society's House. Phil Trans. 1776, p. 375. Of
the thermometers it is observed, that they are adjusted
by surrounding the tubes with wet cloths or with steam,
and barely immersing the bulbs in the water; since a
variation of two or three degrees will often occur, if these
precautions are neglected. For the correction of the
heights of barometers, we have Lord Charles Cavendish’s
table of the depression arising from capillary action. The
variation compass was found to exhibit a deviation from
the meridian 15' greater in the house of the Royal Society
than in an open garden in Marlborough Street; there was
also a mean error of about 7' in the indications of the dip¬
ping needle; but it was difficult to ascertain the dip, with¬
out being liable to an irregularity which often amounted
to twice as much.
7. Report of the Committee appointed to consider of the
best Method of adjusting Thermometers. Phil. Trans. 1777,
p. 816. This paper is signed by Mr Cavendish and six
other members, but it is principally a continuation of the
preceding. It contains very accurate rules for the deter¬
mination of the boiling point, and tables for the correction
of unavoidable deviations from them; establishing 29*8
inches as the proper height of the barometer for making
the experiment if only steam be employed, and 29*5 if
the ball be dipped in the water ; but, with all precautions,
occasional variations of half a degree were found in the
results.
8. An Account of a New Eudiometer. Phil. Trans. 1783,
p. 106. Mr Cavendish was aware of the great difference
in the results of eudiometrical experiments with nitrous
gas, or nitric oxide, according to the different modes of
mixing the elastic fluids; and he justly attributes them to
the different degrees of oxygenization of the acid that is
formed. But he found that when the method employed
was the same, the results were perfectly uniform ; and he
ascertained in this manner that there was no sensible dif¬
ference in the constituent parts of the atmosphere under
circumstances the most dissimilar; the air of London,
with all its fires burning in the winter, appearing equally
pure with the freshest breezes of the country. He also
observed the utility of the sulphurets of potass and of iron
for procuring phlogisticated air ; but he does not seem to
have employed them as tests of the quantity of this gas
contained in a given mixture.
9. Observations on Mr Hutchins's Experiments for de¬
termining the degree of Cold at which Quicksilver freezes.
Phil. Trans. 1783, p. 303. In experiments of this kind
many precautions are necessary, principally on account
of the contraction of the metal at the time of its congela¬
tion, which was found to amount to about of its bulk ;
and the results which had been obtained were also found
to require some corrections for the errors of the scales,
which reduced the degree of cold observed to 39° below
the zero of Fahrenheit, or 71° below the freezing point,
answering to — 39*4° of the centesimal sc£Je. In speak-Caver:
ing of the evolution of heat during congelation, he calls it Wy '
“ generated” by the substances ; and observer in a note,
that Dr Black’s hypothesis of capacities dependt “ on the
supposition that the heat of bodies is owing to t*eir con¬
taining more or less of a substance called the rmtter of
heat; and as” he thinks “ Sir Isaac Newton’s opinion that
heat consists in the internal motion of the particles oiffo- ,
dies, much the most probable,” he chooses “ to use ihe
expression heat is generated,” in order to avoid the ap.
pearance of adopting the more modern hypothesis; and
this persuasion of the non-existence of elementary heat
he repeats in his next paper. It is remarkable that one of
the first of Sir Humphry Davy’s objects, at the very be¬
ginning of his singularly brilliant career of refined inves¬
tigation and fortunate discovery, was the confirmation of
this almost forgotten opinion of Mr Cavendish ; and for
this purpose he devised the very ingenious experiment of
melting two pieces of ice by their mutual friction in a
room below the freezing temperature, which is certainly
incompatible with the common doctrine of caloric, unless
we admit that caloric could have existed in the neighbour¬
ing bodies in the form of cold, or of something else that
could be converted into caloric by the operation; and
this transmutation would still be nearly synonymous with
generation in the sense here intended. However this
may be, it is certain that, notwithstanding all the experi¬
ments of Count Rumford, Dr Haldalt, and others, Sir
Humphry was less successful in persuading his contempo¬
raries of the truth of Mr Cavendish’s doctrine of heat,
than in establishing the probability of his opinions respect¬
ing the muriatic acid.
10. Experiments on Air. Phil. Trans. 1784, p. 119.
This paper contains an account of two of the greatest dis¬
coveries in chemistry that have ever yet been made pub¬
lic ; the composition of water, and that of the nitric acid.
The author first establishes the radical difference of hy¬
drogen from nitrogen or azote; he then proceeds to re¬
late his experiments on the combustion of hydrogen with
oxygen, which had partly been suggested by a cursory
observation of Mr Warltire, a lecturer on natural philo¬
sophy, and which prove that pure water is the result of
the process, provided that no nitrogen be present. These
experiments were first made in 1781, and were then men¬
tioned to Dr Priestley ; and when they were first commu¬
nicated to Lavoisier, he found some difficulty in believing
them to be accurate. The second series of experiments
demonstrates, that when phlogisticated air, or nitrogen, is
present in the process, some nitric acid is produced; and
that this acid may be obtained from atmospheric air, by
the repeated operation of the electrical spark.
It has been supposed by one of Mr Cavendish’s biogra¬
phers, that if Mr Kirwan, instead of opposing, had adopted
his chemical opinions, “ he would never have been obliged
to yield to his French antagonists, and the antiphlogistic
theory would never have gained ground.” But in this sup¬
position there seems to be a little of national prejudice. Mr
Cavendish by no means dissented from the whole of the
antiphlogistic theory; and in this paper he has quoted La¬
voisier and Scheele in terms of approbation, as having
suggested the opinion “ that dephlogisticated and phlogis¬
ticated air are quite distinct substances, and not differing
only in their degree of phlogistication, and that common
air is a mixture of the two.” He afterwards mentions se¬
veral memoirs of Lavoisier in which phlogiston is entirely
discarded; and says that “ not only the foregoing experi¬
ments, but most other phenomena of nature, seem explica¬
ble as well, or nearly as well, upon this as upon the com¬
monly believed principle of phlogiston;” and after stating a
slight conjectural objection, derived from the chemical con-
sh. stitution of vegetables, he proceeds finally to observe, that
tmj « Lavoisier endeavours to prove that dephlogisticated air
is the acidifying principle.” This is no more than saying
that acidsfose their acidity by uniting to phlogiston, which,
with regard to the nitrous, vitriolic, phosphoric, and arse¬
nical acids, is certainly true; and probably with regard to
the acid of sugar; but as to the marine acid, and acid
of tartar, it does not appear that they are capable of losing
their acidity by any union with phlogistonand the acids
of sugar and tartar become even less acid by a further de-
phlogistication. It is obvious that this argument amounts
only to an exception, and not to a total denial of the truth
of the theory. M. Cuvier has even asserted that the anti¬
phlogistic theory derived its first origin from one great dis¬
covery of Mr Cavendish, that of the nature of hydrogen
gas, and owed its complete establishment to another, that
of the composition of water; but it would be unjust to de¬
ny to Lavoisier the merit of considerable originality in his
doctrines respecting the combinations of oxygen ; and how¬
ever he may have been partly anticipated by Hook and
Mayow, it was certainly from him that the modern English
chemists immediately derived the true knowledge of the
constitution of the atmosphere, which they did not admit
without some hesitation, but which they did ultimately
admit when they found the evidence irresistible. On the
other hand, it has been sufficiently established, since Mr
Cavendish’s death, by the enlightened researches of the
most original of all chemists, that Lavoisier had carried
his generalization too far; and it must ever be remember¬
ed, to the honour of Mr Cavendish, and to the credit of
this country, that we had not all been seduced, by the
dazzling semblance of universal laws, to admit facts as
demonstrated which were only made plausible by a slight
and imperfect analogy.
11. Answer to Mr Kirwaris Remarks upon the Experi¬
ments on Air. Phil. Trans. 1784, p. 170. Mr Kirwan,
relying on the results of some inaccurate experiments, had
objected to those conclusions which form the principal
basis of the antiphlogistic theory. Mr Cavendish repeat¬
ed such of these experiments as seemed to be the most
ambiguous, and repelled the objections ; showing, in par¬
ticular, that when fixed air was derived from the combus¬
tion of iron, it was only to be referred to the plumbago
shown by Bergmann to exist in it, which was well known
to be capable, in common with other carbonaceous sub¬
stances, of affording fixed air.
12. Experiments on Air. Phil. Trans. 1785, p. 372.
The discovery of the composition of the nitric acid is here
further established; and it is shown that the whole, or
very nearly the whole, of the irrespirable part of the atmo¬
sphere is convertible into this acid when mixed with oxy¬
gen, and subjected to the operation of the electric spark ;
the fixed air sometimes obtained during the process being
wholly dependent on the presence of some organic sub¬
stances.
13. An Account of Experiments made hy Mr John Mac-
nob, at Henley House, Hudson's Bay, relating to Freezing
Mixtures. Phil. Trans. 1786, p. 241. F rom these expe¬
riments Mr Cavendish infers the existence of two distinct
i sPecies of congelation in mixed liquids, which he calls the
aqueous and spirituous congelations, and of several alter¬
nations of easy and difficult congelation when the strength
is varied, both in the case of the mineral acids and of spi-
Ht of wine. The greatest degree of cold obtained in these
experiments was — 781°.
14. An Account of Experiments made hy Mr John Mac-
nah, at Albany Fort, Hudsons Bay. Phil. Trans. 1788, p.
166. The points of easy congelation are still further in¬
vestigated, and illustrated by comparison with Mr Keir’s
experiments on the sulphuric acid. It was found that the
nitric acid was only liable to the aqueous congelation, un¬
less it was strong enough to dissolve one fourth of its
weight of marble; and that it had a point of easy con¬
gelation, when it was capable of dissolving ^5^%, the frozen
part exhibiting, in other cases, a tendency to approach to
this standard. Mr Keir had found that sulphuric acid of
the specific gravity 1-78 froze at 46°; and that it had an¬
other minimum when it was very highly concentrated.
15. On the Conversion of a Mixture of Dephlogisticated
and Phlogisticated Air into Nitrous Acid, by the Electric
Shock. Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 261. Some difficulties hav¬
ing occurred to the Continental chemists in the repetition
of this experiment, it was exhibited with perfect success,
by Mr Gilpin, to a number of witnesses. This was an in¬
stance of condescension which could scarcely have been
expected from the complete conviction which the author
of the discovery must have felt of his own accuracy, and of
the necessity of the establishment of his discovery, when
time should have been afforded for its examination.
16. On the Height of the Luminous Arch which was seen
on Feb. 23, 1784. Phil. Trans. 1790, p. 101. Mr Ca¬
vendish conjectures that the appearance of such arches
depends on a diffused light, resembling the aurora borea¬
lis, spread into a flattened space contained between two
planes nearly vertical, and only visible in the direction of
its breadth, so that they are never seen at places far re¬
mote from the direction of the surface; and hence it is
difficult to procure observations sufficiently accurate for
determining their height upon so short a base; but in the
present instance there is reason to believe that the height
must have been between fifty-two and seventy-one miles.
17. On the Civil Year of the Hindoos, and its Divisions,
with an Account of three Almanacs belonging to Charles
Wilkins, Esq. Phil. Trans. 1792, p. 383. The subject
of this paper is more intricate than generally interesting;
but it may serve as a specimen of the diligence which the
author employed in the investigation of every point more
or less immediately connected with his favourite objects.
The month of the Hindus is lunar in its duration, but
solar in its commencement; and its periods are extreme¬
ly complicated, and often different for different geogra¬
phical situations. The day is divided and subdivided
sexagesimally. The date of the year, in the epoch of the
Kaly Yug, expresses the ordinal number of years elapsed,
as it is usual with our astronomers to reckon their days ;
so that the year 100 would be the beginning of the second
century, and not the 100th year, or the end of the first
century, as in the European calendar; in the same man¬
ner as, in astronomical language, 1817 December 3Id.
18h. means six o’clock in the morning of the 1st of Janu¬
ary 1818.
18. Experiments to determine the Density of the Earth.
Phil. Trans. 1798, p. 469. The apparatus with which
this highly important investigation was conducted had
been invented and constructed many years before by the
reverend John Michell, who did not live to perform the
experiments for which he intended it. Mr Cavendish,
however, by the accuracy and perseverance with which
he carried on a course of observations of so delicate a na¬
ture, as well as by the skill and judgment with which he
obviated the many unforeseen difficulties that occurred in
its progress, and determined the corrections of various
kinds which it was necessary to apply to the results, has
deserved no less gratitude from the cultivators of astrono¬
my and geography than if the idea had originally been
his own. The method employed was to suspend by a ver¬
tical wire a horizontal bar, having a leaden weight at each
end; to determine the magnitude of the force of torsion
by the time occupied in the lateral vibrations of the bar;
and to measure the extent of the change produced in its
264
CAVENDISH.
Cavendish, situation by the attraction of two large masses of lead
placed on opposite sides of the case containing the appa¬
ratus, so that this attraction might be compared with the
weight of the balls, or, in other words, with the attraction
of the earth. In this manner the mean density of the
earth was found to be five and a half times as great as
that of water; and although this is considerably more than
had been inferred from Dr Maskelyne s observations on
the attraction of Shichallain, yet the experiments agree so
well with each other, that we can scarcely suppose any
material error to have affected them. Mr Michell s ap¬
paratus resembled that which M. Coulomb had employed
in his experiments on magnetism, but he appears to have
invented it some time before the publication of M. Cou¬
lomb’s Memoirs. _
19. On (in improved Method of Dividing Astronomical
Instruments. Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 221. Hie merits of
this improvement have not been very highly appreciated
by those who are in the habit of executing the divisions
of circular arcs. It consists in a mode of employing a
microscope, with its cross wires, as a substitute for one of
the points of a beam compass, while another point draws
a faint line on the face of the instrument in the usual
manner. The Duke de Chaulnes had before used micro-
scopal sights for dividing circles, but his method more
nearly resembled that which has been brought forward in
an improved form by Captain Kater; and Mr Cavendish,
by using a single microscope only, seems to have sacri¬
ficed some advantages which the-other methods appear to
possess ; but none of them has been very fairly tried ; and
our artists have hitherto continued to adhere to the modes
which they had previously adopted, and which it would
perhaps have been difficult for them to abandon, even if
they had been convinced of the advantages to be gained
by some partial improvements.
Such were the diversified labours of a philosopher who
possessed a clearness of comprehension, and an acuteness
of reasoning, which had been the lot of very few of his
predecessors since the days of Newton. Maclaurin and
Waring, perhaps also Stirling and Landen, were incompa¬
rably greater mathematicians ; but none of them attempt¬
ed to employ their powers of investigation in the pursuit
of physical discovery. Euler and Lagrange on the Con¬
tinent had carried the improvements of analytical reason¬
ing to an unparalleled extent; and they both, as well as
Daniel Bernoulli and D’Alembert, applied these powers
with marked success to the solution of a great variety of
problems in mechanics and in astronomy. But they made
no experimental discoveries of importance; and the splen¬
did career of chemical investigation which has since been
pursued with a degree of success unprecedented in his¬
tory, may be said to have been first laid open to mankind
by the labours of Mr Cavendish ; although the further dis¬
coveries of Priestley, Scheele, and Lavoisier, soon furnish¬
ed, in rapid succession, a superstructure commensurate to
the extent of the foundations so happily laid. “ What¬
ever the sciences revealed to Mr Cavendish,” says Cuvier,
“ appeared always to exhibit something of the sublime
and the marvellous; he weighed the earth; he render¬
ed the air navigable; he deprived water of the quality of
an elementand he denied to fire the character of a
substance. “ The clearness of the evidence on which
he established his discoveries, new and unexpected as
they were, is still more astonishing than the facts them¬
selves which he detected; and the works in which he has
made them public are so many masterpieces of sagacity
and of methodical reasoning, each perfect as a whole and
in its parts, and leaving nothing for any other hand to
correct, but rising in splendour with each successive year
that passes over them, and promising to carry down his
name to a posterity far more remote than his rank andCavei-!
connections could ever have enabled him to attain with- !
out them.”
In his manners Mr Cavendish had the appearance of a
quickness and sensibility almost morbid, united tea slight
hesitation in his speech, which seems to have depended
more on the constitution of his mind than on awy defi¬
ciency of his organic powers, and to an air of timidity and
reserve, which sometimes afforded a contrast, almost ludi¬
crous, with the sentiments of profound respect which weie
professed by those with whom he conversed. It is not im¬
possible that he may have been indebted to his love of se¬
vere study, not only for the decided superiority of his facul¬
ties to those of the generality of mankind, but even for his
exemption from absolute eccentricity of character. His
person was tall, and rather thin; his dress was singularly
uniform, although sometimes a little neglected. His pur¬
suits were seldom interrupted by indisposition ; but he suf¬
fered occasionally from calculous complaints. His retired
habits of life, and his disregard of popular opinion, appear
to have lessened the notoriety which might otherwise have
attached to his multiplied successes in science; but his me¬
rits were more generally understood on the Continent than
in this country, although it was not till he had passed the
age of seventy that he was made one of the eight foreign
associates of the institute of France.
Mr Cavendish was not less remarkable, in the latter part
of his life, for the immense accumulation of his pecuniary
property, than for his intellectual and scientific treasures.
His father died in 1783, being at that time eighty years
old, and the senior member of the Royal Society; but he
is said to have succeeded at an earlier period to a consi¬
derable inheritance left him by one of his uncles. He
resided principally at Clapham Common ; but his library
was latterly at his house in Bedford Square; and his
books were at the command of all men of letters, either
personally known to him, or recommended by his friends ;
indeed the whole arrangement was so impartially methodi¬
cal, that he never took down a book for his own use, with*
out entering it in the loan book ; and after the death of a
German gentleman, who had been his librarian, he appoint¬
ed a day on which he attended in person to lend any work
for the accommodation of the few who thought themselves
justified in applying to him for such books as they wished
to consult. He was constantly present at the meetings of
the Royal Society, as well as at the conversations held at
the house of the president; and he dined every Thursday
writh the club composed of its members. He had little
intercourse with general society, or even with his own fa¬
mily, and saw only once a year the person whom he had
made his principal heir. He is said to have assisted seve¬
ral young men whose talents recommended them to his
notice, in obtaining establishments in life ; but in his later
years such instances were certainly very rare. His tastes
and his pleasures do not seem to have been in unison with
those which are best adapted to the generality of man¬
kind ; and amidst the abundance of all the means ot ac¬
quiring every earthly enjoyment, he must have wanted
that sympathy which alone is capable of redoubling our
delights, by the consciousness that we share them in com¬
mon with a multitude of our friends, and of enhancing the
beauties of all the bright prospects that surround us, when
they are still more highly embellished by reflection “from
looks that we love.” He could have had no limitation
either of comfort or of luxury to stimulate him to exertion,
even his riches must have deprived him of the gratification
of believing, that each new triumph in science might pro¬
mote the attainment of some great object in life that he
earnestly desired ; a gratification generally indeed illusory,
but which does not cease to beguile us till we become ca-
C A V
lish.lous as well to the pleasures as to the sorrows of existence.
,But in midst of this “ painful pre-eminence,” he must still
have been capable of extending his sensibility over a still
wider field of time and space, and of looking forward to
the approbation of the wise and the good of all countries
and of all ages; and he must have enjoyed the highest
and purest of all intellectual pleasures, arising from the
consciousness of his own excellence, and from the certain¬
ty that, sooner or later, all mankind must acknowledge his
claim to their profoundest respect and highest veneration.
“ It was probably either the reserve of his manners,”
says Cuvier, “ or the modest tone of his writings, that
procured him the uncommon distinction of never having
his repose disturbed either by jealousy or by criticism.
Like his great countryman Newton, whom he resembled
in so many other respects, he died full of years and ho¬
nours, beloved even by his rivals, respected by the age which
he had enlightened, celebrated throughout the scientific
world, and exhibiting to mankind a perfect model of what
a man of science ought to be, and a splendid example of
that success which is so eagerly sought, but so seldom ob¬
tained.” The last words that he uttered were characte¬
ristic of his unalterable love of method and subordination ;
he had ordered his servant to leave him, and not to return
till a certain hour, intending to pass his latest moments in
the tranquillity of perfect solitude; but the servant’s im¬
patience to watch his master diligently having induced
him to infringe the order, he was severely reproved for his
indiscretion, and took care not to repeat the offence until
the scene was finally closed. Mr Cavendish died on the
24th of February 1810, and was buried in the family
vault at Derby. He left a property in the funds of about
L.700,000, which he divided into six equal parts, giving
two to Lord George Cavendish, the son of his first cousin,
one to each of his sons, and one to the Earl of Bessborough,
whose mother was also his first cousin. Some other perso¬
nal property devolved to Lord George as residuary legatee ;
and a landed estate of L.6000 a year descended to his only
brother, Mr Frederic Cavendish of Market Street, Herts,
a single man, and of habits of life so peculiarly retired, that
any further increase of income would have been still more
useless to him than it had been to the testator.
Much as Mr Cavendish effected for the promotion of
physical science throughout his life, it has not been un¬
usual, even for his warmest admirers, to express some re¬
gret that he did not attempt to do still more after his
death by the appropriation of a small share of his immense
and neglected wealth to the perpetual encouragement of
those objects which he had himself pursued with so much
ardour. But however we might be disposed to lament such
an omission, we have surely no reason to complain of his
determination to follow more nearly the ordinary course of
distribution of his property, among those whose relationship
would have given them a legal claim to the succession if
he had not concerned himself in directing it. We may
observe on many other occasions that the most successful
cultivators of science are not always the most strenuous
promoters of it in others ; as we often see the most ignorant
persons, having been rendered sensible by experience of
their own deficiencies, somewhat disposed to overrate the
value of education, and to bestow more on the improvement
of their children than men of profounder learning, who may
possibly have felt the insufficiency of their own accom¬
plishments for insuring success in the world. But even
if Mr Cavendish had been inclined to devote a large share
of his property to the establishment of fellowships or pro-
essorships, for the incitement of men oTtalents to a more
complete devotion of their lives to the pursuit of science,
it is very doubtful whether he could have entertained a
icasonable hope of benefiting his country by such an in-
C A V
stitution; for the highest motives that stimulate men to
exertion are not those which are immediately connected
with their pecuniary interests. The senators and the
statesmen of Great Britain are only paid in glory; and
where we seek to obtain the co-operation of the best edu¬
cated and the most enlightened individuals in any pursuit
or profession, we must hold out as incentives the posses¬
sion of high celebrity and public respect, assured that they
will be incomparably more effectual than any mercenary
considerations, which are generally found to determine a
crowd of commercial speculators to enter into competition
for the proposed rewards, and to abandon all further con¬
cern with the objects intended to be pursued as soon as their
avarice is gratified. To raise the rank of science in civil
life is therefore most essentially to promote its progress; and
when we compare the state not only of the scientific asso¬
ciations, but also of the learned professions, in this country
and among our neighbours, we shall feel little reason to
regret the total want of pecuniary patronage that is re¬
markable in Great Britain with respect to every indepen¬
dent department of letters, while it is so amply compen¬
sated by the greatef degree of credit and respectability
attached to the possession of successful talent. It must
not however be denied, that even in this point of view
there might be some improvement in the public spirit of
the country. Mr Cavendish was indeed neither fond of
giving nor of receiving praise ; and he was little disposed
to enliven the intervals of his serious studies by the pro¬
motion of social or convivial cheerfulness ; but it would at
all times be very easy for an individual, possessed of high
rank and ample fortune, of correct taste and elegant man¬
ners, to confer so much dignity on science and literature,
by showing personal testimonies of respect to acknow¬
ledged merit, as greatly to excite the laborious student
to the unremitting exertions of patient application, and
to rouse the man of brilliant talent to the noblest flights
of genius. (t. L.)
CAVERY, or Cauvery, a river of Flindustan, in the
province of Tanjore, which rises among the Coory Hills,
near the coast of Malabar, and passing through the My¬
sore near Seringapatam, Coimbetoor, and the Carnatic, be¬
low the Ghauts, falls into the sea by several mouths, after
a winding course of nearly 400 miles. Opposite to Tri-
chinopoly, in the Carnatic, the Cavery is divided into two
branches, and forms the island of Seringham. The north¬
ern branch is named the Coleroon, and is allowed to run
waste into the sea; but the southern, which is, strictly
speaking, the Cavery, has been distributed in a variety of
channels, by the skill and industry of the Hindus, into
the province of Tanjore, and this is one of the causes of
its extraordinary fertility.
CAVERYPANK, a large town of Hindustan, in the
Carnatic, district of Conjee. Near it is a large tank, about
eight miles long by three broad. Long. 79. 32. E. Lat.
12. 59. N.
CAVERYPORUM, a town of Hindustan, in the district
of North Coimbetoor, situated on the Cavery, which, du¬
ring the rainy season, is here a, wide stream. The fort
was built by a polygar, who ruled over a large territory in
the neighbourhood. The suburbs contain about a hundred
houses, with the ruins of a much greater number; and the
place being an entrepot of trade between the countries
above and below the Ghauts, has a custom-house. It is 86
miles south-east from Seringapatam. Long. 77. 55. E.
Lat. 11. 49. N.
CAVIANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra
di Lavoro, of the kingdom of Naples, containing 5431 in¬
habitants.
CAVIARE, a kind of food made of the hard roes of
sturgeon, formed into small cakes, about an inch thick
2 L
265
Cavery
II
Caviare.
266
Cavite
C A X
and three or four inches broad. This kind of food is in
great request among the Muscovites, on account or then
three lents, which they keep with a superstitious exact¬
ness. A pretty large quantity of the commodity is also
consumed in Italy and France. These countries some¬
times procure the caviare from Archangel, but commonly
buy it at second hand of the English and Dutch.
CAVITE, a town in the Philippines, in the island of Lu¬
zon, situated on a tongue of low land within the Bay of
Manilla. It is the capital of a province of the same name,
and was formerly a place of more importance. It now has
a garrison of 150 men, who occupy the castle of M Philip,
which is of a square form, with four bastions. M. Perouse
calculated the inhabitants at 4000, all of whom, with the
exception of the governor, are mulattoes and Indians.
There is ample depth of water in the bay for the largest
ships ; but it is infested by a worm which penetrates their
planks and timbers, and soon renders them unfit for sea.
It is distant nine miles south-west of Manilla, of which it is
the proper port; yet the passage boats from the one place
to the other are liable to be taken by the Malay pirates,
and the people sold as slaves. Long. 120. 48. E. Lat.
14.34. N. . , . „
CAWNPORE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Allahabad, situated on the western bank of the Ganges.
It is an ancient Hindu town, on the high road between
Culpee and Lucknow, forty-nine miles south-west from
the latter place ; and it formerly carried on a considerable
trade. It is now better known as the chief military sta¬
tion of the British in the ceded provinces. The buildings
which have been erected here for the accommodation of
the troops are, barracks for four hundred artillery, two
regiments of European and three of native cavalry, and
seven thousand native infantry, with a general hospital
for the reception of the sick. The officers of every de¬
scription provide their own lodgings, which consist of ele¬
gant bungalow's built without any regularity,^ and which
extend about six miles along the Ganges. Cawnpore is
situated in the upper part of that vast plain which extends
from the Bay of Bengal to the mountains of Ihibet. It is
subject to great heats. The hot winds blow here with
great violence during the months of April, May, and
June; not a drop of rain falls; and from the parched
ground clouds of dust arise so thick as to obscure the sun,
and to envelope the station in darkness. Cawnpore is ne¬
vertheless esteemed a healthy station. After the cession
of the country between the Ganges and the Jumna to the
British in the year 1802, Cawnpore was made one of the
civil stations, and an establishment appointed for the ad¬
ministration of justice and the collection of the revenue.
The adjacent country is highly improved, and has greatly
profited by the demand of the Europeans, and the high
prices given, for agricultural produce. In the adjacent
country Indian corn, grain, barley, and wheat, are culti¬
vated ; and in their season turnips, cabbages, and Euro¬
pean vegetables, are abundant. Grapes, peaches, with a
profusion of fruit, have been long supplied by Europeans.
It is 49 miles south-west from Lucknow. Long. 80. 21.
E. Lat. 26. 30. N.
C AX AM ARC A, a province of Peru, bounded on the
north by Jaen, on the east by Chachapoyas, on the south¬
east by Caxamarquilla, on the south by Huamachuco, and
on the west by Sana and Truxillo. It is a hundred and
twenty miles in length by a hundred and eight in breadth,
and lies between the fifth and eighth degrees of south la¬
titude. The country is in general mountainous, being
intersected in many parts by the great ridges which di¬
verge from the main chain of the Andes ; and it is on this
account subjected to every variety of temperature. It
abounds in fruits and cattle. The inhabitants, who are for
CAY
the most part Indians, amount to about 50,000, andareCax; a
chiefly employed in weaving.
Caxamarca, the capital of the above province, stands Ca) t
upon a level plain, and is of an irregular figuse. It was
at one time a royal city ; and here Atahuapa, the last Inca
of Peru, was put to death by the Spaniards. 4 he popula¬
tion amounts to about 12,000. Long. 78. 35. W. Lat. 7.
3. S.
CAXAMARQUILLA, a province of Peru, sometimes
called Pataz or Pata. It is bounded on the east by the
mountainous country possessed by the Indians, on the north¬
east and north by Chachapoyas, on the west and north-west
by the river Amazons, here called the lunguragua, and on
the south by Guamalies. It is seventy-eight miles long
and eighteen broad, and is rugged and uneven. The tem¬
perature is various. In the hot and temperate parts maize,
wheat, potatoes, bark, French beans, herbs, and sugar¬
cane, are produced. There are several gold and silver
mines to be found in this province. The population
amounts to about 8000. The capital is an insignificant
place of the same name, situated in lat. 7. 36. S.
CAXATAMBA, a province of Peru, bounded on the
north by Guailas, on the north-east by Chonchuios, on the
east by Guamalies, on the south-east by Tarma, on the
south by Chancay, and on the north-west by Santa. It is
a hundred miles from north-east to south-west, and about
the same extent from north-west to south-east. It lies
for the most part amongst elevated mountains, and is con¬
sequently cold; but it abounds in all sorts of seeds and
fruits, and cattle of every species are plentiful, more es¬
pecially sheep, from the fleece of which its inhabitants
manufacture cloth of a peculiar kind. The capital, which
is of the same name, is situated in lat. 10. 27. S.
CAXTON, William, memorable for having first intro¬
duced the art of printing into his native country, was born
in Kent about the year 1410. Haying served an appren¬
ticeship to a mercer, Caxton on his demise went to the
Netherlands as agent for the mercer s company, in which
situation he continued about twenty-three years. Whilst
abroad he became acquainted with the newly-discovered
art of printing, and in 1471 printed at Cologne a work en¬
titled “ The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, by Raoul
le FI cure.” This book is very valuable, as being the ear¬
liest specimen of typography in the English language.
After this he printed several works abroad, and at length
returned to his native country, furnished with mateiials
for practising the art. The first work he printed after
his arrival, was the “ Game and Playe of the Chesse, the
first book executed in England. Caxton continued to ex¬
ercise this new vocation for about twenty years, during
which time he produced between fifty and sixty volumes,
most of which were composed or translated by himself.
His books are printed on a sort of vellum paper, and the
errors of the press are corrected in red ink with his own
hand, what are technically termed errata being then un¬
known. The life of Caxton has been written by the Rev.
John Lewis, minister of Margate in Kent, London, 173/,
one volume large 8vo; and the reader may also consul
Middleton’s “ Dissertation on the Origin of Printing in
England.” He died in 1492, and was interred, according
to some, in Campden, Glamorganshire ; whilst others state
that his remains were deposited in St Margaret s, West-
minster.
CAYAGAN Sooloo Isles, a group of islands in the
Eastern Seas, lying off the north-east coast of Borneo.
The largest is about twenty miles in circumference, of a
middling size. The soil is rich and luxuriant, and it is
covered with trees. In 1774 it was dependent on Soo oo,
and was much frequented by pirates. Long. 118. 5 .
Lat. 70. N.
CAY
ne CAYENNE, an island of South America, in French
Guiana, about eighteen miles in length by ten in breadth.
s. jj jias the Atlantic Ocean on the north and east, and is
Uv' separated from the main land of Guiana by the rivers Cay¬
enne and Ouya. The soil is fertile, and that part which
faces the north is pleasant and healthy. To the south the
country is lower, and abounds in meadows, which are in¬
undated by the periodical rains. The most noted produc¬
tion is Cayenne pepper; coffee, sugar, cotton, cocoa, in¬
digo, maize, cassia, and vanilla, are also raised.
Cayenne, the capital of the above island, is situated
upon its north point, at the mouth of the Cayenne. It pos¬
sesses a large and convenient port, and contains about two
hundred houses. Long. 52. 16. W. Lat. 4. 56. N.
Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of
the capsicum, an annual plant, and a native of both the
Indies. The best, which is brought home from the West
Indies ready prepared, is made from the capsicum baccatum,
or bird pepper. It has an aromatic, extremely- pungent,
acrimonious taste, inflaming the mouth, and leaving an im¬
pression on the palate which continues for a considerable
time.
CAYLUS, Anne-Claude, Philippe de TubiePcEs, de
Grimoard, de Pestels, de Levi, Count de, Marquis
d’Esternay, Baron de Bransac, was born at Paris in Octo¬
ber 1692. He was the eldest of the two sons of John
Count de Caylus, lieutenant-general of the armies of the
king of France, and of the marchioness de Villette. His
father and mother were very careful of the education of
their son. The former instructed him in the profession of
arms and in bodily exercises ; the latter watched over and
fostered the virtues of his mind, and this delicate task she
discharged with singular success. The countess wtis the
aunt of Madame de Maintenon, and remarkable alike for
the solidity of her understanding and the charms of her
wit. She was the author of the agreeable book entitled,
The Recollections of Madame de Caylus, of which Vol¬
taire published an elegant edition. The amiable qualities
of the mother appeared in the son, but they appeared with
a bold and military air. In his natural temper he was gay
and sprightly, having a taste for pleasure, a strong passion
for independence, and an invincible aversion to the ser¬
vitude of a court. Count de Caylus was only twelve years
of age when his father died at Brussels in 1704. After
finishing his exercises, he entered into the corps of the
Mousquetaires ; and in his first campaign, in the year 1709,
he distinguished himself so much by his valour, that Louis
XIV. commended him before all the court, and rewarded
him with an ensigncy in the gens-darmerie. In 1711 he
commanded a regiment of dragoons, which was called by
his own name, and signalized himself at the head of it
in Catalonia. In 1713 he was present at the siege of Fri¬
bourg, where he was exposed to imminent danger in the
bloody attack of the covered way. The peace of llastadt
having left him in a state of inactivity ill suited to his na¬
tural temper, his vivacity soon led him to travel into Italy ;
and his curiosity was greatly excited by the wonders of
that country, where antiquity is still fruitful, and produces
so many objects to improve the taste and to excite the
admiration. After a year’s absence, he returned to Paris
with so strong a passion for travelling and for antiquities,
that he resolved to quit the army, and to devote himself
entirely to these pursuits.
He had no sooner left the service of Louis than he set
out for the Levant; and, having arrived at Smyrna, pro¬
ceeded to Constantinople, where he made some stay. He
next visited Greece, and other countries of the East rich
in historical recollections or in ancient monuments; ex¬
posed himself to fatigue, the inclemency of the weather,
contagion, and even the cupidity of brigands, in order to
CAY 267
gratify his desire of knowledge; visited the ruins of Ephe- Caylus.
sus, including those of Colophon and the temple of Diana,
under the escort of robbers belonging to a troop or band
called Caracayali; returned to Byzantium by the Dar¬
danelles ; and lastly repaired to Adrianople, where the
sultan, Mustapha II.. then resided. But in February 1717
he was recalled from the East by the tenderness of his
mother. From that time he only left France to make
two excursions to London. The Academy of Painting
and Sculpture admitted him as an honorary member in
the year 1731; and the count, whose ambition it was to
deserve such a distinction, spared neither his labour, his
credit, nor his fortune, to instruct, assist, and animate
the artists. He wrote the lives of the most celebrated
painters and engravers who had done honour to this illus¬
trious academy ; and, in order to extend the limits of the
art, he collected, in three different works, new subjects
for painting which he had met with in the works of the
ancients.
Such was his passion for antiquity, that he wished to
have had it in his power to bring the whole of it to life
again. He saw with regret that the works of the ancient
painters were effaced and destroyed almost as soon as they
were drawn from the subterranean mansions where they
had been buried. But a fortunate accident furnished him
with the means of showing the composition and the colour ¬
ing of the pictures of ancient Rome. The coloured draw¬
ings which Pietro S. Bartoli had taken there from antique
pictures happening to fall into his hands, he had them
engraved ; and, before he enriched the king of France’s
cabinet with this production, he published an edition of it
at his own expense. It is perhaps the most extraordinary
book of antiquities that ever will appear, the whole being
painted with a purity and precision which are altogether
inimitable. There were only thirty copies published, and
there is no reason to expect that there will hereafter be
any more.
Count de Caylus was at the same time engaged in an
enterprise not less illustrative of Roman greatness, and still
more interesting to the French nation. Colbert had form¬
ed the design of engraving the Roman antiquities which
are still to be seen in the southern provinces of France;
and by his orders Mignard the architect had made draw¬
ings of them, which Count de Caylus had the good for¬
tune to recover. He therefore resolved to finish the work
begun by Colbert, and to dedicate it to that great mini¬
ster ; and so much had he this enterprise at heart, that he
was employed in it during his last illness, and warmly re¬
commended it to M. Mariette.
In 1742 Count Caylus was admitted as an honorary
member of the Academy of Belles Lettres; and then it was
that he seemed to have found the place for which nature
designed him. The study of literature now became his
ruling passion; he consecrated to it his time and his for¬
tune ; he even renounced his pleasures to give himself
wholly up to the object of making some discovery in the
field of antiquity. But amidst the fruits of his research
and invention nothing afforded him so much gratification
as his discovery of encaustic painting. A description of
Pliny, too concise to give a clear view of the matter to an
ordinary reader, suggested the idea of this art to M. de Cay¬
lus. He availed himself of the friendship and skill of M.
Magault, a physician in Paris, and an excellent chemist •
and by repeated experiments discovered the secret of in¬
corporating wax with various tints and colours, and of ren¬
dering it manageable with the pencil. Pliny has made men¬
tion of two kinds of encaustic painting practised by the an¬
cients, one of which was executed with wax on various sub¬
stances, and the other upon ivory with hot punches of iron.
It was the former kind, however, that Count de Caylus had
268 C A U
Caylus. the merit of reviving; and M. Muntz afterwards made
many experiments in order to carry it to perfection.
In the hands of Count Caylus, literature and the arts
lent each other mutual aid. But it would be endless to
give an account of all his works. He published above
forty dissertations in the Memoirs ot the Academy of
Belles-Lettres. To the artists he was particularly atten¬
tive ; and in order to prevent their falling into mistakes
from ignorance of costume, which the ablest of them have
sometimes done, he founded a prize of five hundred livres,
the object of which was to explain, by means of authors
and monuments, the usages of ancient nations. In order
that he might enjoy with the whole world the treasures
which he had collected, he caused them to be engraved,
and gave a learned description of them in a work which
he embellished with eight hundred copperplates.
The strength of his constitution seemed to give him
hopes of a long life; but a humour settling in one of his
legs, entirely destroyed his health, and he expired on the
5th of September 1765. His character is thus drawn by
a French biographer:—“ A severe probity, a rooted aver¬
sion to flattery, great indifference about honours, a singular
simplicity, perhaps sometimes a little despotism in his opi¬
nions, formed the basis of his character. In him young
artists found both a guide and a friend; and with a dis¬
cernment and a delicacy still more rare than generosity,
he anticipated the wants of those whose progress would
have been otherwise retarded by the narrowness of their
means. Naturally beneficent, he sometimes amused him¬
self when he met a pauper whose appearance indicated
probity, by giving him a louis to get changed, and then
concealing himself where he could enjoy the poor crea¬
ture’s embarrassment when the person from whom he re¬
ceived the gold was not to be found. Caylus, indeed,
never knew any other luxury than that of liberality. His
dress, in particular, was so plain that, having one clay
stopped before a shop on which a sign-painter was paint¬
ing a figure of St Francis, the latter, taking him for one
of his comrades, asked his opinion respecting the work,
which Caylus instantly gave him, and which delighted
the painter so much, that he put the pallet and pencil
into the hand of his new acquaintance, and begged him
to retouch the picture. Caylus mounted the ladder, and
having succeeded to the entire satisfaction of the paint¬
er, the latter wished to take him to a neighbouring tavern,
when the carriage of the Count arrived, and his footman
opened the door for his master. The painter of saints and
signs was stupefied with astonishment; but Caylus, taking
him by the hand, said, Au revoir, camarade, ce sera pour
la premiere fois que 7ious nous rencontreronsr
The numerous literary works of Count Caylus may be di¬
vided into three classes ; humorous pieces and romances ;
productions relative to the fine arts ; and those which treat
exclusively of antiquities. I. The first class consists of, 1.
LesEccosseuses,ou les GEufsdePdques, Troyes, 1739 et!745,
12mo ; 2. Histoire de Guillaume, cocker, T2mo ; 3. Feeries
Nouvelles, Paris, 1742, 2 vols. 12mo ; 4. Soirees du Bois de
Boulogne, Paris, 1742, 12mo; 5. Etrennes de la St Jean, in
conjunction with Moncrieff, Crebillon the younger, Duclos,
La Chausse, Voisenon, and others; 6. Contes Orientaux,
1743,12mo ; 7. Histoire de Mile. Cronel, dite Fretillon (Mile.
Clairon), Paris 1743, 12mo ; 8. Histoires Nouvelles et Me-
moires ramasses, Paris, 1743; 9. Quelques Aventures des
BalsdeBois, 1745, 12mo; 10. Cinq Contes des Fees, 1745,
i2mo ; \\. Recueil de ces Messieurs, 1745, 12mo; 12. Les
Manteaux, Paris, 1746, 12mo; 13. Les Fetes roidantes et
les Regrets des petites rues, 1747, 12mo; 14. Memoires de
VAcademic des Colporteurs, 1748, 8vo; 15. Le Calsandre
fidele, translated from the Italian of Marini, Paris, 1740,
3 vols. 12mo; 16. Histoire du Vaillant Chevalier Tyran-le-
C E C
Blanc, translated from the Spanish, London, 1775, 3 vols. Cadi
12mo; with some other pieces which are attributed to IH
him. II. His works relating to the fine arts arc, 1. Nem-
veaux Sujets dePeintre et de Sculpture, Paris, 1755, 12mo; ^ '
2. Tableaux tires de VRiade, de V Odyssee et de l Eneide,
avec des Observations generales sur le Costume, Paris, 1757,
8vo; 3. Histoire d'Hercule le Thebain, Paris, 1758, 8vo;
4. Les Vies de Mignard et de Lemoyne in the Recueil des
premiers PeiMres du Roi, Paris, 1752, 8vo; 5. Memoire sur \
la Peinture d VEncaustique, 1755, 8vo ; 6. Description dun
tableau representant la sacrifice dLphigenie, 1757, 12mo;
7. Vie dEdme Bouchardon, Paris, 1762, 12mo. III. His
works relative to antiquities are, 1. Recueil dAntiquites
Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques, Romaines, et Gatdoises,
Paris, 1752, and the years following, 7 vols. 4to ; 2. Numis-
mata Aurea Lmperatorum Romanorum, without date, 4to,
very rare ; Recueil de Medailles du Cabinet du Roi, no date,
4to, also very rare; 4. Dissertation sur le Papyrus, Paris,
1758, 4to, in the Memoires de l"Academic des Inscriptions;
5. Recueil de Peintures antiques, Paris, 1757, fol.
CAYSTER, or Caystrus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Ionia, the embouchure of which Ptolemy places
between Colophon and Ephesus. It is commended by the
poets for its swans, which it had in great numbers. Its
source was in the Montes Cilbiani. After many windings
through the plains of Ephesus, it becomes deeper, and
flows smoothly into the sea near that city. At the foot
of Mount Gallesus it is crossed by an ordinary bridge of
three arches. It is sometimes called by the Turks Little
Meendras, after the river Meander, which it resembles in
its windings. Caijstrius Campus was part of the territory
of Ephesus. The Campi Caijstriani of Lydia were plains
lying in the middle between the inland parts and Mount
Tmolus.
CAZIC, or Cazique, a title given by the Spaniards to
the petty kings, princes, and chiefs, of the several coun¬
tries of America.
CEBES, of Thebes, a Socratic philosopher, author of
the admired Tablet of Cebes ; or, Dialogues on the Birth,
Life, and Death of Mankind. He flourished about 405 years
before Christ. The above piece is mentioned by Lucian,
Diogenes Laertius, Tertullian, and Suiclas; but of Cebes
himself we have no account, save an accidental notice by
Plato, and another by Xenophon. The former says in his
Phcedo, that Cebes was a sagacious investigator of truth,
and never assented without the most convincing reasons;
the latter, in his Memorabilia, ranks him among the few in¬
timates of Socrates vdio excelled the rest in the innocence
of their lives. The Tabula of Cebes is usually printed
with the Manuale of Epictetus.
CECIL, William, Lord Burghley, treasurer of Eng¬
land in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the son of
Richard Cecil, Esq. master of the robes to King Henry
VIII. He was born in the house of his grandfather, David
Cecil, Esq. at Bourn, in Lincolnshire, in the year 1520,
and received the rudiments of his education in the gram¬
mar school at Grantham. From this seminary he was re¬
moved to Stamford, and about the year 1535 was entered of
St John’s College, Cambridge. Here he began his studies
with a degree of enthusiastic application very uncommon
in young gentlemen of family. At the age of sixteen he
read a sophistry lecture, and at nineteen a voluntary
Greek lecture, which was the more extraordinary as at
that time the Greek language was by no means univer¬
sally understood. In 1541 he went to London, and be¬
came a member of the society of Gray’s Inn, with an in¬
tention of studying the law; but he had not been long m
this situation before an accident introduced him to King
Plenry, and gave a new bias to his pursuits. O’Neil, a fa¬
mous Irish chief, having brought to court with him two
C E C
Irish chaplaics, violent bigots to the Romish faith, Mr Ce-
L/ cjj; happening to meet these ecclesiastics when on a visit
to his father, had a warm dispute with them in Latin, in
which he displayed uncommon abilities. The king, being
informed of the circumstance, ordered the young man into
his presence, and was so pleased with his conversation that
he commanded his father to find a place for him. He ac¬
cordingly requested the reversion of the custos brevium,
which Mr Cecil afterwards possessed. About this time he
married the sister of Sir John Cheke, by whom he was re¬
commended to the Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of
Somerset and protector.
Soon after King Edward’s accession, Mr Cecil came
into the possession of the office of custos brevium, worth
about L.240 a year; and his first lady dying in 1543, he
married the daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, director of the
king’s studies, in 1547 he was appointed by the protector
master of requests, and soon afterwards attended his noble
patron in his expedition against the Scots, and wras pre¬
sent at the battle of Musselburgh. In this battle, which
was fought on the 10th of September 1547, Mr Cecil’s
life was miraculously preserved by a friend, who, on push¬
ing him out of the line of a cannon-shot, had his arm shat¬
tered to pieces. The sight and judgment of his friend must
have been as extraordinary as his friendship, to perceive
the precise direction of a cannon-ball; unless we suppose
that the ball was almost quite spent, in which case the
thing is not impossible. The story is told in his life by a
domestic. In the year 1548 Mr Cecil was made secretary
of state; but in the following year the Duke of Northum¬
berland’s faction prevailing, he suffered in the disgrace of
the protector Somerset, and was sent prisoner to the
Tower. After three months’ confinement he was released,
restored to his office in 1551, and soon afterwards knight¬
ed and sworn of the privy council. In 1553 he was made
chancellor of the order of the Garter, with an annual fee
of a hundred merks.
On the death of Edward VI. Sir William Cecil prudently
refused to have any concern in Northumberland’s attempt
in favour of the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey; and when
Queen Mary succeeded to the throne, he was graciously
received at court; but not choosing to change his religion,
was dismissed from all his employments. During this reign
he was twice elected knight of the shire for the county of
Lincoln, and often spoke in the House of Commons with
great freedom and firmness, in opposition to the ministry.
Nevertheless, though a protestant and a patriot, he had
die address to steer through a very dangerous sea without
suffering shipwreck.
Queen Elizabeth’s accession, in the year 1558, immedi¬
ately dispelled the cloud which had obscured his fortunes
and ministerial capacity. During the horrid reign of her
sister he had constantly corresponded with the princess
Elizabeth ; upon the very day of her accession, he present¬
ed her with a paper containing twelve articles necessary
for her immediate dispatch ; and, in a few days after, he was
sworn of the privy council, and made secretary of state.
His first advice to the queen was to call a parliament; and
the first business he proposed after it had assembled was
the establishment of a national church. A plan of refor¬
mation was accordingly drawn up under his immediate
inspection, and the legal establishment of the church of
England was the consequence. Sir William Cecil’s next
important concern was to restore the value of the coin,
which had been considerably debased in the preceding
reigns. In 1561 he was appointed master of the wards,
and, in 1571, created Baron of Burghley as a reward for his
| services, particularly in having lately stifled a formidable
rebellion in the north. The following year he was ho¬
noured with the garter, and raised to the office of lord
C E C 269
high treasurer of England. From this period we find him Cecilia,
the prime mover of every material transaction during the
glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth. Notwithstanding the
temporary influence of other favourites, Lord Burghley
was, in fact, her prime minister, and the person in whom
she chiefly confided in matters of real importance. Hav¬
ing filled the highest and most important offices of the go¬
vernment for forty years, and guided the helm of the state
during the most glorious period of English history, he de¬
parted this life on the 4th of August 1598, in the seventy-
eighth year of his age. His body was removed to Stam¬
ford, and there deposited in the family vault, where a
magnificent tomb was erected to his memory.
He wrote, 1. La Complainte de V Ame pecker esse, or the
Complaint of a sinful Soul, in French verse; 2. Materials
for Patten’s Diarium Exped. Scoticcc, London, 1541, 12mo ;
3. Slanders and Lies, maliciously, grossly, and impudently
vomited out in certain traitorous books and pamphlets
against two counsellors, Sir Francis Bacon and Sir William
Cecil; 4. A Speech in Parliament, 1562, Strype’s Mem.
vol. iv. p. 107 ; 5. Precepts or Directions for the well or¬
dering of a Man’s Life, 1637, Hark Cat. vol. ii. p. 755;
6. Meditations on the Death of his Lady, Ballard’s Mem.
p. 184; 7. Meditations on the state of England during
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, manuscript; 8. The execu¬
tion of justice in England for the maintenance of public
and Christian peace, &c. Lond. 1581, 1583, Somer’s Tracts,
4th Collect, vol. i. p. 5 ; 9. Advice to Queen Elizabeth
in Matters of Religion and State, ib. p. 101, 106; 10. A
great number of Letters ; 11. Several Pedigrees, some of
which are preserved in the Archbishop of Canterbury’s
library at Lambeth.
CECILIA, St, the patroness of music, has been honour¬
ed as a martyr ever since the fifth century. Her story,
as delivered by the Notaries of the Roman Catholic church,
and thence transcribed into the Golden Legend and other
books of the like kind, says that she was a Roman lady,
born of noble parents about the year 295; that, notwith¬
standing she had been converted to Christianity, her pa¬
rents married her to a young Pagan nobleman named Va-
lerianus, who, going to bed to her on the wedding night,
was given to understand by his spouse, that she was night¬
ly visited by an angel, and that he must forbear to approach
her, otherwise the angel would destroy him. Yalerianus,
somewhat troubled at these words, desired that he might
see his rival the angel; but his spouse told him that was
impossible, unless he would consent to be baptized and be¬
come a Christian. This he consented to, after which, re¬
turning to his wife, he found her in her closet at prayer,
and by her side, in the shape of a beautiful young man, an
angel clothed with brightness. After some conversation
with the angel, Valerianus told him that he had a brother
named Tiburtius, whom he greatly desired to see a par¬
taker of the grace which he himself had received. The
angel answered that his desire was granted, and that they
should be both crowned with martyrdom in a short time.
Upon this the angel vanished, and was not long in show¬
ing that he had kept his word; for Tiburtius was convert¬
ed, and both he and his brother Valerianus were beheaded.
Cecilia was offered her life upon condition that she wTould
sacrifice to the deities of the Romans, but she refused ;
upon which she was thrown into a caldron of boiling wa¬
ter, and scalded to death. Others say, that she was stifled
in a dry bath, or an enclosure from which the air had been
excluded, heated by a slow fire underneath; a kind of death
which was sometimes inflicted by the Romans upon wo¬
men of quality who were criminals. Upon the spot where
her house stood is a church, said to have been built by
Pope Urban I., who administered baptism to her husband
and his brother. This church is that of St Cecilia at Tras-
270 CEL
Cecrops tevere; and withm it is a most curious painting of the saint,
II as also a stately monument, with a cumbent statue having
Celebes, f"ace downwards. There is a tradition of St Cecilia
t]iat s]ie excelled in music, and that the angel who had
become enamoured of her was drawn from the celestial
regions by the charms of her melody ; and this has been
deemed sufficient authority for making her the patroness
of music and musicians. The legend of St Cecilia has given
frequent occasion to painters and sculptors to exercise
their genius in representations of her playing on the or¬
gan, and sometimes on the harp. Raphael has painted
her in the attitdue of singing with a regal in her hand, and
Domenichino and Mignard in that of singing and playing
on the harp.
CECROPS, the founder and first king of Athens, sup¬
posed to have been contemporary with Moses the lawgiver
of the Hebrews. He was the first who established civil go¬
vernment, religious rites, and marriage among the Greeks ;
and he died after a reign of fifty years. See Athens and
Attica.
CEDRENUS, George, a Grecian monk, who lived in
the eleventh century, and wrote Annals, or an abridged
History, from the beginning of the world to the reign of
Isaac Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, who succeed¬
ed Michael IV. in 1057. This work is no more than a com¬
pilation from several historians. There is an edition of it
printed at Paris in 1647, with the Latin version of Xy-
lander, and the notes of Father Goar, a Dominican.
CEFALU, a city of Italy, in the intendancy of Palermo,
in the island of Sicily. It stands on the sea-shore, is sur¬
rounded with walls, and contains 1460 houses, and 8937
inhabitants, who subsist chiefly by the fisheries, and by
carrying on a coasting trade.
CEILING, in Architecture, the top or roof a lower
room; or a covering of plaster over laths nailed on the
bottom of the joists which support the floor of the upper
room, or, where there is no upper room, on joists for the
purpose, hence called ceiling joists. The word ceiling an¬
swers pretty accurately to the Latin lacunar, meaning
every thing over head.
CEIMELIA, from xiigui, to be laid up, in Antiquity,
denotes choice or precious pieces of furniture or orna¬
ments, reserved or laid up for extraordinary occasions and
uses. In this sense sacred garments, vessels, and the like,
are reputed of the ceimelia of a church. Medals, antique
stones, figures, manuscripts, records, and the like, are the
ceimelia of men of letters.
CEIMELIARCHIUM, the repository or place where
ceimelia are preserved.
CEIMELIOPHYLAX (from and puXarrw, I
keep), the keeper or curator of a collection of ceimelia,
sometimes also denoted ceimeliarcha. The ceimeliarcha,
or ceimeliophylax, was an officer in the ancient churches
or monasteries, answering to what was otherwise denomi¬
nated chartophylax and custos archivorum.
CELARENT, among logicians, a mode of syllogism, in
which the major and the conclusion are universal negative
propositions, and the minor a universal affirmative.
E. gr. cE None whose understanding is limited can be omniscient.
IA Every man’s understanding is limited.
rEnt Therefore no man is omniscient.
CELASTRUS. In Senegal the negroes use the powder
of the root of this plant as a specific against gonorrhoeas,
which it is said to cure in eight, and sometimes in three
days. An infusion of the bark of a species of staff-tree,
which grows in the Isle of France, is said to possess the
same virtues.
CELEBES, an extensive island in the Indian archipe-
lago, situated between Java and Borneo, and extending
from about 2° north to 6° south latitude, and from 119° to
CEL
125° east longitude. It is of the most irregular form, con- Ce
sisting of four long peninsulas united togethei at a central 'w**. 1
point. It was first discovered by the Portuguese in 1525.
In 1660 that people were driven out by the Datch, who -
had to sustain a long series of contests with the natives,
till in 1699 they succeeded in forming a permanent settle¬
ment. Their principal establishment has always been
Fort Rotterdam, at Macassar, on the western coast of the
island, situated in 5° 9' south latitude, and 119° 48'east
longitude. The fort is about eight hundred feet from the
sea, and is well fortified with high and strong walls. The
town lies on a plain to the north, and is tolerably built, and
the streets are broad, crossing each other at right angles.
The trade is not considerable, the country affording few
articles of export except rice and a number of slaves for
the supply of Java. The chief object of the Dutch in mak¬
ing this settlement was to secure their communication with
the Spice Islands. They had repeated at-tacks to sustain
from the rajah of Macassar, whose power in 1778 they
finally subverted, and transferred the superiority to their
ally, the rajah of Bony. His territory is situated round
the great bay on the southern coast, called the Bay of
Bony, Sewa, or Buggess. The inhabitants are termed
Bonginese, or Bonnians, corrupted by the English into
Buggesses. These are a very remarkable people, and
possess many excellent qualities. In a manuscript ac¬
count which we have seen, written by a gentleman long
resident in this part of India, they are considered as by
much the most meritorious of the inhabitants of the East
India islands. They manufacture the cotton of their own
country, and of Java, into a species of cloths, which, from
their superior quality, are in universal demand through¬
out the archipelago. Their permanent residence he states
to be around a great lake in the interior, which they leave
at the commencement of the season favourable for navi¬
gation. They then sail down a river into the Bay of Bony,
whence they spread themselves over all the neighbour¬
ing seas. There is not a coast from the extremity of New
Holland to the Malay peninsula in which their prows are
not habitually seen. Besides exchanging their own com¬
modities for those of their neighbours, they act as carriers
between the countries that lie remote from each other.
Our informant describes their conduct as traders to be
not less upright and honourable than it is active and en¬
terprising. They defend themselves and their property
against the attacks of the Malay pirates with the most
heroic and desperate valour. Major Thorn, in his Ac¬
count of Java, mentions an instance in which a Bonginese
crew, being overcome and boarded, fired a barrel of gun¬
powder which was on board, and thus blew up at once
themselves and their assailants.
In 1814 the rajah of Bony being considered inimical to
the British government, an expedition was sent against him
from Java under General Nightingale. It arrived at Ma¬
cassar on the 7th of June, and immediately landed. The
British force, led by Colonel Macleod, attacked the town
and palace, and carried them in about an hour, though with
some loss, the rajah escaping into the interior of his domi¬
nions. A new government was then established; but the
revolution in Europe has, we believe, restored this settle¬
ment to the Dutch, its former possessors.
The interior of Celebes, and the remainder of its coasts,
are almost entirely unknown. The great bay of Gonong
Zello, on the east coast, presents many natural advantages.
Gold is exported from its coasts, and the amount is said
to be capable of almost indefinite augmentation. Tortoise
shell is likewise produced in considerable quantity. Ben-
tham Bay, to the south-east of Macassar, has a fort and
some trade. The country around produces excellent rice.
The exports are nearly similar to those of Borneo. Gold
CEL
is found, as there, in alluvial soil, washed down by the
rivers. Sometimes even springs, slightly impregnated
*• with that metal, issue from the rocks. The total value
1 of the gold exported is estimated by Mr Hamilton at
L.120,000. The cotton cloths manufactured in Celebes,
called cambays, are universally worn throughout the In¬
dian islands; but their use does not extend farther. The
imports coincide precisely with those of Borneo. (e.)
CELEBES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of body¬
guards belonging to the Roman kings, established by Ro¬
mulus, and composed of three hundred young men, chosen
out of the most illustrious Roman families, and approved
by the suffrages of the curiae of the people, each of which
furnished ten. The name was given them because of their
promptness to obey the king.
The celeres always attended near the king’s person, to
guard him, to be ready to carry his orders, and to execute
them. In war they formed the van-guard in the engage¬
ment, which they always began; in retreats they formed
the rear-guard. Though the celeres were a body of horse,
yet they usually dismounted and fought on foot. Their
commander was called tribune or prefect of the celeres.
They were divided into three troops of a hundred each,
commanded by a captain called centurio, and their tribune
was the second person in the kingdom. Plutarch says that
Numa broke the celeres. If this be true, they were soon re¬
established ; for we find them under most of the succeeding
kings. Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins, was tribune of
this corps delite.
CELERI, the English name of a variety of the Apium
Graveolens. See Horticulture.
CELERITY, in Mechanics, the swiftness of any body in
motion. It is also defined to be an affection of motion,
by which any movable body runs through a given space
in a given time.
CELESTINS, a religious order, so called from their
founder Peter de Meuron, afterwards raised to the ponti¬
ficate under the name of Celestin Y. This Peter, who was
born of mean parents at Ifernia, a little town in the king¬
dom of Naples, in the year 1215, retired, while very young,
to a solitary mountain, in order to dedicate himself wholly
to prayer and mortification. The fame of his piety attract¬
ed several, from curiosity, to see him; some of whom, charm¬
ed with his virtues, renounced the world in order to join
him in his solitude. With these he formed, in the year
1254, a kind of community, which was approved by Pope
Urban IV. ten years afterwards, and erected into a distinct
order, called the Hermits of St Damien. Peter de Meuron
governed this order till 1286, when his love of solitude
and retirement induced him to quit the charge. In July
1294, the great reputation of his sanctity raised him,
though much against his will, to the pontificate. He then
took the name of Celestin V. and his order that of Celestins
from him. By his bull he approved of their constitu¬
tions, and confirmed all their monasteries to the number
of twenty. But he occupied too short time the chair of St
Peter to do many great things for his order; for having
governed the church five months and a few days, he con¬
sidered that the great burden he had taken upon himself
was one to which he was no longer equal, and solemnly re¬
nounced the pontificate in a consistory held at Naples.
After his death, which happened in 1296, his order made
great progress, not only in Italy, but likewise in France
whither the then general, Peter of Tivoli, sent twelve re-
ngious persons, at the request of King Philip the Fair, who
gave them two monasteries; one in the forest of Orleans,
and the other in the forest of Compiegne at Mount Char¬
ges. Ibis order likewise passed into several provinces of
ermany. Ihey have about ninety-six convents in Italy,
and twenty-one in France, under the title of priories.
CEL
The Celestins use two hours after midnight to say ma¬
tins. They eat no flesh at any time, except when they
are sick. They fast every Wednesday and Friday, from
Easter to the feast of the exaltation of the holy cross ;
and, again, from that feast to Easter, every day. Their
habit consists of a white gown, a capuche, and a black sca-
pulary. In the choir, and when they go out of the monas¬
tery, they wear a black cowl with the capuche : their shirts
are of serge.
CELEIES, or Celet^ (from xsXjjj, a race-horse), in
Antiquity, denote single or saddle-horses, by way of con-
ti adistinction from those which were yoked or harnessed
together, and called bigarii, quadrigarii, &c. The same de¬
nomination is also given to the cavaliers, or riders on horse¬
back; and hence some deduce celeres, the name of Ro¬
mulus’s guard.
CELEUSMA, or Celeuma, in Antiquity, the shout or
cry of the seamen, by which they animated each other in
their work of rowing. The word is formed from xz'hivuv,
to call, or give the signal.
Celeusma was also a kind of song or formula, rehears¬
ed or played by the master or others, to direct the strokes
and movements of the mariners, as well as to encourage
them to labour.
CELEUSTES, in ancient navigation, the boatswain or
officer appointed to give the rowers the signal when they
were to pull, and when to stop, He is also denominated
epopius, and by the Romans portisculus, sometimes simply
hortator.
CELIBACY, the state of unmarried persons. Scali-
ger derives the word from the Greek xoirn, bed, and
Xsi-ttu, linquo, I leave; others say it is formed from cadi
beatitudo, that is, the blessedness of heaven.
The ancient Romans used all means imaginable to dis¬
courage celibacy. Nothing was more usual than for the
censors to impose a fine on bachelors. Dionysius Hali-
carnasseus mentions an ancient constitution by which all
persons of mature age were obliged to marry. But the first
law of that kind of which we have any certainty is that
under Augustus, called lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus.
It was afterwards denominated Papia Poppcea, and more
usually Julia Papia, in regard of some new sanctions and
amendments made to it under the consuls Papius and
Poppaeus. By this law various prerogatives were given to
persons who had many children; while penalties were im¬
posed on those who lived a single life, such as being de¬
clared incapable of receiving legacies exceeding a certain
amount or proportion.
CELIBATE, the same with celibacy; but it is chiefly
used in speaking of the single life of the Popish clergy, or
the obligation they are under to abstain from marriage.
In this sense we speak of the law of celibate. Monks and
religious persons take a vow of celibate, and, what is more,
of chastity.
The church of Rome imposes a universal celibacy on all
its clergy, from the pope to the lowest deacon and sub¬
deacon. The advocates for this usage pretend that a vow
of perpetual celibacy was required in the ancient church
as a condition of ordination, even from the earliest aposto¬
lic ages. But the contrary is evident, from numerous ex¬
amples of bishops and archbishops, who lived in a state of
matrimony, without any prejudice to their ordination cr
their function. It is generally agreed that most of the
apostles wrere married; some say all of them, except St
Paul and St John; while others say St Paul himself was
married, because he writes to his yokefellow, whom they
interpret to mean his wife. Be this as it may, in the next
ages after the apostles we have accounts of divers married
bishops, presbyters, and deacons, without any reproof or
mark of dishonour set on them, for instance, Valens, pres-
272
CEL
Cell.
Celidogra- byter of Philippi, mentioned by Polycarp, and Chaeremon,
phia bishop of Nilus. Novatus was a married presbyter or Car¬
thage, as we learn from Cyprian, who himself was also a
married man, as Pagi confesses; and so was Csecilius, tie
presbyter who converted him, and Numidius, another pies-
byter of Carthage. The reply which the Romanists give to
this is, that all married persons, when they came to be or¬
dained, promised to live separate from their wives by con¬
sent, which answered the vow of celibacy in other persons.
But this is not only said without proof, but against it; for
Novatus, presbyter of Carthage, was certainly allowed to
cohabit with his wife after ordination, as appears from the
charge which Cyprian brings against him, that he had struck
and abused his wife, and thereby caused her to miscarry.
There seems indeed to have been in some cases a tendency
towards the introduction of such a law by one or two zea¬
lots ; but the motion was no sooner made than it was quash¬
ed by the authority of wiser men. Thus Eusebius observes,
that Pinytus, bishop of Gnossus in Crete, was for laying the
law of celibacy upon his,brethren ; but Dionysius, bishop
of Corinth, wrote to him that he should consider the weak¬
ness of men, and not impose that heavy burden on them.
In the council of Nice, in the year 325, the motion was
renewed for a law to oblige the clergy to abstain from all
conjugal society with their wives, whom they had mairied
before their ordination; but Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian
bishop, and one who himself was not married, vigorously de¬
claimed against it, upon which it was unanimously reject¬
ed. Thus Socrates and Sozomen tell the story; and all
that Valesius, after Bellarmin, has to say against it is, that
he suspects the truth of it. The council of Trullo, held in
692, made a difference in this respect between bishops
and presbyters; allowing presbyters, deacons, and all the
inferior orders, to cohabit with their wives after ordina¬
tion ; and giving the Roman church a smart rebuke for
the contrary prohibition, but at the same time laying an
injunction upon bishops to live separate from their wives,
and appointing the wives to betake themselves to a mo¬
nastic life, or become deaconesses in the church. And
thus was a total celibate established in the Greek church
as to bishops, but not as to any others. In the Latin church
a similar rule was established, but by slow degrees in many
places; for in Africa even bishops themselves cohabited
with their wives at the time of the council of Trullo. The
celibacy of the clergy, however, appears of ancient stand¬
ing, and if not of command and necessity, yet of counsel
and choice. But as it is clearly neither of divine nor apos¬
tolical institution, it is not at first easy to conceive from
what motive the court of Rome could have persisted so
obstinately in imposing this institution on the clergy. But
we are to observe that this was a leading step to the exe¬
cution of the project formed of making the clergy inde¬
pendent of princes, and rendering them a separate body
to be governed by their own laws. In effect, while priests
had children, it was difficult to prevent their dependence
on princes, whose favours have such an influence upon
private men; but having no family, they were more at
liberty to adhere to the pope.
CELIDOGRAPHIA, the description of the spots which
appear on the surfaces or discs of the sun and planets.
CELINDRO, or Chelindreh, a small sea-port and bay
of Asia Minor, on the coast of Caramania, where the cou¬
riers from Constantinople embark for the island of Cyprus.
It has several remains of antiquity near it, and it is sup¬
posed to be the ancient Celenderis of Strabo. It is fifty-
four miles north of Cerino, in the island of Cyprus.
CELL (Celia), in ancient writers, denotes a place or
apartment, usually under ground, and vaulted, in which
were stored up several kinds of necessaries, as wine, honey,
and the like; and according to which it was called Celia
CEL
Vinaria, Ollearia, Mellaria, &c. The word is formed cj
from the Latin celare, to conceal. j |
Cella was also used for the lodge or habitation of a Cell
common prostitute, as being anciently under ground, and w(]
hence also denominated fornix.
Cell a was also applied to the bed-chambers of domes¬
tics and servants, probably as being low and narrow. Ci¬
cero, inveighing against the luxury of Antony, says, the
beds in the very cell® of his servants were spread with j
pompous purple coverlets.
Cella is further applied to the members or apartments
of baths. Of these there were three principal ones, call¬
ed frigidaria, tepidaria, and caldaria, to which may be
added a fourth, called cella assa, and sometimes sudatoria. ,
Cella likewise signified the adyta or most retired parts
of temples, in which the images of the gods to whom the
edifices were consecrated were preserved. In this sense
we meet with cella Jovis, cella (^oncordicB.
Cella is also used for a lesser or subordinate sort of
monastery dependent on a great one, by which it was
erected, and continues still to be governed. The great
abbeys in England had most of them cells in places dis¬
tant from the mother abbey, to which they were account¬
able, and from which they received their superiors. The
alien priories in England were cells to abbeys in Norman¬
dy, France, or Italy. The name of cell was also given to
rich and considerable monasteries not dependent on any
other.
Cell signifies also a small apartment or chamber, such
as those in which the ancient monks, solitaries, and her¬
mits, lived in retirement. Some derive the word from the
Hebrew xbs, meaning a prison, or place where any thing is
shut up. The same name is still retained in different mo¬
nasteries. The dormitory is frequently divided into so
many cells or lodges. I he Carthusians have each a sepa¬
rate house, which serves them as a cell. The hall in which
the Roman conclave is held is divided by partitions into
different cells, for the several cardinals to lodge in.
CELLAR (Cellarium), in ancient writers, denotes the
same with cella, namely, a conservatory of provisions or
liquors. Cellar differs from vault, as the latter is supposed
to be deeper, while the former is frequently but little be¬
low' the surface of the ground. Cellarium also differed
from penus, inasmuch as the former was only a storehouse
for a short time, w'hile the latter was one for a long time.
Hence the Bactroperat®, a sort of ancient Cynics, are said
by St Jerome to carry their cellar about with them.
Cellarium also denoted an allowance of bread, wine, oil,
or other provision, furnished out of the cella, for the useot
the governor of the province and his officers and depend¬
ents. In this sense the word amounts to nearly the same
with annona.
Cellars, in modern building, are the lowest apartments
in a house, the ceilings of which are usually on a level
with the surface of the ground upon which the house is
built; or they are situated under the pavement before the
house, especially in streets and squares.
Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were
called by the Greeks hypogcea ; and the Italians still de¬
nominate them fundi delli case. . .
CELLARER, or Cellerer (Cellerarius or CelUmus),
an officer in monasteries, to whom belonged the care and
procurement of provisions for the convent. The denomi¬
nation is said to have been borrowed from the Roman law,
where cellarius denotes an examiner of accounts and ex¬
penses. Ulpian defines it thus : “ Cellerarius, id est, ideo
pr®positus ut rationes salv® sint.” ....
The cellerarius was one of the four obedientiaru, or gre
officers of monasteries. Under his orders were the^«'
num or bakehouse, and the bracinum or brewhouse.
CEL
CEL
273
r the richer houses there were particular lands set apart for
the maintenance of his office, called in ancient writings
J • ad cibum monachorum. The cellerarius was a great man
in the convent; and his whole office in ancient times had
respect to its origin. He was bound to see his lord’s corn
got in, and laid up in granaries; and his appointment con¬
sisted in a certain proportion of grain, usually fixed at a
thirteenth part of the whole, together with a furred gown.
The office of cellarer then differed only in name from those
of bailiff and minstrel, excepting that the cellarer had the
receipt of his lord’s rents throughout the whole extent of
his jurisdiction.
Cellarer was also an officer in chapters, to whom be¬
longed the care of the temporals, and particularly the dis¬
tribution of bread, wine, and money, to canons, on account
of their attendance in the choir. In some places he was
called cellarer, in others burser, and in others currier.
CELLARIUS, Christopher, was born in 1638, at
Smalcalde, in Franconia, of which town his father was
minister. He was successively rector of the colleges at
Weimar, Zeitz, and Mersburg; and the king of Prussia
having in 1693 founded a university at Halle, he was pre¬
vailed on to become professor of eloquence and history
there, where he composed the greater part of his works.
His great application to study hastened the infirmities of old
age; for it is said he was accustomed to spend whole days
and nights together at his books, without any attention to
his health, or even to the calls of nature. His works relate to
grammar, geography, history, and the oriental languages;
and the number of them is amazing. The principal are,
1. Historia Antiqua, Jena, 1698, 12mo; 2. Orthographia
• Latina ex Vetustis Monuinentis, the best edition of which
is that of Harles, Altenburg, 1768, 8vo ; 3. Antibarbarus,
seu de Latinitate Medice et Infimce AEtatis Liber, Jena,
1695; 4. Curce posteriores de Barbarismis et Idiotismis
Sermonis Latini, ibid. 1700, 12mo; 5. Breviarivm Anti-
quitatum Romanarum, Halle, 1710, 8vo; 6. Notitia Orbis
Antiqui, 2 vols. 4to, Leipsic, 1701, 1706. Cellarius died
in 1707.
CELLBRIDGE, or Kildrought, a town of Ireland,
in the county of Kildare. It is situated upon the river
Liffey, over which there is a fine stone bridge. The town
consists chiefly of two broad avenues, intersecting each
other at right angles, and presenting a regular appearance.
Manufactures of woollen cloths and of chip hats have been
occasionally carried on here. The population amounts to
about 1300. It is distant fourteen miles west by south
from Dublin.
CELLERFELD, a bailiwick in the kingdom of Hano¬
ver, in the Hartz Forest, 56 square miles, or 35,840 Eng¬
lish acres, in extent, comprehending four towns, three vil¬
lages, and several insulated establishments, with 7753 in¬
habitants. The capital, of the same name, is 1740 feet
above the level of the sea. It contains 3208 inhabitants,
depending chiefly on the mines.
CELLINI, Benvenuto, an eminent statuary, who was
hied a jeweller and goldsmith, but seems to have had an
extraordinary genius for the fine arts in general. He was
contemporary with Michel Angelo and Julio Romano, and
was employed by popes, kings, and other princely patrons
or sciences and arts, which were so highly cultivated in
the days of Leo X. and Charles V. Some of his produc¬
tions were esteemed as equally exquisite in design and
execution. He lived to a very considerable age ; and his
1 e, almost to the last, was a continued series of adven¬
tures, persecutions, and misfortunes. He wrote the his¬
tory of his own life, which, however, was not published
till the year 1730, probably on account of the excessive Celsus
freedom with which he had treated many distinguished II
personages of Italy and other countries. There are seve- C^lt8e-
ral English translations of this curious work.
CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physi¬
cian of the first century, who wrote in elegant Latin eight
books on medicine. He was the Hippocrates of the La¬
tins ; and Quintilian pronounces a high eulogium upon
him. The great Boerhaave tells us that Celsus is one of
the best authors of antiquity for letting us into the true
meaning and opinions of Hippocrates; and that, without
him, the writings of this father of physic would often be
unintelligible, and often misunderstood by us. He shows
us also how the ancients cured distempers by friction, bath¬
ing, and the like. His eight books de Medicina have been
several times printed. The Elzevir edition, in the year
1650, by Vander Linden, is the best, as being entirely
corrected from manuscripts.
Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher of the second cen¬
tury. He wrote a work against the Christians, entitled
The True Discourse ; to which Origen, at the desire of
his friend Ambrose, wrote a learned answnr. Lucian de¬
dicated his Pseudomenos to this philosopher.
CELTiE, in Greek KsXra/, Celtes, or Celts, or Kelts,
an ancient nation, by which most of the countries in Europe
appear to have been occupied at a period anterior to the
commencement of history.
When the Greek and Roman writers first began to turn
their eyes westward, they found Europe, from the extre¬
mity of Ireland to the banks of the Danube, peopled by a
race called Gauls, or Celts, or rather Kelts, who, before
they became bound to the soil by tillage, had overspread
part of Spain in the course of their armed migrations, and
had even poured their predatory bands through the Al¬
pine passes, into the great plain of northern Italy. They
extended along the Danube, as far as the Euxine, and
spread themselves till they were met on different sides by
the Sarmatians, Thracians, and Illyrians. Their expedi¬
tions were in general prior to the period of history; and
we have but slender means of probable conjecture as to
the antiquity, extent, and direction of the great migra¬
tory movements of this remarkable race.1
At that era, indeed, when the dawn of history begins to
dispel the dark cloud which had overshadowed the early
ages of the world, we find the different races of people in
Europe occupying nearly the same relative situations as
at present; and, even in the oldest memorials, we can
scarcely discern a trace of those wanderings or migrations
of tribes which must nevertheless have originally filled
this region of the earth with inhabitants.2 From a remote
antiquity, the whole of the country between the Euxine
and the German Ocean appears to have been possessed
by the Cimmerii or Cimbri, one of the grand divisions
of the Celts; while Gaul was occupied by the other di¬
vision, to which the name of Celtse was more properly
and commonly applied.3 Herodotus mentions the Celts
and Cynetae as inhabiting the remotest parts of Europe,
towards the setting of the sun, near the sources of the
Ister or Danube; and it is unknown during how many
ages they had occupied this region before the father
of history obtained this, which is the earliest notice of
them. Aristotle and other ancient writers give us nearly
the same information with Herodotus, whom they pro¬
bably followed. With regard to Britain, it must have been
inhabited at a period anterior to the Trojan war, since,
from the statement of Herodotus, it appears that tin ex¬
ported from Britain by Phoenician traders was at that
1 Mackintosh
VOL. VI.
, History of England, yol, i. in trod. p. 2. 2 Pritchard on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 14.
3 Pinkerton, Dissertation on the Scythians or Goths, part. i. chap. 2.
2 M
274
Celtae.
CEL
time in general use; a circumstance which seems to im¬
ply that our island was then peopled by a race who had
already explored its metallic treasures; whilst, from other
considerations, it has with much probability been intei-
red that the earliest settlers or inhabitants of Britain weie
of Celtic origin. At a period not long subsequent to
the age of Herodotus, the Teutonic nations inhabited
the north of Europe. Pytheas of Marseilles, contempo¬
rary with Aristotle, mentions the Guttones, who inhabit¬
ed the shores of an estuary which must have been the
mouth of the Vistula, and carried on a traffic in amber
with their neighbours the Teutones,1 then well known un¬
der that appellation; and as the Gufetones were probably
Goths, we thus already discern in the north of Europe
two of the most celebrated nations belonging to the Ger¬
manic family, in an age when the name of Rome had
scarcely become known to the Greeks. The binns and
Sclavonians are supposed to have been the latest of the
creat nations who formed the population of Europe. Fin-
ningia and the Fenni are mentioned both by Tacitus and
by Pliny. In the age of these writers the Finns were si¬
tuated near the eastern shores of the Baltic, and had pio-
bably extended themselves as far as those districts where
their descendants were afterwards known under the name
of Beormas or Biarmiers. The Sclavonians are not early
distinguished in Europe under that name ; but the appel¬
lation of Wends, given to the Sclavonic race by the Ger¬
mans, seems to identify them with the Venedi mentioned
in the geographical descriptions of Pliny and Tacitus, as
also with the Ouevidou or Winida? of Ptolemy and Jornan-
des, these being terms appropriated to the Sclavonic na¬
tions. Besides, it is probable that the Russians were
known to Herodotus, and that they are mentioned by him
under an appellation differing but little from that which is
now applied to them by their Finnish neighbours. The
Rhoxolani, first described by Herodotus, are stated by
Strabo to have inhabited the plains near the sources of
the Tanais and Borysthenes; and the Finns still distin¬
guish the Muscovites by the name of Rosso-lainen, or
Russian people, a term which, if heard by a Greek, would
naturally be written Rhoxolani.2
It thus appears that the European races, in the earliest
periods of which we have any information respecting them,
occupied nearly the same relative situations as the tribes
chiefly descended from them still continue to possess, ihe
few scattered facts or intimations which history furnishes,
therefore, afford no evidence against the hypothesis that
different parts of the world were originally filled with au¬
tochthones or indigenous inhabitants, nor indeed against
any other hypothesis or theory whatsoever. Great reli¬
ance has been placed by many upon traits of resemblance
in customs and superstitions; and from the coincidence
of the doctrines of druidism and the mythology of the Sa-
gas, some have ascribed a common origin to the nations
of Europe and those of the East. But this principle is
exceedingly unsafe; for by a similar mode of reasoning
we might conclude that the Turks and Tartars came from
Arabia, and derive the Buddhists of Northern Asia from
India, or perhaps from Ceylon. Nor can historical tradi¬
tions, however plausible and striking these may in some
instances appear, fill up the void; because, besides in¬
volving every element of error, they are found, when ex¬
amined and compared, to lead to contradictory and in¬
compatible results. It is, therefore, only by an analysis of
languages, which, after all, are in reality the most durable
of human monuments, and by detecting in their composi¬
tion common elements and forms of speech, that we can
T JE.
ever hope to obtain satisfactory evidence of the identity q
or connection in point of origin of those races by which ^
they are spoken with ancient nations whose languages have
been preserved either in whole or in part.
The diversity of opinion which has hitherto prevailed
on this subject proves the uncertainty and insufficiency of
the data from which inquirers have hitherto deduced their
conclusions. Among the ancients the notion that each ,
particular region of the earth was from the beginning sup¬
plied, by a distinct creation, with its peculiar stock of in¬
digenous inhabitants, seems to have prevailed universally;
and the frequent recurrence of such terms as autochthones,
indigence, and aborigines, affords undoubted evidence of the
fact. In modern times, however, the very opposite opinion
has been that most generally entertained ; and all the na¬
tions of the earth have, on the apparent authority of Scrip,
ture, been referred to one common parentage. But of late
years, many learned men, chiefly on the Continent, have
evinced a strong inclination to adopt an opinion similar to
that of the ancients ; and the notion of radically distinct
and separate races of men seems to be gaining ground
among the naturalists and physiologists of France, as well
as among the historians and antiquaries of Germany.
Among the former there are some who speak of the Ada¬
mic race as of one among many distinct tribes, and others
who broadly controvert its claims to be considered as the
primary stock of the human race. On the other hand, some
of the most learned of the Germans have, almost without
reservation, adopted this opinion. Humboldt, notwithstand¬
ing the many evidences of intercourse between the inha¬
bitants of the eastern and western continents, appears to
regard the primitive population of America as a distinct
and peculiar race ; Malte-Brun has plainly taken it for
granted, that, from the earliest times, each part of the
earth had indigenous inhabitants, into whose origin it is
vain to make inquiries; and even Niebuhr, perplexed by
his researches into the early history and population ot
Italy, is glad to escape from the difficulty of his subject by
adopting a similar opinion. On the other side of the ques¬
tion, or what may be called the Scriptural theory, names
of equal celebrity may be cited, including that of Sir Wil¬
liam Jones, which is in itself a host. But this subject is
not one which can be decided either way by authority; and
it is only by examining the evidence which seems to bear
more immediately on the subject that we can ever hope
to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion. This, viewed gene¬
rally, is of two kinds, and comprises, first, considerations
resulting from a survey of the natural history of the globe,
and facts connected with physical geography and with the
multiplication and dispersion of species ot both plants and
animals; and, secondly, analytical investigations into the
structure, affinities, and diversities of languages, in refei-
ence to the general question as to the history of our species.
With regard to the arguments deduced from the former
source, however, although they may at first vievy appear
to bear with the greatest weight upon this question, yet,
from our inability duly to appreciate the effects of physical
causes operating during a course of ages indefinitely great,
it is impossible, with any degree of certainty, to infer ori¬
ginal distinction from the actual differences observabe
among mankind. But in the case of languages, especial)
those which, though they have ceased to be spoken, aie
still preserved, there is no such element of uncertainty,
and hence we are inclined to hold, that the only cone u-
sions on which we can safely rely respecting the aborigina
history of our species, are those deducible from an analysis
of languages conducted on strict philosophical principles.
1 Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 2.
2 Pritchard on the Celtic Nations, p. 16.
CEL
Such an analysis of various languages as that here spo-
W ken of will in every instance display one or other of four
different relations subsisting between them. 1. In com¬
paring some languages, little or no analogy can be dis¬
covered in their grammatical structure, but a resemblance
more or less extensive may be traced in their vocabula¬
ries, or in the terms for particular objects, actions, and re¬
lations ; and if this correspondence is the result of com¬
mercial intercourse, conquest, or the introduction of a new
system of religion, literature, and manners, it will extend
only to such words as belong to the new stock of ideas
thus introduced, and will leave unaffected the great pro¬
portion of terms which are expressive of more simple ideas
and of universal objects ; but if the correspondence traced
in the vocabularies of any two languages is so extensive
as to involve words of a simple and apparently primitive
class, it indicates a much more ancient and intimate con¬
nection. 2. Certain languages, which have but few words
in common, nevertheless display, when carefully examined,
a remarkable analogy in their principles and forms of gram¬
matical construction ; as in the polysynthetic idioms of the
American tribes, and the monosyllabic languages of the
Chinese and Indo-Chinese nations. 3. A third relation
discoverable between languages, connected by both the
circumstances already pointed out, consists in what may be
properly called cognation ; an epithet which is applied to all
those dialects which are connected by analogy in gramma¬
tical forms, and by a considerable number of primitive words
or roots common to all, or which at least possessed such
a resemblance as manifestly indicates a common origin.
4. The fourth and last relation, which is almost purely ne-
gative, exists between languages in which none of the con¬
necting characters above described can be discerned, and
there is discoverable neither analogy of grammatical struc¬
ture, nor any correspondence in words, sufficient to indi¬
cate a particular affinity; circumstances which are held
as conclusive that such languages are not of the same fa¬
mily, and that they belong to nations remote from each
other in descent as well as differing in physical characte¬
ristics.1
Upon these principles, which are now universally receiv¬
ed as almost the only guides in investigating the origin and
descent of nations, the languages of the Finnish tribes, the
Laplanders, the Hungarians, the Ostiaks, and the Siberian
Ischudes, have been compared and analysed by Gyar-
mathi, Adelung, Gatterer, Klaproth, and others; and the
result, which appears to have been sufficiently established,
is, that all these nations have sprung from one common
original stock, the primitive seat of which was the country
situated between the chain of Caucasus and the southern
extremities of the Uralian Mountains. But our chief con¬
cern at present is with those tribes which have been lat¬
terly denominated Indo-European ; a term which includes
all that class of nations, many of them inhabitants of Eu-
iope, whose dialects are more or less nearly related to the
ancient language of India. The idea of this classification,
which is by far the most scientific that has yet been adopt¬
ed, was suggested by comparing the Sanscrit with the
Uieek and Latin languages, and observing the interesting
and remarkable results evolved by the comparison. These
were, first, the detection of a very considerable number of
primitive words, which were found to be common to all
t iese languages; and, secondly, the discovery of a still
ruoie striking affinity which was proved to exist between
en respective grammatical forms. In the case of the
T JE.
Greek and the Sanscrit this affinity amounts almost to com¬
plete identity; in that of the Latin and Sanscrit, it is
also, as might be supposed, exceedingly striking; and these
languages are all evidently branches of one common or
parent stem. But the same process of analysis has led to
other and not less curious or interesting results. It has
been proved that the Teutonic as well as the Sclavonic, in¬
cluding the Lettish or Lithuanian, stand in nearly the same
relation to the ancient language of India as the Greek and
Latin; and several intermediate languages, as the Zend
and other Persian dialects, the Armenian, and the Ossete,
which is one of the various idioms spoken by the nations
of the Caucasus, have been held, by those who have exa¬
mined their structure and etymology, to belong to the
same stock.2 In this way, a close and intimate relation
was proved, by unquestionable evidence, to subsist between
a considerable number of languages and dialects used or
spoken by nations who are spread over a great part of Eu¬
rope and of Asia, and to them the term Indo-European has
in consequence been applied. In fact, the more accurately
these languages have been examined, the more extensive
and deep-rooted have their affinities appeared; and it is
only necessary to refer to Professor Jacob Grimm’s master¬
ly analysis of the Teutonic idioms, to enable the reader to
verify the truth of this remark. The historical inference
deducible from these investigations, therefore, is, that the
European nations who speak dialects referrible, on analysis,
to this class or family of languages, are of the same race
with the Indians and Asiatics, to whom a like observation
maybe applied ; and that all are the descendants of some
original nation or people who spoke the primitive language,
to which all the Indo-European forms of speech mav be
referred as a common source.
Put a more immediate subject of inquiry is, whether the
Celtic dialects belong to the class or family of languages
thus allied and denominated; and the question is the
more interesting as it bears directly on the origin of the
nations of western Europe, including the British islands,
as well as on the more extensive one relating to the phy¬
sical history of mankind. Many have supposed the Celts
to be of oriental origin, but, for the most part, on grounds
which are either altogether fanciful, or at least insufficient
to warrantvsuch a conclusion. The compilers of the Uni¬
versal History, for instance, gravely tell us that the Celts
were descended from Gomer, the eldest son of Japhet,
the son of Ndach; that Gomer settled in the province of
Phrygia in Asia Minor, while his sons Ashkenaz and To-
garmah occupied Armenia, and Riphath took possession of
Cappadocia ; that when they found it necessary to spread
themselves wider, they moved regularly in columns, with¬
out disturbing or interfering with their neighbours; that
the descendants of Gomer or the Geltce took the left hand,
and gradually spread themselves westward to Poland,
Hungary, Germany, France, and Spain; and that the de¬
scendants of Magog, the brother of Gomer, moved to the
eastward, peopling Tartary, and spreading themselves as
far as India and China. Speculative fancies like these,
however, are too absurd and extravagant to be even amus¬
ing. The real question is, whether the same arguments
which prove most of the other nations of Europe to be of
eastern origin and descent, may not also be applied to that
great stock, the branches of which, at a period anterior to
the commencement of history, had overspread Gaul, Bri¬
tain, and occupied a considerable portion of Spain.
But here it is proper to observe, that writers on the his.
275
Celtte.
    ——  .,**
n .rrilChard °n, ^ie Celtic Nations, pp. 9, 10. Kennedy’s Researches into the Origin and Affinity of the Languages of Asia and Europe,
‘ ' ' ' Edinburgh Review, No. cii. p. 500.
Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta.
C E L T iE.
tory of languages and the antiquity of nations are divided in
opinion with respect to this question. Adelung and Mur¬
ray have considered the Celtic as a branch of the Indo-Eu¬
ropean stock; but the latter has left that part of his work
which relates to the Celtic dialects in a most incomplete
state ; and Adelung has committed the error of supposing
the Welsh or Cymric to be derived from the language of the
Belga:, and not from that of the Celtae, who inhabited the
central parts of Gaul and of Britain. From want of infor¬
mation respecting the Celtic dialects, many of the conti-
nental writers, among whom may be mentioned Fredenck
Schlegel and Malte-Brun, have been led to believe the
Celtic to be a language of a class wholly unconnected
with the other idioms of Europe; and in Britain the same
opinion has, from the same cause, been expressed by se¬
veral well-known authors. Mr Pinkerton, for instance,
has declared, in his usual dogmatical manner, that the
Celtae were a people entirely distinct from the rest of
mankind; and that their language, the real Celtic, is as
remote from the Greek as the Hottentot from the Lap-
ponic. And Colonel Kennedy, at the conclusion of the
chapter in which he successfully refutes some, of the opi¬
nions of Pelloutier and Bullet respecting the Celtse and
their language, concludes, that “ the Celtic, when divest¬
ed of all words which have been introduced into it by con¬
quest and religion, is a perfectly original languageand
that “ this originality incontrovertibly proves that neither
Greek, Latin, or the Teutonic dialects, nor Arabic, Persian,
or Sanskrit, were derived from the Celtic, since these lan¬
guages have not any affinity whatever with that tongue.’'1
Davis, however, in the preface to his Dictionary, had said,
“ Ausim affirmare linguam Britannicam (Celticam) turn
vocibus, turn phrasibus et orationis contextu, turn littera-
rum pronunciatione, manifestam cum orientalibus habere
congruentiam et affinitatem and the result of a more ac¬
curate and minute analysis has been to confirm this opi¬
nion in the most complete manner possible.
The connection of the Sclavonian, German, and Pelas-
gian races with the ancient Asiatic nations may be esta¬
blished by historical proof. But the languages of these
races, and the Celtic, although differing from each other,
and constituting the four principal classes of dialects which
prevail in Europe, are nevertheless so far allied in their ra¬
dical elements, that they may with certainty be considered
as branches of the same original stock. Remarkable in¬
deed is the resemblance observable in the general struc¬
ture of speech, and in those parts of the vocabulary which
must be supposed to be the most ancient, as, for instance,
in words descriptive of common objects and feelings for
which expressive terms existed in the primitive ages of so¬
ciety. In fact, the relation between the languages above
mentioned and the Celtic is such as not merely to establish
the affinity of the respective nations, but likewise to throw
light upon the structure of the Indo-European languages
in general; and particularly to illustrate some points which
had previously been involved in obscurity. This is clearly
demonstrated by Dr Pritchard’s ample and satisfactory
analysis, which embraces almost every thing that can pos¬
sibly enter into an inquiry of this nature. He examines*"
the permutation of letters in composition and construction,
the sandhi and samasa in Sanscrit, and shows that the
same principles are discoverable in the Celtic dialects,
particularly in the Welsh and in the Gaelic. He exhibits
proofs of common origin in the vocabulary of the Celtic
and other Indo-European languages, first, in the names of
persons and relations; secondly, in the names of the prin¬
cipal elements of nature, and of the visible objects of the
universe; thirdly, in the names of animals; fourthly, in Ce:
verbal roots found in the Celtic and other Indo-Euro- v—.
pean languages; and, fifthly, in adjectives, pronouns, and
particles. He then proceeds to investigate the proofs of
a common origin derived from the grammatical structure
of the Celtic as compared with that of other Indo-Euro¬
pean languages, particularly the Sanscrit, the Greek, the
Latin, the Teutonic dialects, the Sclavonian dialects, and
the Persian language ; and in all of these he shows that a
striking resemblance is discoverable in the personal inflec¬
tions of verbs, as well as in the personal pronouns, and in
the inflections of verbs through the different moods and
tenses; and he concludes with a further illustration of
the principles which he had previously established by an
analysis of the verb substantive and the attributive verbs
in the Celtic dialects, and in other Indo-European forms
of speech, the result of which is to evolve coincidences
precisely analogous to those already exemplified with
the utmost accuracy of detail. What, then, is the legiti¬
mate inference to be deduced from the obvious, striking,
and, we may add, radical analogies here proved to exist
between the Celtic dialects and the idioms which are ge¬
nerally allowed to be of cognate origin with the Sanscrit,
the Greek, and the Latin languages ? The marks of con¬
nection are manifestly too decided and extensive, and enter
too deeply into the structure and principles of these lan¬
guages, to be the result of accident or casual intercourse;
and being.thus interwoven with the intimate texture of the
languages compared, seem incapable of explanation upon
any principle except that which has been admitted with
respect to the other great families of languages belong¬
ing to the ancient population of Europe; namely, that the
whole Celtic race is of oriental origin, and a kindred tribe
with the nations who settled on the banks of the Indus, and
on the shores of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. It is
probable, indeed, that several tribes emigrated from their
Original seat at different periods and in different stages of
advancement in respect to civilization; and hence we find
their idioms in different stages and degrees of refinement:
but the proofs of a common origin, derived from an accu¬
rate examination and analysis of the intimate structure
and component materials of these languages, are never¬
theless such as, in our judgment, must command general
assent; more especially considering that the general in¬
ference thus deduced receives strong confirmation from
those purely physical investigations to which we have al¬
ready alluded. If, indeed, there be any truth in those
principles of classification which naturalists have adopted,
the Mongol, the Chinese, the Hindu, and the Tartar, are
not more certainly oriental than the native Celt, whose
physical conformation exhibits only a slight modification
of that which is peculiar to the great race whence he is
descended ; while his superstitions, manners, customs, and
observances, as well as language, are all decidedly mark¬
ed with traces and indications of an eastern origin.
With respect to the form of government which prevail¬
ed among the Celts, we are left in some measure to con¬
jecture. It seems, however, to have partaken somewhat of
the character of a theocracy, which, with great powers of
"adaptation to circumstances, generally maintained a com¬
plete ascendency. The druids, assisted by the bards,
were the guardians and interpreters of their laws, as
well as the ministers of their religion; they judged all
causes, whether civil or criminal; and their sentence was
reckoned so sacred, that whoever refused to abide by it
was excluded from assisting at their rites, denied the use
of fire, and intercommuned or interdicted from all con-
Kennedy’s Researches, p. 85. Pritchard’s Celtic Nations, pp. 20, 22.
C E L
verse with his fellow-men. Indeed, the law of caste, in as
v'J far as the sacred order was concerned, appears to have
been inveterate and indelible; and hence Sir James Mack¬
intosh, without going into any inquiry respecting the ori¬
gin and descent of this singular race, justly remarks that
the druidical system is not without oriental features. The
Celts, however, erected neither temples nor statues to the
Deity, but, on the contrary, were fierce iconoclasts, de¬
stroying shrines and idols wherever they could find them.
Instead of these they planted spacious groves, which, in
their opinion, were more acceptable to the Deity, who
is absolutely unconfined, than houses made with human
hands; and amidst the depth and gloom of umbrageous
forests, the druids celebrated their holy mysteries, and, as
is generally believed, offered up human sacrifices. They
were perfectly inexorable to mere idolaters; in which re¬
spect their religion bore a resemblance to that of the Par-
sees and the disciples of Zoroaster. It differed, however, in
their making the oak instead of the fire the emblem of the
Deity, and in their choosing that tree in preference to
others to plant their groves withal, as well as in their at¬
tributing supernatural virtues to its wood, leaves, fruit, and
particularly the mistletoe, all which were made use of in
their sacrifices and other parts of their worship. But after
they had adopted the idolatrous superstitions of the Ro¬
mans and other nations, and particularly admitted the apo¬
theosis of their heroes and princes, they came to worship
the latter much in the same manner as the people whose
practice they followed ; venerating Jupiter under the name
of Taran, which in the Celtic signifies thunder, and also
Mercury, whom some authors call Ileus or Hesus, probably
from the Celtic handh, which signifies a dog, a circum¬
stance which has led some to consider him as identical
with the Anuhis Latrans of the Egyptians. Mars was held
in the greatest veneration by the warlike, and Mercury
by the trading part of the nation. The care of religion,
as has already been stated, was immediately intrusted to
the druids and bards, who, as Caesar informs us, were the
performers of sacrifices and all religious rites, and the ex¬
pounders of religion to the people. They also instructed
youth in all kinds of learning with which they were ac¬
quainted, as philosophy, astronomy, astrology, and the
like. Their doctrines, however, were only taught orally,
being esteemed as too sacred to be committed to writing.-
, But more common subjects, such as hymns to their gods,
and the exploits of princes and generals in time of war,
were couched in a species of verse, and recited, or rather
sung, on all proper occasions; though even these were
kept from vulgar eyes, and either committed to memory,
01, if to writing, withheld from the laity. Caesar mentions
that these poetical records had in his time increased to
such a bulk that it took a young bard nearly twenty years
to learn them by heart; and Diodorus says, that the poets
or bards used to accompany their songs with instrumental
music, on organs, harps, and the like ; and that these min¬
strels were held in such veneration, that if in the time of
an engagement between two armies one of the bards ap¬
pealed, both sides immediately ceased fighting. The rea¬
son of this was, that they were universally believed to be
prophets as well as poets, or, in other words, gifted with a
ouble inspiration; and it was therefore thought danger¬
ous as well as injurious to disobey what was supposed to
emanate from the gods. * These prophetic poets and phi-
osophers kept academies, which were resorted to, not only
y a Sreat number of their own youth, but also by the
youth of other countries; insomuch that Aristotle says
ieir philosophy passed from them into Greece, and not
i^01^ ^.reece them. Diodorus likewise quotes a re-
ar able passage from Hecataeus, in which it is stated
ate druids had some kinds of instruments by which
T JE.
they could draw distant objects nearer, and make them ap¬
pear larger and plainer; and by which they could discover
even seas, mountains, and valleys, in the moon. Can it be
possible that this strange fraternity of priests were really
in possession of the telescope ? But whatever may have
been their learning, it is certain, that in process of time
they adopted several barbarous customs, such as that of
sacrificing to their gods human victims, which they believ¬
ed to be more acceptable to them than those of any other
animals. Another inhuman practice which they observed
in their divinations, especially on great matters, consisted
in killing some of their slaves, or some prisoners of war if
they had any, with a scimitar, in order to draw an augury
from the manner in which the blood flowed from the
mangled limbs of the victim.
Such is a brief sketch of the origin of the Celts, and of
the more prominent peculiarities by which they were dis¬
tinguished in ancient times. As a subordinate race, or
rather as a more ancient offset from the parent stock, they
were inferior to the Scythians or Goths, and generally
yielded, though not without a gallant struggle, to the in¬
cessant pressure of the mighty tide of emigration which,
from a very early period, flowed from the north towards
the south and west of Europe, and which at length over¬
whelmed the Roman empire, burying in its ruins the civili¬
zation of fourteen centuries. (a.)
Celtes, certain ancient instruments, of a wedge-like
form, of which several have been discovered in different
parts of Great Britain. Antiquaries have generally attri¬
buted them to the Celtae, but, not agreeing as to their
use, distinguished them by the above unmeaning appella¬
tion. Mr Whitaker, however, is of opinion that they were
British battle-axes, and in this he has been generally fol¬
lowed. See Battle-Axc.
CELJ IBERIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Hi¬
ther Spain, along the right or south-west side of the river
Iberus or Ebro; though sometimes the greater part of
Spain was called by the name of Celtiberia. The people
were denominated Celtiberi, or the Celtae established on the
Iberus. They were brave and warlike; and their cavalry
in particular was excellent. They wore a black and rough
cloak, the shag of which was like goats’ hair. Some of them
had light bucklers like those worn by Gauls; others had
hollow and round targes like those used by other nations.
They all wore boots made of hair, and iron helmets adorn¬
ed with crests of a purple colour. They used two-edged
swords and poniards of a foot in length. Their arms were
of an admirable temper, and are said to have been pre¬
pared of plates of iron buried under ground, where they
remained till the rust had eaten the weakest part of the
metal, and the rest consequently became hard and firm.
Of iron thus prepared they made their swords, which were
so strong and well tempered that neither buckler nor hel¬
met could resist their edge. The Celtiberians wrere very
cruel towards their enemies, and inflicted savage punish¬
ments on malefactors, but showed the greatest humanity
towards their guests. They not only cheerfully granted
hospitality to strangers who travelled in their country, but
were desirous that such persons should seek protection
under their roofs..
CEMENT. Any substance which is employed in unit¬
ing together things of the same or of different kinds may
be termed a cement. The following are some of the princi¬
pal of those used for various purposes.
To unite pieces of Derbyshire spar, or other stone, take
seven or eight parts of resin and one of wax; then melt
them together, and mix them with a small quantity of
plaster of Paris. The stone should be made sufficiently
hot to melt the cement, and the pieces should be pressed
so closely together, that the smallest quantity possible of
07*7
Celtae.
278
C E M
Cement, the cement may remain between them. It is a rule of ge-
nerai application, that the thinner the stratum interposed,
the firmer the hold will be. ,
Jewellers unite precious stones which have been acci¬
dentally broken, by means of gum-mastic, ^he parts o
the gem must be previously heated to a degree sufficie
to melt the cement. Cameos of white enamel or coloured
glass are also in this way joined to a real stone as_a grounc.
Mastic is likewise employed by jewellers m various ways
as a cement. The jewellers in Turkey ornament trinkets
and weapons with gems, by uniting them together wit
the following compositionIsinglass soaked in water ti
it swells up and becomes soft is dissolved in trench brandy
or rum, so as to form a strong glue; then two small bits
of gum galbanum, or gum ammomacum, are dissolved in
two ounces of this by trituration; and five or six pieces of
mastic about the size of peas, being dissolved in as much
alcohol as will render them fluid, are to be mixed with the
compound by means of a gentle heat. This cement must
be kept in a phial closely stopped ; and when used it must
be liquefied by immersing the phial in warm water. It
will be found to resist moisture.' „ _
If clay and oxide of iron be mixed with oil, they will
form a cement which hardens under water. A cement
insoluble in water is prepared from skimmed milk cheese.
The cheese is cut into slices, the rind being thrown away,
and boiled till it becomes a strong glue, which, however,
does not dissolve in the water. It is to be afterwards
washed in cold, and then kneaded in warm water. Ihis
process must be several times repeated. The glue is
then to be put warm on a levigating stone, and kneaded
with quicklime. Though this cement may be used cold,
it is best to warm it ;,and it will unite marble, stone, 01
earthenware, so as to render the joining scarcely dis-
cernible.
Boiled linseed oil, litharge, red lead, and white lead,
mixed together and laid on both sides of apiece of flannel,
or even linen or paper, and then put between two pieces
of metal before they are brought home or close together,
will make a durable joint, capable of resisting boiling wa¬
ter, or even a considerable pressure of steam. The pro¬
portions of the ingredients are not material; but the more
the red lead predominates the sooner the cement will dry,
and the more of the white lead the contrary. This ce¬
ment joins stones of any dimensions. _ .
The following is an excellent cement for iron, as it ulti¬
mately unites with it into one mass:—Take two ounces of
muriate of ammonia, one of flowers of sulphur, and sixteen
of cast-iron filings; mix them well in a mortar, and keep
the powder dry. When the cement is to be used, take
one part of this mixture, twenty parts of clear iron bor¬
ings or filings, pound them together in a mortar, mix them
with water to a proper consistence, and apply the com¬
pound between the joints.
A cement often used by coppersmiths to lay over the
rivets and edges of the sheets of copper in large boilers,
in order to serve as an additional security to the joinings,
and to secure cocks and the like from leaking, is made by
mixing powdered quicklime with ox’s blood. This cement
dries soon, and accordingly must be used fresh.
Temporary cements are required in cutting, polishing,
or grinding optical glasses, and various articles of jewel¬
lery, as these must be fixed to blocks or handles for the
purpose. Four ounces of resin, a quarter of an ounce of
wax, and four ounces of whitning, made previously red hot,
forms a good cement of this kind, as the articles may be
united or separated by heat, though they adhere wdth great
tenacity when cold.
The following composition is recommended as a good
cement for electrical apparatus:—Five pounds of resin,
C E N
one of bees’ wax, one of red ochre, and two table-spoon- Ca,
fuls of plaster of Paris, all melted together. The follow¬
ing is an analysis by Sir Humphry Davy, of Parker’s pa-
tent water cement. _
One hundred grains contain
Silex  22
Alumina  9
Oxide of iron and manganese 13
Carbonate of lime 55
99
One hundred grains lost by heating 3-25
102-25
An excellent artificial water cement is obtained by heat¬
ing for some hours to redness a mixture of three parts
clay and one part slaked lime, by measure. As a cement
for broken china, take quicklime and white of eggs, or old
thick varnish ; pound and temper them well together, and
the composition is ready for use. Broken glass may be
cemented in the following manner: Let glass which is
more easy of fusion than the parts to be united, be ground
up like a pigment, and interposed between the pieces;
then let these be subjected to a heat which will melt the
cementing medium, and make the parts agglutinate with¬
out being themselves fused. Any thing thus united will
be found as strong as ever. (Lre s Dictionary of Chemis¬
try ; Philosophical Magazine.)
Cement jfbr Building. See Lime.
Cement Pots are those earthen pots used in the ce¬
mentation of metals.
CEMENTATION, the act of corroding or otherwise
changing a metal by means of a cement.
CEMETER Y (Ko//*arjjgiov, from Ko/^aw, to sleep), a place
set apart or consecrated for the burial of the dead.^
Anciently none was buried in churches or churchyards;
it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the cemeteries
were without the walls. Among the primitive Christians
these were held in great veneration. It appears from Eu¬
sebius and Tertullian, that, in the early ages, they even
assembled for divine worship in the cemeteries. Yalenan
seems to have confiscated the cemeteries and other placeii
of divine worship, but they were restored again by bal-
lienus. As the martyrs were buried in these places, the
Christians chose them for sites of churches when Con¬
stantine established their religion; and hence some de¬
rive the rule which still obtains in the church ol Koine,
never to consecrate an altar without putting under it t e
relics of some saint. The practice of consecrating ceme
teries is of some antiquity. The bishop walked round it m
procession, with the crosier or pastoral staff in lus hand,
the holy-water pot being carried before, out of which the
aspersions were made. . . rp •
CENEDA, a city of Italy, in the delegation of Ireviso,
of the Austrian kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. *
situated on the river Maschio, and has, besides tie c
thedral, several other churches, and 4500 inhabitants, w
are employed in woollen and in paper manufactories.
CENEGILL, in the Saxon antiquities, an e^pia or
mulct, paid by one who had killed a man, to the k.ndie
of the deceased. The word is compounded of e
cinne, cognatio, relation, and gild, solutio, payment.
CENOBITE. See Ccenobite. ,.
CENOTAPH, in Antiquity, an empty tomb, erecteu
honour of some person deceased, and distinguished r
sarcophagus, in which a coffin was deposited. tuer
there were two sorts; one for those who had, and
for those who had not, been honoured with funera
in another place. The sign by which honorary sepulcn
were distinguished from others was common y 1
C E N
C E N
>11:
II
lens
-'V
of a ship, to denote the decease of the person in some fo¬
reign country.
CENSER, in Antiquity, a vase containing incense to
' be used in sacrifices. Censer is chiefly used in speaking
of the Jewish worship. Among the Greeks and Romans
it is more frequently called thuribulum, 'KiZamrig, and
acerra.
The Jewish censer was a small sort of chafing dish, co¬
vered with a dome, and suspended by a chain. " Josephus
tells us that Solomon made twenty thousand golden cen¬
sers for the temple of Jerusalem, to offer perfumes in, and
fifty thousand others to carry fire in.
CENSIO, in Antiquity, the act or office of the censor.
Censio included both the rating or valuing of a man’s es¬
tate, and the imposing of mulcts and penalties.
Cexsio Hastaria, a punishment inflicted on a Roman
soldier for some offence, as laziness or luxury, and so called
because his hasta or spear was taken from him, and con¬
sequently his wages and hopes of preferment were stopped.
CENSITUS, a person censed or entered in the tables
of the census. In an ancient monument found at Ancy-
ra, containing the actions of the Emperor Octavius, we
read,
Quo lustro civium liomanorum
Censita sunt capita quadragies
Centum millia et sexaginta tria :
From which we learn that the number of Roman citizens,
entered in the censor’s rolls, was then upwards of four
millions.
Censitus is also used in the civil law for a servile sort
of tenant, who pays capitation to his lord for the lands he
holds of him, and is entered as such in the lord's rent-
roll ; in which sense the word is equivalent to capite cen¬
sus, or capite censitus. See Capite Censi.
^ CENSOR (from censere, to estimate or judge), one of
the principal magistrates in ancient Rome. Their busi¬
ness was to register the effects of the Roman citizens, to
impose taxes in proportion to what each man possessed,
3nd to take cognizance or inspection of the manners of
the citizens. In virtue of this last part of their office, they
:iad authority to censure vice or immorality, by inflictino-
some public mark of ignominy on the offender. They had
wen a power to create the princeps senatus, and to expel
rom the senate such as they deemed unworthy of that
mice. But this power they sometimes exercised with-
’ut sufficient grounds; and therefore a law was at length
)assed that no senator should be degraded or disgraced
a any manner until he had been formally accused and
ound guilty by both the censors. It was also a part of
e censoiial jurisdiction to fill up the vacancies in the
enate, upon any remarkable deficiency in their number;
o et out to farm all the lands, revenues, and customs, of
ie republic; and to contract with artificers for the charge
't building and repairing all the public works and edifices
•otli m Rome and the colonies of Italy. In all parts of
ieir office, however, they were subject to the jurisdiction
e people; and an appeal always lay from the judg-
ient of the censors to that of an assembly of the people,
the first two censors were created in the year of Rome
(Upon the senate observing that the consuls were so
c occupied with war as not to have time to look into
er matters. The office continued to the time of the
mperors, who assumed the censorial power, calling them-
in'l'681 prafecti; though Vespasian and his son
m-p tl*50 v G e censors. Decius attempted to re-
ie dignity to a particular magistrate. But after this
infloe?r n.° more °f it till the time of Constantine, who
u i?18 ler censor; and he seems to have been the
st who enjoyed the office.
6 0 ce censor was so considerable that for a long
time no one aspired to it till he had passed all the rest-
and hence it was thought aspiring in Crassus to seek to be
admitted as censor, without having been either consul or
praetor. At first the censors enjoyed their dignity for five
years; but in 420 the Dictator Mamercus made a law re-
stiaimng it to a year and a half, which was afterwards ob¬
served very strictly. At first one of the censors was elect¬
ed out of a patrician, and the other out of a plebeian fa¬
mily; and upon the death of either the other was dis¬
charged from his office, and two new ones elected, though
not till the next lustrum. In the year of Rome 622,
both censors were chosen from among the plebeians ; and
after that time the office w'as shared between the senate
and the people. On their election in the comitia centuri-
cita, the censors proceeded to the capitol, where they took
an oath not to be guided either by favour or disaffection,
but to act equitably and impartially throughout the whole
course of their administration.
^ Censors of Books, persons authorized in different coun-
ti les to examine all books before they go to the press, and
to take care that they contain nothing contrary to faith and
good manners. In England we had formerly an officer of
t ns kniu, under the title of licenser of the press ; but since
the revolution our press has been laid under no such re¬
straint. See Bibliography.
CENSORINUS, a grammarian and philosopher of the
third century, well known by his treatise De Die Natali.
Ibis treatise, which was written about the year 238, Ge-
laid Vossius calls a little book of gold, and pronounces it
a most learned work, of the highest use and importance to
chronologers, as connecting and determining, with great
exactness, some of the principal eras in pagan history.
Ihe gieat work of Censorinus, with two fragments by un¬
known authors, entitled Indigitamenta and De Naturali
Institutione, was first printed at Bologna in 1497, folio.
It was next printed at Cambridge, with the notes of Lin-
denbrokius, in 1695. But the best edition is that of Ha-
vercamp, Leyden, 1743, 8vo, which was reprinted in 1767,
and contains fragments of the Satires of Lucilius. The last
edition is that of Gruber, Nuremberg, 1805, in 8vo.
CENSE RE, a judgment which condemns some book,
person, or action, or more particularly a reprimand from a
superior. Ecclesiastical censures are penalties, by which,
for some remarkable misbehaviour, Christians are deprived
of the communion of the church, or prohibited from exer¬
cising the sacerdotal office.
CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic declara¬
tion made before the censors, by the several subjects of
the empire, of their respective names and places of abode.
Ibis declaration was registered by the censors, and con¬
tained an enumeration in writing of all the estates, lands,
and inheritances they possessed; including quantity, qua¬
lity? place, wives, children, domestics, tenants, slaves. In
the provinces the census served not only to discover the
substance of each person, but where, and in what manner
and proportion, taxes might be best imposed. The census
at Rome is commonly thought to have been held every
five years ; but Dr Middleton has shown that both census
and lustrum were held irregularly and uncertainly at va¬
rious intervals. The census was an excellent expedient
for ascertaining the strength of the state, inasmuch as by
it they discovered the number of the citizens, how many
were fit for war, and how many were qualified for offices
of other kinds, as well as how much each was able to pay
in taxes and imposts. It extended to all ranks of people,
though under different names; that of the common people
was called census ; that of the knights, census, recensio, re-
cognitio; that of the senators, lectio, relectio. Hence also
census came to signify a person who had made such a de¬
claration ; in which sense it was opposed to incensus, a
280
C E N
C E N
Census person who had not given in his estate or name to be re-
I! gistered. The census, according to Salmasius, was pecu-
Centre. iiar to the city of Rome. That in the provinces was pro-
 perly called professio and a-oygaf^. But this distinction
is not everywhere observed by the ancients themselves.
The term has, in Britain and other modern countries,
been applied to those enumerations and classification
the people which have at different times been ordered by
See England.
government, see ,
& Census Senatorius, the patrimony of a senator, which
was limited to a certain value^ being at Afirst riated ^
800,000 sesterces, but afterwards, under Augustus, en
larged to 1,200,000. . i ■ i *•
Census Equester, the estate or patrimony of a knight,
rated at 400,000 sesterces, which was necessary to quality
a person for that order, and without which no virtue or
merit was available. , „ . . „ i
Census Dommicatus, in writers of the lower age, de¬
notes a rent due to the lord.
Census Duplicatus, a double rent or tax paid by vas¬
sals to their lord on extraordinary or urgent occasions, as
expeditions to the Holy Land, and the like.
Census Ecclesice Romance, was an annual contribution
voluntarily paid to the see of Rome by the several princes
°f CENT signifies properly a hundred, being an abridg¬
ment of the word centum ; but it is often used in commer ce
to express the profit or loss arising from the sale ot any
commodity; so that when it is said there is ten per cent,
profit, or ten per cent, loss, upon any merchandise which
has been sold, it is to be understood that the seller has
i t /~\  T l A A v i r* nr
either gained or lost L.10 on every L.100 of the price at
which he bought that merchandise, which is 1Tj ot proht,
or A, of loss, upon the total of the sale.
CENTAUR, in Astronomy, a part or moiety of a south¬
ern constellation, in form half man and half horse, usually
joined with the wolf.
CENTAURS, in Mythology, a kind of fabulous monsters,,
half men and half horses. The poets pretended that the s
Centaurs were the sons of Ixion and a cloud, the reason ot
which fancy is, that they retired to a castle called vEftXjj,
which signifies a cloud. This fable is variously inter¬
preted. Some suppose the Centaurs to have been a body
of shepherds and herdsmen, rich in cattle, who inhabited
the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the
invention of bucolic poetry. I alaephaetus, in his book of
wonders, relates, that under the reign of Ixion, king of
Thessaly, a herd of bulls on Mount Thessaly ran mad and
ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains inac¬
cessible ; and that some young men who had found out
the art of taming and mounting horses, undertook to clear
the mountains of these animals, which they pursued on
horseback, and thence obtained the appellation of Cen¬
taurs. This success rendering them insolent, they in¬
sulted the Lapithae, a people of Thessaly; and because
when attacked they fled with great rapidity, it was sup¬
posed they were half horses and half men.
CENTELLO, a town of Italy, in the province of Coni,
of the kingdom of Sardinia, containing 3600 inhabitants.
CENTENARIES, or Centenario, in the middle ages,
an officer who had the government or command, with the
administration of justice, in a village. The centenarii as
well as vicarii were under the jurisdiction and command
of the court. We find them among the Franks, Germans,
Lombards, Goths, and other nations.
Centenarius was also used to signify an officer who
had the command of one hundred men, most frequently
called a centurion. . ’-M.
Centenarius, in monasteries, was an officer who nan
the command of one hundred monks.
Ct'*
Cef
J
CENTRE.
CENTRE, or Center, a word borrowed from the French
name ceintre or cintre, given to the frame of timber by which
the brick or stone of arched vaulting is supported dm ing
its erection, and from which it receives its form and cur¬
vature. , ^ c
It is not our intention to describe the variety ot con¬
structions which may be adopted in easy situations, where
the arches are of small extent, and where sufficient foun¬
dation can be had in every part of it for supporting the
frame. In such cases the frequency of the props which
we can set up dispenses with much care; and a frame of
very slight timbers, connected together in an ordinary
way, will suffice for carrying the weight, and for keeping
it in exact shape. But when the arches have a wide
span, and consequently a very great weight, and when we
cannot set up intermediate pillars, either for want of a
foundation in the soft bottom of a river, or because the
arch is turned between two lofty piers, as in the dome of
a stately cathedral, we are then obliged to rest every
thing on the piers themselves; and the framing which is
to support our arch before the keystone is set must itself
be an arch, depending on the mutual abutment of its
beams. One should think that this view of the construc¬
tion of a centre would offer itself at the first, naturally de¬
rived from the erection it was to assist; but it has not
been so. When intermediate pillars were not employed,
it was usual to frame the mould for the arch with little
attention to any thing but its shape, and then to cross it
and recross it in all directions with other pieces of tim¬
ber, till it was thought so bound together that it could be
lifted in any position, and, when loaded with any weight,
could not change its shape. The frame was then raised
in a lump, like any. solid body of the same shape, ami set
in its place. This is the way still practised by many
country artists, who, having no clear principles to guide
them, do not stop till they have made a load of timber al¬
most equal to the weight which it is to carry.
But this artless method, besides leading the emplojei
into great expense, is frequently fatal to the undertaker>
from the unskilfulness of the construction. Hie beams
which connect its extremities are made also to support tiie
middle by means of posts which rest on them, ibey arf
therefore exposed to a transverse or cross strain, wiici
they are not able to bear. Their number must thereto e
be increased, and this increases the load. Some ot tti
cross strains are derived from beams which are Pre®s
very obliquely, and therefore exert a prodigious thrust®
their supports. The beams are also greatly weakened y
the mortises which are cut in them to receive t ie e
of the crossing beams ; and thus the whole is exceeding)
weak, in proportion to what the same quantity o i
may be made by a proper disposition of its parts. . ,
The principles from which we are to der.ve tins chspos
1 .i  i mrdnoirdps nf camentry, u
The principles trom which we i»c  fpri k
tion are the general mechanical principles of carpentry, f
, . , i innHpr me pro , :
uon arc uic gcuciai * runner1
which an account has already been given under the pr P str
head. See Carpentry. These furnish one general •
When we would give the utmost strength P0881® e d
frame of carpentry, every piece should be 80 d J hes
that it is subject to no strain but what eithe p
or draws it in the direction of its length; and,
CENTRE.
O,*'
owt is.
iguilja
rut l n
tie.
would be indebted to timber alone for the force or strength
of the centre, we must rest all on the first of these
strains; for when the straining force tends to draw a
beam out of its place, it must be held there by a mortise
and tenon, which possesses but a very trifling force, or
by iron straps and bolts. Cases occur where it may be
very difficult to make every strain a thrust, and the best
artists admit of ties; and indeed where we can admit
a tie-beam connecting the two feet of our frame, we
need seek no better security. But this may sometimes
be very inconvenient. When it is the arch of a bridge
that we are to support, such a tie-beam would totally stop
the passage of small craft up and down the river. It
would often be in the water, and thus exposed to the most
fatal accidents by freshes, &c. Interrupted ties, therefore,
must be employed, whose joint or meetings must be sup¬
ported by something analogous to the king-posts of roofs.
When this is judiciously done, the security is abundantly
good. But great judgment is necessary, and a very scru¬
pulous attention to the disposition of the pieces. It is by
no means an easy matter to discern whether a beam,
which makes a part of our centre, is in a state of compres¬
sion or in a state of extension. In some works of the most
eminent carpenters even of this day, we see pieces con¬
sidered as struts, and considerable dependence had on
them in this capacity, while they are certainly perform¬
ing the office of tie-beams, and should be secured accord¬
ingly. This was the case in the boldest centre, we think,
that has been executed in Europe, that of the bridge of
Orleans, by M. Hupeau. Yet it is evidently of great con¬
sequence not to be mistaken in this point; for when we
are mistaken, and the piece is stretched which we imagine
to be compressed, we not only are deprived of some sup¬
port that we expected, but the expected support has be¬
come an additional load.
To ascertain this point, we may suppose the piers to
yield a little to the pressure of the arch-stones on the
centre frames. The feet, therefore, fly outwards, and the
shape is altered by the sinking of the crown. We must
draw our frame anew for this new state of things, and
must notice what pieces must be made longer than before.
All such pieces have been acting the part of tie-beams.
But a centre has still another office to sustain; it must
keep the arch in its form; that is, while the load on the
centre is continually increasing as the masons lay on more
courses of arch-stones, the frame must not yield and go
out of shape, sinking under the weight on the haunches,
and rising in the crown, which is not yet carrying any
load. Ihe frame must not be supple, and must derive its
stdtness, not from the closeness and strength of its joints,
which are quite insignificant when set in competition with
such immense strains, but from struts or ties, properly
disposed, which hinder any of the angles from changing
its amplitude. 88
- It is obvious, from all that has been said, that the
strength and stiffness of the whole must be found in the
triangles into which this frame of carpentry may be re¬
solved. We have seen that the strains which one piece
produces on two others with which it meets in one point,
depend on the angles of their intersection; and that it is
greater as an obtuse angle is more obtuse, or an acute
‘dge more acute. And this suggests to us the general
axun,, to avoid as much as possible all very obtuse
nnn,eSi" u angles> which are not necessarily accom-
str 1,6 k ^ 0‘:)tuse ones, are not so hurtful, because the
am ere can never exceed the straining force; where-
degree 6 CaS6 an °^>*;use ang^e> d inay surpass it in any
K^iCih- are lhe ?eneral rules on this subject. Although
ing of the mutual abutment of timbers, and the
VOL. vi.
support derived from it, has been long perceived, and em¬
ployed by the carpenters in roofing, and also, doubtless,
m the forming of centres, yet it is a matter of historical
tact, that no general and distinct views had been taken of
it till about the beginning of last century, or a little earlier.
Montana has preserved the figure of the frames on which
the arches of St Peter’s at Rome were turned. The one
employed for the dome is constructed with very little skill;
and those for the arches of the nave and transepts, though
incomparably superior, and of considerable simplicity and
strength, are yet far inferior to others which have been em¬
ployed in later times. It is much to be regretted that no
trace remains of the forms emploj^ed by the great archi¬
tect and consummate mechanician Sir Christopher Wren.
We should doubtless have seen in them every thin" that
science and great sagacity could suggest. We are told,
indeed, that his centring for the dome of St Paul’s was a
wonder of its kind; begun in the air at the height of 160
feet from the ground, and without making use of even a
projecting cornice whereon to rest.
The earliest theory of the kind that we have met with,The ear-
that is proposed on scientific principles, and with the ex-liest theory
press purpose of serving as a lesson, are two centres by °n scienti-
M. Pitot of the Academy of Sciences, about the begin-princi-
ning of last century. As they have considerable merit,^es"
greatly resembling those employed by Michael Angelo in
the nave of St Peter s, and afford some good maxims, we
shall give a short account of them. We crave the excuse
of the artists if we should employ their terms of art some¬
what awkwardly, not being very familiarly acquainted with
them. Indeed, we observe very great difterences, and even
ambiguity, in the terms employed.
What we shall describe under the name of a centre is,
properly speaking, only one frame, truss, or rib, of a cen¬
tre. They are set up in vertical planes, parallel to each
other, at the distance of five, six, seven, or eight feet, like
the tiusses or main couples of a roof. Bridging joists are
laid across them. In smaller works these are laid sparing¬
ly, but of considerable scantling, and are boarded over;
but for great arches, a bridging joist is laid for every course
of arch-stones, with blockings between to keep them at
their proper distances. The stones are not laid immedi¬
ately on these joists, but beams of soft wrood are laid along
each joist, on which the stone is laid. These beams are
afterwaids cut out with the chisel, in order to separate
the centre from the ring of stones, which must now sup¬
port each other by their mutual abutment.
The centre is distinguishable into two parts, ALLB rrni.,.
(fig. 1) and LDL, which are pretty independent of each pt ctjv
other, or at least act separately. The horizontal stretcher
LL cuts the semicircle ADB half way between the spring
and the crown of the arch ; the arches AL, LD, being 45°
each. I his stretcher is divided in the same proportion in
the points G and H; that is, GH is one half of LL, and
LG, HL, are each one fourth of LL nearly. Each end is
supported by two struts El, GI, which rest below on a
sole or bed properly supported. The interval between
the heads of the struts GI, HK, is filled up by the strain¬
ing beam GH, abutting in a proper manner on the struts
(see Carpentry). The extremities L, L, are united in
like manner by butting joints, with the heads of the outer
struts. The arch moulds AP, BP, are connected with the
struts by cross pieces PQ, which we shall call bridles, which
come inwards on each side of the struts, being double,
and are bolted to them. This may be called the lower
part of the frame. The upper part consists of the king¬
post DR, supported on each side by the two struts or
braces ML, ON, mortised into the post, and also mortised
into the stretcher, at the points L, N, where it is support¬
ed by the struts below. The arches LD, LD, are connect-
2 N
CENTRE.
Propriety
of this ar¬
rangement
By a cen¬
tre of M.
Pitot’s.
ed with the struts by the bridles PQ, in the same manner
as below. .
There is a great propriety in many parts of this arrange¬
ment. The lower parts or haunches of the arch press very
lightly on the centres. Each arch-stone is lying on an in¬
clined plane, and tends to slide down only with its rela¬
tive weight; that is, its weight is to its tendency to slide
down the ioint as radius to the sine of elevation of the
ioint. Now it is only by this tendency to slide down the
ioint that they press on the centring, which in every part
of the arch is perpendicular to the joint: but the pressure
on the joint arising from this cause is much less than
this, by reason of the friction of the joints. A block of
dry freestone will not slide down at.all, and therefore
will not press on the centring, if the joint be not elevat¬
ed thirty-five degrees at least. But the arch-stones are
not laid “in this manner, by sliding them down along the
joint, but are laid on the centres, and slide down their slope,
till they touch the blocks on which they are to rest; so
that, in laying the arch-stones, we are by no means allow¬
ed to make the great deduction from their weight just now
mentioned, and which M. Couplet prescribes (Mem. Acad.
Sciences, 1729.) But there is another cause which dimi¬
nishes the pressure on the centres : each block slides down
the planks on which it is laid, and presses on the block be¬
low it, in the direction of the tangent to the arch. I his
pressure is transmitted through this block, in the same di¬
rection, to the next, and through it to the third, &c. in
this manner it is plain that, as the arch advances, there is
a tangential pressure on the lower arch-stones, winch di¬
minishes their pressure on the frame, and, if sufficiently
great, might even push them away from it. M. Couplet
has given an analysis of this pressure, and shows, that in
a semicircular arch of uniform thickness none of the aic i-
stones below thirty degrees press on the frames. But he,
without saying so, calculates on the supposition that the
blocks descend along the circumference of this frame in
the same manner as if it were perfectly smooth. As this
is far from being the case, and as the obstructions aie to
the last degree various and irregular, it is quite useless to
institute any calculation on the subject. A little reflec-
tion will convince the reader, that in this case the ob-
struction arising from friction must be taken into ac¬
count, and that it must not be taken into account in esti¬
mating the pressure of each successive course of stones as
they are laid. It is enough that we see that the pres¬
sure of the lower courses of arch-stones on the frame is di¬
minished. M. Couplet says, that the whole pressure of a
semicircular arch is but four ninths of its weight; but it is
much greater, for thereason just nowgiven. We have tried,
with a well-made wooden model (of which the circumfer¬
ence was rubbed with black lead, to render it more slippery)
whether any part of the wooden blocks representing the
arch-stones were detached from the frame by the tangen¬
tial pressure of the superior blocks; but we could not
say confidently that any were so detached. We perceived
that all kept hold of a thin slip of Chinese paper (also rub¬
bed with black lead) between them and the frame, so that
a sensible force was required to pull it out. From a com¬
bination of circumstances, which it would be tedious to
relate, we believe that the centres carry more than two
thirds of the weight of the arch before the keystone is set.
In elliptical and lower pitched circular arches, the propor¬
tion is still greater.
It seems reasonable enough, therefore, to dispose the
framing in the manner proposed by Pitot, directing the
main support to the upper mass of the arch, which presses
most on the frame. We shall derive another advantage
from this construction, which has not occurred to M.
Pitot.
There is an evident propriety in the manner in which CeiJj
he has distributed the supports of the upper part. The
struts which carry the king-post spring from those points
of the stretcher where it rests on the struts below. Thus
the stretcher, on which all depends, bears no transverse
strains. It is stretched by the strut above it, and it is
compressed in a small degree between the struts below it,
at least by the outer ones. M. Pitot proposes the strain¬
ing beam GH as a lateral support to the stretcher, which
may therefore be of two pieces ; but although it does aug-
ment its strength, it does not seem necessary for it. Ihe
stretcher is abundantly carried by the strap, which may
and should suspend it from the king-post. The great use
of the straining piece is to give a firm abutment to the
inner struts, without allowing any lateral stiain on the
stretcher. N. B. Great care must be taken to make the
hold sufficiently firm and extensive between the stretcher
and the upper struts, so that its cohesion to resist the
thrusts from these struts may be much employed.
The only imperfection that we find in this fiame is the
lateral strains which are brought upon the upper struts by
the bridles, which certainly transmit to them part of the
weight of the arch-stones on the curves. The space be¬
tween the curves and ML should also have been trussed.
M. Pitot's form is, however, extremely stiff; and the caus¬
ing of the middle bridle to reach down to the stretcher
seems to secure the upper struts from all risk of bending.
This centre gives a very distinct view of the offices of
all the parts, and makes therefore a proper introduction
to the general subject. It is the simplest that can be in its
principle, because all the essential parts are subjected to
one kind of strain. The stretcher LL is the only excep¬
tion, and its extension is rather a collateral circumstance
than a step in the general support.
The examination of the strength ol the frame is €x-gtrei)[
tremely easy. M. Pitot gives it for an arch of sixty feet this t:
span, and supposes the arch-stones seven feet long, which
is a monstrous thickness for so small an arch; four feet
is an abundant allowance; but we shall abide by his con¬
struction. He gives the following scantlings of the parts
The ring or circumference consists of pieces of oak
twelve inches broad and six thick.
The stretcher LL is twelve inches square.
The straining piece GH is also twelve by twelve.
The lower struts ten by eight.
The king-post twelve by twelve.
The upper struts ten by six.
The bridles twenty by eight.
These dimensions are French, which is about one seven¬
teenth larger than ours, and the superficial dimensions
(by which the section and the absolute strength is mea¬
sured) are almost one eighth larger than ours. The cubic
foot, by which the stones are measured, exceeds ours by
nearly one fifth. The pound is deficient about one thir¬
teenth. But since very nice calculation is neither easy
nor necessary on this subject, it is needless to depart rom
the French measures, which would occasion many nac-
tional parts, and a troublesome reduction. ,
The arch is supposed to be built of stone which weighed
a hundred and sixty' pounds per foot. M. I itot, y
computation, in which he has committed a mista e, says,
that only eleven fourteenths of this weight is came )
the frame. We believe, however, that this is nearer
truth than M. Couplet’s assumption of four ninths, alrea y
mentioned. . - i
M. Pitot further assumes, that a square inch ot soui
oak will carry 8640 pounds. By his language we shorn
imagine that it will not carry much more; but this is v y
far below the strength of any British oak that we
tried ; so far, indeed, that we rather imagine that he mea
CENTRE.
283
re. that this load may be laid on it with perfect security for
any time. But to compensate for knots and other acci¬
dental imperfections, he assumes 7200 as the measure of
its absolute force.
He computes the load on each frame to be 707,520
pounds, which he reduces to -f^ths, or 555,908 pounds.
The absolute force of each of the lower struts is 576,000
(at 7200 per inch), and that of the curves 518,400. M.
Pitot, considering that the curves are kept from bending
outwards by the arch-stones which press on them, thinks
that they may be considered as acting precisely as the
outer struts El. We have no objection to this supposi¬
tion.
(ted. With these data w-e may compute the load which the
lower truss can safely bear, by the rule delivered in the
article Carpentry. We therefore proceed as follows :
Measure off by a scale of equal parts as, at, each
576,000, and add t v 518,400. Complete the parallelogram
and draw the vertical meeting the horizontal
line aC in c. Make cb equal to ca. Join xb, and com¬
plete the parallelogram axby. It is evident that the
diagonal xy will represent the load which these pieces
can carry; for the line a is the united force of the curve
AP and the strut IE, and as is the strength of IG. These
two are equivalent to ax. xb is, in like manner, equiva¬
lent to the support on the other side, and xy is the load
which will just balance the two supports ax and bx.
When xy is measured on the same scale, it will be
found =2,850,000 pounds. This is more than five times
the load which actually lies on the frame. It is there¬
fore vastly stronger than is necessary. Half of each of
the linear dimensions would have been quite sufficient,
and the struts needed only to be five inches by four. Even
this would have carried twice the weight, and would have
borne the load really laid on it with perfect safety.
We proceed to measure the strength of the upper part.
The force of each strut is 432,000, and that of the curve
is 518,400; therefore, having drawn Mv parallel to the
strut ON, make M v r= 432,000, and M s =r 432,000 -f.
518,400. Complete the parallelogram M s r v. Draw the
horizontal line rk, cutting the vertical MC in k, and make
ky = M£. It is plain, from what was done for the lower
part, that My will measure the load which can be carried
by the upper part. This will be found =1,160,000. This
is also greatly superior to the load, but not in so great a
proportion as the other part. The chief part of the load
lies on the upper part, but the chief reason of the differ¬
ence is the greater obliquity of the upper struts. This
shortens the diagonal My of the parallelogram of forces.
M. Pitot should have adverted to this, and instead of
making the upper struts more slender than the lower, he
should have made them stouter.
The strain on the stretcher LL is not calculated. It is
measured by rk, when My is the load actually lying on
the upper part. Less than the sixth part of the cohesion
of the stretcher is more than sufficient for the horizontal
thrust, and there is no difficulty in making the foot joints
of the struts abundantly strong for the purpose.
Hie reader will perceive that the computation just now
given does not state the proportions of the strains actually
exerted on the different pieces, but the load on the whole,
on the supposition that each piece is subjected to a strain
proportioned to its strength. The other calculation is
much more complicated, but is not necessary here.
This centre has a very palpable defect. If the piers
should yield to the load, and the feet of the centre fly out,
the lower part will exert a very considerable strain on the
stretcher, tending to break it across between N and L, Centre,
and on the other side. HKF of the lower part is firmly
bound together, and cannot change its shape, and will
therefore act like a lever, turning round the point F. It will
draw the strut HK away from its abutment with GH, and
the stretcher will be strained across at the place between
H and F, where it is bolted with the bridle. This may be
resisted in some degree by an iron strap uniting ON and
HK, but there will still be a want of proportional strength.
Indeed, in an arch of such height, a semicircle, there is
but little risk of this yielding of the piers, but it is an im¬
perfection.
The centre (fig. 2, No. 1) is constructed on the same prin-A centre
ciple precisely for an elliptical arch.1 The calculation of its on the same
strength is nearly the same also ; only the two upper struts principles
of a side being parallel, the parallelogram M s r v (of fig. l)|?r e^'P"
is not needed, and in its stead we measure off on ON a 1 1 1
line to represent twice its strength. This comes in place
of M/1 of fig. 1.—N.JB. The calculation proceeds on the
supposition that the short straining piece MM makes but
one firm body with the king-post. Mr Pitot employed this
piece, we presume, to separate the heads of the struts,
that their obliquity might be lessened thereby; and this
is a good thought, for when the angle formed by the struts
on each side is very open, the strain on them becomes
very great.
The stretcher of this frame is scarfed in the middle.
Suppose this joint to yield a little, there is a danger of
the lower strut ON losing its hold, and ceasing to join in
the support; for when the crown sinks by the lengthen¬
ing of the stretcher, the triangle QRN of fig. 2 will be
more distorted than the space above it, and ON will be
loosened. But this will not be the case when the sinking
of the crown arises from the mere compression of the
struts. Nor will it happen at all in the centre, fig. 1. On
the contrary, the strut ON will abut more firmly by the
yielding of the foot of ML.
The figure of this arch of M. Pitot’s consists of three
arches of circles, each of 60 degrees. As it is elegant, it
will not be unacceptable to the artist to have a construc¬
tion for this purpose.
Make BY = CD, and CZ' = T CY. Describe the semi- How to
circle ZJEY, and make ZS' = ZAE. S is the centre of the construct
side arches, each of 60 degrees. The centre T of the arch,such an
which unites these two, is at the angle of an equilateral arc*1‘
triangle STS'.
This construction of M. Pitot’s makes a handsome oval,
and very nearly an ellipsis, but lies a little without it. We
shall add another of our own, which coincides with the
ellipse in eight points, and furnishes the artist, by the way,
with a rule for drawing an infinite variety of ovals.
Let AB, DE (fig. 2, No. 2), be the axes of an ellipse,
C the centre, and F jf the two foci. Make C b = CD,
and describe a circle AD b e passing through the three
given points A, D, and b. It may be demonstrated, that
if from any point P of the arch AD be drawn a cord PD,
and if a line Pll r be drawn, making the angle DPR =
PDC, and meeting the two axes in the points R and r,
then R and r will be the centres of circles, which will
form a quarter APD of an oval, which has AB and DE
for its two axes.
We want an oval which shall coincide as much as pos¬
sible with an ellipsis. The most likely method for this
is to find the very point P where the ellipsis cuts the circle
AD b e. The easiest way for the artist is to describe an
arch of a circle a m, having AB for its radius, and the re¬
mote focus/for its centre. Then set one foot of the corn-
one feet8 l*ie mic^C arc^ t*ie bridge at Lille Adam, of which M. Pitot had the direction. It is of eighty feet span, and rises thirty-
284
CENTRE.
Centre, passes on any point P, and try whether the distance Pi
from the nearest focus F is exactly equal to its distance
P m from that circle. Shifting the foot of the compasses
from one point of the arch to another will soon discover
the point. This being found, draw PD, make the angle
DP r = PD r, and R and r are the centres wanted. Then
make CS = CR, and we get the centres for the other
side. . , _
The geometer will not relish this mechanical constiuc-
tion. He may therefore proceed as follows: “ Draw ed the
diameter of the circle, cutting AB in N; join Dt/, and
produce it so that may be equal to CD, and join er ,
meeting AB in Q. On'B and Q, as centres with any ra¬
dius, describe arcs cutting each other in X, and on C and N
with the same radius describe arcs cutting each othei m Y.
Take the distance XN in the compasses, and on Y as a
centre describe an arc cutting AB in M and W, and draw
MP, M'P perpendicular to AB. These ordinates will cut
the circle in the points P and P, where it is cut by the
ellipse.”1 2 We leave the demonstration as an exercise for
the dilettante.
Centre for We said that this centring of M. Pitot’s resembled in
the nave of principle the one employed by Michael Angelo for the
St Peter’s. nave an(j transepts of St Peter’s church at Rome. _ Fon¬
tana, who has preserved this, ascribes the construction ot
it to one of the name of San Gallo. A sketch of it is
(riven in fig. 3. It is, however, so much superior, and so
different in principle, from that employed for the cupola,
that we cannot think it the invention of the same person.
It is, like Pitot’s, not only divisible, but really divided
into two parts, of which the upper carries by much the
greatest part of the load. The pieces are judiciously dis¬
posed, and every important beam is amply secured against
all transverse strains. Its only fault is a great profusion
of strength. The innermost polygon a glib is quite su¬
perfluous, because no strain can force in the struts which
rest on the angles. Should the piers yield outwards, this
polygon will be loose, and can do no service. Nor is the
triangle g i h of any use, if the king-post above it be strap¬
ped to the tie-beam and straining sill. Perhaps the in¬
ventor considered the king-post as a pillar, and wished to
secure the tie-beam against its cross strain. This cen¬
tring, however, must be allowed to be very well composed ;
and we expect that the well-informed reader will join us
in preferring it to M. Pitot’s, both for simplicity of prin¬
ciple and scientific propriety, as well as for strength.
There is one considerable advantage which may be de¬
rived from the actual division of the truss into two parts.
If the tie-beam LL, instead of resting on the stretcher
EF, had rested on a row of chocks formed like double
wedges, placed above each other head to point, the upper
part of the centring might be struck independent of the
lower, and this might be done gradually, beginning at the
outer ends of the stretcher. By this procedure the joints
of the arch-stones will close on the haunches, and will al¬
most relieve the lower centring, so that all can be pulled
out together. Thus may the arch settle and consolidate
in perfect safety, without any chance of breaking the bond
of the mortar in any part; an accident which frequently
happens in great arches. This procedure is peculiarly
advisable for low pitched or elliptical arches. But this
will be more clearly seen afterwards, when v/e treat of the
internal movements of an arch of masonry.
This may suffice for an account of the more simple con- CeJ
struction of trussed centres; and we proceed to such as wjj
have a much greater complication of principle. We shall
take for examples some constructed by M. Perronet, a
very celebrated French architect.
M. Perronet’s general maxim of construction is to makeperro:
the truss consist of several courses of separate trusses, in-maxii:
dependent, as he thinks, of each other, and thus to em-constr
ploy the joint support of them all. In this constructiontlon' ;
it is not intended to make use of one truss, or part of one
truss, to support another, as in the former set, and as is
practised in the roofs of St Paul’s church, Covent Gar-
den, and in Drury Lane theatre. Each truss spans over
the whole distance of the piers, and would stand alone
(having, however, a tottering equilibrium). It consists of
a number of struts, set end to end, and forming a polygon.
These trusses are so arranged that the angles of one are
in the middle of the sides of the next, as when a polygon
is inscribed in a circle, and another (of the same number
of sides) is circumscribed by lines which touch the circle
in the angles of the inscribed polygon. By this construc¬
tion the angles of the alternate trusses lie in lines point¬
ing towards the centre of the curve. King-posts are
therefore placed in this direction, between the adjoining
beams of the trusses. These king-posts consist of two
beams, one on each side of the truss, and embrace the
truss-beams between them, meeting in the middle of their
thickness. The abutting beams are mortised, half into
each half of the post. The other beam, which makes
the base of the triangle, passes through the post, and a
strong bolt is driven through the joint, and secured by
a key or a nut. In this manner is the whole united; and
it is expected, that when the load is laid on the upper¬
most truss, it will all butt together, forcing down the king¬
posts, and therefore pressing them on the beams of all
the inferior trusses, causing them also to abut on each
other, and thus bear a share of the load. M. Perronet
does not assume the invention to himself, but says that
it was invented and practised by M. Mansard de Sa-
gonne at the great bridge of Moulins. It is much more
ancient, and is the work of the celebrated physician and
architect Perrault, as may be seen in the collection of
machines and inventions of that gentleman, published after
his death, and also in the great collection of inventions
approved of by the Academy of Sciences. It is this
which we propose to examine.
Fig. 4 represents the centring employed for the bridge Centr I
of Cravant. The arches are elliptical, of sixty feet spanemplo
and twenty feet rise. The arch-stones are four feet thick, ^ ’
and weigh 176 pounds per foot. The truss-beams were^
from fifteen to eighteen feet long, and their section was
nine inches by eight. Each half of the king-posts was
about seven feet long, and its section nine inches by eight.
The whole was of oak. The five trusses were five and a
half feet asunder. The whole weight of the arch was
1,350,000 lbs., which we may call 600 tons (it is 558).
This is about 112 tons for each truss. We must allow
nearly ninety tons of this really to press the truss. A great
part of this pressure is borne by the four beams which
make the feet of the truss, coupled in pairs on each side.
The diagonal of the parallelogram of forces drawn lor
these beams is, to one of the sides, in the proportion o
360 to 285. Therefore say, as 360 to 285, so is 90 to
1 The construction given in the Supplement to the Third Edition, by the writer of this article (the late Professor Robison), i
left out, and another more simple (that marked by inverted commas) put in its stead. If we put a for the semi-transverse c ’
the semi-conjugate cD, and denote the distance of the ordinates CM, CM', from the centre by v, then CM and CM will be t e
of this quadratic equation :
2 a — b av _ 2a3b
a + b (a+Z>)*
The above construction has been derived from this equation, (a.)
CENTRE.
tons, the thrust on each foot. The section of each is 144
^ inches. We may with the utmost safety lay three tons on
every inch for ever. This amounts to 432 tons, which is
more than six times the strain really pressing the foot-
beams in the direction of their length; nay, the upper
truss alone is able to carry much more than its load. The
absolute strength of its foot-beam is 216 tons. It is much
more advantageously placed, for the diagonal of the paral¬
lelogram of forces corresponding to its position is to the
side as 438 to 285. _ This gives 58-^th tons for the strain
on each foot, which is not much above the fourth part of
what it is able to carry for ever. No doubt can therefore
be entertained of the superabundant strength of this cen¬
tring. We see that the upper row of struts is quite suf¬
ficient, and all that is wanted is to procure stiffness for it;
for it must be carefully kept in mind that this upper row
is not like an equilibrated arch. It will be very unequally
loaded as the work advances. The haunches of the frame
will be pressed down, and the joints at the crown raised
up. This must be resisted.
Here then we may gather by the way a useful lesson. Let
the outer row of struts be appropriated to the carriage of
the load, and let the rest be employed for giving stiffness.
For this purpose let the outer row have abundant strength.
The advantages of this method are considerable. The
position of the beams of the exterior row is more advan¬
tageous when, as in this example, the whole is made to
rest on a narrow foot; for this obliges us to make the last
angle, at least of the lower row, more open, which increases
the strain on the strut; besides, it is next to impossible
to distribute the compressing thrusts among the different
rows of the truss-beams; and a beam which, during one
period of the mason work, is acting the part of a strut, in
another period is bearing no strain but its own weight,
and in another it is stretched as a tie. A third advantage
is, that, in a case like this, where all rests on a narrow
foot, and the lower row of beams are bearing a great part
of the thrust, the horizontal thrust on the pier is very
great, and may push it aside. This is the most ruinous
accident that can happen. An inch or two of yielding
will cause the crown of the arch to sink prodigiously, and
will instantly derange all the bearings of the abutting
beams ; but when the lower beams already act as ties, and
are quite adequate to their office, we render the frame
perfectly stiff or unchangeable in its form, and take away
the horizontal thrust from the piers entirely. This advan¬
tage is the more valuable, because the very circumstance
which obliges us to rest all on a narrow foot, places this
foot on the very top of the pier, and makes the horizontal
thrust the more dangerous.
But, to proceed in our examination of the centring of
Cravant Bridge, let us suppose that the king-posts are re¬
moved, and that the beams are joined by compass joints,
f the pier shall yield in the smallest degree, both rows of
struts must sink; and since the angles, at least the outer¬
most, of the lower rows are more open than those of the
upper row, the crown of the lower row will sink more than
that of the upper.
The angles of the alternate rows must therefore sepa-
iate a little. Now restore the king-posts, they prevent
V's separation. Therefore they are stretched; therefore
t m beams of the lower row are also stretched; conse-
quently they no longer butt on their mortises, and must
tiv i • iln t*le*r places by bolts. Thus it appears that, in
Is k1™ of sagging, the original distribution of the load
among the different rows of beams is changed, and the
UP[)^r,row becomes loaded beyond our expectation.
the sagging of the whole truss proceed only from the
compression of the timbers, the case is different, and we
may preserve the original distribution of mutual abutment
285
more accurately. But in this case the stiffness of the Centre,
frame arises chiefly from cross strains. Suppose that the
frame is loaded with arch-stones on each side up to the
posts HC, he; the angles E and e are pressed down, and
the beams EOF, eo F, push up the point F. This cannot
rise without bending the beams EOF, eoF; because O
and o are held down by the double king-posts, which grasp
the beams between them. There is therefore a cross
strain on the beams. Observe also that the triangle EHF
does not preserve its shape by the connection of its joints;
for although the strut-beams are mortised into the king¬
post, they are in very shallow mortises, rather for steady¬
ing them than for holding them together. M. Perronet
did not even pin them, thinking that their abutment was
very great. The triangle is kept in shape by the base EF,
which is firmly bolted into the middle post at O. Had
these intersections not been strongly bolted, we imagine
that the centres of some of M. Perronet’s bridges would
have yielded much more than they did ; yet some of them
yielded to a degree that our artists would have thought
very dangerous. M. Perronet was obliged to load the
crown of the centring with very great weights, increasing
them as the work advanced, to prevent the frames from
going out of shape ; in one arch of 120 feet he laid on forty-
five tons. Notwithstanding this imperfection, which is
perhaps unavoidable, this mode of framing is undoubtedly
very judicious, and perhaps the best which can be employ¬
ed without depending on iron work.
Fig. 5 represents another, constructed by Perronet, for for the
an arch of ninety feet span and twenty-eight feet rise, bridge of
The trusses were seven feet apart, and the arch was four N°gent.
and a half thick; so that the unreduced load on each frame
was very nearly 235 tons. The scantling of the struts was
fifteen by twelve inches. The principle is the same as that
of the former. The chief difference is, that in this centre
the outer truss-beam of the lower row is not coupled with
the middle row, but kept nearly parallel to the outer beam
of the upper row. This adds greatly to the strength of
the foot, and takes off much of the horizontal thrust from
the pier.
M. Perronet has shown great judgment in causing the
polygon of the inner row of truss-beams gradually to ap¬
proach the polygon of the outer row. By this disposition,
the angles of the inner polygon are more acute than those
of the outer. A little attention will show that the gene¬
ral sagging of all the polygons will keep the abutments of
the lower one nearer, or exactly, to their original quantitjr.
We must indeed except the foot-beam. It is still too ob-
lique ; and, instead of converging to the foot of the upper
row, it should have diverged from it. Had this been done,
this centre is almost perfect in its kind. As it is, it is at
least six times stronger than was absolutely necessary.
We shall have occasion to refer to this figure on another
occasion.
This maxim is better exemplified by M. Perronet in St Max-
the centring of the bridge of St Maxence, exhibited inence,
fig. 5, No. 2, than in that of Nogent, fig. 5, No. 1. But
we think that a horizontal truss-beam ab should have been
inserted, in a subordinate manner, between the king-posts
next the crown on each side. This would prevent the
crown from rising while the haunches only are loaded,
without impairing the fine abutments of cd, c d, when
the arch is nearly completed. This is an excellent cen¬
tring, but is not likely to be of much use in these king¬
doms, because the arch itself will be considered as un¬
graceful and ugly, looking like a huge lintel. Perronet
says that he preferred it to the ellipse, because it was
lighter on the piers, which were thin. But the failure of
one arch must be immediately followed by the ruin of all.
We know much better methods of lightening the piers.
Neuilly,
and
CENTRE.
Fig. 6 represents the centring of the bridge of Neuilly,
near Paris, also by Perronet. The arch has 120 feet span
and thirty feet rise, and is five feet thick. The frames
are six feet apart, and each carries an absolute (that is,
not reduced to j^ths or to fths) load of 350 tons. Ihe
strut-beams are seventeen by fourteen inches in scantling.
The king-posts are fifteen by nine each half; and the no-
rizontal bridles, which bind the different frames together
in five places, are also fifteen by nine each half. I here
are eight other horizontal binders of nine inches square.
This is one of the most remarkable arches in the world ;
not altogether on account of its width, for there are seve¬
ral much wider, but for the flatness at the crown; for
about twenty-six feet on each side of the middle it was in¬
tended to be a portion of a circle of 150 feet radius. An
arch (semicircular) of 300 feet span might therefore be
easily constructed, and would be much stronger than this,
because its horizontal thrust at the crown would be vastly
greater, and would keep it more firmly united.
° The bolts of this centre are differently placed from those
of the former, and the change is judicious. M. Perronet
had doubtless found by this time that the stiffness of his
framing depended on the transverse strength of the beams,
and therefore he was careful not to weaken them by the
bolts. But notwithstanding all his care, the framing sunk
upwards of thirteen inches before the keystones were laid ;
and during the progress of the work, the crown rose and
sunk, by various steps, as the loading was extended along
it. When twenty courses were laid on each side, and about
sixteen tons laid on the crown of each frame, it sunk about
an inch. When forty-six courses were laid, and the crown
loaded with fifty tons, it sunk about half an inch more. It
continued sinking as the work advanced; ahd when the
keystone was set it had sunk thirteen inches and a quar¬
ter. But this sinking was not general; on the contrary,
the frame had risen greatly at the very haunches, so as to
open the upper part of the joints, many of which gaped
an inch ; and this opening of the joints gradually extend¬
ed from the haunches towards the crown, in the neigh¬
bourhood of which they opened on the under side. This
evidently arose from a want of stiffness in the frame. But
these joints closed again when the centres were struck, as
will be mentioned afterwards.
We have taken particular notice of the movements and
twisting of this centre, because we think that they indi¬
cate a deficiency, not only of stiffness, but of abutment
among the truss-beams. The whole has been too flexible,
because the angles are too obtuse: this arises from their
multiplicity. When the intercepted arches have so little
curvature, the power of the load to press it inward in¬
creases very fast. When the intercepted arch is reduced to
one half, this power is more than doubled ; and it is also
doubled when the radius of curvature is doubled. The
king-posts should have been farther apart near the crown,
so that the quantity of arch between them should compen¬
sate for its diminished curvature.
The power of withstanding any given inequality of load
would therefore have been greater had the centre consist¬
ed of fewer pieces, and their angles of meeting been pro¬
portionally more acute. The greatest improvement would
have been to place the foot of the lower tier of truss-beams
on the very foot of the pier, and to have also separated
it at the head from the rest with a longer king-post, and
thus to have made the distances of the beams on the king¬
posts increase gradually from the crown to the spring.
This would have made all the angles of abutment more
acute, and would have produced a greater pressure on all
the lower tiers when the frames sagged.
Fig. 7 represents the centring of the bridge of Orleans.
The arch has 100 feet span, and rises thirty, and the
arch-stones are six feet long. It is the construction of C*i
M. Hupeau, the first architect of the bridge. It is theW^
boldest work of the kind that we have seen, and is con¬
structed on clear principles. The main abutments are few
in number. Because the beams of the outer polygon are
long, they are very well supported by straining beams in
the middle; and the struts or braces which support and
butt on them are made to rest on points carried entirely ,
by ties. The inventor, however, seems to have thought
that the angles of the inner polygon were supported by
mutual compression, as in the outer polygon. But it is
plain that the whole inner polygon may be formed of iron
rods. Not but that both polygons may be in a state of
compression ; this is very possible ; but the smallest sagg¬
ing of the frame will change the proportions of the pres¬
sures at the angles of the two polygons. The pressures
on the exterior angles will increase, and those on the low¬
er or interior angles will diminish most rapidly ; so that the
abutments in the lower polygons will be next to nothing.
Such points could bear very little pressure from the braces
which support the middle of the long bearings of the up¬
per beams, and their pressures must be borne chiefly by
the joints supported by the king-posts. The king-posts
would then be in a state of extension. It is difficult, how¬
ever, to decide what is the precise state of the pressure at
these interior angles.
The history of the erection of this bridge will throwInstp
much light on this point, and is very instructive. M.tive
Hupeau died before any of the arches were carried farthert0I7 “
than a very few of the first courses. M. Perronet suc-cen
ceeded to the charge, and finished the bridge. As the
work advanced, the crown of the frame rose very much.
It was loaded; and it sunk as remarkably. This showed
that the lower polygon was giving very little aid. M.
Perronet then thought the frame too weak, and inserted
the long beam DE, making the diagonal of the quad¬
rangle, and very nearly in the direction of the lower beam
a b, but falling rather below this line. He now found the
frame abundantly strong. It is evident that the truss is
now changed exceedingly, and consists of only the two
long sides, and the short straining beam lying horizontally
between their heads. The whole centring consists now
of one great truss, a E e 6, and its long sides, a E, are
trussed up at B and/. Flad this simple idea been made
the principle of the construction, it would have been ^ex¬
cellent. The angle o DE might have been about 176°,
and the polygon D c <7 /* employed only for giving a slight
support to this great angle, so as not to allow it to exceed
180°. But M. Perronet found that the joint c, at the
foot of the post E c, was about to draw loose, and he was
obliged to bolt long pieces of timber on each side of the
joint, embracing both beams. These were evidently act¬
ing the same part as iron straps would have done; a com¬
plete proof that, whatever may have been the origina
pressures, there was no abutment now at the point c, and
that the beams that met there were not in a state of com¬
pression, but were on the stretch. M. Perronet says that
he put these cheeks to the joints to stiffen them, but
this was not their office, because the adjoining beams were
not struts, but ties, as we have now proved.
We may therefore conclude that the outer polygou,
with the assistance of the pieces a b, DE, were carrying
the whole load. We do not know the distance between
the frames ; but supposing them seven feet apart, and t e
arch six feet thick, and weighing 170 pounds per foot, ue
learn the load. The beams were sixteen inches square.
If we now calculate what they would bear at the same
very moderate rate allowed to the other centres, we n
that the beams AB and a b are not loaded to one sixtr
their strength.
Orleans.
CENTRE.
287
We have given this centre as a fine example of what
^ carpentry is able to perform, and because, by its simplici¬
ty, it is a sort of text on which the intelligent artist may
make many comments. We may see plainly that, if the
lower polygon had been formed of iron rods, firmly bolted
into the feet of the king-posts, it would have maintained
its shape completely. The service done by the beam DE
was not so much an increase of abutment as a discharge
of the weight and of the pull at the joint c. Therefore, in
cases where the feet of the truss are necessarily confined
to a very narrow space, we should be careful to make the
upper polygon sufficient to carry the whole load, say by
doubling its beams, and we may then make the lower po¬
lygon of slender dimensions, provided we secure the joints
on the king-posts by iron straps which embrace a con¬
siderable portion of the tie on each side of the joint.
We are far from thinking that these centres are of the
best kind that could be employed in their situation; but
they are excellent in their kind, and a careful study of
them will teach the artist much of his profession. When
we have a clear conception of the state of strain in which
the parts of a frame really are, we know what should be
done in order to draw all the advantages possible from
our materials. We have said in another place, that where
we can give our joints sufficient connection, as by straps
and bolts, or by cheeks or fishes, it is better to use ties
than struts, because ties never bend.
We do not approve of M. Perronet’s practice of giving
his trusses such narrow feet. By bringing the foot of the
lower polygon farther down, we greatly diminish all the
strains, and throw more load on the lower polygon; and
we do not see any of M. Perronet’s centres where this
might not have been done. He seems to affect a great
span, to show the wonders of his art; but our object is
to teach how to make the best centre of a given quan¬
tity of materials, and how to make the most perfect cen¬
tre, when we are not limited in this respect, nor in the ex¬
tent of our fixed points.
We shall conclude this series of examples with one
-where no such affectation takes place. This is the cen¬
tring of the bridge at Blackfriars, London. The span of
the arch is one hundred feet, and its height from the
spring is about forty-three. The drawing, fig. 8, is suffi¬
ciently minute to convey a distinct notion of the whole
construction. We need not be very particular in our ob¬
servations, after what has been said on the general prin¬
ciples of construction. The leading maxim, in the pre¬
sent example, seems to be, that every part of the arch shall
be supported by a simple truss of two legs, resting, one on
each pier. H, H, &c. are called apron-pieces, to strength¬
en the exterior joints, and to make the ring as stiff in it¬
self as possible. From the ends of this apron-piece pro¬
ceed the two legs of each truss. These legs are twelve
inches square; they are not of an entire piece, but of se¬
veral, meeting in firm abutment. Some of their meetings
are secured by the double king-posts, which grasp them
firmly between them, and are held together by bolts. At
other intersections, the beams appear halved into each
other, a practice which cannot but weaken them much,
and would endanger their breaking by cross strains, if it
were possible for the frame to change its shape. But the
great breadth of this frame is an effectual stop to any such
change, ihe fact was, that no smiting or twisting what¬
ever was observed during the progress of the mason-work,
three points in a straight line were marked on purpose
for this observation, and were observed every day. The
arch was more than six feet thick, and yet the sinking of
the crown, before setting the keystones, did not amount
to one inch.
fhe centre employs about one third more timber than
Perronet’s great centre in proportion to the span of the
arch; but the circumference increases in a greater pro¬
portion than this, because it is more elevated. In every
way of making a comparison of the dimensions, Mr Mylne's
arch employs more timber; but it is beyond all compari¬
son stronger. The great elevation is partly the reason of
this. But the disposition of the timbers is also much
more advantageous, and may be copied even in the low
pitched arches of Neuilly. The simple truss, reaching
from pier to pier for the middle point of the arch, gives
the strong support where it is most of all wanted; and in
the lateral points H, although one leg of the truss is very
oblique, the other compensates for it by its upright posi¬
tion.
Centre.
The chief peculiarity of this centre is to be seen in its
base. This demands a more particular attention ; but we
must first make some observations on the condition of an
arch, as it rests on the centring after the keystones are all
set, and on the gradual transference of the pressure from
the boards of the centring to the joints of the arch-stones.
While all the arch-stones lie on the centring, the lower Observa-
courses are also leaning pretty strongly on each other, tions on
But the mortar is hardly compressed in the joints, andth,estate
least of all in the joints near the crown. Suppose the arch ot arcl1
to be Catenarean, or of any other shape that is perfectlyon thecen.
equilibrated: when the centring is gradually withdrawn,tring.
all the arch-stones follow it. Their wedge-like form makes
this impossible, without the middle ones squeezing the later¬
al ones aside. This compresses the mortar between them.
As the stones thus come nearer to each other, those near
the crown must descend more than those near the haunches,
before every stone has lessened its distance from the next
by the same quantity, for example, by the hundredth
part of an inch. This circumstance alone must cause a
sinking in the crown, and a change of shape. But the
joints near the crown are already more open than those
near the haunches. This produces a still greater change
of form before all is settled. Some masons endeavour to
remedy, or at least to diminish this, by using no mortar
in the joints near the crown. They lay the stones dry,
and even force them together by wedges and blocks laid
between the stones on opposite sides of the crown : they
afterwards pour in fine cement. This appears a good prac¬
tice. Perronet rejects it, because the wedging sometimes
breaks the stones. We should not think this any great
harm, because the fracture will make them close where
they would otherwise lie hollow. But, after all our care,
there is still a sinking of the crown of the arch. By gra¬
dually withdrawing the centring, the joints close, the arch¬
stones begin to butt on each other, and to force aside
the lateral courses. This abutment gradually increasing,
the pressure on the haunches of the centring is gradual¬
ly diminished by the mutual abutment, and ceases entire¬
ly in that course, which is the lowest that formerly press¬
ed it; it then ceases in the course above, and then in the
third, and so on. And in this manner not only the cen¬
tring quits the arch gradually, from the bottom to the
top, by its own retiring from it, but the arch also quits the
centring by changing its shape. If the centring were
now pushed up again, it would touch the arch first at the
crown; and it must lift up that part gradually, before it
come again in contact with the haunches. It is evident,
therefore, that an arch built on a centre of a shape per¬
fectly suited to equilibration, will not be in equilibrio
when the centring is removed., It is therefore necessary
to form the centring in such a manner, by raising the
crown, that it shall leave the arch of a proper form. This
is a very delicate task, requirino; a previous knowledge of
the ensuing change of form. This cannot be ascertained
by the help of any theory we are acquainted with.
288
CENTRE.
Centre. But suppose this attained, there is another difficulty. This was an anxious time, for he dreaded the great mo- C<y
While the work advances, the centring is warped by the mentum of such a vast mass of matter. It \\ as hard to ^
load laid on it, and continually increasing on each side, say where it would stop. He had the pleasure to see that
The first pressure on the centring forces down the haunch- it stopped very soon, settling slowly as the mortar was com¬
es and raises the crown. The arch is therefore less curv- pressed, and after one or two days settling no more. This
ed at the haunches than is intended: the joints, however, settling was very considerable, both in the bridge at Neuih
accommodate themselves to this form, and are close, and ly and in that at Mantz. In the former, the sinking dur-
filled with mortar. When the masons approach the mid- ing the work amounted to thirteen inches. It sunk six
die of the arch, the frame sinks there, and rises up at the inches more when the blocks and bridgings were taken
haunches. This opens all the joints in that place on the out, and one and a half when the little standards were de-
vpper side. By the time that the keystones are set, this stroyed, and one and a fourth more next day ; so that the
•warpino- has gone farther, and joints are opened on the whole sinking of the pendulous arch was nine inches and a
wider side near the crown. It is true, we are here speak- half, besides what it had sunk by the bending and com¬
ma- rather of an extreme case, when the centring is very pression of the centring.
flexible; but this occurred to M. Perronet in the two The crown of the centring was an arch of a circle de-
o-reat bridges of Neuilly and of Mantz. In this last one scribed with a radius of 150 feet; but by the sinking of the
the crown sunk above a foot before the key was set, and arch its shape was considerably changed, and about sixty
the joints at the haunches opened above an inch above, feet of it formed an arch of a circle whose radius was 244
while some nearer the crown opened near a quarter of an feet. Hence M. Perronet infers that a semicircle of 500
inch beloio. feet sPan may erected- It would no doubt be stronger
A delicate In this condition of things, it is a delicate business to than this arch, because its greater horizontal thrust would
business to strike the centring. Were it removed in an instant, all keep the stones firmer together. The sinking of the arches
strike the W0U1(J probably come down; for the arch-stones are not at Mantz was not quite so great, but every thing proceed-
centring. . on each other, and the joints in the middle ed in the same way. It amounted in all to twenty and a
are open below. M. Perronet’s method appears to us to half inches, of which twelve inches were owing to the com¬
be very judicious. He began to detach the centring at pression and bending of the centring,
the very bottom, on each side equally, where the pressure In fig. 5, No. 1, may be observed an indication of this pro-The
on the centring is very slight. He cut away the blocks cedure of the masonry. I here may be noticed a horizon-gdn.
which were immediately under each arch-stone. He pro- tal line ac, and a diagonal ab. These are supposed tobe^Jj*
ceeded gradually upwards in this way with some speed, drawn on the masonry as it would have stood had the^y
. till all was detached that had been put out of shape by frames not yielded during the building. The dotted line
the bending of the centring. This, being no longer sup- AUd shows the shape which it took by the sinking of the
ported, sunk inward, till it was stopped by the abutment centring. The dotted line on the other side was actual-
which it found on the arch-stones near the crown, which ly drawn on the masonry when the keystone was set; and
were still resting on their blocks. During part of this the wavy black line on the same side shows the form which
process, the open joints opened still more, and looked the dotted line took by the striking of the centring. The
alarming. This was owing to the removal of the load from undulated part of this line cuts its former position a little
the haunches of the centring. This allowed the crown below the middle, going without it below, and falling with-
to sink still more, by forcing out the arch-stones at the in it above. This shows very distinctly the movement
haunches. He now paused some days, and during this of the whole masonry, distinguishing the parts that were
time the two haunches, now hanging in the air, gradually forced out and the parts which sunk inward,
pressed in toward the centring, their outer joints closing We presume that the practical reader will think this
in the meanwhile. The haunches were now pressing account of the internal movements of a stupendous arch
pretty hard on the arch-stones nearer the crown. He then very instructive and useful. As M. Perronet observed it
proceeded more slowly, destroying the blocks and bridg- to be uniformly the same in several very large arches which
ings of these upper arch-stones. As soon as he destroyed he erected, we may conclude that it is the general process
the support of one, it immediately yielded to the pressure of nature. We by no means have the confidence in the
of the haunch ; and if the joint between it and the one durability or solidity of his arches which he prudently pro-
adjoining toward the crown happened to be open, whether fesses to have. We have conversed with some very expe¬
on the under or the upper side, it immediately closed on rienced masons, who have also erected very great arches,
it. But in proceeding thus, he found every stone sink a and in very difficult situations, which have given universal
little while it closed on its neighbour; and this was like satisfaction; and we have found them uniformly of opinion,
to produce a ragged soffet, which is a deformity. He that an arch which has settled to such a proportion of its
therefore did not allow them to sink so much. In the places curvature as to change the radius from 150 to 244 feet, is
of the blocks and bridgings which he had cut away, he set in a very hazardous situation. They think the hazard the
small billets, standing on their ends, between the cen- greater because the span of the arch is so great in ProPor'
tring and the arch-stones. These allowed the pendulous tion to its weight (as they express it very emphatically)
arch to push toward the crown without sensibly descend- or its height. The weight, say they, of the haunches is
ing; for the billets were pushed out of the perpendicular, too small for forcing together the keystones, which have
and some of them tumbled down. Proceeding in this way, scarcely any wedgelike form to keep them from sliding
he advanced to the very next course to the keystone on down. This is very good reasoning, and expresses very
each side, the joints closing all the way as he advanced, familiar notions. The mechanician would say that the
The last job was very troublesome; we mean the detach- horizontal thrust at the crown is too small. Whence
ing of the three uppermost courses from the centring; for questioned them about the propriety of M. Perronet s
the whole elasticity of the centring was now trying to method of removing the centring, they unanimously ap*
unbend, and pressing hard against them. He found that proved of its general principle, but said that it was very
they were lifted up; for the joints beyond them, which ticklish indeed in the execution. The cases which he
had closed completely, now opened again below ; but this narrates were new to them. They should have almost
job was finished in one day, and the centre sprung up two despaired of success with arches which had gone so much
or three inches, and the whole arch sunk about six inches, out of shape by the bending of the centres; because, said
C E N
Ce
ie«.
ctioi
it is
ffleii
irtar
ie, 6
. they, the slope of the centring, to a great distance from
•*> the crown, was so little, that the arch-stones could not
slide outwards along it, to close even the under side of the
joints which had opened above the haunches; so that all
the arch-stones were at too great a distance from each
other ; and a great and general subsiding of the whole was
necessary for bringing them even to touch each other.
They had never observed such bendings of the centrings
which they had employed, having never allowed themselves
to contract the feet of their trusses into such narrow spaces.
They observed that nothing but lighters with their masts
down can pass under the trusses, and that the sides must
be so protected by advanced works from the accidental
shock of a loaded boat, that there cannot be left room for
more than one. They added, that the bridges of commu¬
nication necessary for the expeditious conducting of the
work made all this supposed roominess useless; besides,
the business can hardly be so urgent and crowded any¬
where as to make the passage through every arch indis¬
pensably necessary. Nor was the inconvenience of this
obstruction greatly complained of during the erection of
Westminster or Blackfriars Bridges. Nothing should come
in competition with the undoubted solidity of the centring
and the future arch; and all boasting display of talent and
ingenuity by an engineer, in the exhibition of the wonders
of his art, is misplaced here.
These appeared to us good reasons for preferring the
more cautious, and incomparably more secure, construc¬
tion of Mr Mylne, in which the breadth given to each base
of the trusses permitted a much more effective disposition
of the abutting timbers, and also enabled the engineer to
make it incomparably stiffer; so that no change need be
apprehended in the joints which have already closed, and
in which the mortar has already taken its set, and com¬
menced an union that never can be restored if it be once
broken in the smallest degree, no not even by greater
compression.
Here we beg leave to mention our notions of the con¬
nection that is formed by mortar composed of lime or
7 gypsum. We consider it as consisting chiefly, if not sole¬
ly, in a crystallization of the lime or gypsum and water.
As much water is taken up as is necessary for the forma¬
tion of the crystals during their gradual conversion into
mild calcareous earth or alabaster, and the rest evaporates.
When the free access of air is absolutely prevented, the
crystallization never proceeds to that state, even although
the mortar becomes extremely dry and hard. We had an
opportunity of observing this accidentally, when passing
through Maestricht in 1770, while they were cutting up
a massy revetment of a part of the fortifications more
than three hundred years old. The mortar between the
bricks was harder than the bricks (which were Dutch
clinkers, such as are now used only for the greatest loads) ;
but when mixed with water it made it lime-water, seem-
mgly as strong as if fresh lime had been used. We ob-
seived the same thing in one small part of a huge mass of
ancient Roman work near Romney, in Kent; but the rest,
as well as all the very old mortar that we have seen, was
m a mild state, and was generally much harder than what
produced any lime-water. Now when the mortar in the
joints has begun its first crystallization, and is allowed to
iemain in perfect rest, we are confident that the subse¬
quent crystals, whether of lime, or of calcareous earth, or
0 SyPsum> will be much larger and stronger than can
ever be produced if they are once broken; and the far-
er that this crystallization has been carried, that is, the
larder that the mortar has become, less of it remains to
take any new crystallization. Why should it be other¬
wise here than in every other crystallization that we are
acquainted with ?
VOL. VI.
T R E.
289
We think therefore that it is of great consequence to Centre,
keep the joints in theirstate if possible ; and that the v
strength, in as far as it depends on the mortar, is greatly NecessitJ
diminished by their opening; especially when the mortar0,fk^PinS
has acquired considerable hardness, which it will do in a • et;]“nts
month or six weeks, if it be good. The cohesion given first state,
by mortar is indeed a mere trifle, when opposed to a force
which tends to open the joints, acting, as it generally does,
with the transverse force of a lever. But in situations
where the overload on any particular arch-stones tends to
push them down through between their neighbours, like
wedges, the cohesion of the mortar is then of very great
consequence.
We must make another observation. M. Perronet’s in¬
genious process tended very effectually to close the joints.
In doing this the forces which he brought into action had
little to oppose them ; but as soon as they were closed the
contact of the parts formerly open opposed an obstruction
incomparably greater, and immediately balanced a force
which was but just able to turn the stone gently about
the. two edges in which it touched the adjoining stones.
This is an important remark, though seemingly very trifl¬
ing; and we wish the practitioner to have a very clear
conception of it; but it would take a multitude of words
to explain it. It is worth an experiment. Form a little
arch of wooden blocks; and form one of these so, that
when they are all resting on the centring, it may be open
at the outer joint: remove the centring; then press on
the arch at some distance from the open joint: you will
find that a very small pressure will make the arch bend
till that joint closes. Press a little harder, and the arch
will bend more, and the next joint will open. Thus you
will find, that by pressing alternately on each side of the.
open joint, that stone can easily be made to flap over to
either side; and that immediately after this is done the
resistance increases greatly. This shows clearly that a
very moderate force, judiciously employed, will close the
joints, but will not press the parts strongly together. The
joints therefore are closed^ but no more than closed, and
are hanging only by the edges by which they were hang¬
ing while the joints were open. The arch, therefore,
though apparently close and firm, is but loose and totter¬
ing. M. Perronet says that his arches were firm, because
hardly a stone was observed to chip or splinter off at the
edges by the settlement. But he had done every thing
to prevent this, by digging out the mortar from between
the headers, to the depth of two inches, with saws made
on purpose. But we are well informed, that before the
year 1791 (twenty years after the erection) the arches at
Neuilly had sunk very sensibly, and that very large splin¬
ters had flown off in several places. It could not be other¬
wise. The original construction was too bold; we may M. Perro-
say needlessly and ostentatiously bold. A very gentle net’s con-
slope of the roadway, which would not have slackened the structi°ns
mad gallop of a ducal carriage, nor sensibly checked the to° ^Id-
laborious pull of a loaded waggon, and a proper difference
in the size of the arches, would have made this wonder¬
ful bridge incomparably stronger, and also much more ele¬
gant and pleasing to the eye. Indeed it is far from being
as handsome as it might have been. The ellipse is a
most pleasing figure to every beholder; but this is con¬
cealed as much as possible, and it is attempted to give
the whole the appearance of a tremendous lintel. It has
the oppressive look of danger. It will not be of long du¬
ration. The bridge at Mantz is still more exceptionable,
because its piers are tall and slender. If any one of the
arches fails, the rest must fall in a moment. An arch of
Blackfriars Bridge might be blown up without disturbing
its neighbours.
M. Perronet mentions another mode of striking the
2 o
290
CENT R E.
The com-
mon me¬
thod in
Britain.
Centre, centring, which he says is very usual in France. Every
 ' second bridging is cut out. Some time after every se-
A bad me- COnd of the remainder; after this every second of the re-
thod of niainder; and so on till all are removed. This is never
practised in this country, and is certainly a very bad me-
’ thod. It leaves the arch hanging by a number of distant
points ; and it is wonderful that any arch can bear this
treatment.
Our architects have generally proceeded with extreme
caution. Wherever they could they supported the cen¬
tring by intermediate pillars, even when it was a trussed
centre, having a tie-beam reaching from side to side.. I he
centre was made to rest, not immediately on these pillars,
but on pieces of timber formed like acute wedges, placed
in pairs, one above the other, and having the point of the
one on the thick end of the other. These wedges were
well soaped and rubbed with black lead, to make them
slippery. When the centres are to be stiuch, men are
stationed at each pair of the wedges with heavy mauls.
They are directed to strike together on the opposite
wedges. By this operation the whole centring descends
together; or when any part of the arch is observed to
have opened its joints on the upper side, the wedges be¬
low that part are slackened. The framing may perhaps
bend a little, and allow that part to subside. If any part
of the arch is observed to open its joints on the under side,
the wedges below that part are allowed to stand after the
rest have been slackened. By this process the whole comes
down gradually, and as slowly as we please, and the de¬
fects of every part of the arch may be attended to. Indeed
the caution and moderation of our builders have common¬
ly been such, that few defects have been allowed to show
themselves. WTe are but little acquainted with joints
opening to the extent of two inches, and in such a case
would probably lift every stone of the arch again.1 We
have not employed trussed centrings so much perhaps as
we should have done; nor do we see their advantage
(speaking as mere builders) over centres supported all
over, and unchangeable in their form. Such centres must
bend a little, and require loading on the middle to keep
them in shape. Their compression and their elasticity
are very troublesome in the striking of the centres in M.
Perronet’s manner. The elasticity is indeed of use when
the centres are struck in the way now described.
These observations on the management of the internal
movements of a great arch wdl enable the reader to appre¬
ciate all the merit of Mr Mylne’s very ingenious construc¬
tion. We proceed therefore to complete our description.
The excel- The gradual enlargement of the base of the piers of
ienceofMrBlackfriars Bridge enabled the architect to place a series
Mylne’s 0f five posts C, C, C, C, C, one on each step of the pier, the
method. ingenious contexture of which made it like one solid block
of stone. (See Arch.) These struts were gradually more
and more oblique, till the outer one formed an obtuse an¬
gle with the lowest side of the interior polygon of the truss.
On the top of these posts was laid a sloping seat or beam
D of stout oak, the upper part of which was formed like a
zig-zag scarfing. The posts were not perpendicular to the
under side of the seat. The angles next the pier were
somewhat obtuse. Short pieces of wood were placed be¬
tween the heads of the posts, but not mortised into them,
to prevent them from slipping back. Each face of the
scarf was covered with a thick and smooth plate of copper.
The feet of the truss were mortised into a similar piece ce
F, which may be called the sole of the truss, having its V
lower side notched in the same manner with the upper
side of D, and like it covered with copper. Between these
two lay the striking wedge E, the faces of which cor¬
responded exactly with the slant faces of the seat and the
sole. The- wedge was so placed that the corresponding
faces touched each other for about half of their length.
A block of wood was put in at the broad end or base of
this wedge, to keep it from slipping back during the laying
of the arch-stones. Its outer end E was bound with iron,
and had an iron bolt several inches long driven into it.
The head of this bolt was broad enough to cover the
whole wood of the wedge within the iron ferule.
We presume that the reader by this time foresees the
use of this wedge. It is to be driven in between the sole
and the seat, having first taken out the block at the base
of the wedge. As it advances into the wider spaces, the
whole truss must descend, and be freed from the arch;
but it will require prodigious blows to drive it back. Mr
Mylne did not think so, founding his expectation on what
he saw in the launching of great ships, which slide very
easily on a slope of ten or twelve degrees. He rather
feared, that taking out the block behind would allow the
wedge to be pushed back at once, so that the descent of
the truss would be too rapid. However, to be certain of
the operation, he had prepared an abundant force in a very
ingenious manner. A heavy^ beam ol oak, armed at the
end with iron, was suspended from two points of the cen¬
tre like a battering ram, to be used in the same manner.
Nothing could be more simple in its structure, more
powerful in its operation, or more easy in its management. h(
A T l .1    ^ 4- i n 1 oil Tlv o xxroHrTD nin
Accordingly the success was to his wish. The wedge did K
not slip back of itself; and very moderate blows of the 0I
ram drove it- back with the greatest ease. The whole n:
operation was over in a very few minutes. The specta- g
tors had suspected that the space allowed for the recess lC
of the wedge was not sufficient, for the settlement of the
arch, but the architect trusted to the precautions he had
taken in its construction. The reader, by turning to the
article Arch, will see that there was only the arch LY
(Plate LIIL, fig. I) which could be expected to settle; ac¬
cordingly, the recess of the wedge was found to be much
more than was necessary. However, had this not been
the case, it was only necessary to take out the pieces be¬
tween the posts below the seat, and then to drive back the
heads of the struts; but this was not needed, we believe,
in any of the arches. We are well assured that none or
the arches sunk an inch and a half. The great arch of
one hundred feet span did not sink one inch at the crown.
It could hardly be perceived whether the arch quitted the
centring gradually or not, so small had been the changes
of shape. We have no hesitation in saying, that, if we
except some waste of great timber by uncommon joggling,
the whole of this performance is the most perfect of any
that has come to our knowledge.2
The subject which we have been considering is very The !
closely connected with the construction of wooden bridges. iecj;;
These are not always constructed on the sole PnnclPles ?ffaecte J '
equilibrium by means of mutual abutment. They aie
the c
XULll KJJ vy*    , . ^ , __ l
frames of carpentry, where, by a proper disposition, beams^
are put into a state of extension, as well as of compres- ff0od
sion, so as to stand in place of solid bodies as big as n -
1 The writer of this article can only say, that, after much inquiry, he has no information of any arch r^eive ... , y an
builder as sufficient that had suffered half the change of shape mentioned by M. Perronet. The arch of Dublin Jin ge? fruSs-
excellent, but a very private mason, Mr Steven, is 105 feet wide, with only twenty-two feet rise. It was erected, but no oi ^
ed centring, without changing one full inch in its elevation ; and when the centring wras removed, it sunk only l|th inch,
centring, without changing
half an inch more when the parapets were added and the bridge completely finished
2 The reader will find a representation of the centring of Waterloo Bridge in Plate CNXXIY. art. Bridge.
CENTRE.
291
spaces which the beams inclose; and thus we are enabled
y to couple two, three, or four of these together, and set
them in abutment with each other like mighty arch-stones.
We shall close this article, therefore, with two or three
specimens of wooden bridges, disposed in a series of pro¬
gressive composition, so as to serve as a sort of introduction
to the art in general, and furnish a principle which will
enable the intelligent and cautious artist to push it with
confidence as far as it can go.
The general problem is this. Suppose that a bridge is
to be thrown over the space AB (fig. 9), and that this is
too wide for the strength of the size of timber which is at
our command; how may this beam AB be supported with
sufficient effect? There are but two wrays in which the
middle point C, where the greatest strain is, can be sup¬
ported : 1. It may be suspended by two ropes, iron rods,
or wooden ties, DC, EC, made fast to two firm points D,
E, above it; or it may rest on the ridge of two rafters d C,
e C, which rest on two firm points d, e, below it. 2. It may
be supported by connecting it with a point so supported;
and this connection may be formed, either by suspending
it from this point, or by a post resting on it. Thus it may
hang, by means of a rod or a king-post FC, from the ridge
F of two rafters AF, BF; or it may rest on the strut Cf
whose lower extremity f is carried by the ropes, rods, or
wooden ties A / B /.
Whichsoever of these methods we employ, it follows,
from the principles of carpentry, that the support given to
the point C is so much the more powerful, as we make
the angle DCE, ov dC e, or the equivalent angles AFB,
or A/ B, more acute.
1 Each of these methods may be supposed equally strong.
Our choice will depend chiefly on the facility of finding
the proper points of support D, E, d, e; except in the
second case, where we require no fixed points but A and
B. The simple forms of the first case require a great ex¬
tent of figure. Very rarely can we suspend it from points
situated as D and E. It is even seldom that we have
depth enough of bank to allow the support of the rafters
dC, eC, but we can always find room for the simple truss
AFB. This, therefore, is the most usually practised.
In the construction, we must follow the maxims and di¬
rections prescribed in the article Carpentry and the ar¬
ticle Roof. The beams FA, FB, must be mortised into
AB in the firmest manner, and there secured with straps
and bolts; and the middle must hang by a strap attached
to the king-post FC, or to the iron rod that is used for a
king-post. No mortising in the point C must be employ¬
ed; it is unnecessary, and it is hurtful, because it weakens
the beam, and because it lodges water, and soon decays
by rot. The best practice is not to suspend the beam im¬
mediately by this strap, but to let it rest, as in fig. 10, on
a beam C, which crosses the bridge below, and has its
other end supported in the same manner by the other
truss.
It is evident that the length of the king-post has no ef¬
fect on the support of C. We may therefore contract every
thing, and preserve the same strength of support, by find¬
ing two points a and b (fig. 11) in the banks, at a mode¬
rate distance below A and B, and setting up the rafters
gF, 6 F, and suspending C from the shortened king-post.
In this construction, when the beam AB rests on a cross
bearer, as is drawn here, the struts a F, 6 F, are kept clear
o( it. No connection between them is necessary, and it
may be hurtful, by inducing cross strains on both. It
will, however, greatly increase the stiffness of the whole,
dhis construction may safely be loaded with ten times
the weight that AB can carry alone.
Suppose this done, and that the scantling of AB is too
weak for carrying the weight which may be brought on
the parts AC, CB. We may now truss up each half, as Centre,
in fig. 12, and then the whole will form a handsome bridge, 'w-v-w'
of the simplest construction possible. The intersections An im-
of the secondary braces with those of the main truss will P™yement
form a hand-rail of agreeable figure. thod^™6"
We are not confined to the emploj^ment of an entire
piece AB, nor to a rectilineal form. We may frame the
bridge as in fig. 13, and in this form we dissuade from al¬
lowing any connection with the middle points of the main
braces. This construction also may be followed till each
beam AC and CB is loaded to ten times what it can safe¬
ly bear without the secondary trussing.
There is another way by which a bridge of one beam Another
may be supported beyond the power of the first and sim-method,
plest construction. This is represented in fig. 14 and fig.
15. The truss-beam FG should occupy one third of AB.
The advantage of this construction is very considerable.
The great elevation of the braces, which is a principal
element of the strength, is preserved, and the braces are
greatly shortened.
This method may be pushed still farther, as in fig. 16.
And all these methods may be combined, by joining These me-
the constructions of fig. 14 and fig. 15 with that of fig. 16. thods com-
In all of them there is much room for the display ofhiaed.
skill in the proper adjustment of the scantling of the tim¬
ber, and the obliquity of the braces to the lengths of the
different bearings. A very oblique strut, or a slender one,
will suffice for a small load, and may often give an oppor¬
tunity to increase the general strength; while the great
timbers and upright supports are reserved for the main
pressures. Nothing will improve the composition so much
as reflecting progressively, and in the order of these ex¬
amples, on the whole. This alone can preserve the great
principle in its simplicity and full energy.
These constructions are the elements of all that can be The ele-
done in the art of building wooden bridges, and are to be ments of
found more or less obviously and distinctly in all attempts
of this kind. We may assert, that the more obviously *n
they appear, the more perfect the bridge will be. It is
astonishing to what extent the principle may be carried.
We have seen a bridge of forty-two feet span formed of
two oak trusses, the biggest timber of which did not ex¬
ceed six inches square, bearing with perfect steadiness
and safety a waggon loaded with more than two tons,
drawn by four stout horses. It was framed as fig. 16
nearly, with the addition of the dotted lines, and was near
thirty years old, protected, however, from the weather by
a wooden roof, as many bridges in Germany are.
We recollect another in the neighbourhood of Stettin,
which seemed constructed with great judgment and spirit.
It had a carriage-road in the middle, about twenty feet,
we think, wide, and on each side a footway about five feet
wide. The span was not less than sixty feet, and the
greatest scantling did not appear to exceed ten inches by
six.
This bridge consisted of four trusses, two of which
formed the outside of the bridge, and the other two made
the separation between the carriage-road and the two foot¬
ways. We noticed the construction of the trusses very
particularly, and found it similar to the last, except in the
middle division of the upper truss, which, being very long,
was double trussed, as in fig. 17.
The reader will find in that volume of Leupold’s Thea-
trum Machinarum, which he calls Theatrum Pontificum,
many specimens of wooden bridges, which are very fre¬
quent in the champaign parts of Germany. They are not, in
general, models of mechanic art; but the reflecting reader,
who considers them carefully, will pick up here and there
subordinate hints, which are ingenious, and may sometimes
be useful.
292
Centre.
A wonder-
ful bridge
in Switzer¬
land.
Another
in North
America.
CENTRE.
What we have now exhibited are not to be considered
as models of construction, but as elementary examples and
lessons, for leading the reader systematically into a thorough
conception of the subject.
We cannot quit the subject without taking notice of a
very wonderful bridge at Wittingen in Switzerland, slight¬
ly described by Mr Coxe (Travels, vol. i. 132). It is of a
construction more simple still than the bridges we have
been describing. The span is 230 feet, and it rises only
twenty-five. The sketch (fig. 18) will make it sufficiently
intelligible. ABC is one of two great arches, approaching
to a Catenarian shape, built up of seven courses of solid
logs of oak, in lengths of twelve or fourteen feet, and six¬
teen inches or more in thickness. These are all picked of
a natural shape, suited to the intended curve; so that the
wood is nowhere cut across the grain to trim it into shape.
These logs are laid above each other, so that their abut¬
ting joints are alternate like those of a brick wall; and it is
indeed a wooden wall simply built up, by laying the pieces
upon each other, taking care to make the abutting joints
as close as possible. They are not fastened together by
pins or bolts, or by scarfings of any kind. They are, how¬
ever, held together by iron straps, which surround them,
at the distance of five feet from each other, where they
are fastened by bolts and keys.
These two arches having been erected (by the help, we
presume, of pillars, or a centring of some kind), and well
butted against the rock on each side, were freed from their
supports, and allowed to settle. They are so placed that
the intended road ab c intersects them about the middle
of their height. The roadway is supported by cross joists,
which rest on a long horizontal summer beam. This is
connected with the arches on each side by uprights bolt¬
ed into them. The whole is covered with a roof, which
projects over the arches on each side to defend them from
the weather. Three of the spaces between these uprights
have struts or braces, which give the upper work a sort of
trussing in that part.
This construction is simple and artless; and appears,
by the attempt to truss the ends, to be the performance
of a person ignorant of principle, who has taken the whole
notion from a stone arch. It is, however, of a strength
much more than adequate to any load that can be laid on
it. Mr Coxe says, but does not explain how, that it is so
contrived that any part of it can be repaired independently
of.the rest. It was the last work of one Ulrich Gruben-
hamm of Tuffen, in the canton of Appenzel, a carpenter
without education, but celebrated for several works of the
same kind ; particularly the bridge over the Rhine at
Schafhausen, consisting of two arches, one of 172 and
the other of 193 feet span, both resting on a small rock
near the middle of the river.
While writing this article, we got an account of a wood¬
en bridge erected in North America, in which this simple
notion of Grubenhamm’s is mightily improved. The span
of the arch was said to exceed 250 feet, and its rise ex¬
ceedingly small. The description we got is very general,
but sufficient, we think, to make it perfectly intelligible.
In fig. 19, DU, EE, FF, are supposed to be three beams
of the arch. They consist of logs of timber of small lengths,
suppose of ten or twelve feet, such as can be found of a
curvature suited to its place in the arch without trimming
it across the grain. Each beam is double, consisting of
two logs applied to each other side to side, and breaking
joint, as the workmen term it. They are kept together by
wedges and keys driven through them at short intervals,
as at K, L, &c.
The manner of joining and strongly binding the two
side pieces of each beam is shown in fig. 20. The mor¬
tise aicb and dcio, which is cut in each half beam, is
considerably longer on the outside than on the inside, Ce;
where the two mortises meet. The two keys, BB and CC,
are formed, each with a notch bed, ox a i o, on its side;
which notch fits one end of the mortise. The inner side
of the key is straight, but so formed that when both keys
are in their places, they leave a space between them wid¬
er at one end than at the other. A wedge AA, having
the same taper as the space just mentioned, is put into it
and driven hard. It is evident that this must hold the two
logs firmly together.
This is a way of uniting timber not mentioned in the
article Carpentry, and it has some peculiarities worthy
of notice. In the first place, it may be employed so as to
produce a very strong lateral connection, and would then
co-operate finely with the other artificial methods of scarf-
ing and tabling that we described in the article referred
to. But it requires nice attention to some circumstances
of construction to secure this effect. If the joints are ac¬
curately formed to each other, as if the whole had been
one piece divided by an infinitely thin saw, this manner of
joining will keep them all in their places. But no driving
of the wedge AA will make them the firmer, or cause one
piece to press hard on the other. If the abutment of two
parts of the half beam is already close, it will remain so;
but if open in the smallest degree, driving of the wedge
will not make it tighter. In this respect, therefore, it is
not so proper as the forms described in Carpentry.
In order that the method now described may have the
effect of drawing the halves of the beams together, and
of keeping them hard squeezed on each other, the joints
must be made so as not to correspond exactly. The pro¬
minent angle aio (fig. 21), formed by the ends of the two
half mortises, must be made a little more obtuse than the
angle afo of the notch of the key which this prominence
is intended to fill up. Moreover, the opposite side eJ of
this key should not be quite straight, but a very little con¬
vex. With these precautions, it is easy to see that, by
driving the wedge A A, we cause the notch afoto take
hold, first at the two points a and o, and then, by continu¬
ing to drive the wedge, the sides af, o/ of the notch gra¬
dually compress the wood of the half beams, and press
them on each other. By continuing to drive the wedge,
the mutual compression of the key and the beam squeezes
all together, and the space afoi is completely filled up.
We may see, from this process, that the mutual compres¬
sion and drawing together of the timber will be greater in
proportion as we make the angle aio more prominent, and
its corresponding angle afo more deep; always taking
care that the key shall be thick enough not to break in the
narrow part.
This adjustment of the keys to the mortise is necessary
on another account. Supposing the joints to fit each other
exactly before driving the wedge, and that the whole
shrinks a little by drying—by this the angle aio will be¬
come more prominent, and the angle afo will become
more shallow ; the joint will open at a and o, and the mu¬
tual compressure will be at an end.
We may also observe that this method will not give
any additional firmness to the abutments of the different
lengths employed to piece out the arch-beam; in which
respect it differs materially from the other modes of join¬
ing timber.
Having shown how each beam is pieced together, we
must now show how a number of them are united, so as to
compose an arch of any thickness. This is done in the
very same way. The beams have other mortises worke
out of their inner sides, half out of each half of the beam-
The ends of the mortises are formed in the same way wit
those already described. Long keys, BB, CC (fig- 1 )>
are made to fit them properly, the notches being placet
■,v
C E N
so as to keep the beams at a proper distance from each
other. It is now plain that driving in a long wedge AA
will bind all together.
In this manner may an arch be extended to any span,
and made of any thickness of arching. The bridge over
Portsmouth river in North America was more than 250
feet in length, and consisted of several parallel arches of
beams. The inventor (we think his name is Bludget) said
that he found the strength so great that he could with per¬
fect confidence make one of four times the span.
We admire the ingenuity of this construction, and think
it very effectual for bringing the timbers into firm and
uniform abutment; but we imagine that it requires equi¬
libration, because it is extremely flexible. There is no¬
thing to keep it from bending, by an inequality of load,
but the transverse strength of the beams. The keys and
wedges can have very little power to prevent this bend¬
ing. The distance between the beams will also contri¬
bute little or nothing to the stiffness; nay, we may imagine
that a great distance between them will make the frame
more flexible. Could the beams be placed so near each
other that they could be somehow joggled on each other,
the whole would be stiffer; but at present they will bend
like the plates of a coach-spring. But nothing hinders us
from adding diagonal pieces to this construction, which
will give it any degree of stiffness, and will enable it to
bear any inequality of loading. When completed in this
manner, we imagine that it will be at least equal to any
construction that has yet been thought of. One advan¬
tage it possesses that is very precious; any piece that fails
may be taken out, and replaced by another, without dis¬
turbing the rest,, and without the smallest risk. On the
whole, we think it a very valuable addition to British car¬
pentry. The method here practised, both for joining the
parts of one beam and for framing the different beams to¬
gether, suggests the most firm and light constructions for
dome-roofs that can be conceived; incomparably superior
to any that have yet been erected. The whole may be
framed, without a nail or a spike, into one net-like shell,
that cannot even be pulled in pieces.
When the width of the river exceeds what is thought
piacticable by a single truss, we must then combine, either
irby simple addition or by composition, different trusses to-
. gether. We compose a bridge by simple addition when
we make a frame of carpentry of an unchangeable and
proper shape, to serve as one of the arch-stones of a bridge
of masonry. This may easily be comprehended by look-
mg at fig. 22. Each of the frames A, B, C, D, must be
considered as a separate body, and all are supported by
their mutual abutment. The nature of the thing is not
changed, although we suppose that the rails of the frame
13, instead of being mortised into an upright bb', uncon¬
nected with the frame C, is mortised into the upright c d
of that frame; the direction and intensity of the mutual
piessures of the two frames are the same in both cases;
accordingly, this is a very common form of small wooden
bridges. It is usual, indeed, to put diagonal battens into
each; but we believe that this is more frequently done to
please the eye than to produce an unalterable shape of
each frame. r
C E N
293
T? V.n®kllful carpenter this bridge does not seem es- Centesima
sentially different from the centring of M. Hupeau for the II
bridge of Orleans; and indeed, in many cases, it requires ^entesi-
reflection, and sometimes very minute reflection, to dis- mation-
tinguish between a construction which is only an addition
of frame to frame till the width be covered, from a con¬
struction where one frame works on the adjoining one
transversely, pushing it in one part, and drawing it in ano¬
ther. The ready way for an unlettered artist to form aHowtodis-
just notion of this point, is to examine whether he may tinguish
saw through the connecting piece b’b from one end to the bridges
other, and make them two separate frames. Wheneverformed ac*
this cannot be done without that part opening, it is a con-Tdin?.;°
struction by composition. Some of the beams are on theferent me-
stretch ; and iron straps, extending along both pieces, arethods.
necessary for securing the joint. The bridge is no longer
a piece of masonry, but a performance of pure carpentry,
depending on principles peculiar to that art. Equilibra¬
tion is necessary in the first construction; but, in the se¬
cond, any inequality of loading is made ineffectual for hurt¬
ing the edifice, by means of the stretch that is made to
operate on. some other piece. We are of opinion that
this most simple employment of the distinguishing prin¬
ciple of carpentry, by which the beams are made to act
as ties, will give the most perfect construction of a wide
bridge. One polygon alone should contain the whole of
the abutments, and one other polygon should consist en¬
tirely of ties; and the beams which form the radii, con¬
necting the angles of the two polygons, complete the
whole. By confining the attention to these two simple
objects, the abutments of the outer polygon, and the joints
of the inner one, may be formed in the most simple and
efficient manner, without any collateral connections and
dependencies, which divide the attention, increase the
complication, and commonly produce unexpected and hurt¬
ful strains. It is for this reason that we have so fre¬
quently recommended the centring of the bridge of Or¬
leans. Its office will be completely performed by a truss
of the form of fig. 23, where the polygon ABCDEF, con¬
sisting of two layers of beams, if one is not sufficient, con¬
tains the whole abutments, and the other A6c^e F is no¬
thing but an iron rod. In this construction, the obtuse¬
ness of the angles of the lower polygon is rather an advan¬
tage. Ihe braces Gc, G d, which are wanted for trussing
the middle of the outer beams, will effectually secure the
angles of the exterior polygon against all risk of change.
The reader must perceive that we have now terminated in The best
the construction of the Norman roof. We indeed think it general
the best general form, when some moderate declivity is form of a
not an insuperable objection. When this is the case, we wooden
recommend the general plan of the centring of the bridge briclge*
of Orleans. We would make the bridge (we speak of a
great bridge) consist of four trusses, two to serve as the
outsides of the bridge, and two inner trusses, separating the
carriage-way from the footpaths. The road should follow
the course of the lower polygon, and the main truss should
form the rails. It might look strange, but we are here
speaking of strength; and evident, but not unwieldy
strength, once it becomes familiar, is the surest source of
beauty in all works of this kind, (b. e. b.)
Centre of Gravity, in Mechanics, that point about which
a tie parts of a body in any situation exactly balance
each other. ^ ^
Centre of Motion, that point which remains at rest
w i e all the other parts of a body move about it.
oil ..ENTRiE °fa Sphere, a point in the middle, from which
mes drawn to the surface are equal.
CENTESIMA Usura means a rate of interest which
in a hundred months became equal to the principal, that
is, where the money is laid out at one per cent, per month,
answering to what in our style would be called twelve per
cent. The Romans reckoned their interest not by the year,
but by the month.
CEN FESIMATION, a milder kind of military punish-
294
Centilo-
quium
II
Centonarii,
C E N
CEO
ment than decimation in -sea of desettion mutmy and ^
thC1ENTaOau»erf4^S^T:\undred jnto the can,,. These, ccntonatii hept with the *.
sentences, opinions, or sayings. The centiloqmum of Her¬
mes contains a hundred aphorisms, or astrological sen¬
tences, supposed to have been written by some Arab, fa se-
lv fathered on Hermes Trismegistus. It is only extant in
Latin, in which it has been several times printed, ihe
centiloquium of Ptolemy is a famous astrological piece,
frequently confounded with the former, consisting hkewise
of a hundred sentences or doctrines, divided into shoi t
aphorisms, entitled also in Greek xagTo;, as being the fruit
or result of the former writings of that celebrated astrono¬
mer, namely, his quadripartitum and almagestum; or ra¬
ther, because the use of astrological calculations is therein
explained.
CENTLIVRE, Susanna, a celebrated comic writer, was
the daughter of Mr Freeman of Holbeach, in Lincoln¬
shire ; and exhibited such an early turn for poetry, that it
is said she wrote a song when she was only about seven
years old. Before she was twelve years of age, she could
not only read Moliere in French, but enter into the spirit
carpenters and other officers of artillery.
CENTORBI, a town of the intendancy of Catania, in
the island of Sicily, on a rugged mountain, but in a healthy
situation, containing 4000 inhabitants.
CENTRAL Forces, the powers which cause a moving
body to tend towards, or recede from, the centre of motion.
CENTRIFUGAL Force, that force by which all bodies
that move round any other body in a curve endeavour to
fly off from the axis of their motion in a tangent to the
periphery of the curve, and that in every part of it.
CENTRIPETAL Force, that force by which a body
is everywhere impelled, or anyhow tends, towards some
point as a centre.
CENTUMVIRI, in Roman Antiquity, judges appointed
to decide common causes among the people. They were
chosen three out of each tribe ; and, though five more than
a hundred, were nevertheless called centumviri, from the
round number centum, a hundred.
CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in the in-
III il) 111 LU ~~~  1 "
every manipulus was allowed two centurions, oi captains,
one to each order or century ; and, to determine the point
of priority between them, they were created at two diffe¬
rent elections. The thirty who were first made always
took the precedence ot their fellows; and therefore com-
, K .11 l 1 - _ _ ^4-1, loft
by a young gentleman from the university of Cambiidge,
afterwards the well-known Anthony Hammond, Esq. who
was so extremely struck with her youth and beauty that
he fell instantly in love with her ; and inquiring into the
sgiisiriii mMBmm
where in a short time she was married to a nephew ot Sir
Stephen Fox. That gentleman, however, did not live
above twrelve months; but her wit and beauty soon pro¬
cured her a second husband, whose name was Carrol, an
officer in the army. This union was also ot short duration ;
and Carrol having had the misfortune to be killed in a duel
about a year and a half after their marriage, she became a
second time a widow. For the sake ot support she now
applied to her pen, and became a votary of the muses ; and
it is under the name of Carrol that some ol her earlier
pieces were published. Her first attempt was in tiagedy,
lll/liy UCIll^ Co LV-1 HI W V-l ^ . . If’
turions elected first, next to them the pnncipes, and after¬
wards the hastati; whence they were called primus et se-
cundus pilus, primus et secundus princeps, primus et secun-
dus hastatus, and so on. Here it may be observed, that
primi ordines is sometimes used in historians for the cen¬
turions of these orders ; and the centurions are sometimes
styled principles ordinum, and principes centurionum. See
Army. .....
CENTURY, in a general sense, any thing divided into,
or consisting of, a hundred parts.
nlces were publish!! Her nrst attempt was m ua^uj , Century, in Antiquity. The Roman people, when they
Fn a play cafled the Perjured Husband; yet natural viva- were assembled tor electing magistrates, enacting la
city leading her afterwards to comedy, we find but one deliberating upon any public aftan, weie a J ir
more attempt of this kind, amotrg eigldcenclramatic pieces and hence these
assemblies were called comitia centuriata. The Roman
cohorts were also divided into centuries.
Century, in Chronology, the space of a hundred years.
This method of computing by centuries is generally ob¬
served in church history, commencing from the time ot
which she afterwards wrote. In 1706 she became known
to Mr Joseph Centlivre, principal cook to her majesty, who
married her ; and, after passing several years happily with
this person, she died at his house in Spring Garden, Cha-
ring-cross, in December 1723. Mrs Centlivre for many
years enjoyed the intimacy of Sir Richard Steele, Mi
i _11 T? 1  ovwl rYorcrv
Howe Budsell, Farquhar, Dr Sewell, and other persons of our Saviour s incarnation. A
“otet aMYeryfew authors received more tokens of esteem CEORLES, the name of one of the dasse» or orfw
and patronage from the great. With regard to her merit into which the people weic distinguished amon&
as a writer, it must be allowed that her plays do not abound glo-Saxons. . . . ^ , nnpof
with wit, and that the language of them is sometimes even CEOS, Cea, Cia, or Cos, in Ancien c]iaja,
poor, enervate, incorrect, puerile ; but her plots are busy the Cyclades, lying opposite to the promontory of A 1
and well conducted, and her characters in general natural called uumum, and fifty miles m compass,
and well marked. commended by the ancients tor its fertih y ^d nci_
CENTO, in Poetry, a work wholly composed of verses ness of its pastures. The first silk stuffs, if 1 liny ‘ wag
or passages promiscuously taken from other authors, only linus are to be credited, weie wiougi ieie. jt
disposed in a new form and order. particularly famous for the excellent gs i ^Picj , ^
Cento, a city of Italy, in the papal delegation Bologna, was first peopled by Aristaeus, the son 0 ^P° . . 011
It is a well-built place, and contains 4000 inhabitants. rene, who being grieved for the death o us s
CENTONARII, in Antiquity, certain of the Roman retired from Thebes, at the persuasion ot ins motnt , c
C E R
C E R, 295
[ic went over with some Thebans to Ceos, at that time unin¬
habited. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he retired to the
3i- island of Cos; but the ancients, as Servius observes, call-
' ed both these islands by the name of Cos. Be that as it
may, however, the island of Ceos became so populous,
that a law prevailed there, commanding all persons up¬
wards of sixty to be poisoned, that others might be able
to subsist; so that none above sixty wrere to be seen in the
island, all persons, after they arrived at that age, being
obliged either to submit to the law or abandon the coun¬
try, together with their effects. Ceos had, in former times,
four famous cities, Julis, Carthaea, Coressus, and Praeessa.
The two latter were, according to Pliny, swallowed up by
an earthquake ; the other two flourished in Strabo’s time.
Carthaea stood on a rising ground at the end of a valley,
about three miles from the sea. The situation of it agrees
with that of the present town of Zea, which gives name
to the whole island.
CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, signifies any thing
belonging to the head. Cephalic medicines are remedies
for disorders of the head.
CEPHALONIA, or Cephallenia, the largest of the
islands constituting the Ionian republic. It was known in
Homer’s time by the name of Samos and Epirus Melaena;
and is about forty miles in length, from ten to twenty in
breadth, and a hundred and fifty in compass. It had an¬
ciently four cities, one of which bore the name of the island.
Strabo tells us, that in his time there were only two cities
remaining; but Pliny speaks of three, adding, that the ruins
of Same, which had been destroyed by the Romans, were
still in being. Same was the metropolis of the island, and
is supposed to have stood in the place which the Italians
call Porte Guiscardo. See Ionian Isles.
Cephalonia, a town on the above island, is situated on
a mountain, and forms, united with Zante, the see of a
bishop, whose jurisdiction extends over the whole island.
Long. 20. 59. E. Lat. 38. 20. N.
CERAM, a large island in the Eastern Seas, between
160 and 180 miles in length, and about forty in breadth.
It extends from the 128th to the 130th degree of east longi¬
tude, and is situated between the third and fourth degrees
of south latitude. The island is very mountainous in its
aspect, being intersected longitudinally from east to west
with a lofty chain about 7000 feet high, with fertile val¬
leys interposed. The island is of a singular form ; the pe¬
ninsula of Little Ceram is joined to the mainland by a nar¬
row isthmus, and it formerly produced large quantities of
cloves and nutmegs. But the trees were extirpated by the
Dutch in 1657. Forests of the sago tree, as well as plan¬
tations of other curious kinds of wood, are found here. On
the shores are beautiful shells. Wild hogs and deer are
numerous, as well as birds of paradise. The natives, de¬
scribed as a wild, ferocious race, still exist in the interior,
fhey are taller and stronger than the people dwelling on
the shores, and also of a fairer complexion. Their habits
are completely those of savages. They go almost naked,
and have many barbarous and bloody rites. The chiefs
who have territories along the shores formerly acknow¬
ledged the rule of the Dutch. An attack was made on
I one of these chiefs by the British during the last war, but
wjthout success, and some loss was sustained. (Stavorinus’
Voyages, with Notes; Labillardiere’s Voyage in search of
La Perouse ; Bougainville’s Voyage round the World.)
I CERAMLAUT Isles, a cluster of small islands in the
Eastern Seas, lying off' the east end of the island of Ceram.
Ihe principal island is about five miles long, and is moun¬
tainous and uninhabited. Long. 131. 20. E. Lat. 3. 30. S.
CERAMI, a town of the intendancy of Catania, in the
island of Sicily, on a hill of the Modonia range of moun¬
tains, and very healthy, with 3100 inhabitants.
CERATION, the name given by the ancients to the Ceration
small seeds of ceratonia, used by the Arabian physicians II
as a weight to adjust the doses of medicines ; as the grain Ceremo-
weight with us took its rise from a grain of barley. nial-
Ceration, or Ceratium, was also a silver coin, equal to
one third of an obolus.
CERBERUS, in fabulous history, a three-headed mas¬
tiff, born of Typhon and Echidna, and placed to guard the
gates of hell. He fawmed upon those who entered, but
devoured all who attempted to get back. He was, how¬
ever, mastered by Hercules, who dragged him up to the
earth, when, in struggling, a foam dropped from his mouth
which produced the poisonous herb called aconite or wolf's
bane. Some have supposed that Cerberus is the symbol
of the earth, or of all-devouring time; and that its three
mouths represent the present, past, and future. The vic¬
tory obtained by Hercules over this monster denote? the
conquest which this hero acquired over his passions. Bry¬
ant supposes that Cerberus was the name of a place, and
that it signified the temple of the sun; deriving it from
Kir Abor, the place of light. This temple was called also
Tor- Caph-El, which was changed to rg/xyipaXog; and hence
Cerberus was supposed to have had three heads. It was
likewise called Tor-Keren, Tarris Regia ; whence rg/xag»j-
i/of, from rgs/j, three, and xagtjm, head.
CERCELE, in Heraldry. A cross cercele is a cross
which, opening at the ends, turns round both ways, like a
ram’s horn.
CERDONIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained most
of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and the Ma-
nicheans. They took their name from their leader Cer-
don, a Syrian, wdio went to Rome in the time of Pope Hy-
ginus, and there abjured his errors, but in appearance
only; for he was afterwards convicted of persisting in
them, and accordingly cast out of the church again. Cor¬
don asserted two principles, the one good and the other
evil. This last, according to him, was the creator of the
world, and the god who appeared under the old law. The
first, whom he called unknown, was the father of Jesus
Christ, who, he taught, was incarnate only in appearance,
and was not born of a virgin; nor did he suffer death but
in appearance. He denied the resurrection, and rejected
all the books of the Old Testament, as proceeding from an
evil principle. Marcion, his disciple, succeeded him in
his errors.
CEREALIA, in Antiquity, feasts of Ceres, instituted
by Triptolemus, son of Celsus, king of Eleusin, in Attica,
in gratitude for his having been instructed by Ceres, who
was supposed to have been his nurse, in the art of culti¬
vating corn and making bread. The cerealia passed from
the Greeks to the Romans, who celebrated them for eight
days successively; commencing generally on the fifth of
the ides of April.
Cerealia, in Botany, from Ceres, the goddess of corn,
the name given by Linnaeus to the larger esculent seeds of
the grasses.
CEREBELLUM, the hinder part of the head. See
Anatomy.
CEREBRUM, the Brain. See Anatomy.
CEREMONIAL (ceremoniale), a book in which is pre¬
scribed the order of the ceremonies to be observed in cer¬
tain actions and occasions of solemnity and pomp. The
ceremonial of the Roman church is called ordo Romanus.
It was published in 1516, by the Bishop of Corcyra; but
the College of Cardinals were so scandalized at it, that
some of them wished to have the author as well as his book
burnt, for his temerity in exposing the sacred ceremonies
to the eyes of profane people.
Ceremonial is also used for the set or system of rules
and ceremonies which custom has introduced for regulat-
296 C E R
Ceremo- ing our behaviour, and which persons practise towards each
nial other, either from duty, decency, or civility.
]l Ceremonial, in a more limited sense, denotes the man-
Cerium. ner jn which princes and ambassadors are in use to re-
' ceive and to treat one another.
Ceremonial is more particularly used in speaking of
the laws and regulations given by Moses relating to the
worship of God among the ancient Jews. In this sense
it amounts* to nearly the same with what is called the Le-
vitical Law, and stands contradistinguished from the mo¬
ral as well as judicial law. .
CEREMONY, an assemblage of actions, forms, and cir¬
cumstances, serving to render a thing more magnificent
and solemn.
Master of the Ceremonies, an officer instituted by King
James I. for the more honourable reception of ambassa¬
dors and strangers of quality.
CERES, a pagan deity, the inventor or goddess of corn ;
in like manner as Bacchus was of wine. According to the
poets, she was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and the
mother of Proserpine, whom she had by Jupiter.
CERET, an arrondissement in the department of the
Eastern Pyrenees, in France, 680 square miles in extent.
It is divided into four cantons and forty-six communes,
and contains 28,629 inhabitants. The chief place, of tlm
same name, is situated on the river Jech, at the foot of
the Pyrenees. The situation is picturesque, and has some
delightful promenades around it. The houses are 416,
and the inhabitants 2517. Long. 2. 36. E. Eat. 42. 23. N.
CERIGNOLA, an Italian city in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Capitanata. It suffered severely by an earthquake
in 1730 ; but has been in some measure rebuilt since, and
now contains a population of 6900 individuals.
CERIGO, an island in the archipelago, anciently called
Cyiherea ; noted for being the birth-place of Helen and
of Venus. It is now one of the seven isles constituting
the Ionian republic. See Ionian Islands.
CERINTHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
divinity of Jesus Christ. They took their name from Ce-
rinthus, one of the first heresiarchs in the church, and
contemporary with St John. They believed that Jesus
was a mere man, born of Joseph and Mary ; but that, in
his baptism, a celestial virtue descended upon him in form
of a dove, by means of which he was consecrated by the
Holy Spirit, and made Christ. It was by means of this
celestial virtue, therefore, that he wrought so many mi¬
racles ; which virtue, as he received it from heaven, quitted
him after his passion, and returned to the place whence it
came ; so that, according to them, Jesus, whom they called
a pure man, really died and rose again, but Christ, who
was distinguished from Jesus, did not suffer at all. It was
partly to refute this sect that St John wrote his gospel.
They received the gospel of St Matthew, in order to coun¬
tenance their doctrine of circumcision, from Christ’s being
circumcised ; but they omitted the genealogy. They also
discarded the Epistles of St Paul, because that apostle
held that circumcision was abolished.
CERINTHUS, a heresiarch, contemporary with the
apostles, who ascribed the creation not to God, but to an¬
gels. He taught that Jesus Christ was the son of Joseph,
and that circumcision ought to be retained under the gos¬
pel. He is looked upon as the head of the converted Jews,
who raised in the church of Antioch the tumult of which
St Luke has given the history in the 15th chapter of the
Acts of the Apostles. Some authors ascribe the book of
the Apocalypse to Cerinthus, adding, that he sent it forth
under the name of St John, in order to give greater autho¬
rity to his reveries touching Christ’s reign upon earth.
CERIUM, a rare metal, discovered in the year 1803.
See Chemistry,
c e r
CERNE Abbas, a market-town of the hundred of Ce-
Totcombe, in the county of Dorset, seven miles from Dor- |
Chester, and 123 from London. It is chiefly remarkable , Gr
for a figure of unknown ancient date, cut on the side of a s*"v
hill. It represents a giant with a club. The height of
the person is 180 feet, and it covers an acre of ground;
between his legs are three rude letters scarcely legible, and
over them the modern figures 748. It is said by some to
be the representation of Cenric, son of Cuthred, king of
Wessex, who was slain in battle; and by others it is sup¬
posed to be the figure of some deity, and these have con¬
jectured the letters to be JAO. It is repaired once every
seven years, by filling up the line§ with chalk. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1801 to 847, in 1811 to 951, and
in 1821 to 1060.
CERNEUX-Pequinot, a town in the department of
the Doubs, in France, close to which, on the frontiers of
Switzerland, is a celebrated mineral spring. The town,
including the inhabitants on the adjoining lake, contains
1325 persons.
CEROPEGIA. See Botany Zwefer.
CERRETO, a city of Italy, in the province of Terra di
Lavoro, and kingdom of Naples, situated near the river
Susano, and containing 4590 inhabitants, who are employ¬
ed in woollen manufactures.
CERTHIA. See Ornithology.
CERTIORARI, in Laiv, a writ which issues out of
the chancery, directed to an inferior court, to call up the
records of a cause there depending, in order that justice
may be done. It is not only used out of the court of
chancery, but likewise out of the king’s bench, in which
last-mentioned court it lies where the king would be cer¬
tified of a record.
CERVANTES. See Saavedra.
CERVERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cata¬
lonia. It lies between Manresa and Lerida, rather nearer
to the river Segre than the Llobregat. It contains a very
magnificent university, which was established at the be¬
ginning of the last century, when the different colleges ol
Catalonia were abolished on account of their opposition to
the Bourbons. It is now the principal place of education
in the province. It is situated in latitude 41. 39., and
possesses a population of about 5000 souls. The univer¬
sity contains forty-three professors, and 800 students.
Cervera, a town of Spain, in the province of Soria, in
Castile. It is watered by the river Alhama, which, though
of short course, fructifies a tract of most productive land.
Cervera contains about 5000 inhabitants, who are rich and
industrious, and cultivate wheat, olives, hemp, and flax,
and weave the latter into linen and sailcloth, which are
distributed by themselves over the peninsula.
CERVINARA, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince of Principato-Ulteriore, containing 5155 inhabitants.
CERVUS, or Deer, in Zoology. See Mammalia.
Servus Volans, in Natural History, is a name given to
the stag-fly, or horned-beetle, a very large species ot
beetle with horns sloped, somewhat like those of the stag.
CERYX, in Antiquity. The ceryces were a sort of pub¬
lic criers, appointed to proclaim or publish things aloud
in assemblies. The ceryx among the Greeks answered to
the prceco among the Romans. Our criers exercise on y
a small part of the office and authority which belonged to
ceryces and prcecones. There were two kinds of ceryces,
civil and sacred. The former were those appointed to cal
assemblies, and maintain silence therein; also to go on mes¬
sages, and generally to do the office of our heralds.. e
sacred ceryces were a sort of priests, whose office it was
to proclaim silence at the public games and sacrifices, o
publish the names of the conquerors, to proclaim teas s,
and the like. The priesthood of the ceryces was annex-
C E S
a
fsa
ed to a particular family, the descendants of Ceryx, son
of Eumolpus. To them it also belonged to lead solemn
victims to slaughter. Before the ceremonies began, they
called silence in the assembly, by the formula, 'Zvtpnfiurt
dr/t ftag Xaug; answering to the favete Unguis of the
Romans. When the service was over, they dismissed the
people with this formula, Aawv apztng, Ite missa est.
CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes of the
second figure of syllogisms, the minor proposition of which
is a universal affirmative, and the other two universal ne¬
gatives; thus,
Ce No immoral books ought to be read ;
Sa But every obscene book is immoral;
He Therefore no obscene books ought to be read.
CESAROTTI, Melchior, an Italian poet, was born at
Padua in the year 1730, of a family of considerable rank
but small fortune. He was educated at the academy of
Padua, where he early showed a strong inclination for lite¬
rary pursuits, and made such progress in study that he
was raised to the chair of rhetoric in the academy where
he had been brought up, at a period of life when others
were yet attending the lectures. Having been appointed
to this charge, he devoted himself with the utmost zeal to
the duties of his situation. He introduced several useful
reforms into the system of education which was then prac¬
tised, and endeavoured by incessant study to render his
instructions as useful as possible to the youth committed
to his care. The first fruits of his studies were Italian
translations of the Prometheus of AEschylus, and three
tragedies of Voltaire, the merit of which, and the reputa¬
tion he had acquired for learning and persevering appli¬
cation, successively procured him a distinguished employ¬
ment at Venice, and the professorship of Greek and He¬
brew in the university of Padua. Cesarotti had held this
situation for nearly thirty years at the date of the first
French invasion of Italy. This poet did not, like Alfieri,
scorn the pecuniary favours of the republican government,
nor shun the acquaintance of its chiefs. He published
several political tracts and essays by their order; and
when the general of the invading army assumed the title
of King of Italy, he was rewarded with two pensions of
considerable amount, and distinguished by various honours.
He continued to reside partly at Padua, and partly at his
country house of Selvaggiano, chiefly occupied with the
composition of laudatory poems in return for the favours
he had received, and with the superintendence of a com¬
plete edition of his works, when he was suddenly arrested
by the hand of death on the 3d of November 1808.
Though held by Sismondi to be the first in point of ce¬
lebrity of the modern Italian poets, Cesarotti is better
hnown as a translator than as an original author. The Ita-
lans have always been distinguished for the elegance and
spirit of their translations from the classics; the Lucre¬
tius of Marchetti, the TEneid of Annibal Caro, and An-
guillaras free version of the Metamorphoses of Ovid, have
t eservedly exalted their reputation to the utmost height in
tiis department of literature. Anguillara’s translation of
omer, however, had been less popular and successful than
ns Metamorphoses, and there still remained room in Italy
01 a translation of the prince of poets. The work of Cesa-
r°t|1’ however, is far from being literal; he has modernized
an accommodated the Iliad to the prevailing taste of the
pge, he has abridged it in some places, and added to it
in others, according to his taste or fancy; and he has
o en been reproached with having given to the Greek
iai the style and language of his favourite Ossian. In
.e edition of the works of Cesarotti, the poetical ver-
non is followed by a literal prose one, accompanied with
andDac-0168 ^*sserta^ons’ Partly translated from Pope
VOL. vi.
C E S
297
Cesarotti acquired more fame by his version of Ossian Cesarotti.
than by that of Homer; and certainly no translation had
ever more appearance of originality and inspiration. He
has completely preserved the spirit of the supposed bard of
Morven—his gigantic and gloomy grandeur; and, at the
same time, has given us that harmony of versification which
we desiderate in the work of Macpherson. The Italian
Ossian was first published at Padua in 1763, 2 vols. 8vo,
at the expense of an English traveller, with whom Cesa-
lotti had contracted a friendship. This edition was neces-
sai ily incomplete, as the translation of Macpherson at that
time was so also; but the whole poems were printed at
the same place about ten years afterwards, in 4 vols. small
8vo. I he Poems of Ossian also occupy four volumes in
the recent complete edition of the works of Cesarotti,
where they are accompanied by an examination of the
question so much agitated in this country with regard to
the authenticity of these celebrated productions. Their
appearance in this new form attracted much attention in
Italy, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic style,
so diflerent from the warm and glowing imagery of the
earlier Italian poets.
His country was also indebted to Cesarotti for a num¬
ber of valuable prose works. The Course of Greek Litera¬
ture was his chief undertaking; but the plan on which he
had commenced was too vast to be completed. His essays
on the Sources of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy, and
on the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art, are distin¬
guished by elegant and ingenious criticism; while his
ti eatises Sulla Filosofia delle Lingue, et Sulla Filosofia de
Gusto (the last of which is principally intended as an apo¬
logy for the peculiarities of his own style), show consider¬
able acuteness and strength of understanding. In 1797
an Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres had been esta¬
blished at Padua, of which Cesarotti was nominated per¬
petual secretary. It was part of the duties of this situa¬
tion to read, at the stated meetings of the academy, the
various essays which had been prepared by its members.
Frequently, however, these were of such extent that the
secretary found it expedient merely to give, in his own
language, a general account of the object of the author,
and the result of his investigations. These readings pro¬
duced his reports, entitled Relazioni Academiche, each of
which reports is divided into three parts; the first con¬
taining the essays on Experimental Philosophy, the second
on Mathematics, and the third on Belles Lettres. The
whole, however, may be regarded as a literary composi¬
tion, since the departments of mathematics and philoso¬
phy exhibit only general views of the subject of inquiry.
Almost all the prose works of Cesarotti are distinguished
by extensive erudition and a philosophical spirit, while
his style is for the most part lively and forcible. But the
Italian prose of the eighteenth century was very different
from that written by Giovanni Della Casa, Machiavel, and
their contemporaries in the sixteenth; and those critics
who have deplored the recent innovations on the ancient
purity of the Tuscan tongue, chiefly attribute to Cesarotti
the introduction of those Gallicisms and new modes of
expression which have so greatly corrupted the language
of the golden age of Leo.
All the works of Cesarotti above mentioned, including
several volumes of correspondence, have been published
in a complete edition, which was commenced at Padua in
the year 1800, under the author’s own direction. It has
been continued since his death by Joseph Barbieri, who
was his successor in the chair of Greek and Hebrew at
Padua, and who has also published Memoirs of the Life
and Writings of his deceased friend, printed at Padua,
1810, 8vo.
It has been the fate of most literary men to be ranked
2 p
298
C E U
Cesena
I!
Ceuta.
either higher or lower by their own age than by posterity.
Cesarotti will probably belong to the former class, who
perhaps, after all, enjoy the pleasanter sort of reputation.
But, though the praise of great and original genius may in
future times be denied him, every age will admit his.learn¬
ing and talents, and the meritorious assiduity ot his Ute-
rary researches. , , , ,> ' ^
CESENA, a city of Italy, in the papal delegation o
Forli. It stands on the river Savio, at the foot of a h
proiecting from the Apennines. It contains a theological
college, a cathedral, fourteen monasteries, and seven nun¬
neries. In the college of the Minorites is a library of
15,000 volumes, rich in ancient works. Ihe inhabitants
amount to 14,670, who are employed in cultivating wine,
hemp, flax, and silk, and in digging sulphur from a mine.
CESSIO Bonorum, in Scotch Law, the name of that
action by which an insolvent debtor may apply for libera¬
tion from prison, upon conveying his whole real and pei-
sonal estate to his creditors. See Bankrupt.
CESTUI, a French word, signifying he or him, frequent¬
ly used in the English law writings. Thus, Cestui qm
trust, a person who has lands or messuages committed to
him for the benefit of another; and if such person does
not perform his trust, he is compellable to it in chancery.
Cestui qui vie, one for whose life any lands or tenements
are granted. Cestui qui use, a person to whose use any
one is infeoffed of lands or tenements. Formerly the feof¬
fees to uses were deemed owners of the land, but now the
possession is adjudged in cestui qui use.
CESTUS, among ancient poets, a fine embroidered gir¬
dle said to be worn by Venus, to which Homer ascribes
the power of charming and conciliating love. Ihe word
is also written cestum and ceston, being the same with
MgTog, a girdle or zone embroidered or wrought with a
needle, and is derived, according to Servius, from xsm/v,
punqere ; whence also incestus, a term useu at first for any
indecency by undoing the girdle, but now restrained to that
between persons near akin.
CETOLOGY. See Mammalia.
CETTE, a city of the department of the Herault, in
France. It is situated on the sea-shore, on a tongue of
land, and may be viewred as the chief outlet for the pi o-
ductions of Languedoc. It is a well-built city, containing
900 houses, and 8184 inhabitants. Long. 3. 37. 22. E.
Lat. 43. 23. 51. N. .
CETUS, in Astronomy, the whale ; a large constellation
of the southern hemisphere, under Pisces, and next the
water of Aquarius.
CEUTA, a fortress on the coast of Africa, belonging to
Spain. It is situated on a peninsula eastward of langier,
and opposite to Gibraltar. It is formed of the high mountain
Acho, and six smaller ones which are jointly denominated
the Bulwark, and incloses a space from east-north-east to
west-south-west of about one mile and a half, and a plain
which begins at the foot of the mountains. On this spot
the city is built, and towards iGrica is tremendously for¬
tified. The cathedral of Ceuta and its bishop are under
the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of beville. \\ ithin the
lines are formed suburbs, and gardens in which they laise
all the fruits of the climate, and have some pleasant ivalks,
cisterns, and fountains. Within the citadel there are cis¬
terns sufficiently capacious to contain as much water as
the garrison requires for two years’ consumption. On the
top of the mountain Acho there is an observatory, from
which the garrison may be enabled to see all the vessels
which pass the Straits of Gibraltar, and all the movements
of the Moors in their camp before the fortress. Ceuta
contains 3000 inhabitants, besides criminals, wdio are sent
here to hard labour, in what the Spaniards denominate a
presidio. Long. 1. 37. 5. W. Lat. 35. 54. 4. N.
GEY
CEVA, a city of Italy, in the province of Mondovi, of i]L
the kingdom of Sardinia, at the junction of the rivers Se-
vetta and Tanaro. It is a fortified place, containing 5470 £ i
inhabitants, employed in the silk manufacture, and in iron- 'v
works. .
CEVENNES, mountains of Languedoc, in trance, re¬
markable for the frequent meetings of the Protestants
there as a place of security against the tyranny of their
governors.
CEYLON, a large island in the East Indies, which lies
between 6° and 10° north latitude, and between 78° and
82° east longitude. It is situated at the entrance of the
Bay of Bengal, by which it is bounded on the north; on
the north-west it is separated from the Coromandel coast
by the Gulf of Manaar, a narrow strait full of shoals, and
impassable by large ships; and it is distant about sixty
leagues from Cape Comorin, the southern pai t ot the pe¬
ninsula of India. Its circumference is computed at about
900 miles, and its length from Point Pedro at the north¬
ern extremity to Donderhead at the southern is about 300
miles. Its breadth is very unequal, being in some parts
only from forty to fifty miles, whilst in others it extends
to sixty, seventy, and even a hundred miles.
The appearance of the eastern coast is bold and rocky, ^s:i j
and a few reefs of rocks run out into the sea on the south-the .
east, between Point de Galle and Batacolo. Ihe deepV}'
water on the eastern shores admits of the approach of the
largest vessels in safety; and if that side of the island be
the least fertile, its other defects are amply compensated
by the harbours of Trincomalee and Batacolo. The north
and north-west coast, from Point Pedro to Columbo, is flat,
and everywhere indented with inlets oi the sea.. The
largest of these extends almost quite across the island,
from Mullipatti to Jafnapatam on the north-west point,
and forms the peninsula of Jafnapatam. _ Several of these
inlets form small harbours; but so full is the north-west
coast of sand-banks and shallows, that it is impossible for
vessels of large size to approach them.
The interior of the island abounds with steep and Jolty
mountains, covered with thick forests, and full of almost
impenetrable jungles. These woods and mountains com¬
pletely surround the country of Candy. The most lofty
range divides the island nearly into turn parts, and so com¬
pletely separates them from each other, that botlj.the cli¬
mate and seasons on either side are essentially different.
The monsoons in Ceylon are connected with those on
the Coromandel and Malabar coasts ; but they set m much
sooner on the western than on the eastern side of the island.
On the western side, where Columbo lies, the rains prevail
in the months of May, June, and July, the season when
they are felt on the Malabar coast. This monsoon is usually
extremely violent, being accompanied with dreadful storm
of thunder and lightning, together with vast torrent.s
rain and violent south-west winds. During its centin -
ance, the northern parts of the island are very little attect-
ed, and are even generally dry. In the months o
ber and November, when the opposite monsoon sets mon
the Coromandel coast, it is the north of Ceylon which is
affected, and scarcely any impression of it is felt mi
southern parts. These monsoons pass slightly over the m
terior, and seldom occasion any considerable inconvenienc .
But this part of the island is not altogethei fiee ro
dreadful storms which ravage so terribly the .tr0Plc‘
mates. During its own periodical season, which ‘PP
in March and April, the rain pours down in toi rents,
the thunder and lightning are appalling. pnnator,Clii
From the situation of this island, so near the q
the days and nights are nearly ot equal ^Mhe s
tion during the two seasons not exceeding e
The seasons are more regulated by the monsoons tl
CEYLON.
299
an
, course of the sun; for although the island lies to the
J north of the line, the coolest season is during the summer
solstice, while the western monsoon prevails. Their spring
commences in October, and the hottest season is from
January to the beginning of April. The heat, during the
day, is nearly the same throughout the whole year; the
rainy season, however, renders the nights much cooler,
from the dampness of the earth, and the prevalence of
winds during the monsoons. The climate, upon the whole,
is much more temperate than on the continent of India.
This temperate climate, however, is chiefly confined to
the coast, where the sea-breezes have room to circulate.
In the interior of the country, owing to the thick and
close woods, and the hills which crowd upon each other,
the heat is many degrees greater than on the sea-coast,
and the climate is often extremely sultry and unhealthy.
•s. The principal harbours in the island for large ships are
Trincomalee and Point de Galle; vessels also come to an¬
chor, and at certain seasons of the year moor securely, in
the roads of Columbo. There are several other inferior
ports round the island, which afford shelter to the smaller
coasting vessels. These are Batacolo, Banbareen, Matura,
and Caltura, on the south-east; and Negumbo, Chilon,
Calpenteen, Manaar, and Point Pedro, on the north-west
coast.
The two principal rivers are the Malivagonga and the
Mulivaddy. The former takes its rise among the hills to
the south-east of Candy, and nearly surrounds that city.
After a variety of circuitous windings among the moun¬
tains, it at last discharges itself into the sea at Trincoma¬
lee. This river is so deep as to be fordable only towards
the source; but the rocks, which everywhere break its
course, prevent it from being navigated. The Mulivaddy
rises from the foot of a very high mountain, known to
Europeans by the name of Adam’s Peak, and situated
about sixty miles to the north-east of Columbo. This
river falls into the sea by several branches, the largest of
which empties itself about three miles from the fort of
Columbo, after having nearly surrounded a large tract of
the level country, of which it forms a peninsula. Besides
the rivers with which Ceylon abounds, there are many
lakes and canals communicating with them, particularly in
the neighbourhood of Columbo and Nigumbo. These are
often of considerable extent, and of great utility to the in¬
habitants in their neighbourhood, who have thus an oppor¬
tunity of transporting readily their several articles of trade;
and it is by this means also that the towns on the coast
are supplied with the greatest abundance of fresh-water
fish. The internal communications by land through the
1®^an^ have scarcely passed the first stage of improvement.
Along the sea-coasts, indeed, there are roads and stations
tor travellers, but these roads are in many places rugged
and steep.
The soil of Ceylon is in many parts sandy, with a small
mixture of clay; but in the south-western parts, particular¬
ly about Columbo, there is a great deal of marshy ground,
which is rich and productive ; though, owing to the want of
capital, and to the indolence of the native population, the
natural advantages of the country are not improved. The
agriculture and manufactures are consequently not in a
nourishing state. Great part of the soil is left waste, in¬
somuch that the land does not at present produce the
ist necessaries of life in sufficient quantity to supply the
wants of the population. Cotton has been found to grow
with the greatest facility, and to produce abundantly. The
ankin, Bourbon, and Brazil cottons have all been found
o succeed, yet there has been hardly any cotton reared
itierto; and even the commonest cloths for the use of
e natives are imported from the continent of India,
he principal productions of Ceylon are, 1. The cinna¬
mon, for which it has long been famous, and which has Ceylon,
attracted the particular attention of the different Euro-
pean governments that have successively taken possession Cinnamon
of the island. The cinnamon tree is indigenous to Cey-tree‘
Ion, where it grows wild to a considerable size.
The principal woods, or gardens as they are called,
where the cinnamon is procured, lie in the neighbourhood
of Columbo. Ihe grand garden near the town is so ex¬
tensive as to occupy a tract of country from ten to fifteen
miles in length, and stretching along from the north-east
to the south of the district. Nature has here concentrat¬
ed both the beauty and the riches of the island. Nothing
can be more delightful to the eye than the prospect which
stretches around Columbo. The low cinnamon trees which
cover the plain allow the view to reach the groves of ever¬
greens, interspersed with tall clumps, and bounded every¬
where with extensive ranges of cocoa-nut and other large
trees, ihe whole is diversified with small lakes and green
marshes, skirted all around with rice and pasture fields.
In one part the intertwining cinnamon trees appear com¬
pletely to clothe the face of the plain ; in another the open¬
ing made by the intersecting footpaths just serves to show
that the thick underwood has been penetrated. The soil
best adapted for the growth of the cinnamon is a loose
white sand. Such is the soil of the cinnamon gardens
around Columbo, as well as in many parts around Nigumbo
and Caltura, where this spice is found of the same supe¬
rior quality. Of late years little is procured from the in¬
terior ; and what is brought thence is coarser and thicker
in appearance, and of a hot pungent taste.
.As this spice constitutes the wealth of Ceylon, great
pains are taken to ascertain its quality, and to propagate
the choicest kinds. The bark of the tree consists of two
coats or layers, of which the interior constitutes the true
cinnamon. This bark, after being peeled off, is laid in the
sun to dry, when it curls up into rolls, as we commonly
see it. The finest cinnamon is that which is obtained from
the younger and smaller trees; a coarser sort is derived
from the trees of larger dimensions and greater age. The
cinnamon is collected by a particular caste, called Challias,
who on this account enjoy peculiar privileges. When
the bundles or sacks of cinnamon are stowed on board the
ships, black pepper is strewed over each layer, so as to fill
up the interstices; and both commodities are said to be
improved by this method of stowing. Formerly the crop
of cinnamon was collected in the forests and jungles, the
greater part of the trees being within the territories of the
king of Candy ; but during the latter period of the Dutch
government, attempts were made, and ultimately with
complete success, to cultivate cinnamon in plantations;
and to their exertions we are indebted for the present
flourishing state of this article of commerce. According
to a calculation made by the Dutch, the annual consump¬
tion of cinnamon was estimated at 400,000 lbs. or 5000
bales, of 80 lbs. each. When the island was transferred
from the English East India Company to an immediate ad¬
ministration under the crown (in January 1802), the go¬
vernment entered into a contract with the Company, by
which the latter acquired the exclusive privilege of export¬
ing cinnamon from the colony. It was agreed that the
Ceylon government should deliver annually 400,000 lbs.
of cinnamon, making 43241 bales, each bale consisting of,
within a small fraction, 921 lbs.; for which the Company
was to grant a credit of L.00,000, making the price of the
cinnamon 3s. per lb. The Company further became bound
to give credit to the colony for the amount of all clear pro¬
fits which it should make on that commodity beyond five
per cent. During the period of this agreement, therefore,
no cinnamon could be sold or exported from Ceylon but
by the Company, with the exception of what is rejected
300
Ceylon.
CEYLON.
Cocoa-nut
tree.
Palmyra
tree.
Arrecanut.
Tobacco.
Timber.
Fruits and
plants.
by their agent there. In the year 1806 the Company pro¬
posed that 450,000 lbs. should be delivered annually, at
2s. 6d. per lb. instead of 400,000 at 3s., which the govern¬
ment agreed to ; and this agreement remained in force un¬
til 1810, when the parties reverted to the former contract.
In 1814 the Company agreed to allow to the Ceylon go¬
vernment a sum of L.200,000 sterling for surplus profits
on their sales of cinnamon, and to give, in future, L.101,UUU
sterling annually, instead of L.60,000, for a supply of400,000
lbs. of that commodity. This contract was entered into tor
seven years ; and it does not appear that during this pe¬
riod the stipulated quantity of cinnamon was ever deli¬
vered. In 1821 the exclusive privilege of exporting cin¬
namon was given up by the Company, and all persons
were allowed freely to purchase and to export from the
government stores.
The other productions of Ceylon are, 2. ihe cocoa-nut
tree, which is perhaps the richest known in the world.
Besides the nut, with its milk, this tree produces mirra,
a mild beverage, without acidity or powers of intoxication;
toddy, from which the spirituous liquor called arack is dis¬
tilled ; cocoa-nut oil; the jagery, a kind of sugar, manu¬
factured from the mirra; and the coir, from which ropes
are made. The average quantity of arack exported annu¬
ally from Ceylon may be stated at 5200 leageis, of 150
gallons each. The great markets for this article have hi¬
therto been Madras and Bombay, with the Malabar and
Coromandel coasts. Within the last three yeais some
hundreds of leagers have 'been brought to England, and
sold at from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per gallon. 3. I he palmyia
tree, which, after the cocoa-nut tree, is the richest plant
in the East. It requires ten years before it bears fruit,
but, as is asserted, it will continue doing so for 300 years.
This tree contributes in many ways to feed the lower class
of natives in Ceylon. The fruit, when green, affords a
pleasant beverage, and, when ripe, a nourishing and whole¬
some food. Sometimes the juice of it is expressed, which
hardens and is preserved for a long time, and is eaten by
the natives in different ways. The shell and the fibres,
after the juice is pressed out, form excellent fattening food
for cattle ; and if the fruit be put under ground for two or
three months, it strikes strong roots, which are also good for
the food of man. The value of the tree, when cut down,
is from four to five rixdollars; and the annual revenue
drawn by government from the duties on the exportation
of palmyra timber amounts to about 25,000 rixdollars. 4.
The arreca nut is a very important article of Ceylon pro¬
duce, being the best of the kind in India. The nuts are ex¬
ported chiefly to the Coromandel and Malabar coasts ; and
the annual revenue derived by government from the duties
on the exportation of this article may be stated at 125,000
rixdollars. 5. Tobacco, which is cultivated in the dis¬
trict of Jafnapatam, of a peculiar quality, and prepared in
a particular manner for chewing. 6. Ceylon produces va¬
rious sorts of wood, of the finest and richest kinds, for
cabinet-making. The scarcest and dearest is the cala-
mander, of a hard and close grain, beautifully veined with
different shades of black and brown. The homander great¬
ly resembles it, but the veins are not so fine. The ream
wood has also very beautiful veins of the same colours, but
they are smaller and more regularly striped. The jack-wood
very much resembles mahogany, and is used for the same
purposes. The ebony and satin woods are well known.
The sappan wood is a kind of log-wood, used for dyeing
cotton cloth of a fine red, or rather very deep orange
colour. Ceylon abounds in fruits and plants. Among the
fruits are apples, oranges, pomegranates, citrons, lemons,
water-melons, pumpkins, melons, squashes, figs, almonds,
mulberries, bilberries, mangoes, shaddocks, mangusteens,
rose apples, cushoo apples and nuts, custard apples, plan¬
tains, jack fruit, a species of bread fruit, cocoa-nuts, and ce'
several sorts of pepper, cardamoms, coffee and sugar tree, w j
and a species of palm. The tea-plant has also been dis¬
covered in the forests. 7. Ceylon is rich in precious stones. prec.
Of these the most valuable are, the oriental sapphire, to-stone
paz, ruby, amethyst, and blue sapphire; the cat’s-eye, which
is the finest known of that kind; the tourmaline, of every
shade ; the amethyst, which is superior in brilliancy to that
of Brazil; the cinnamon stone, the garnet, and the moon¬
stone, which is a species of opal. Ceylon also produces the
finest jet and crystal of different tinges. Pepper, coffee, andPep:, j
cardamom, are likewise cultivated in Ceylon; but thesecofiWj
productions, it is said, are not indigenous, having been in-^ a
troduced by the Dutch, who also made unsuccessful at¬
tempts to rear the silk-worm, and cultivate the mulberry-
tree.
The pearl-fishery in the bay of Condatchjy during the Pea;;
season, exhibits one of the most interesting scenes in Cey-fish:-
Ion. The banks where it is carried on extend several
miles along the coast from Manaar southward, off Arippo,
Condatchy, and Pomparipo. The principal bank is oppo¬
site to Condatchy, and lies out at sea about twenty miles.
The first step, previously to the commencement of the
fishery, is to have the different oyster-banks surveyed, the
state of the oysters ascertained, and a report made on the
subject to government. If it has been found that the
quantity is sufficient, and that they are arrived at a proper
degree of maturity, the particular banks to be fished that
year are put up for sale to the highest bidder, and are
usually purchased by a black merchant. Government
sometimes judges it more advantageous to fish the banks
on its ow n account, and to dispose of the pearls afterwards
to the merchants. W hen this plan is adopted, boats are
hired for the season on account of government from differ¬
ent quarters ; the price varying considerably according to
circumstances, but being usually from 500 to 800 pagodas
for each boat.
As neither the season nor the convenience of the per¬
sons attending would permit the whole of the banks to be
fished in one year, they are divided into three or foui dif¬
ferent portions, which are fished one portion annually in
succession. The different portions are completely distinct,
and are set up separately to sale, each in the year in which
it is to be fished. By this means a sufficient interval is
given to the oysters to attain their proper growth; and as
the portion first used has generally recovered its maturity
by the time the last portion has been fished, the fishery
becomes almost regularly annual, and may thus be con¬
sidered as yielding a yearly revenue. The oysters are
supposed to attain their completest state of maturity in
seven years; for, if left too long, it is said that the pear
becomes so large and inconvenient to the fish that it
throws it out of the shell. The fishing season commences
in February, and ends about the beginning of Apiil.
period allowed to the merchant to fish the banks is six
weeks, or two months at the utmost; but there are seve¬
ral interruptions, which prevent the fishing days fiom ex
ceeding more than about thirty. If it happens to e a
very bad season, and many stormy days intervene u’’Jn§
the period allotted, the purchaser of the fishery is oiten
allowed a few days more as a favour. During the season,
all the boats regularly sail and return together. A signa
gun is fired at Arippo, about ten o’clock at night, w e
the whole fleet sets sail with the land breeze. j
reach the banks before daybreak, and at sunrise co
mence fishing. In this they continue busily occupie
the sea breeze, which rises about noon, warns thenri o r
turn to the bay. As soon as they appear within signt,
other gun is fired, and the colours hoisted, to in orm
anxious owners of their return. When the boats com
CEYLON. 301
'ii. land, their cargoes are immediately taken out, as it is ne- grass or soft wood, from again closing its shell, till an op- Ceylon,
cessary to have them completely unloaded before night, portunity offers of picking out the pearl. Those fellows who
Whatever may have been the success of their boats, the are employed to search among the fish also commit many
owners seldom wear the looks of disappointment; for al- depredations, and even swallow the pearls to conceal them,
though they may have been unsuccessful one day, they When this is suspected, the plan followed by the merchants
look with the most complete assurance of better fortune is to lock them up, and give them strong emetics and pur-
to the next, as the Brahmins and conjurors, whom they gatives, which have frequently the effect of discovering-
implicitly trust in defiance of all experience, understand the stolen property.
too well the liberality of a man in hopes of good fortune, As soon as the oysters are taken out of the boats, they
not to promise them all they can desire. Each of the are carried by the different people to whom they belong,
boats carries twenty men, with a tindal or chief boatman, and placed in holes or pits dug in the ground to the depth
who acts as pilot, fen of the men row, and assist the di- of about two feet, or in small square places cleared and
vers in re-ascending. Ihe other ten are divers ; they go fenced round for the purpose, each person having his own
down into the sea by five at a time; when the first five separate division. Mats are spread below them to pre-
come up the other five go down; and by this method of vent the oysters from touching the earth; and here they
alternately diving, they give each other time to recruit are left to die and rot. As soon as they have passed
themselves for a fresh plunge. _ through a state of putrefaction, and have become dry,
In order to accelerate the descent of the divers, large they are easily opened without any danger of injuring the
stones are employed. Five of these are brought in each pearls, which might be the case if they were opened fresh,
boat for the purpose. They are of a reddish granite, com- as at that time to do so requires great force. On the shell
mon in this country, and of a pyramidal shape, round at top being opened, the oyster is minutely examined for the
and bottom, with a hole perforated through the smaller pearls. It is usual even to boil the oyster, as the pearl,
end sufficient to admit a rope. Some of the divers use though commonly found in the shell, is not unfrequently
a stone shaped like a half-moon, which they fasten round contained in the body of the fish itself. -
the belly when they mean to descend, and thus keep their The pearls found at this fishery are of a whiter colour
feet free. than those got in the Gulf of Ormus on the Arabian coast,
Hie people are accustomed to dive from their very in- but in other respects are not accounted so pure or of such
fancy, and fearlessly descend to the bottom in from four to an excellent quality; for though the white pearls are most
ten fathoms water in search of the oysters. The diver, esteemed in Europe, the natives prefer those of a yellow-
when he is about to plunge, seizes the rope to which one ish or golden cast. Off Tutucoreen, which lies on the
of the stones we have described is attached, with the toes Coromandel coast, nearly opposite to Condatchy, there is
ot his right foot, while he takes hold of a bag of net-work another fishery; but the pearls found there are much in-
with tnose of his left; it being customary among all the ferior to the two species now mentioned, being tainted
Indians to use their toes in working or holding, as well as with a blue or grayish tinge. In preparing the pearls, par-
their fingers: and such is the power of habit, that they can ticularly in drilling and stringing them, the black people
pick up even the smallest thing from the ground with their are wonderfully expert. The instrument they employ in
toes as nimbly as a European could do with his fingers, drilling is a machine made of wood, and of a shape resem-
llie diver, thus prepared, seizes another rope with his right bling an obtuse inverted cone, about six inches in length
hand, and holding his nostrils shut with the left, plunges and four in breadth, which is supported upon three feet,
into the water, and by the assistance of the stone speedily each twelve inches long. In the upper flat surface of this
reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net round his machine holes or pits are formed to receive the larger
neck, and with much dexterity, and all possible dispatch, pearls, the smaller ones being beaten in with a little wood-
collects as many oysters as he can while he is able to re- en hammer. The drilling instruments are spindles of va-
mam under water, which is usually about two minutes, rious sizes, according to that of the pearls ; they are turned
i e then resumes his former position, makes a signal to round in a wooden head, by means of a bow-handle to
those above by pulling the rope in his right hand, and is which they are attached. The pearls being placed in the
immediately by this means drawn up and brought into the pits which we have already mentioned, and the point of
>oat, leaving the stone to be pulled up afterwards by the the spindle adjusted to them, the workman presses on the
rope attached to it. The exertion undergone during this wooden head of the machine with his left hand, while his
process is so violent, that upon being brought into the right is employed in turning round the bow-handle. Du-
°a ie ivers discharge water from their mouth, ears, ring the process of drilling he occasionally moistens the
ana nostrils, and frequently even blood. But this does pearl by dipping the little finger of his right hand in a
»ot Hinder them from going down again in their turn, cocoa-nut filled with water, which is placed by him for
, ley w! often make fi'01?1 f°rty to fifty plunges in one that purpose. This he does with a dexterity and quick-
ay, and at each plunge bring up about a hundred oysters, ness which scarcely impedes the operation, and can only
„°?e lub their bodies over with oil, and stuff their ears be acquired by much practice. They have also a variety
n noses t° P1 event the water from entering; while others of other instruments, both for cutting and drilling the
se no piecautions whatever. Although the usual time pearls. To clean, round, and polish them to that state in
‘ remaining under water does not much exceed two mi- which we see them, a powder made of the pearls them-
u es, yet there are instances known of divers who could selves is employed. These different operations in pre-
main four, and even five minutes. The longest instance paring the pearls occupy a great number of the black men
in Y?*)?0'™t^at a t^ver Y*10 came fr°m Anjango in various parts of the island. In the black town of Co-
minut ’ an<^ W10 absolutely remained under water full six lumbo, in particular, many of them may every day be seen
rp, es* at this work.
manvYf ^at'°wners an(* merchants are very apt to lose As there are no manufactures of any consequence, the Commerce,
to th 1 1 ^ est I)ear's while the boats are on their return commerce of the island consists in the exportation of its
and ] fif r°m banks; for as the oysters, when alive natural productions, and the importation chiefly of rice
shells0 f °i S-)me t*me uncbsturbed, frequently open their and other grain, and cloth. The following table will show
discover 1 U i °iVn accoriJ’ a Pearl may then be easily the respective value of the whole exports and imports,
eu, and the oyster prevented, by^ means of a bit of during a period of five years, with the amount of the du-
302
CEYLON.
Ceylon.
Animals.
ties annually collected by government. The sums are ex¬
pressed in rixdollars, the value of the nxdollar being on
shilling and tenpence.
Exports. Imports.
1809,  2,660,795 2,635,235   ’433
1810,  2,777,997 3,112,748 ^0,433
1811,  2,781,633 3,574,313 j61,495
i813  2,443,940 6,378,739 ,...408,819
From this table it will appear that there ^ a consider-
able commercial balance against Ceylon. i i .
sioned by the great annual importations of rice and clotl ,
and it might be removed by giving more encouragement
to the cultivation of grain, and by the introduction 0
cotton, and the manufacture of that article into clothing
for the natives. For these purposes our new acquisitions
are eminently adapted. The Candian territory has al¬
ways produced more rice than was wanted by its inha¬
bitants • and cotton grows most luxuriantly in the interior
of Ceylon. Nothing, in short, is wanted but industry and
capital to render Ceylon perfectly independent for food
and clothing. An agricultural and literary society has
been established by the British residents m Ceylon; and,
among other improvements, they have introduced the cu
tivation of potatoes. .' . , , . „
The public revenue of Ceylon arises from the land-tax,
from taxes on property, on consumption, from captation
taxes, and from certain productions of the island, which
are reserved by government for the purposes of revenue.
Of these, cinnamon is the most important; but no otnciai
account has been recently published of the profits deriv¬
ed from that article. The pearl fishery, and the fishery
for a certain sort of ornamental shells, also yields a re¬
venue ; and formerly government profited by the catching
of elephants, but these have now so greatly fallen ott in
price that this source of revenue is lost. Salt also yields
a productive revenue. The privilege of digging for pre¬
cious stones was formerly farmed out, and was a source
of revenue; in lieu of which licenses to pursue this trade
are now sold. Ceylon was constituted a royal govern¬
ment in 1802, immediately under the direction ot the
crown, which appoints the public functionaries, and regu¬
lates the internal administration of the country; and since
this period a more liberal policy has been followed than
in the East India Company’s dominions. It is governed
by a council, composed of the governor, chief justice, the
commander of the forces, and the secretary. Justice is
administered by a supreme court, consisting of a chief and
a puisne judge, chosen from the civil servants of the Com¬
pany ; a high court of appeal, composed of the chief and
puisne judges, of the governor, and the chief secretary
of the government; and in 1811 a charter passed the
great seal, granting to every native in Ceylon not legally
disqualified, the right to sit on juries. Ihis mode of trial
was accordingly introduced with great advantage, and has
produced the most favourable effect on the character of
the inhabitants. As a remarkable proof of this, it may be
stated that the slave proprietors in the island passed a
resolution, that after the 12th of August 1816 all persons
born in slavery should be considered free.1
Among the animals of Ceylon, and at the head of the
class of quadrupeds, is the elephant, which is considered as
superior to those found in any other quarter of the world;
not, however, on account of size, for the Ceylon elephants
are not in general so tall as those on the continent, but on
account of their hardiness and strength, and their great do¬
cility and freedom from vice and passion. Ceylon produces
but few animals for domestic purposes. rl he horses which Cey C
are used are bred in the small islands of the Jafnapatam -
district. The oxen are of very small size, scarcely exceed¬
ing that of calves of a year old. They are of that species
which have the hump on the shoulder; but are inferior in
quality, as well as in size, to any found on the Indian con¬
tinent. The beef is sometimes of a good quality, and
forms the chief food of the European soldiers. Buffaloes ,
are found in great numbers in the island, both in a wild
and tame state. They are wild and untractable, and even
when tamed and trained to the draught, for which, being
stronger and larger than the oxen, they are well adapted,
they retain a good deal of their original manners. Deer
and elks, of various species, are found in Ceylon, especially
the small gazelle, about the size of a horse, which is caught
and brought to market by the natives in cages. Hares
abound in every part of the island, also wild hogs, and a
small species of tiger. The larger kind, or the royal Asi-
atic tiger, is notjbund in Ceylon. But there are tiger-
cats, leopards, jackals, porcupines, racoons, squirrels; and
sometimes, though more rarely, the hyena and the bear are
found. The monkey tribe is found in infinite variety.
Besides the common domestic poultry of Europe, phea¬
sants, parrots, and parroquets, both wild and tame, are
found in Ceylon, also snipes, fioricans, storks, cranes, he¬
rons, water-fowl of all descriptions, pigeons wild and do¬
mesticated, and a few partridges of the red-legged species.
Among other remarkable birds is the honey-bird, so called
from its pointing out where the bees have deposited then-
combs. Crows, which are exceedingly abundant, tailor-
birds, two species of fly-catchers, wild and tame peacocks,
and the common fowl in its wild state, complete this ca¬
talogue of the feathered race. ... VI
Reptiles abound, and the serpent tribe is exceedingly
dangerous. The cobra capella or hooded snake, the cobra
marnllas, and the whip and grass snakes, which are all of
a small size, are poisonous. Water and wood snakes are
harmless. The boa constrictor is found in marshy parts;
it grows to the length of thirty feet. Alligators of a pro-
dio-ious size infest the rivers, and some have been killed
twenty feet in length, and as thick in the body as a horse.
There are guanas, toads, lizards, blood-suckers, cameleons,
and leeches ; also flying lizards, and every species of ver¬
min and insects which torment the inhabitants of tropica
climates. Fish in great variety and abundance are caugnt
in the rivers, and in all the surrounding seas.
The principal towns on the island are Candy, innco 1
malee, Columbo, and Point de Galle. The town °f Ca"cJ
was the native capital previous to the entire conquesUt
the island. It is situated in the province of Tallanour, in j
the midst of lofty mountains covered with thick jungle,
and the passes to it are narrow, and intersected with clo e
hedges of thorn. The town itself is mean, and surround¬
ed by a mud-wall of no strength. Its length is about two
miles, and it consists of one broad street, with numeious
lanes branching from the principal thoroughfares,
houses are chiefly of mud, thatched with straw an j,
and small apertures instead of windows. At one en
the great street stands the palace, an immense p
building, constructed of stone and wood, and cove
with a species of white cement. It comprehends with
its walls two temples dedicated to Boodh or Buddha, one
Hindu pagoda, the cemetery of the kings of Candy,
a great variety of arsenals and storehouses. I ^
rounding scenery is rich and beautiful. _ The Ja»a ith
neighbourhood is highly cultivated, and interspe ,
villas-es and rivulets. Some of the mountains ai
1 See Report of Select Committee on East India Affairs, 1830. Evidence of Sir A. Johnston.
CEYLON.
303
to their summits, formed into ridges, and sown with grain;
L tjje valleys are fertilized by assiduous and skilful irriga¬
tion, and are clothed with arreca, jack, cocoa-nut, and other
trees, and with fields of paddy and other grain.
Trincomalee lies in latitude 8° 80. It runs in a north¬
east direction along one branch of the bay. The country
around it is mountainous and woody, the soil uncultivated
and rather barren, and the whole appearance wild. From
its situation and construction, it is naturally strong. It
occupies more ground than Columbo, but contains a much
smaller number of. houses, and these inferior in size and
appearance to those which are to be met with in several
towns on the south-west coast. The circumference of
Trincomalee within the walls is about three miles; within
this space is also included a hill or rising point, imme¬
diately over the sea, and covered with brushwood. The
fort is strong, and commands the principal bays, particu¬
larly the entrance into the grand harbour, or inner bay,
which affords at all seasons, and in every variety of wea¬
ther, a secure shelter to ships of all descriptions, being
land-locked on all sides, and sufficiently deep and capa¬
cious to receive any number of the largest vessels. This
harbour, from its nature and situation, is that which stamps
Ceylon as one of our most valuable acquisitions in the East
Indies. As soon as the violent monsoons commence, every
vessel which is caught by them in any other part of the
Bay of Bengal is obliged immediately to put to sea, to pre¬
vent inevitable destruction. At these seasons Trincoma¬
lee and Bombay alone, of all the ports on the different
coasts on the peninsula of India, are capable of affording
a safe retreat. The incalculable advantages to be derived
from such a harbour are increased by its proximity and
easy access to our settlements in the Bay of Bengal. Co¬
lumbo is the capital of Ceylon, and the seat of government.
Although Trincomalee, on account of its situation and har¬
bour, be of more consequence to this nation to retain, yet
Columbo is in every other respect greatly superior. The
number of its inhabitants is much greater; its fort and
black town are much larger; the country where it is si¬
tuated is far more fertile; and the rich district depending
upon it much wider, being not less than twenty leagues
in length and ten in breadth. It is situated in the west,
or rather towards the south-west part of the island, in
about 7° north latitude and 78° east longitude from Lon¬
don. The plan of Columbo is regular. It is nearly divided
into four equal quarters by two principal streets, which
cross each other, and extend the whole length of the
town. To these smaller ones run parallel, with connect¬
ing lanes between them. At the foot of the ramparts on
the inside is a broad street or way, which goes round the
whole fort, and communicates with the bastions and sol¬
diers’ barracks, and also affords, at the different angles,
open spaces for their private parading. Point de Galle,
the only other town of which it seems necessary to give
a description, is situated at the southern extremity of the
island, on a low rocky promontory, backed by several
ranges of hills, rising above one another, and covered with
wood. The fort, in which most of the Europeans reside,
is more than a mile in circumference, and contains a va¬
riety of large and commodious habitations. Europeans
are here much less incommoded by the heat than in other
parts of India; for although the town is situated within
less than six degrees of the equator, the temperature is
frequently as low as 72° of Fahrenheit, and never exceeds
h6°. The disease called elephantiasis is said to prevail a
good deal among the poor residents at Point de Galle, and
18 ascnbed to bad water and insufficient nourishment.
r The inhabitants are divided into two classes, the Cinga-
Hese and the Candians. The Cingalese, who inhabit the
low lands and parts contiguous to the coasts, live entirely
under the dominion of whatever European nation has been Ceylon,
able to acquire possession of that part of the island. The y"'"-''
nature of the country they inhabit indeed leaves them
hardly any alternative but unconditional submission, un¬
less they could either meet the Europeans in open battle,
or consent to quit their plentiful fields for the barren
mountains of the interior. They are a quiet, inoffensive
people, exceedingly grave, temperate, and frugal. Their
bodies partake of the indolence of their minds, and it is
with reluctance they are roused to any active exertion.
When, however, they are obliged to apply themselves to
any work, such as agriculture, they are capable of under¬
going a great deal of labour. The milder virtues form
the most prominent features of the Cingalese character.
They are gentle, charitable, and friendly, and have scarce¬
ly any of the false, treacherous, and designing arts which
are often found among the Candians. With much less
smoothness and courteousness of face and manner than
the latter, they have much sincerer hearts. On examin¬
ing the countenances and carriage of these two classes of
Ceylonese, it is easy to perceive the difference arising
from the respective circumstances in which they are
placed. The countenance of the Candian is erect, his
look haughty, his mien lofty, and his whole carriage
marked by the pride of independence. The looks of the
Cingalese even denote a degree of effeminacy and cowar¬
dice which excites the contempt of the Candians; al¬
though the latter, with all their boasted spirit, can never
venture to attack an European but by the same method
as the Cingalese, and are equally cautious in waiting the
convenient moment of assaulting him from the bushes in
which they have concealed themselves. Crimes of the
deepest dye have occasionally been committed by the
lower castes, but the conduct of the better castes is ge¬
nerally correct and decorous.
The most singular part of the inhabitants of Ceylon con¬
sists of the Bedahs or Vaddahs. The origin of the Be-
dahs or Vaddahs, who inhabit the deepest recesses of the
Ceylonese forests, has never been traced, and no other
race can be found in the eastern world which corres¬
ponds with them. Conjecture has, indeed, been busy on
the occasion, as it usually is where real information is
wanting. The Bedahs are generally supposed to have
been the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, who, upon
being overwhelmed by their Cingalese invaders, preferred
the independence of savages to a tame submission. A cur¬
rent tradition, however, assigns them a different origin.
It is related that they were cast away on the island, and
chose to settle there; but refusing, upon a certain occa¬
sion, to assist the king in his wax-s against some foreign
enemies, they were dxiven out from the society of tlxe
natives, and foi’ced to take up their abode in the most
unfrequented forests. Some imagine that the Bedahs are
merely a part of the native Candians, who chose to retain
their ancient savage freedom, when their brethren of the
plains and valleys submitted to the cultivation of the earth
and the restraints of society. This opinion rests entirely
on those Bedahs who ai’e most known speaking a broken
dialect of the Cingalese. It is, howevei’, by no means
ascertained that this is the universal language of the Be¬
dahs, nor is any account of their origin supported by the
slightest shadow of pi’oof.
The Candians are fairer and better made, and less ef¬
feminate, than the Cingalese, who are of a middling sta¬
ture, about five feet eight inches, and fairer than the
Moors and the Malabars on the continent, though they are
neither so w7ell formed nor so strong. It is the pi’actice
among all ranks, both of the Candians and the Cingalese,
to chew betel-leaf, with which they mix tobacco, arreca-
nut, and the lime of burnt shells, to render it more pun-
CEYLON.
304
Ceylon, gent. They do not rank higher in the scale of civilization
than the other Asiatics. Before the arrival of the Euro¬
peans, it does not appear that the Cingalese possessed any
sort of dial; they measured time by means of a vessel with
a hole in the bottom, which let out the water in one hour
according to their division of time; and at present their
whole learning consists in some pretended skill in astro¬
logy. They have a set of learned men among them called
gonies. Their business is to execute all the writings of
the state, and those which regard the affairs of religion ;
on all which occasions they employ the Arabic character.
The Cingalese are expert in several ingenious modes of
industry, and display particular dexterity in gold, silver,
and carpenter’s work.
Besides the native Cingalese and the Candians, the sea-
coasts are inhabited by Dutch, Portuguese, Malays, and
settlers from the different Indian nations. I he Dutch
have in general adopted the customs and manners of the
native Ceylonese, though they still retain their original
taste for tobacco and gin. They are of remarkably stiff
and ceremonious manners, and live in the most luxurious
manner. The Portuguese are spurious descendants of
Europeans by native women, along with a number of
Moors and settlers from the Malabar coast; a dark colour,
with a particular mode of dress, half Indian, half Euro¬
pean, being all that is necessary to procure the appellation
of a Portuguese. They profess the Roman Catholic reli¬
gion, with which they mix many Pagan customs. Ihe
Malays form a considerable proportion of the inhabitants
of Ceylon. They profess the Mahommedan faith.
Religion. The religion of the Ceylonese consists in the worship
of Buddha, which is also established in the Burman empire,
and in the kingdom of Siam. This religion lays claim to
great antiquity, and appears to have existed prior to the
Brahminical system ; although the learned are not agreed
concerning the age of Boodh or Buddha, or the country
in which his religious doctrines were first promulgated.
According to the mythology of the Ceylonese, this person¬
age, whose footstep is still to be seen on the top of Adam’s
Peak, is said to have descended upon earth, and, after hav¬
ing performed a vast number of virtuous actions, and been
transformed into a great variety of shapes, to have again
ascended into heaven, where he acts as a mediator with
the Supreme Being, and procures the pardon of his wor¬
shippers. Although the Ceylonese acknowledge the exist¬
ence of one Supreme Being, yet they dedicate no tem¬
ples to his worship, those of Buddha being superior to all
others. Buddha is said to have always worn a yellow
dress, and for this reason his priests still wear a dress of
a similar colour; and his images in the temples are inva¬
riably yellow from the head to the feet. The religious
calendar of the Ceylonese comprehends seven other saints
or subordinate deities, to each of whom they erect images,
and ascribe peculiar powers and prerogatives; but their
worship is inferior to that of Buddha. Some of the Cey¬
lonese temples or pagodas are magnificent structures, in¬
dicating a much higher degree of excellence in the arts
in some former period than the natives at present pos¬
sess. Some of these pagodas are endowed with great re¬
venues, and possess high privileges. The priests are di¬
vided into three ranks, of whom the highest order is set
apart for the worship of Buddha; while the others minis¬
ter to the worship of the inferior deities. The highest
sacerdotal office is not compatible with any species of ma¬
nual labour; and the priests, as long as they continue to
exercise their functions, are doomed to the most rigorous
celibacy. But in the system of Buddha the priesthood
does not constitute a peculiar caste; nor is the character Cei C<
indelible, as among the Brahmins: on the contrary, they ^■; *
are at liberty to renounce their sacred calling, and to re¬
sume their place among the laity.
Christianity was first introduced mto Ceylon by the
celebrated Francis Xavier in the year 1452; and the Por¬
tuguese, as long as they exercised their sway over the
maritime parts of the island, continued to prosecute the
work of conversion by means of their priests. When the
Dutch became masters of the coast, they endeavoured to
substitute the reformed faith for that of the church of
Rome. In the year 1801 the number of native inhabit¬
ants who professed the Protestant faith was calculated to
exceed 342,000, while those of the Romish communion
were reckoned to be still more numerous. In 1805 some
missionaries were sent from England for the purpose of
instructing the Ceylonese in the principles of Christianity;
and it is thought that the propagation of this doctrine
would experience much fewer obstacles in this island than
in Hindustan. In Ceylon the rites of the ancient religion
are said to be almost totally forgotten; and the inhabit¬
ants, more ignorant than bigoted, and more simple than |
prejudiced, would the more readily admit any religious im¬
pressions which a devout teacher might attempt to make
upon their minds.
A most excellent institution of the Dutch, and which Schc
redounds highly to their honour and liberality, consisted
in the establishment of schools for the instruction of the
natives in the elements of useful knowledge, and in the
principles of Christianity. These schools, of which one is
erected in every parish, appear to have been placed under
very judicious regulations. They continued to flourish
under the Dutch; but when the English obtained pos¬
session of the island in 1796, the salaries of the masters
had been left unpaid for about three years, and the schools
consequently fell into decay. The Honourable Mr North,
who became governor of the island towards the end of the
year 1798, spared no pains to re-establish them; and, un¬
der his auspices, they were increased in number, improv¬
ed in management, and augmented in usefulness. But
the liberal views and salutary arrangements of this en¬
lightened gentleman were unfortunately counteracted, in
a great measure, by the ill-judged parsimony of the Bri¬
tish government, who, in the year 1803, limited the an¬
nual allowance for the schools to the sum of L.1500; al¬
though the whole saving was paltry when weighed against
the many and important advantages resulting from these
beneficial establishments.
From monuments still existing in Ceylon, this island Pop#
evidently appears to have been much more populous, and
much better cultivated, in former times, than at present.
According to an estimate given before the select com¬
mittee of the House of Commons by Sir A. Johnston, who
resided long in Ceylon, the population consists of 500,000
persons professing the Hindu religion, 500,000 who pro¬
fess the religion of Buddha, and 70,000 or 80,000 Ma-
hommedans. The remainder consist of English, Dutch,
and Portuguese, or of their descendants.1 The inhabit¬
ants may be divided into four distinct tribes or nations,
viz. the Ceylonese proper, who occupy the territories for¬
merly belonging to the king of Candy, and the south and
south-west coasts; the Malabars or Hindus, who possess
the north and east coasts, and the peninsula of Jafnapa-
tam ; the Moors, who are dispersed over every part of the
island, and who may be considered as the most industrious
portion of the population ; and the Bedahs, or Vaddahs,
who appear to be the only indigenous tribe in the island,
1 See Minutes of Evidence given before the Select Committee on India Affairs, Sir A. Johnston, 10th March 1830-
CEYLON.
living in a savage state in the large forest which extends
1 from the south to the east and north, upon the borders
of our old limits, and into the Candian territory. Mr Per-
cival and Mr Cordiner make a distinction between the
Ceylonese and Candians; but according to the latest and
best authorities, referred to at the end of this article, they
seem to be one and the same nation, having the same ori¬
gin, language, religion, and habits. The population has
been rapidly increasing for some years, owing principally
to the introduction of vaccination, which has been gene¬
rally practised, and with great success ; insomuch that
the small-pox, which formerly committed great ravages
in Ceylon, has now been wholly expelled from the island.
This increasing population, however, is far from being in
a prosperous condition, as, for some years past, it has
pressed hard upon the means of subsistence. The dis¬
tress was much aggravated in the years 1812, 1813, and
1814, by repeated droughts, which proved injurious to the
cultivation of rice; while, in consequence of the super¬
abundant population, the price of labour, during this great
scarcity, continued at the same low rate as formerly. The
territory within the old limits of the British government
does not produce a sufficient quantity of rice for the main¬
tenance of its own inhabitants; much of that necessary
article has been at all times imported from the coasts of
Malabar and Coromandel, and from Bengal; and a very
large supply was derived from the Candian country, which
produced a considerable surplus. But as the population
of these districts is also upon the increase, the supply
derived from that source has necessarily suffered a propor¬
tional diminution.
In order to encourage the cultivation of the island, the
law prohibiting Europeans from possessing land was re¬
pealed in 1809; and in order to induce Europeans to in¬
vest their capital in the cultivation df the country, lands
have been freely offered to them, without the burden of
any tax. The notion so firmly held by the East India
Company, that the sovereign is the proprietor of all the
lands within his dominions, and the ruinous taxation which
is the consequence of this fallacious policy, has never been
acted upon to the same rigorous extent in Ceylon, in
which the lands are held by three descriptions of tenures :
first, there are lands belonging to the sovereign ; secondly,
lands granted by the sovereign to individuals for a fixed
rent; and, thirdly, lands granted for specific services.
With respect, however, to that vast portion of land which
is lying waste, it is of little moment to whom it belongs ;
and, according to all the maxims of sound policy, it ought
to belong to those who undertake to bring it under culti¬
vation. The effect of heavy taxes, or indeed of any tax,
on cultivation, is to maintain the country in its original
state of desolation; and this melancholy truth has been
too amply verified under the rule of the East India Com-
panyd
Ceylon was originally divided into a number of distinct
petty kingdoms, separated by the several rivers and moun¬
tains which are dispersed over the face of the island, and
subject each to its own independent sovereign. In pro¬
cess of time, however, the whole country was reduced
under the dominion of the king of Candy, and divided by
nm into a few great provinces, from which several of the
numerous titles he still retains were derived. These pro¬
vinces were Candy, Coitu, Matura, Dambadar, and Sitti-
ucca, which included the rich districts on the west coast,
the chief of these provinces was Candy, situated in the
centre of the island, and honoured with the royal resi¬
dence.
Little was known of the island of Ceylon previously to the
305
arrival of the Portuguese in 1505, who were admitted by Ceylon,
the king of the country in a friendly manner, and receiv-
ed from him an annual tribute for their protection against
external invasion, particularly against the attacks of the
Arabs, who had long harassed and oppressed the Ceylo¬
nese. The inhabitants at that time, as at present, consist¬
ed of two distinct races, the Bedahs, who lived in the fo¬
rests, particularly in the northern parts, and the Cingalese,
who inhabited the sea-coast. Columbo, now the European
capital of Ceylon, was at that time the royal residence.
Cinnamon was even then the principal product and staple
commodity of the country. Two hundred and fifty thou¬
sand pounds weight were annually delivered by the king
to the Portuguese in name of tribute. The inhabitants
suffered great cruelties and oppression under the Portu¬
guese, and were glad of an opportunity of throwing off the
yoke, and putting themselves under the protection of the
Dutch. In 1632 a strong armament was sent out by the
latter to act in concert with the native prince, and, after a
bloody struggle, the Portuguese were at last expelled from
the island. Columbo surrendered to the Dutch arms in
1656, and this terminated the dominion of the Portuguese
in the island. In the year 1795 a body of British troops
was sent for the conquest of Ceylon, and after various mi¬
litary operations this valuable possession was added to the
British colonies.
The conquered provinces remained for a short time as
an appendage to the presidency of Madras, but were after¬
wards rendered independent of the East India Company,
and annexed to the crown of Great Britain. In the year
1798 the king of Candy died, and the crown was transfer¬
red, by the intrigues of Peleme Talave, the chief adigar, or
prime minister, to a young Malabar, without birth, talents,
or pretensions of any kind. The policy of the adigar was
decidedly hostile to the British government; and his ob¬
ject was to amuse them with delusive negotiations, whilst
he awaited a favourable opportunity for expelling them
from the island. After some time spent in secret prepa¬
rations for war, hostilities were at length provoked by the
aggressions of the Candians, in the spring of 1802 ; and
two divisions of the British forces were in consequence
moved into the interior, from Columbo and Trincomalee,
under Major-general Macdowall and Colonel Barbut. They
experienced very little resistance on their march, and the
two divisions formed a junction at Candy. The city, how¬
ever, was found entirely deserted by the government and
inhabitants, and had been set on fire in several places.
The king had removed all his treasure, and the inhabit¬
ants had carried away or destroyed everything valuable.
Mooto Sawmy, the brother of the late queen, was now
removed to Candy, and placed by the British troops upon
the throne; but the people of authority in the neighbour¬
ing country showed no disposition to submit to his sway.
The plan of the chief adigar appears to have been to draw
the British troops by detachments farther into the coun¬
try, and then to cut off their reti'eat. This design he en¬
deavoured to execute by means of the most profound and
systematic dissimulation and treachery. Having lulled
the British officers into a delusive security by the conclu¬
sion of a treaty, which was intended only for deception, a
great part of the troops were withdrawn from Candy, where
they had begun to suffer from the sickliness of the rainy
season, and a small garrison was left in the palace, under
the command of Major Davie. The Candians, perceiv¬
ing the success of their treachery, drew their lines nearer
to the city, and entrenched themselves in strong positions
in the immediate vicinity. In the mean time the garri¬
son daily decreased, in consequence of death and deser-
vol. iv.
- See Report of Select Committee on East India Affairs, 1830. Evidence of Sir A. Johnston.
2 Q
306
C H A
Chablais tion; and Major Davie at length found h'">self U"der the
|| necessity of submitting to a humiliating capitulation, the
Clueronea. terms of which were only observed by the Candians un
' ^ they had got their enemies completely into t^eir power,
when the whole detachment was wantonly and peifidio
^Elatedwith this success, the king of Candy now began
to entertain hopes of the total expulsion of the British from
the island; and a war of ravage and spohatmn was carne
on for some time, which is remarkable only for the ba c
rity with which it was conducted on both sides. The
neated invasions of the Candians, however, were umform-
Fy repulsed with great loss; and hostilities were at length
suspended by a sort of tacit consent, originating, probably,
from the weakness of the enemy, and the pacific disposi¬
tion of the British administration. Meanwhile the many
acts of tyranny and arbitrary cruelty which had been ex¬
ercised by the Candian monarch justly rendered him odi¬
ous to his own subjects; and a most barbarous outrag ,
committed upon some unoffending inhabitants of the Eng¬
lish settlements, at last called forth the full and final ven¬
geance of the British government. The war, which com¬
menced in 1815, was short, and attended with the most
decisive results. The capital was taken; the king made
prisoner and deposed ; and a grand convention having been
held of the British authorities and the Candian chiefs, a
treaty was proposed and ratified, by which the dominion
of the whole island of Ceylon was vested in the sovereign
of Great Britain.
CHABLAIS, a province of the duchy of Savoy, in the
kingdom of Sardinia, bounded on the north-west and north
by the lake of Geneva, on the east by Switzerland, on the
south-east by Faussigny, on the south-west by Genevois,
and on the west by Geneva. Its extent is 1400 square
miles, or 225,280 acres, and it comprehends two cities,
sixty-three-towns and villages, with 44,700 inhabitants.
CHACHAPOYAS, a province of Peru, in the depart¬
ment of Truxillo, is bounded on the east by the eastern
ridges of the Andes, on the north-west by the province of
Luyu, and on the west by Caxamarca. The chief produce
of the district was formerly tobacco. The cultivation of
the vine has recently been introduced, and also that of in¬
digo, which grows wild. Wheat, maize, barley, cocoa, su¬
gar, cotton, castor oil, and all kinds of vegetables, aie enu¬
merated among the diversified productions of the piovince,
which comprises every variety of climate. Cattle of all
kinds are also plentiful. According to the last census,
the population amounted to 10,176. Ihe capital, which
is of the same name, is built on the usual plan of the
Spanish towns, with a plaza in the centre, having at one
corner a handsome church. The streets are paved, but
the houses are only one story high. It is the residence
of an intendant. Lat. 6. 7. 41. S.
CHADCHOD, in Jewish antiquity. Ezekiel mentions
chadchod among the merchandise which rvas brought to
Tyre. The old interpreters, however, not knowing the
meaning of this term, continued it in their translation;
and St Jerome acknowledges that he could not discover
the interpretation of it. The Chaldee renders it pearls;
but some are of opinion that the onyx, ruby, carbuncle,
crystal, or diamond, is meant by it.
CHADER, an island of the Arabian Irak, formed by a
river running from the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, which
extends from Bussora nearly to El Katif, 240 miles in length
and thirty in breadth.
CM/E RONE A, in Ancient Geography, a town, or rather
village, of Boeotia, immediately adjoining Phocis; cele¬
brated as the birthplace of Plutarch, and as the scene of
the fatal defeat of the confederate Greeks by Philip of Ma-
ifciftarfjiw aonooguviolio on aodom has aril ol biqiaoi
C H A
CHAFFERY, in the iron-works, the name of one of the Ch^
two principal forges. The other is called ihejinery. When
the iron has been brought at the finery into what is call-
ed an ancony, or square mass, hammered into a bar in its w
middle, but with its two ends rough, the business to be
done at tbe chaffery is the reducing of the whole to the same
shape, by hammering down these rough ends to the shape
of the middle part.
CHAFFINCH. See Ornithology.
CHAIN, a series of rings or links, fitted into one ano¬
ther, and thus connected as a whole.
Chain also denotes a kind of string of twisted wire,
serving to hang watches, tweeser cases, and valuable toys
upon. The invention of this piece of curious work belongs
to the English; and hence, in foreign countries, it is de¬
nominated the English chain. < _
Chain, in surveying, is a measure consisting of a cer¬
tain number of links of iron wire, usually a hundred, and
serving to take the dimensions of fields, &c. This is what
Mersenne takes to be the arvipendium of the ancients.
The chain is of various dimensions, as the length or the
number of links varies ; that commonly used in measur-
ing land, called Gunter’s chain, is in length four poles or
perches ; or sixty-six feet, or a hundred links, each link be¬
ing seven inches ; and hence it is easy to reduce any
number of these links to feet, or any number of feet to
links.
Chain-Bridges. See Suspension Bridges.
Chain-Pump. See Pump. . „
Chain-Shot, two bullets with a chain between them.
They are used at sea to shoot down yards or masts, and
to cut the shrouds or rigging of a ship.
Chain Island lies in the Southern Pacific Ocean, and
was discovered by Captain Cook in 1769. B tg fikeen
miles in length by five in breadth. Long. 14?o. . W.
Lat. 34. 55. N.
CHAJOTLI, or Chayoti, a Mexican fruit, of a round
shape, and similar, in the husk with which it is covered, to
the chestnut, but four or five times larger, and of a much
deeper green colour. Its kernel is of a greenish-white,
and has a large stone in the middle, which is white, and
like it in substance. It is boiled, and the stone eaten
with it. This fruit is produced by a twining perennial
plant, the root of which is also good to eat.
CHAIR (Cathedra) was anciently used for the pulpit,
or suggestum, from which the priest spoke to the peop e.
It is still applied to the place where professors and re-
o-ents in universities deliver their lectures, and teach the
sciences to their pupils ; thus, we say, the professoi s c iair,
and the like. ,
Curule Chair was an ivory seat placed on a car, ana
in which were seated the prime magistrates ot Rome, as
well as those to whom the honour of a triumph had bee
g Sedan Chair, a vehicle supported by poles, and in which
persons are carried. It is borne by two men.
CHAISE, a sort of light open chariot, or calash. Au¬
relius Victor relates that Trajan first introduced the u
of post-chaises ; but the invention is geneially ascn e
Augustus, and was probably only improved by Irajan
succeeding emperors. . „„;nrp
CHALAWAR, a district of Hindustan, in the provin
of Gujerat, which occupies an extensive tract ot coun y
between the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay. t is si
between the twenty-first and twenty-second cegre
north latitude, and is about ninety miles !n ®.nS>V, p
east to west, and about forty in breadth. . 1 1 if
Ch ala war formerly ruled over the neighbounng c is r
Warreaz, Puttun, and Chuwal. His residence was in
city of Dhama, of which there are at present scarcely a y
C H A
vestiges. The inhabitants are chiefly of the Rajpoot tribe,
divided into three classes, namely, the Jeenamas, the Ku-
is.raria, and the Naroda. The first are respectable, and are
^ addressed by the title of Jee; the second perform me¬
nial offices, and the last have relinquished their military
character, and are degraded into the rank of cultivators.
They have all an insurmountable objection to the flesh of
a black goat, which they consider as unwholesome. A great
proportion of this district is but thinly inhabited and poor¬
ly cultivated, and does not contain any town of note. It
is laid waste by the predatory hostilities of the tribes who
occupy it; and although the Mahratta chief, the Guicowar,
claims the dominion over it, his authority is but little at¬
tended to. The country is of a broken, irregular aspect,
and contains no rivers of any consequence.
CHALAZA, among naturalists, a white knotty sort of
string at each end of an egg, formed of a plexus of the
fibres of the membranes, and by which the yolk and white
are connected together.
CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, anciently known by the
names of Procerastis and Colbusa, a city of Bithynia, situ¬
ated at the mouth of the Euxine, on the northern extremity
of the Thracian Bosphorus, and over against Byzantium.
Pliny, Strabo, and Tacitus, call it The City of the Blind;
alluding to the answer which the Pythian Apollo gave to
the founders of Byzantium, who, consulting the oracle re¬
lative to a place where to build a city, were directed to
choose that spot which lay opposite “ to the habitation of
the blind,” that is, as was then understood, to Chalcedon ;
the Chalcedonians well deserving that epithet for having
built their city in a barren and sandy soil, without noticing
the advantageous and pleasant spot on the opposite shore,
which the Byzantines afterwards selected. In Christian
times Chalcedon became famous on account of the council
which was held there against Eutyches. The emperor
Valens caused the walls of this city to be levelled with the
ground for siding with Procopius, and the materials to be
conveyed to Constantinople, where they were employed
in building the famous Valentinian aqueduct. Chalcedon
is at present a poor place, known to the Greeks by its
ancient name, and to the Turks by that of Cadiaki, or
“ the Judges’ Town.”
CHALCEDONY. See Calcedony.
CHALCIDIC, Chalcidicum, or Chalcedonium, in
the ancient architecture, a large magnificent hall belonging
to a tribunal or court of justice. Festus says it took its
name from the city Chalcis ; but he does not explain
the reason why it did so. Philander will have it to be
the court or tribunal where affairs of money and coinage
were regulated ; so called from yjzXxog, brass, and br/.ri, jus¬
tice. Others say the money was struck in it, and derive
the word from j^ccXxos, and o/xos, house. In Vitruvius it is
used for the auditorium of a basilica; and in other ancient
writers for a hall or apartment where the heathens ima¬
gined their gods to eat.
CHALCID1US, a famous Platonic philosopher of the
third century, author of an esteemed commentary on the
Timaeus of Plato, which Meursius caused to be printed at
Leyden in 1617, 4to, and which John Albert Fabricius
has inserted at the end of the second volume of the works
of St Hypolitus, Hamburg, 1718, fob The critics are di¬
vided in opinion respecting this ancient author. Fabricius
pretends that he was a Christian ; and Giraldi makes him
even deacon of Carthage. But the Abbe Goujet, in his
dissertation inserted in the first volume of the Memoires
de Litterature, maintains the contrary opinion, on the
grounds that Chalcidius adopts the opinions of Plato,
doubts the inspiration of the book of Moses, and speaks
°f the dogmas of Christianity with indifference, or at least
without indicating whether he believed them or not.
C H A 307
Mosheim and Brucker, however, class him among the Chalcon-
syncretist or eclectic philosophers, who amalgamated the dylas
philosophy of Plato with the doctrines of Christianity, II
and maintained that the truths taught by Jesus Christ Chalk,
were known long before his time, though concealed by
the priests under the veil of ceremonies, fables, and alle¬
gories. Mosheim thinks Chalcidius never professed Chris¬
tianity ; Brucker is of a contrary opinion, inasmuch as he
shared the errors of Platonism in common with many
whose Christianity was never questioned.
CHALCONDYLAS, Demetrius, a learned Greek,
born at Constantinople, left that city when it was taken by
the Turks, and afterwards taught Greek in several cities
in Italy. He composed a Greek grammar; and died at
Milan in 1513.
CHALDEA, in Ancient Geography, when taken in a
larger sense, included Babylonia ; as in the prophecies of
Jeremiah and Ezekiel. In a restricted sense, it denoted a
province of Babylonia, towards Arabia Deserta ; called in
Scripture The land of the Chaldeans, and so named from
Chaled, the fourth son of Nahor. See Babylonia.
CHALDEE Language, that spoken by the Chaldeans,
or people of Chaldea. It is a dialect of the Hebrew.
Chaldee Paraphrase, in the rabbinical style, is called
Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrases in Wal¬
ton’s Polyglot, namely, that of Onkelos, that of Jonathan
son of Uzziel, and that of Jerusalem.
CHALDRON, a dry English measure, consisting of
thirty-six bushels.
CHALICE, the cup or vessel used to administer the wine
in the sacrament, and employed by the Roman Catholics
in the mass. The use of the chalice, or communicating in
both kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity,
who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone being
allowed the privilege of communicating in both kinds.
CHALK (Creta) is a white earth found plentifully in
Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of Europe, said
to have been anciently dug chiefly in the island of Crete,
which thence received its name of Creta. Chalk readily
imbibes water; and hence masses of it are employed for
drying precipitates, lakes, earthy powders that have been
levigated with water, and other moist preparations. Its
economical uses in cleaning and polishing metalline or
glass utensils are well known. In this case it is powdered
and washed from any gritty matter it may contain, and is
then called whiting.
Black Chalk, a name given by painters to a species of
earth with which they draw on blue paper. It is found in
pieces of from two to ten feet in length, and from four to
twenty inches in breadth, generally flat, but somewhat ris¬
ing in the middle, and thinner towards the edges, common¬
ly found in large quantities together. While in the earth it
is moist and flaky; but being dried, it becomes consider¬
ably hard and very light, but always breaks in some parti¬
cular direction; and, if attentively examined when first bro¬
ken, it appears of a striated texture. To the touch it is soft
and smooth, stains very freely, and by virtue of its smooth¬
ness makes very neat marks. It is easily reduced into an
impalpable powder, without any diminution ot its black¬
ness. In this state itmiixes easily with oil into a smooth
paste; and being diffused through water, it slowly settles
in a black slimy or muddy form; properties which make
its use very convenient to painters, both in oil and water
colours.
Red Chalk, an earth much used by painters and arti¬
ficers, and common in the colour shops. It is of a fine,
even, and firm texture; very heavy and very hard ; of a
pale red on the outside, but of a deep dusky chocolate
colour within. It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfectly
insipid to the taste, and makes no effervescence with acids.
308
Challenge
C H A
CiiAi,K-Stones, in Medicine, signify the concretions of
calcareous matter in the hands and feet of people violent-
Chalmers. } afflicted with the gout.
CHALLEN(tE, a cartel or invitation to a duel or other
combat. See Duel. , .
Challenge, among hunters. When hounds or beagles,
at first finding the scent of their game, presently open and
cry, they are said to challenge.
Challenge, in the Laiv of England, is an exception
made to jurors. See Jury and Trial. .
CHALMERS, George, an historical, antiquarian, and
political writer of considerable eminence, was descended
from the family of Chalmers of Pittensear, in the county
of Moray, and was born at Fochabers in the end of the
year 1742. After the usual attendance at the grammar
school of his native town, he was sent to King s College,
Aberdeen, where he passed through the regulai acade¬
mical course, and had as one of his preceptors the cele¬
brated Dr Reid, then professor of moral philosophy. Mr
Chalmers subsequently removed to Edinburgh, where he
studied law for several years. In 1763, when in his twen¬
ty-first year, he went to America, with an uncle, as a com¬
panion, and to assist him, as a lawyer, in the recovery of a
tract of land of considerable extent in Maryland. The pro¬
spects which opened to him there induced him to settle at
Baltimore, in Maryland, where he practised as a lawyer;
and by his abilities, assiduity, and integrity, he acquired in
a few years business of considerable extent and emolument.
During this time commenced the unhappy disputes be¬
tween the two countries, which ended in the establish¬
ment of American independence ; and in which Mr Chal¬
mers rendered himself obnoxious by taking a decided part
with the royalist party. In the great question relative to
the payment of tithes, which overset the church establish¬
ment of the southern colonies, he appeared on the side of
the clergy, and was opposed by Patrick Henry, the Virgi¬
nia lawyer, who afterwards distinguished himself by mov¬
ing in the Virginia Commons House the five propositions
which led to the separation of the colonies from the crown.
His pleading, we are informed, was truly constitutional, and
displayed great acuteness and research ; but public opinion
was so decidedly engaged on the opposite side, and party-
spirit raged with so much violence, that he found it expe¬
dient to abandon all his professional prospects, and, like
many of his countrymen placed in a similar situation, at
considerable personal sacrifices to seek for refuge in his
native country.
Mr Chalmers came to England about the year 1775.
His claims as a suffering loyalist, and his perfect know¬
ledge of the real object of the colonial dispute, and of the
personal character of the leading agitators, with the means
both domestic and foreign on which they relied for the
success of their cause, might have recommended him to
ministers as an able partizan; but he received no compen¬
sation for the losses he had sustained, and several years
elapsed ere he obtained an appointment which placed him
in a state of tranquillity and independence. In the mean
time Mr Chalmers applied himself with great diligence
and assiduity to the first of his literary undertakings.
This was to investigate the history and establishment of
the English colonies in North America; and enjoying free
access to the state-papers, and other documents preserv¬
ed among the plantation records, he obtained much ori¬
ginal and important information. His work is entitled
“ Political Annals of the present United Colonies, from
C H A
their Settlement to the Peace of 1763; compiled chiefly Ch;,
from Records, and authorized often by the insertion of'-l
State Papers.” London, 1780, 4to. It was intended to
have formed two volumes; but the second, which should
have contained the period between the British revolution
of 1688 and the peace of 1763, never appeared. The first
volume, containing the earlier history, is fortunately com¬
plete in itself; and he has traced, in a clear and instruc¬
tive manner, the original settlement of the different colo¬
nies, and the progressive changes in their constitutions
and forms of government, as affected by the state of pub¬
lic affairs in the parent kingdom. The number of original
documents which are introduced would have given histo- ,
rical value to any similar work, however it might have been
executed ; but every page of this arduous undertaking bears
evidence of the author’s diligence and research; and it has
been of essential benefit to later writers. It might be sup-
posed that one chief object contemplated by Mr Chal¬
mers in this work, was to trace the progress of colonial ad¬
ministration, for the purpose of vindicating the conduct of
the British government in the recent contests.1 This,
however, was not the fact, although it was natural for a
person in his situation to view with some degree of hosti¬
lity what he styled “ the contention of the confederated
colonies against the supreme power of the state,” as such
feelings were entertained by most men in Britain at that
time, who were not prepared to see a people shaking them¬
selves free from the thraldom of a distant government. In
1782 first appeared the “ Estimate of the Comparative
Strength of Great Britain during the present and four pre¬
ceding Reigns,” by Mr Chalmers. This work passed through
several editions in an enlarged form, and was also translat¬
ed into French and German. It was succeeded by a tract
entitled “ Opinions on interesting subjects of Public Law
and Commercial Policy ; arising from American Indepen-
dance.” London, 1784, 8vo.
In August 1786, Mr Chalmers was fortunate in obtain¬
ing the situation of chief clerk to the Committee of Privy
Council, which was then appointed for the “ considera¬
tion of all matters relating to trade and foreign planta¬
tions.” The duties of this respectable office he conti-
nued to discharge for nearly forty years; and being an
office of considerable emolument, he was enabled to spend
his life in ease and affluence, and to devote himself during
this long period to an unwearied prosecution of literary
and antiquarian pursuits. He also continued till the close
of life to act as colonial agent for the Bahama Islands.
It was probably not many years after his permanent
official appointment that Mr Chalmers had his attention
directed in an especial manner to the history, early lite¬
rature, and topographical antiquities of Scotland; and
while he was silently collecting materials for several im¬
portant national works, and which fully required a life¬
time to execute, he allowed himself perhaps too often to
lay them aside, to bring out others of a more temporary
interest or importance. The following is a list of the se¬
veral works he published subsequent to 1786. 1. Life or
Daniel De Foe, prefixed to an edition of his History of
the Union, Lond. 1786; and of Robinson Crusoe, L90>
8vo. 2. Life of Sir John Davies, prefixed to his Histo¬
rical Tracts regarding Ireland. Lond. 1786, 8vo. •
Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and othei
Powers. Lond. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo. 4. Life of Thomas
Pain, the author of the seditious work entitled Rights
of Man. (Tenth edition) Lond. 1793, 8vo. Phis was
me
on
1782, five. An Introduction to the History of the Revolt of the Colonies. VoL I. only printed, which was cancelled.
8vo, p. 500, ending with the Reign of George I. Three tracts on the Irish Arrangements. Lond. 1785, 8vo.
CHALMERS.
.published under the assumed name of “ Francis Oldys,
A. M. of the university of Pensylvania.” 5. Life of Tho¬
mas Ruddiman, A. M.; to which are subjoined New
Anecdotes of Buchanan. Lond. 1794, 8vo. 6. Prefatory
Introduction to Dr Johnson’s Debates in Parliament. Lond.
1794, 8vo. 7. Vindication of the Privilege of the People in
respect to the constitutional right of Free Discussion ; with
a Retrospect of various proceedings relative to the Viola¬
tions of that Right. Lond. 1796, 8vo. (Anonymous.) 8. An
Apology for the Believers in the Shakspeare-Papers, which
were exhibited in Norfolk Street. Lond. 1797, 8vo. 9. A
Supplemental Apology for the Believers in the Shakspeare-
Papers ; being a Reply to Mr Malone’s Answer, &c., with
a Dedication to George Steevens, and a Postscript to T.
J. Mathias. 1799, 8vo. 10. Appendix to the Supplemen¬
tal Apology; being the Documents for the Opinion that
Hugh Boyd wrote Junius’ Letters. 1800, 8vo. 11. Life
of Allan Ramsay, prefixed to an edition of his Poems.
Lond. 1800, 2 vols. 8voJ 12. Life of Gregory King, pre¬
fixed to his Observations on the State of England in 1696.
Lond. 1804, 8vo. 13. The Poetical Works of Sir David
Lyndsay of the Mount, Lion King at Arms under James
V.; with a Life of the Author, prefatory Dissertations,
and an appropriate Glossary. Lond. 1806, 3 vols. 8vo. 14.
Caledonia, or an Account, Plistorical and Topographic, of
North Britain, from the most ancient to the present times;
with a Dictionary of Places, Chorographical and Philolo¬
gical. Vol. I. Lond. 1807, 4to; Vol. II. Lond. 1810, 4to.
15. A Chronological Account of Commerce and Coinage
in Great Britain, from the Restoration till 1810. Lond.
1810, 8vo. 16. Considerations on Commerce, Bullion,
and Coin, Circulation and Exchanges; with a view to our
present circumstances. 1811, 8vo. 17. An Historical
View of the Domestic Economy of Great Britain and Ire¬
land, from the earliest to the present times, &c. (being a
new edition of the Comparative Estimate, “ corrected, en¬
larged, and continued to 1812”). Edinburgh, 1812, 8vo.2
18. Opinions of eminent Lawyers on various points of Eng¬
lish Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisher¬
ies, and Commerce of Great Britain. Lond. 1814, 2 vols.
8vo., 19. A Tract (privately printed) in answer to Ma¬
lone’s Account of Shakspeare’s Tempest. Lond. 1815, 8vo.
JO. Comparative Views of the State of Great Britain and
Ireland before and since the War. Lond. 1817, 8vo. 21.
H'e Author of Junius ascertained, from a concatenation of
circumstances, amounting to moral demonstration. Lond.
1817, 8vo. 22. Churchyard s Chips concerning Scotland ;
being a Collection of his Pieces relative to that Country,
with Notes and a Life of the Author. Lond. 1817, 8vo.
^•3. Life of Mary Queen of Scots, drawn from the State
1 apers, with six Subsidiary Memoirs. Lond. 1818, 2 vols.
4to, and reprinted in 3 vols. 8vo. 24. The Poetical Re¬
mains of some of the Scotish Kings, now first collected.
Lond. 1824, 8vo. 25. Robene and Makyne, and the
estament of Cresseid, by Robert Henryson, edited and
piesented by Mr Chalmers as a contribution to the Ban-
uatyne Club, of which he was a Member. Edinburgh, 1824,
4t°. 26. Caledonia, Vol. III. 1824, 4to. 27. A Detection
0 t ie Love-Letters lately attributed in Hugh Campbell’s
work to Mary Queen of Scots. Lond. 1825, 8vo.
309
This enumeration contains, we believe, a pretty exact Chalmers,
list of all Mr Chalmers’ publications ;3 and of most of them
it is not necessary to make any particular mention. His
Life of Ruddiman the grammarian preserves many cu¬
rious notices, and throws much light on the state of lite¬
rature in Scotland during the earlier part of the last cen¬
tury ; but written unfortunately in a very stately and in¬
flated style, which the author too much affected. His
volumes on the Shakspeare controversy are full of curious
matter relating to the history of the stage and the early
drama, bu(, on the whole, display a great waste of erudi¬
tion ; and it would have been as creditable to his judgment
had Mr Chalmers not placed himself in a situation to be
mistaken for an apologist of literary forgery or credulity,
while attempting to show that papers which //ad been prov¬
ed to be forgeries miff/tl nevertheless have been genuine.
Neither was he more fortunate in his endeavours to fix the
authorship of Junius’ Letters on Hugh Boyd ; for although
he had satisfied himself, by bringing the proof, as he thought,
to a moral certainty, and some of the coincidences he has
adduced are very remarkable, the public voice has not sanc¬
tioned his decision. Flis edition of Sir David Lyndsay was
a valuable accession to our stock of old Scotish poetry, as
it is the only complete edition of his poetical works, and the
text has been restored by a careful collation of the early
printed copies, which are of the greatest rarity. The
volume of Churchyard’s pieces is also very curious, and
well edited. His Life of Queen Mary is a work of great
labour and research, but is not entirely original; at least
from the preface we learn that the reverend John Whita¬
ker, the Historian of Manchester, and the Vindicator of
the Scotish Queen, had left behind him an unfinished
Life of Mary. His papers were put into Mr Chalmers’
hands by his widow and daughters for publication; but
he informs us that “ various avocations, and some years
of ill health, have hitherto prevented me from executing
their desires, as well as my own wishes,” hy publishing
this work; and that he found it necessary “ to rewrite the
whole.” The history of our ill-fated Queen was one that
occupied much of Mr Chalmers’ attention, being “ con¬
vinced that she was a calumniated woman and an injured
princess.” One of the latest acts of his life w'as to expose
an unwise and ignorant attempt to bring into public no¬
tice some fictitious letters, purporting to be “ originals”
of love-letters from Queen Mary to the Earl of Bothwell,
and hitherto unknown ; while they had appeared in more
than one edition about a century before, but had been suf¬
fered to slumber in merited oblivion.
But Mr Chalmers’greatestwork is his “Caledonia.” Such
a gigantic undertaking must have been the labour of many
years previous to the appearance of the first volume in
1807,4 when he says, “ I presume to lay before the pub¬
lic a work which has been the agreeable amusement of many
evenings? It is divided into four books, each treating “ of
such periods as were analogous to the genuine history
of each successive people.” These periods are the Ro¬
man, the Pictish, the Scotish, and the Scoto-Saxon pe¬
riod, from a. o. 80 to 1306. In these books there is
presented, in a condensed form, all that relates to the
people, the language, the history civil and ecclesiastical,
2 It-6 1 ^elnar^s 011 Ramsay’s Poetry,” prefixed to this edition, were from the pen of the late Lord Woodhouselee.
Cl 1 niay also he noticed, that, in lijl2, upon the murder of Mr Perceval, a most impudent attempt was made to discredit Mr
“ i a Person wh° had been convicted of other literary forgeries, by publishing, in Mr Chalmers’ name, a pamphlet entitled
3 ,pPPea to '•he Generosity of the British Nation on behalf of the family of the unfortunate Bellingham.”
ander Cb e,Xce^ent; papers in the Looker-on have been ascribed by mistake to Mr George Chalmers. The author is the present Alex-
sjj , . la iners, Lsq., a most worthy and highly respected veteran in literature, who is a native of Aberdeen, and has been long re-
4 . 111 London, but is no relative of the author of Caledonia.
£1^ n ,evu‘<jn( afiusiou to his Caledonia occurs in a letter written by Ritson the antiquary in December 1796 (Nichols’ lllustr. of
have Kp,e’ u ' P' a letter dated February 1794, Mr Chalmers refers to a projected work, Villarc Scoticum, which may
en the groundwork of his Caledonia. {Paton Letters, Advocates’ Library).
;io
G II A L M E R S.
Chalmers, and the agricultural and commercial state of Scotland
  y-—' during the first thirteen centuries of our era ; and in thus
investigating the history and antiquities of his native coun¬
try, he has determined, with not less decision than pro¬
priety, many controverted points of great and perplexing
obscurity. According to his original plan, the second vo¬
lume should have contained his “ Dictionary of i laces;
but was probably reserved for the conclusion of the work, as
the author proceeded to carry on his topographical sui vey
of Scotland/deduced from the commencement of the toui-
teenth century, under the head of the several shires. Ac¬
cordingly we find that each shire forms a separate chapter,
divided into eight sectionsThe first treating of its name ;
the second of its situation and extent ; the third of its na¬
tural obiects; the fourth of its antiquities; the fifth of its
establishment as a shire; the sixth of its civil history;
the seventh of its agriculture, manufactures, and trade;
and the eighth of its ecclesiastical history. _ Hus second
volume contained the seven south-eastern shires; name },
Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow,
Peebles, and Selkirk. “ In the subsequent volumes, he
says, “ will follow the topographical history of the south¬
western, the eastern, and northern shires, in. convenient
season ; as the materials are provided, the details are form¬
ed, and the composition is easy to the pen of diligence.
An interval of fourteen years, however, elapsed before
the appearance of the third volume, which contained the
seven south-western shires, namely, Dumfries, Kirkcud¬
bright, Wigton, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton.
On this occasion he says, “ the accounts of some other
shires are already written ; and the materials for the whole
have been abundantly collected, while the composition be¬
comes daily more facile from the habit of writing. With
all those facilities, two years will probably see the whole com¬
pleted,:' But he was not doomed to survive two years, or
to have the satisfaction of bringing this work to a success¬
ful termination. In fact, another volume would have been
inadequate for this purpose, as more than half the shires
remained to be described; and we know that Mr Chal¬
mers thought it would extend to five volumes. In a letter
to the writer of this article, dated February 1824, he says,
« My standing work is Caledonia. I am working hard to
go to press with another, that is, the fourth volume, of
Caledonia, next autumn. My heart is set in finishing this
great work, if I be spared.” From letters written in the
same year, stating his progress in the work, it might be in¬
ferred that he had brought it well on to a conclusion ; but
in the ardour of his desires he was too apt to overlook the
most arduous part of his task; and wre have reason to be¬
lieve that he left behind him very scanty materials for this
purpose. The last time the writer of this article, saw Mr
Chalmers (which was only a few weeks before his death,
and when he seemed to enjoy his usual good health), he
had, in compliance with the urgent request of his friends,
and aware of his own very advanced age, being then up¬
wards of eighty, latterly come to the resolution of com¬
pressing his materials, so as to keep the work, if possible,
within its original prescribed limits.
Besides the termination of “ Caledonia,” Mr Chalmers
had for many years been engaged in collecting materials
for other works of not less important and laborious a nature.
Indeed the vigour of his mind, when he had attained far
more than the usual period of human life, was remarkable,
and he continued to speak of his literary undertakings as
if half that period lay still before him untrodden. One
of these works was a History of Scotish Poetry, another a
History of Printing in Scotland; each of them, it was cal¬
culated, likely to extend to two large volumes in quarto.
In reference to these works (for which he had begun to
collect materials at least twenty years before), he says, in
a letter written in 1815, “ My collections for Scots Print- ChiL hi
ing are encreased to a pretty large extent, and fair ar- WX
rangement.” In 1816, “ I long much to bring my whole
strength upon the History of Poets and Poetry in Scot¬
land, that you may have a standard work upon this inte¬
resting subject.” In 1817, “ I shall very soon close my
Scotish Printers, which will be a more curious book than
I originally conceived.” In the same year, as an apology
for some delay in answering a letter, he wntes, “You will
easily pardon or pity a man who is oppressed with official,
political, and literary labours ; and who does, by working
morning, noon, and night, more than any other man in my
situation could do.” He had also prepared for the press
an elaborate History of the Life and Reign of David I.
who died in 1153. With all his unwearied diligence and
activity of mind, it was evident to those who knew him,
that during the latter period of his life he would have
made comparatively but little progress in these works had
he been left to his own individual resources. But it was
fortunate for him that he enjoyed the able assistance, of
his nephew Mr James Chalmers, who gave up a situation
in one of the public offices for the sole purpose of assisting
his uncle in his researches. With what assiduity and suc¬
cess that o-entleman continued to labour for upwards of
twenty years need not be stated to those who have the
pleasure of his acquaintance; and it is matter of regret
that not merely the risk, but the certainty of the loss, that
would attend the publication of such large and voluminous
works, should deter him from completing “ Caledonia,” or
those other works we have alluded to, for which, by his
literary habits, he is so eminently qualified.
Mr George Chalmers died in his house, James s Street,
Buckingham Gate, London, May 31st 182o, after a few
days illness, in the eighty-third year of his age. . He was
a member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, Lon¬
don, an honorary member of the Antiquaries of Scotland,
and of other learned societies. In private life he exhi¬
bited nothing of that assuming superiority and dogmatic
tone which mark his controversial writings. For, in form-
ino- a just estimate of his character, it neither can nor
ought to be concealed, that he was a writer of stiong pie-
iudices, with an indescribable want of taste or elegance in
composition. He is also chargeable with a w^ant of mi¬
nute accuracy in scholarship, in some instances amount¬
ing to a forgetfulness of the common rules of grammatical
construction. It might have been too much to expect
classical purity of style along with patient research and
minute elaboration of doubttul points; but we wis . ie
had contented himself with writing in a natural and sim¬
ple manner, without affecting ornament. But the tone
and spirit of his writings is sometimes much more offen¬
sive than the manner. In his Life of Queen Mary, m
would have left a more favourable impression on the
minds of his readers had he declaimed with less vehe¬
mence against her various accusers and political antago¬
nists ; and we should have valued the book more ha e
treated with a greater degree of courtesy the persons
who, in recent times, presumed to inquire into, or to ex¬
press their doubts of, the purity and correctness ot tne
personal conduct of the unhappy queen. By his po > 1C;
as well as antiquarian writings he involved himself in *
putes with persons of very different characters and atta -
ments. But Mr Chalmers had a mind that was not to ot
diverted from his purpose by any mode of hterary nos -
lity. Neither the sneers of professed wits, nor t ie
vils and exposures of other adversaries, had any en
in subduing that lofty confidence in himself and His
powers, which is sometimes allied with genius, an s
least essential for the accomplishment ofany grea a
taking. In Mr Chalmers, however, this sustaining se
C H A
C H A 311
ali 5. placency was joined with perhaps too liberal a share of in-
rv ^ difference to the opinion of others. That in all his literary
and political contests he manifested no undue want of can¬
dour and forbearance, we fear cannot be truly asserted,
as it was not likely that, in the fervour of politics, and the
jarrings of party interests, his candour and judgment
would have that control over his temper which was want¬
ing in the discussion of questions of less excitement.
Among his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the
most distinguished were Malone and Steevens, the Shak-
speare editors; Mr Mathias, the author of the Pursuits
of Literature ; Dr Jamieson, the Scotish lexicographer;
Mr Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, the biographer
of the Scotish poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool. Of
these we shall allude only to the last in particular. In
July 1793 there was published a letter, “ political and
commercial,” addressed to Pitt, under the name of “ Jas-
par Wilson,” in which the writer deprecated this country
continuing at war with France, and attributing much of
the commercial distresses which prevailed, not only in
England, but throughout Europe, to the “funding system
supporting the war-system.” This letter excited so much
attention, that several supporters of the measures of the
English government came forward to answer it, and
among the rest Mr Chalmers. This he did in the form of
a letter of 130 pages, addressed to Dr Currie by name as
the reputed author of Jaspar Wilson, prefixed as a dedica¬
tion to a new edition, in 1794, of his “ Comparative Esti¬
mate,” but written in a tone of familiarity and intimacy,
which, however it might suit Mr Chalmers’ views at the
time, was, it appears, wholly unwarranted.1
But with all his failings in judgment and in matters of
taste, Mr Chalmers was an invaluable writer. He uni¬
formly had recourse to the fountain-sources of informa¬
tion, not trusting to the statements and conclusions of
preceding writers ; and thus he never failed to bring new
lights to bear upon his subject. There can be no doubt
also, however biassed he might seem in his sentiments,
that the desire of truth was predominant; and his patrio¬
tic endeavours to illustrate the history, literature, and
antiquities of his native country, were attended by very
great pecuniary sacrifices, instead of being productive
to the author. As he says in the preface to Caledonia,
vol. ii. “ In the investigation of truth I have not been
, discouraged by any difficulty, and I have not declined
any labour; I have sought new documents, and I have
tried in my narrative to be neither too general nor too
minute.” His Caledonia is a work of higher importance
than perhaps any that could be named illustrative of the
history and state of this part of the British empire. As a
literary monument of the author’s industry and erudition,
it is to be lamented that a work of such noble dimensions
should not have displayed greater simplicity of style ; and
had it been happily completed, and a new edition called
for, although such a process was not to be looked for from
the author’s hand, it was susceptible of much improve¬
ment, even were such corrections limited to drawing the pen
through superfluous epithets and unnecessary reflections,
lhat the plan adopted was the best, any more than that
the execution was all that could be desired, cannot be af¬
firmed; but with all such minor defects, it is a work which
a person of greater genius or scholarship would not have un¬
dertaken, and one which a mere plodding antiquary could
not have performed. The very able and perspicuous man¬
ner in which he has investigated the state of the country
iom the remotest period of our history, tracing through its
fabulous epochs the various tribes who successively inha-
ited the respective districts and petty kingdoms, may be
thought to constitute the most valuable portion of that truly Chalo
national work; and yet, in the comprehensive view which II
is given of its subsequent state and condition, whether in clialon£-r-
general or local detail, not less skill is shown in condensing
and reducing a vast and unformed mass of materials, which,
even as a mere book of reference, must be of the greatest
benefit to all future labourers in the same wide and fruit¬
ful field of investigation. As the author of this work, the
name of George Chalmers will be honourably remembered
by his countrymen ; and he may be set forth as an example
of what human industry and talents, when united in the
same individual, are able to accomplish. (c. c. c.)
CHALO, a river of Asia, which has its rise near Lassa,
and passing through the province of Yunan in China, and
into the countries Laos and Tonkin, flows into the Gulf of
Cochin-China, opposite the island of Hainau.
CHALONNE, a city of the department of the May-
enne and Loire, in France. It is situated on the left bank
of the river Loire, where the Layon falls into that stream.
It contains 780 houses, and 4912 inhabitants.
CHALONER, Sir Thomas, a statesman, soldier, and
poet, descended from a good family in Denbigh, in Wales,
was born in London about the year 1515. Having been
educated in both.universities, but chiefly at Cambridge, he
was introduced at the court of Henry VIII. who sent him
abroad in the retinue of Sir Henry Knevet, ambassador to
Charles V. and he had the honour to attend that monarch on
his ill-fated expedition against Algiers in 1541. Soon after
the fleet left that place, he was shipwrecked on the coast
of Barbary, in a very dark night; and having exhausted
his strength by swimming, he chanced to strike his head
against a cable, which he had the presence of mind to
catch hold of with his teeth, and, with the loss of several
of them, was drawn up by it into the ship to which he be¬
longed. Mr Chaloner returned soon after to England,
and was appointed first clerk of the council, which office
he held during the rest of that reign. On the accession
of Edward VI. he became a favourite of the Duke of So¬
merset, whom he attended to Scotland, and was knighted
by that nobleman after the battle of Musselburgh in 1547.
The protector’s fall put a stop to Sir Thomas Chaloner’s
expectations, and involved him in difficulties. During the
reign of Queen Mary, being a determined Protestant, he
was in some danger; but having many powerful friends,
he had the good fortune to escape. On the accession of
Queen Elizabeth he appeared again at court, and was so
particularly distinguished by her majesty, that she ap¬
pointed him ambassador to the Emperor Ferdinand I. be¬
ing the first ambassador she nominated. His commission
was of great importance ; and the queen was so well satis¬
fied with his conduct, that soon after his return she sent
him in the same capacity to Spain. But Sir Thomas was
by no means satisfied with this instance of her majesty’s
confidence: the courts of England and Spain being at this
time extremely dissatisfied with each other, he foresaw
that his situation would be very disagreeable, and so it prov¬
ed. Elizabeth, however, must be obeyed. He embarked
for Spain in 1561, and returned to London in 1564, in con¬
sequence of a request to his sovereign, in an elegy written
in imitation of Ovid. After his return he resided in a
house built by himself in Clerkenwell Close, where he died
in the year 1565, and was buried in St Paul’s. Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil assisted as chief mourner at his funeral.
So various were the talents of Sir Thomas Chaloner,
that he excelled in every thing to which he applied him¬
self. He made a considerable figure as a poet. His poe¬
tical works were published by William Malim, master of
St Paul’s school, in 1579. His principal work was that
See statement in the Life of Dr Currie, the amiable and accomplished biographer of Robert Burns, voh i. pp. 201-6, and 504-6.
312
C H A
C H A
Chaloner
Chalus.
“ Of restoring the English Republic, in ten books,’ which
he wrote when he was ambassador in Spain.
Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the younger, though incon¬
siderable as an author, deserves to be recorded as a skil¬
ful naturalist, in an age when natural history was veiy
little understood in this or any other country; and par¬
ticularly as the founder of the alum works in \01ksh11e,
which have since proved exceedingly advantageous to
the commerce of this kingdom. He was the only son of
Sir Thomas Chaloner mentioned in the last article, and
was born in the year 1559. Being very young at the time
of his father’s death, the lord treasurer Burghley, taking
charge of his education, sent him to St Paul s school, and
afterwards to Magdalen College in Oxford, where, like his
father, he discovered considerable talents for Latin and
English poetry. About the year 1580 he made the tour
of Europe, and returned to England before lo8 * ; for m
that year we find him a frequent attendant at the com t
of Queen Elizabeth. About this time he married the
daughter of Sir William Fleetwood, recorder of London.
In 1591 he was knighted ; and, some time afterwards, dis¬
covered the alum mines on his estate at Gisborough, near
the river Tees, in Yorkshire. .
Towards the latter end of the queen s reign, Sir Ihomas
visited Scotland ; and returning to England in the retinue
of King James I. found such favour in the sight of that
monarch, that he was immediately appointed governor to
Prince Henry, whom he constantly attended; and when
his royal pupil visited Oxford, he was honoured with the
degree of master of arts. How he was employed after
the death of the prince is not known. Some years
that event he married a second wife, the daughter of Mr
William Blount of London, by whom he had some children.
He died in the year 1615, and was buried at Chiswick in
Middlesex. His eldest son William was created a baronet
in the year 1640; but the title became extinct in 1681.
He wrote, 1. Dedication to Lord Burghley, of his father’s
poetical works, dated 1579 ; 3. The Virtue of Nitre, where¬
in is declared the sundry cures by the same effected. Lond.
1584, 4to.
CHALONS, an arrondissement in the department ot
the Upper Saone and Loire, in France, extending over 795
square miles, and comprising ten cantons and 160 com¬
munes, with 108,336 inhabitants. The chief place, a city of
the same name, distinguished by the adjunct “ Sur Saone,
is a well-situated and well-built town, the seat of the local
courts of judicature, and containing 1257 houses, with
11,128 inhabitants. It is a place of considerable trade,
being a kind of entrepot for the commodities of the north
and south of the kingdom, especially for corn, wine, oil,
iron, copper, and soap.
Chalons, an arrondissement in the department of the
Marne, in France, extending to 510 square miles, divided
into four cantons, and subdivided into eighty communes,
containing 36,824 inhabitants. The capital is the city of
Chalons-Sur-Marne, an irregular and ill-built town, con¬
taining 2800 houses, and a population of 11,000 souls. It
has some mills for spinning cotton ,and flax, and a few
woollen goods are made. It is situated in longitude 4.
16. 24. E., and latitude 48. 57. 28. N.
CH ALOO, a village of Thibet, situated midway between
two lakes, one of which is accounted peculiarly sacred by
the inhabitants of Bootan, who imagine it to be the haunt
of their principal deities. Long. 89. 15. E. Lat. 28.18. N.
CHALUS, a city of the department of the Upper Vienne,
in France. It is situated on the river Taboire, which di¬
vides it into two portions. It contains 1264 inhabitants,
and is celebrated as the place where our Richard Cceur-
de-Lion met his death by an arrow when engaged in be¬
sieging it. Long. 0. 53. 23. E. Lat. 45. 39. 31. N.
CHALYBEATE, in Medicine, an appellation given tochal h
any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with particles J
of iron or steel.
CHAM, or Khan, the title given to the sovereign prin-
ces of Tartary. The word, in the Persian, signifies mighty
lord ; in the Sclavonic, emperor. Sperlingius, in his disser¬
tation on the Danish term of majesty, honing, king, thinks
the Tartarian cham may be well derived from it; adding,
that in the north they say han, honnen, konge, homing,
&c. The term cham is also applied, among the Persians,
to the great lords of the court, and the governors of pro¬
vinces.
CHAMADE, in war, a certain beat of a drum, or sound
of a trumpet, which serves as a signal to the enemy, of
some propositions about to be made, either to capitulate,
or for leave to bury the dead, make a truce, or the like.
Menage derives the word from the Italian chiamata, from
clamare, to cry.
CHAMANIM, in the Jewish antiquities, is the Hebrew
name for that which the Greeks call Pyreia or Pyrateria;
and St Jerome in Leviticus has translated simulacra, in
Isaiah, delubra. These chamanim were, according to
Rabbi Solomon, idols exposed to the sun upon the tops of
houses. Abenezoa says they were portable chapels or
temples made in the form of chariots, in honour of the sun.
What the Greeks call Pyreia were temples consecrated to
the sun and fire, in which a perpetual fire was kept up.
They were built upon eminences, and were large enclo¬
sures without covering, where the sun was worshipped.
The Guebres, or worshippers of fire, in Persia and the
East Indies, have still these Pyreia. _ The word chama¬
nim is derived from chaman, which signified to warm or
burn. . . . .
CHAMARIN, a word which occurs m several places ot
the Hebrew Bible, and is generally translated the prmh
of the idols, or the priests clothed in black, because ckamar
signifies black, or blackness. St Jerome, in the second
book of Kings, renders it aruspices. In Hosea and Zepha-
niah he translates it ceditui or church-wardens. But the
best commentators are of opinion that by this word we are
to understand the priests of the false gods, and in parti¬
cular the worshippers of fire; because they w'ere, as they
say, dressed in black; or perhaps the Hebrews gave them
this name in derision, because, as they were continually
employed in providing the fuel, and keeping up the fire,
they were always as black as smiths or colliers. We fin
priests, among those of Isis, called melanephori, or weaieis
of black; but whether this epithet was applied by reason
of their dressing in black, or whether because they wore
a certain shining black veil in the processions of this goc-
dess, is not certain. Camar, in Arabic, signifies the moon;
and Isis is the same deity. Grotius thinks the Roman
priests, called camiUi, came from the Hebrew chamann.
Those among the heathens who sacrificed to the interna
sods were dressed in black. , .
CH AMB AH, an extensive mountainous district ot Hin¬
dustan, in the province of Lahore, intersected by the Ka-
vey river, and bounded on the east by the Beyah. 18
situated about the 33d degree of N. lat. and is now pos
sessed by the Sekks and their tributaries. There is a town
of the same name 110 miles N.E. from the city of aior1.
Long. 75. 33. E. Lat. 32. 28. N. •
CHAMBER, in building, a part of a lodging, or o an
apartment, ordinarily intended for sleeping in, and ca
by the Latins cubiculum. The word comes from t e
camera; and that, according to Nicod, from t ie _ re
xa’JMPa, vault or curve ; the term chamber being orlgJ®
confined to places arched over. A complete apar
consists of a hall, antichamber, chamber, and cabinet. ^
Privy Chamber. Gentlemen of the privy chamb
Cha; r, h
C H A
servants of the king, who are to wait and attend on him
and the queen at court, in their diversions, &c.
■ In the absence of the lord chamberlain, or vice chamber-
, lain, they execute the king’s orders; at coronations two
of them personate the Dukes of Aquitain and Normandy,
and six of them, appointed by the lord chamberlain, at¬
tend ambassadors from crowned heads to their audiences,
and in public entries. The gentlemen of the privy cham¬
ber were instituted by Henry VII.
Chamber, in policy, the place where certain assemblies
are held; also the assemblies themselves. Of these, some
have been established for the administration of justice,
others for commercial alfairs.
Chamber, in military alfairs. 1. Powder chamber, or
bomb chamber, a place sunk under ground for containing
the powder or bombs, where they may be out of danger,
and secured from the rain. 2. Chamber of a mine, the
place, most commonly of a cubical form, where the powder
is confined. 3. Chamber of a mortar, that part of the chase,
much narrower than the rest of the cylinder, where the
powder lies. It is of different forms, sometimes like a re¬
versed cone, sometimes globular, with a neck for its com¬
munication with the cylinder, whence it is called a bottled
chamber; but most commonly cylindrical, that being the
form which is found by experience to carry the shell to the
greatest distance.
CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the manage¬
ment and direction of a chamber.
Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain, the sixth great
officer of the crown, to whom belong livery and lodging
in the king s court; and there are certain fees due to him
from each archbishop or bishop when they perform their
homage to the king, and from all peers at their creation
or when doing homage. At the coronation of every king
he receives forty ells of crimson velvet for his own robes.
This officer, on the coronation day, brings the king his
shirt, coif, and wearing clothes ; and'' after the king is dress¬
ed, he claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber,
for his fees. He also carries, at the coronation, the coif,
gloves, and linen, to be used by the king on that occasion ;
also the swoid and scabbard; the gold to be offered by
the king, and the royal robes and crown; he dresses and
undresses the king on that day, waits on him before and
after dinner, and performs various other menial offices.
To this officer belongs the care of providing all things in
t ie House of Lords in the time of parliament, as well as
the government of the palace of Westminster; he likewise
disposes, to what lord he pleases, of the sword of state, to
be carried before the king.
Lord Chamberlain of the Household, an officer who has
t e superintendence and direction of all officers belonging
to the king’s chambers, except the precinct of the king’s
bed-chamber. Moreover he has the control and direction
0 e serjeants at arms, of all physicians, apothecaries,
surgeons, barbers, the king’s chaplains, &c. and admini¬
sters the oath to all officers above stairs.
Other chamberlains are those of the king’s court of ex¬
chequer, of North Wales, of Chester, of the city of London,
tx. m which case this officer is generally the receiver
he is cliamb871 •leVenues belonging t° the place whereof
^?fMBERLAIN of London keeps the city money; he also
inntK °Veic> t^e a^a‘rs masters and apprentices, and
makes free of the city, &c.
, ^MISERLAYNE, Edward, descended from an an-
mswU was born in Gloucestershire in 1616, and
civil w 6 ^uroPe during the distractions of the
witli ti,3*!? , ^er tbe restoration he went as secretary
ter tn tf CarIisIe> wb° carried the order of the gar-
vol ^ ®we<^en* He was appointed tutor to the
G H A 313
Duke of Grafton, natural son of Charles II, and was after- Chamber,
wards pitched on to instruct Prince George of Denmark lavne
in the English tongue. He died in 1703, and was buried , II
in a vault in Chelsea churchyard. His monumental inscrip-^^am^ers.’
tion mentions six books of his composition ; and adds, that
he was so desirous of doing service to posterity, that he
ordered some copies of his books to be covered with wax,
and buried along with him. That work by which he is
best known is his Anglim Notitice, or the Present State of
England, which has been often printed since.
Chamberlayne, John, son of the author of The Pre¬
sent State of England, and continuator of that useful work,
was admitted into Trinity College, Oxford, in 1685; but
it does not appear that he took any degree. Besides the
Continuation just mentioned, he was author of “ Disser¬
tations, historical, critical, theological, and moral, on the
most memorable events of the Old and New Testaments,
with Chronological Tables,” one volume folio; and trans¬
lated a variety of works from the French, Dutch, and
other languages. He was likewise Fellow of the Royal
Society, and communicated some pieces, which were in¬
setted in the Philosophical Transactions. It was said of
him that he understood sixteen languages; but it is cer¬
tain that he was master of the Greek, Latin, French, High
and Low Dutch, Portuguese, and Italian. After a useful
and well-spent life, he died in the year 1724;.
CHAMBERY, a province of the duchy of Savoy, in the
kingdom of Sardinia, in Italy. It is bounded on the north
by Geneva, on the east by Taranta, on the south-east by
Maurienne, and on the south and west by France. It ex¬
tends over 1130 square miles, or 717,080 English acres,
and comprehends eight cities, 195 towns and villages, and
133,896 inhabitants.
Ciiambery, a city of Italy, the capital of the pro¬
vince of the same name, and of the duchy of Savoy. It
is a walled city, on the rivers Leisse and Albano. It con¬
tains many monasteries and nunneries, but enjoys very
little tiade, the chief part of which is in silk. The num¬
ber of houses in 1817 w'as 1985, and of inhabitants 11,991.
Long. 5. 55. E. Lat. 45. 26. N.
CHAMBERS, David, a Scotch historian, priest, and
lawyer, was born in the shire of Ross about the year 1530,
and educated in the university of Aberdeen. From thence
he went to France and Italy, where he continued some
time, particularly at Bologna, where in 1556 he was a
pupil of Mariannus Sozenus. »
After his return to Scotland, he was appointed by Queen
Mary, parson of Suddy, and chancellor of Ross. He was
soon afterwards employed in digesting the laws of Scot¬
land, and was principally concerned in publishing the acts
of parliament of that kingdom by authority in 1566. He
was also appointed one of the lords of session, and con¬
tinued her majesty’s faithful servant till her declining
fortune obliged her adherents to seek for refuge in othe •
kingdoms. Chambers went first to Spain, where he was
graciously received by king Philip; and thence travelled
to Paris, where he was no less kindly welcomed by Chariest
IX. of that kingdom, to whom, in 1572, he presented his
history of Scotland. He died at Paris in the year 1592,
much regretted, says Mackenzie, by all who knew him.
His writings were chiefly calculated to assist his royal
mistress, and to extol the wisdom of the Scotch nation.
Chambers, Ephraim, author of the Cyclopaedia which
bears his name, was born at Milton, in the county of West¬
moreland. His parents were dissenters of the Presbyterian
persuasion, and his education was no other than that com¬
mon one which is intended to qualify a youth for trade
and commerce. When he became of a proper age, he was
put as apprentice to Mr Senex the globe-maker, a business
which is connected with science, and especially with as-
2 R
314
C H A
C H A
during Mr Chambers’ re- ing to it, and in the midst of an extensive park, is the royal ct „
c ZtV eontraeted that palace built by Franeis was given by I-o-XV^ to
Charabord. tronomy and geography. It was
SteZsLZet'fleZtg'wS "accompany ^ thTcel^ Marshal Saxe, and at his death reverted
LclotVv  at.
through life, and directed all his pursuits. It was even at
this time that he formed the design of his great work, the
Cyclopaedia; and some of the articles of lt.^ere "vr‘“e
behind the counter. Having conceived the idea of so ex¬
tensive an undertaking, he justly concluded ^attheexecu
tion of it would not consist with the avocations of trade,
and therefore he quitted Mr Senex, and took chambers at
Gray’s Inn, where he chiefly resided during the rest of ns
days. The first edition of the Cyclopedia, which was the
result of many years’ intense application, appeared in 17^b,
in two volumes folio. It was published by subscription,
the price being L4. 4s.; and the list of subscribers was
exceedingly respectable. The dedication to the kmg i
dated the 15th October 1727. The reputation which Mr
Chambers acquired by his execution of this undertaking
procured him the honour of being elected fellow of the
Royal Society on the 6th November 1729. In less than
ten years time a second edition became necessary, which
accordingly was printed, with corrections and additions, in
1738; and it was followed by a third in the course of next
me ceieuicu-cu  — - ^ ...j-
the crown. It was subsequently granted by Bonaparte to1®" j
Berthier, created Duke of Wagram, and since his death
year.
Although the Cyclopedia was the grand business of Mr
Chambers' life, and may be regarded as almost the sole
foundation of his fame, his attention was not wholly con¬
fined to this undertaking. He was concerned in a peri°'
dical publication entitled The Literary Magazine, which
was begun in 1735. In this work he wrote a variety ot
articles, and particularly a review of Morgan s Moral 1 tn-
losophy. He was engaged likewise, in conjunction with Mr
John Martyn, fellow of the Royal Society, and professor
of botany at Cambridge, in preparing for the press a trans¬
lation and abridgment of the Philosophical History ant
Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, or an
Abridgment of all the Papers relating to Natural Philoso¬
phy which have been published by the Members of that
illustrious Society. This undertaking, when completed,
was comprised in five volumes 8vo, which did not appeal
till 1742, some time after our author’s decease, when they
were published under the joint names of Mr Martyn and
Mr Chambers. In a subsequent publication, Mr Martyn
passed a severe censure upon the share which his fellow-
labourer had had in the abridgment of the Parisian pa¬
pers. The only work besides, that we find ascribed to Mi
Chambers, is a translation of the Jesuits Perspective, fiom
the French; which was printed in 4to, and has gone
through several editions. Mr Chambers’ close and un¬
remitting attention to his studies at length impaired his
health, and obliged him occasionally to take a lodging at
Canonbury-house, Islington. This not having greatly
contributed to his recovery, he made an excursion to the
south of France, but did not reap that benefit from it which
he had himself hoped, and which his friends wished ; for,
returning to England, he died at Canonbury-house, and
was buried at Westminster, where the following inscrip ¬
tion, written by himself, is placed on the north siue of the
cloisters of the Abbey :
Multis pervulgatis, ■
Paucis notus;
Qui vitam, inter lueem et umbram,
Nec eruditus, nec idiota,
Ldteris deditus, transegit; sed ut homo
Qui humani nihil a se alienum putat.
Yita simul, et laboribus functus,
Hie requiescere veluit,
Ephraim Chambers, It. S. S.
Obiit xv. Maii mdccxe
has again been vested in the crown.
CHAMIER, Daniel, an eminent Protestant divine,
born in Dauphiny. He was many years preacher at Mon-
tellimart, whence he went in 1612 to Montaubon, to be
professor of divinity in that city, and was killed by a can¬
non-ball during the siege in 1621. The most considerable
of his works is his Panstratia Catholica, or Wars of the
Lord, in four volumes folio ; in which he treats very learn¬
edly of the controversies between the Protestants and Ro¬
man Catholics, and particularly applies himself to refute
Bellarmin.
CHAMOIS, or Chamois Goat. See Mammalia.
CHAMOND, a city of the department of the Loire, in
France, on the river Gier. It is defended by a strong fort,
and contains 900 houses, with 4990 inhabitants. It is a
place of trading activity, especially in silk goods. Long.
4. 23. E. Lat. 45. 28. N.
CHAMOS, or Chemosh, the idol or god of the Moab¬
ites. The name of chamos comes from a root which, in
Arabic, signifies to make haste; for which reason many be¬
lieve Chamos to be the sun, whose apparent course might
well procure for that luminary the epithet of swift or speedy.
Others have confounded Chamos with the god Hamtnon
or Ammon, adored not only in Libya and Egypt, but also
in Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Indies. Macrobius shows
that Ammon was the sun, and that the horns with which
he was represented denoted his rays. Calmet is ol opinion
that the god Hamonus, and Apollo Chomeus, mentioned
by Strabo and Ammianus Marcellinus, were the same as
Chamos or the sun. These deities were worshipped in
many of the eastern provinces. Some who go upon the
resemblance of the Hebrew term chamos to that ot the
Greek have believed Chamos to signify the god
Bacchus, the god of drunkenness, according to the signi¬
fication of the Greek xw/Aoe. St Jerome, and with him
most other interpreters, take Chamos and 1 eor for the
same deity. But it seems that Baal-Peor was the same
as Thammuz or Adonis ; so that Chamos must be toe god
whom the heathens call the sun.
CHAMOUNI, or Chamouny, a valley in Savoy, near
to Geneva, in the province of Faussigny, and kingdom o
Sardinia. It is the longest and most interesting of all ttie
valleys of Savoy. It is at the foot of Mont Blanc, ex¬
cessively hot in the summer, and of great coldness in win¬
ter. It is 3300 feet above the level of the sea, and is ttie
most advantageous place for taking a view of Mont Kiaric-
It is visited by those who wish to see the glaciers, a
the access to it from Geneva is easy, the distance emg
about forty English miles. The village of Ch^ouny con¬
tains about 1500 inhabitants. It is in long. 6. 4/. l.
and lat. 45. 30. 15. N. Carthp
CHAMPAGNE, a town of the department of the barn,
in France, celebrated for producing an exce ent w
wine. It contains 169 houses, and 796 inhabitants.
CHAMPAGNEY, a town in the department ottne
Upper Saone, in France, situated on the river Ba >
where there are some extensive mines of coal
It contains 1980 inhabitants. _ nrtmpr\t
CHAMPAGNOLE, a market-town in the depart
of the Jura, in France. It stands at the foot of a moun >
on the banks of the river Londaine, and contains l
habitants, chiefly employed in making nails, needle ,
pins
CHAMBORD, a small town in the department of the CHAMPAGNE 8 Archipelago comprehends g ^
Loire and Cher, in France, with 470 inhabitants. Adjoin- of islands, amounting to about twenty, o w
C H A
iar
Chi t
hi-
gest is not above nine miles in length. They are situated
on the north-west coast of New Holland, and were so call¬
ed by the French expedition of 1800. They are in gene¬
ral sterile, and of an irregular figure. The surrounding
seas abound with fish.
CHAMPAIN, or Point Champain, in Heraldry, a mark
of dishonour in the coat of arms of him who kills a pri¬
soner of war after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPERTY, in Law, a species of maintenance,
and punished in the same manner, being a bargain with
the plaintiff or defendant catnpum partire, “ to divide the
land,” or other matter sued for, between them, if they pre¬
vail at law; and in the mean time the champertor is to
carry on the party’s suit at his own expense. This cham-
part, in the French law', signifies a similar division of pro¬
fits, being a part of the crop annually due to the landlord
by bargain or custom. In our sense of the w ord, it signi¬
fies the purchasing of a suit, or right of suing; a practice so
much abhorred by our law/, that it is one main reason why
a chose in action, or thing of which one hath the right but
not the possession, is not assignable in common law, be¬
cause no man should purchase any pretence to sue in ano¬
ther’s right.
CHAMPION, a person who undertakes a combat in the
stead or quarrel of another, and sometimes the word is
used for him who fights in his own cause. It appears that
champions, in the just sense of the word, were persons
who fought instead of those who, by custom, were obliged
to accept the duel, but had a just excuse for dispensing
with it, as being too old, infirm, or being ecclesiastics, and
the like. Such causes as could not be decided by the
course of common law were often tried by single combat,
and he who had the good fortune to conquer was always
reputed to have justice on his side.
Champion of the King (campio regis) is an ancient offi¬
cer, whose duty is, at the coronation of our kings, when
the king is at dinner, to ride armed cap-d-pied into West¬
minster hall, and by the proclamation of a herald make a
challenge, “ that if any man shall deny the king’s title to
the crown, he is there ready to defend it in single com¬
bat;” which being done, the king drinks to him, and sends
him a gilt cup with a cover full of wdne, which the cham¬
pion drinks, and has the cup for his fee. This office at
the coronation of King Richard II. when Baldwin Ferville
exhibited his petition for it, was adjudged from him to his
competitor Sir John Dymocke, both claiming from Mar-
mion, and has continued ever since in the family of the
Dymockes, who hold the manor of Sinvelsby in Lincoln¬
shire hereditary from the Marmions, by grand serjeantry,
namely, that the lord of the manor shall be the king’s
champion as aforesaid.
1 CHAMPLITTE, a city of the department of the Upper
Saone, in France, on the river Salone. It contains 345
houses, and 3247 inhabitants, employed chiefly in weaving
druggets and making hats.
CHAMPNIERS, a large village of the department of
the Charente, in France, containing 3879 inhabitants, who
cultivate saffron extensively.
CHAMUSCA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Estremadura. It is situated on the south side of the Tagus,
above Santarem, and is the point of communication be¬
tween the capital and the province of Alentejo. It con¬
tains 2400 inhabitants, who annually make 1500 pipes of
wine.
CHANAK Kalesi, a town and fortress of Asiatic Tur-
Key> in Natolia. The town contains about 2000 houses,
and has a manufacture of pottery. The fortress was built
o defend the Strait of the Dardanelles. The outworks are
0 Modern date ; but the date of the citadel belongs to the
era °r the Greek emperors.
C H A 315
CHANANJEI, in Ancient Geography, the name of the Chananan
ancient inhabitants of Canaan in general, descendants of II
Canaan, but peculiarly appropriated to some one branch; Chance-
though it is uncertain which it was, or how it happened
that they preferred the common gentilitious name to a
more appropriate denomination as descendants of one of
the sons of Canaan.
CHANCAY, a province of Peru, in the department of
Lima. That part of the district which lies amongst the
mountains is subjected to a cold temperature, but that to¬
wards the sea enjoys a warmer climate. The province is
exceedingly fertile in sugar and maize, with which large
quantities of pigs are fattened for the markets of Lima, in
the centre of this district, and on the coast, are some fine
salt mines or pits. The capital is situated in a beautiful
valley, a few miles distant from the river Passamayo. It
has a tolerable port, well frequented by trading vessels.
Lat. 11.30. S.
CHANCE, a term we apply to events, to denote that
they happen without any necessary or foreknown cause.
Our aim is to ascribe those things to chance which do not
necessarily follow as the natural effects of any sufficient
cause; but our ignorance and precipitancy often lead us
to attribute effects to chance which proceed from a deter¬
minate cause. When we say a thing happens hy chance,
we really mean no more than that its cause is unknown to
us; not, as some vainly imagine, that chance itself can be
the cause of any thing. The case of the painter, who,
unable to express the foam at the mouth of a horse which
he had painted, threw his sponge in despair at the piece,
and by chance did that which he could not before do by de¬
sign, is an eminent instance of the force oi chance ; yet it
is obvious all we mean by chance here is, that the painter
did not fore-calculate the effect, or that he did not throw
the sponge with a view to produce it.
Chance is frequently personified and erected into a chi¬
merical being, whom we conceive as acting arbitrarily, and
producing all the effects the real causes of which do not
appear to us; in which sense the word coincides with the
rvyji, fortuna, oi the anAents.
Chance is also used for the manner of deciding things,
the conduct or direction of which is left at large, and not
reducible to any determinate rules or measures, or where
there is no ground for preference, as at cards, dice, lot¬
teries, and the like.
The ancient sortilege or chance, M. Placette observes,
was instituted by God himself; and in the Old Testament
we find several standing laws and express commands
which prescribed its use on certain occasions. Hence
the Scripture says, “ The lot or cha?ice fell on Matthias,”
when it was in question who should fill Judas’s place in
the apostolate ; and hence also arose the sortes sanctorum,
or method of determining things, among the ancient Chris¬
tians, by opening some of the sacred books, and pitching
on the first verse the eye rested on as a sure prognostic
of what was to happen. The sortes Homericce, Virgiliancs,
Prcenestincc, and the like, used by the heathens, were re¬
sorted to with the same view, and in the same manner.
St Augustin seems to approve of this method of determin¬
ing things future, and owns that he had practised it him¬
self, grounding his doing so on the principle that God pre¬
sides over chance.
Chance-Medley, in Law, is where one is doing a law¬
ful act, and a person is thereby accidentally killed; for if
the act be unlawful, it is felony. Thus, if a person, not
intending harm, cast-a stone, which happens to hit one,
and he dies of the blow, or a schoolmaster in correcting
his scholar, or an officer in whipping a criminal in a rea¬
sonable manner, happens to occasion his death, this is
chance-medley, and misadventure.
316
C H A
Chancel CHANCEL is properly that part of the choir of a
II church between the altar or communion-table and the
Chancellor.baiustra(ie or ran that incloses it, where the minister is
placed at the celebration of the communion. 1 he word
comes from the Latin cancellus, which in the lower Latin
is used in the same sense, from the cancelli, lattices or cross
bars, with which the chancels were anciently encompass¬
ed, as they now are with rails. The right of a seat and
a sepulchre in the chancels is one of the privileges ot
founders. . . „
CHANCELLOR was at first only a chief notary or
scribe under the emperors, and was called cancellanus,
because he sat behind a lattice (in Latin cancellus), to
avoid being crowded by the people ; but some derive the
word from cancellare, to cancel. 1 his officer was alter-
wards invested with several judicial powers,^ and a ge-
neral superintendence over the rest of the officers of the
prince. From the Roman empire it passed to the Roman
church, ever emulous of imperial state; and hence every
bishop has to this day his chancellor, who is the principal
judge of his consistory. And when the modern kingdoms
of Europe were established upon the ruins of the empire,
almost every state preserved its chancellor with different
jurisdictions and dignities, according to their different
constitutions. But in all of them he seems to have had
the supervision of charters, letters, and such other public
instruments of the crown as were authenticated in the
most solemn manner; and therefore, when seals came in
use, he had always the custody of the king’s great seal.
Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal, is the highest honour of the
long robe, and created by the mere delivery of the king’s
great seal into the custody of him who is selected to fill
the office; by which he becomes, without writ or patent,
an officer of the greatest weight and power of any in the
kingdom. He is a privy counsellor by his office, and, ac¬
cording to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, prolocutor of the
House of Lords by prescription. To him belongs the ap¬
pointment of all the justices of the peace throughout the
kingdom. In former times the chancellor or lord-keeper
being commonly an ecclesiastic (for none else were then
capable of an office so conversant in writing), and presid¬
ing over the royal chapel, he became keeper of the kings
conscience; visitor, in right of the king, of all hospitals
and colleges of the king’s foundation; and patron of all
the king’s livings rated under the value of L.20 per annum
in the king’s books. He is the general guardian of all in¬
fants, idiots, and lunatics, and has the superintendence of
all charitable uses in the kingdom ; and this over and above
the vast extensive jurisdiction which he exercises in his
judicial capacity in the court of chancery. He takes pre¬
cedence of every temporal lord except the members of
the royal family, arid of all spiritual peers except the
Archbishop of Canterbury.
Chancellor of a Cathedral, an officer who hears les¬
sons and lectures read in the church, either by himself or
his vicar, and whose duty it is to correct and set right the
reader when he reads amiss ; to inspect schools; to hear
causes ; to apply the seal; to write and dispatch the letters
of the chapter ; to keep the books ; to take care that there
be frequent preachings, both in the church and out of it;
and to assign the office of preaching to whomsoever he
pleases.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, an officer ap¬
pointed chiefly to determine controversies between the
king and his tenants of the duchy land, and otherwise to
direct all the king’s affairs belonging to that court.
Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who presides
in that court, and takes care of the interest of the crown.
He is always in commission with the lord treasurer for
C H A
the letting of crown lands, &c. and has power, with others, Ch;
to compound for forfeitures of lands upon penal statutes.
He is also the principal functionary in managing the re- C'1
venues of the state.
Chancellor of the order of the Garter and other military
orders, is an officer who seals the commissions and man¬
dates of the chapter and assembly of the knights, keeps
the register of their proceedings, and delivers acts there¬
of under the seal of their order.
Chancellor of an University is he who seals the diplo¬
mas, or letters of degrees, provision, and the like, given in
the university.
CHANCERON, in Natural History, a name given by
the French writers to the small caterpillar that eats the
corn, and does vast mischief in granaries. See the article
CoRN-Butterfly.
CHANCERY, the highest court of justice in Britain
next to the parliament, and of very ancient institution.
It has its name chancery (cancellaria) from the judge who
presides here, the lord chancellor, or cancellarius, who,
according to Sir Edward Coke, is so termed, a cancellando,
from cancelling the king’s letters patent when granted
contrary to law, which is the highest point of his jurisdic¬
tion. In chancery there are two distinct tribunals; the
one ordinary, being a court of common law ; and the other
extraordinary, being a court of equity.
1. The ordinary legal court holds pleas of recognizances
acknowledged in the chancery, writs of scire facias for
repeal of letters patent, writs of partition, &c. and also of
all personal actions by or against any officer of the court.
Sometimes a supersedeas, or writ of privilege, has been
granted by this court, to discharge a person out of prison:
one may also obtain here a habeas corpus prohibition, &c.
in the vacation ; and a subpoena may be had to force wit¬
nesses to appear in other courts when they have no power
to call them. But in prosecuting causes, if the parties
descend to issue, this court cannot try it by jury; the
lord chancellor delivers the record into the king s bench
to be tried there; and after trial had, it is remanded
into the chancery, and there judgment is given; though
if there be a demurrer in law, it must be argued in this
court. ... e
In this Court is also kept the officina justitm, out o
which all original writs that pass under the great seal, all
commissions of charitable uses, sewers, bankruptcy, idiocy,
lunacy, and the like, do issue; and for which it is always
open to the subject, who may there at any time demand
and have, ex debito justitice, any writ which his occasions
may call for. Those writs relating to the business of the
subject, and the returns of them, were, according to the
simplicity of ancient times, originally kept in a hamper,
in hanaperio; and the other (relating to such matters
as the crown was mediately or immediately concerne in)
were preserved in a little sack or bag, in parva baga; ant
hence has arisen the distinction of the hamper office and
the petty-bag office, which both belong to the common Jaiv
court in chancery. . ,
2. The extraordinary court, or court of equity, procee -
by the rules of equity and conscience, and moderates e
rigour of the common law, considering the intention rat er
than the words of the law. It gives relief for and agains
infants notwithstanding their minority, and for or aj?ainl
married women notwithstanding their coverture. A rau
and deceits for which there is no redress at common a >
all breaches of trust and confidence ; and accidents, as
relieve obligors, mortgagers, and others, against pena
and forfeitures, where the intent was to pay the tie >
here remedied. This court also gives relief agains
extremity of unreasonable engagements entered into w
out consideration ; obliges creditors who are unreason
C H A
ah
to compound with an unfortunate debtor; and makes exe¬
cutors, &c. give security and pay interest for money which
is to lie long in their hands. This court may confirm title
to lands, though one has lost his writings; and render con¬
veyances which are defective through mistake or other¬
wise, good and perfect. In chancery, copy-holders may
be relieved against the ill usage of their lords; inclosures
of land which is common may be decreed; and this court
may decree money or lands given to charitable uses, ob¬
lige men to account with each other, &c. But in all cases
where the plaintiff can have his remedy at law, he ought
not to be relieved in chancery; and a thing which may be
tried by a jury is not triable in this court.
CHANDAH, a large district of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gundwana, subject to the Nagpoor Mahrattas,
situated principally between the 20th and 21st degrees
of N. lat. It is a champaign country compared with the
Goand Hills to the north, and produces chiefly rice and
small quantities of pulse and sugar-cane. The inhabitants
possess numerous herds of goats and sheep. Cotton is ex¬
ported to the Northern Circars. This district was annex¬
ed, during the reign of Aurungzebe, to the soubah of Be¬
lt is inhabited by a savage tribe of Goands, who re-
C H A
317
rar
fuse to have any intercourse with Europeans.
CHANDAHNEE, a small district and town of Hindu¬
stan, in the province of Lahore, situated between the 33d
and 34th degrees of N. lat. The town is neat and popu¬
lous, pleasantly situated on the brow of a hill, with a rapid
stream running at the foot of it. It is 122 miles north
by east from the city of Lahore. Long. 74. 41. E. Lat. 33.
24. N.
CHANDERNAGORE, the principal settlement of the
French in Bengal, in a healthy situation on the western
bank of the Hooghly or Bhagarutty river. It is about
three quarters of a mile long, and is a very neat town, sur¬
rounded by a small territory, which extends on the bank
of the river, and one mile inland. The height of the
houses is generally two stories; they have colonnades in
front, and green Venetian windows, and are built of brick
and mortar, plastered over with fine chunam, both inside
and out. They have generally flat roofs, on which their
proprietors sit in the evening and receive company. The
French having obtained this situation for their factory in
16/6, they afterwards fortified it, and the factory continued
to flourish till the year 1757, when it was attacked by Ad-
miial Watson and Colonel Clive, who, having forced it to
suirendei, dismantled its fortifications. Having remained
since that period without protection, it has been quietly
taken possession of by the English in every successive
war, and as constantly restored at the peace. It was de-
hvered over to the French governor on the 4th of Decem¬
ber 1816. Long. 88. 26. E. Lat. 22. 49. N.
CHANDGHERRY, a town of Hindustan, in the Car¬
natic, and capital of a district of the same name. The ci¬
tadel is built on the summit of a stupendous rock, at the
oot of which is the town. It is seventy-two miles W.N.W.
trom Madras. Long. 79. 25. E. Lat/ 13. 33. N.
^HANDLER, Mary, distinguished by her talent for
poetry, was the daughter of a dissenting minister at Bath,
and was born at Malmesbury in Wiltshire in 1687. She
was bred a milliner, but from her childhood had a turn for
poetry, and in her riper years applied herself to the study
i Her poems, for which she was compliment-
o, v °Pe» breathe the spirit of piety and philosophy,
khe died in 1745, aged fifty-eight.
f^AND.L^R’ Samuel, a learned and respectable dis-
1 lnS nilnister, descended from ancestors who had heart-
for *n,^le caVse 0*' religious liberty, and suffered
ie sake of conscience and nonconformity, was born
ungeiford in Berks, where his father was a minister
of considerable worth and abilitjr. Being by his literary Chandler,
turn destined to the ministry, he was first placed at an '
academy at Bridgewater, and thence removed to Glouces¬
ter under Mr Samuel Jones. Among the pupils of Mr
Jones were Mr Joseph Butler, afterwards Bishop of Dur¬
ham, and Mr Thomas Seeker, afterwards Archbishop of
Canterbury. With these eminent persons he contracted
a friendship which continued to the end of their lives,
notwithstanding the different views by which their con¬
duct was afterwards directed, and the different situations
in which they were placed.
Mr Chandler having finished his academical studies, be¬
gan to preach about July 1714; and being soon distinguish¬
ed by his talents in the pulpit, he was chosen in 1716 mi¬
nister of the Presbyterian congregation at Peckham, near
London, in which station he continued some years. Here
he entered into the matrimonial state, and began to have
an inci easing family, when, by the fatal South Sea scheme
of 1720, he unfortunately lost the whole fortune which
he had received with his wife. His circumstances being
thereby embarrassed, and his income as a minister being
inadequate to his expenses, he engaged in the trade of a
bookseller, and kept a shop in the Poultry, London, for
about two or three years, still continuing to discharge the
duties of the pastoral office. He also officiated, with the
learned Dr Lardner, as joint preacher of a winter weekly
evening lecture, at the meeting-house in the Old Jewry,
London ; in which meeting he was established as assistant
preacher about the year 1725, and then as the pastor.
Here, for forty years, he administered to the religious
improvement of a very respectable congregation with the
greatest applause; and with what diligence and applica¬
tion he improved the intervals of leisure which his pasto¬
ral duties allowed him for improving himself and benefiting
the world, will appear from his many writings on a variety
of important subjects. While he was thus laudably em¬
ployed, not only the universities of Edinburgh and Aber¬
deen gave him, without any application, testimonies of
their esteem, in diplomas, conferring on him the degree of
doctor in divinity, but he also received offers of prefer¬
ment from some of the governors of the established church,
which he nobly declined. He had likewise the honour of
being aftervyards elected fellow of the Royal and Anti¬
quarian Societies.
On the death of George II. in 1760, Dr Chandler pub¬
lished a sermon on that event, in which he compared King
George to King David. This gave rise to a pamphlet,
which was printed in the year 1761, entitled “ The His¬
tory of the Man after God’s own Heart;” in which the au¬
thor ventured to exhibit king David as an example of per-
fidy, lust, and cruelty, fit only to be ranked with Nero or
Caligula; and complained of the insult which had been
offered to the memory of the late British monarch by Dr
Chandler’s parallel between him and the king of Israel.
This attack occasioned Dr Chandler to publish, in the fol¬
lowing year, “ A Review of the History of the Man after
God’s own Heart; in which the Falsehoods and Misrepre¬
sentations of the Historian are exposed and corrected.”
He also prepared for the press a more elaborate work,
which was afterwards published in two volumes 8vo, under
the following title: “ A Critical History of the Life of
David ; in which the principal Events are ranged in order
of time; the chief objections of Mr Bayle and others
against the Character of this Prince, the Scriptural Ac¬
count of him, and the occurrences of his Reign, are ex¬
amined and refuted ; and the Psalms which refer to him
explained.” As this was the last, it was likewise one of
the best, of Dr Chandler’s productions. The greater part
of the work had been printed off at the time of our author’s
death, which happened on the 8th May 1766, at the age
O i o
Chandpoor
II
Chang.
C H A
C H A
, . r . • v.fp hp was north latitude. All that we know of this extensive re- cha*
of seventy-three. During the last year of d „ion iSj that it is intersected by the great river Brahma- f
visited with frequent returns of a very painful d soraer, g ^ Ch?
which he endured with great resignation an I CHANGLEe, two villages of Asiatic Turkey, on the ^
fortitude. He was interred in the burying-grou d wegt coast of Natolia, situated on a stream formerly named
hill-fields on the 16th of the month; ancl 1 lb 1 ntle. Gessus, which is rapid after the rains. It is nine miles
very honourably attended by te^;anJ de- southwest from Scila Nova,
men. He expressly desired, by his last , CHANG-TONG, a province of Chin
lineation of his character rn.ght be given m h.s ^ al ser
men, which was preached by Dr Amory. He .
Children; two sons and a daughter who died before him,
and three daughters who survived him. .
Dr Chandler was a man of very extensive ^ ^ “Xs^in'length, traverses the northern portion of U,
eminent abilities. Hisapprehension was quick a J o while in the south the country is filled with mountains and
merit penetrating; he had a warm and yig°'0 _ » J. „wamns. and We tracts of peat moss. From the city of
CHANG-TONG, a province of China, bounded on the
east by the province of Pe-tche-li and part of Honan, on
the south by that of Kiang-nan, on the east by the Last-
ern Sea, and on the north partly by the Gulf of l e-tche-li.
The aspect of the country is mountainous. A great ridge,
tion • he was a very instructive and animated preacher;
and ’his talents in the pulpit and as a wnter procured him
very great and general esteem, not only amon.^ the hs
seniors, but also among great numbers of tde estabhshed
church. He was principally instrumental in the esta
blishment of the fund for relieving the widows and or
phans of poor Protestant dissenting ministers. The plan
of this fund was first formed by him; and it was by ms
interest and application to Ins friends that many of the
subscriptions for its support were procured.
In 1768 four volumes of our authors sermons were pub¬
lished by Dr Amory, according to his own directions in Ins
last will; to which were prefixed a neat engraving of him,
swamps, and large tracts of peat-moss, krom the city of
Tsy-ho-hien, for sixty leagues, the country is a continued
plain. The soil is in some parts light, in other parts it is
dry and of a better quality. This province is tolerably
well watered, containing several rivers and lakes. It is
also intersected by the grand canal, which greatly contri¬
butes to the extension of its trade. In the north the in¬
habitants are mostly agricultural, in other parts they de¬
rive a precarious subsistence from fishing. I he whole
province is liable to suffer from drought. Its principal pro¬
ducts are coarse silk, wheat, mullet, and indigo. The pro¬
vince is divided into six districts, which contain six cities
of the first class, and a hundred and fourteen of the se-
last will; to which were prenxea a neat ^ ^ third> Xhe capital is Tsi-nan, situated on the
from an excellent portrait by Mr Chamberlin. He l a and among the others of larger size
also expressed a desire to have some of b.s prm pal p ec TS ’ chal  
I1VCI A olj KJL ,    o , . . rpi
are Yen-tcheou, Tong-chang-tsm, and Kin-kieng. Ihe po-
pulation has been estimated on rather vague data at twen¬
ty-four millions. .
CHANNA, in Zoology, the name of a fish caught m
great plentv in the Mediterranean, and brought to market
in Italy and elsewhere, among the sea perch, which it
so nearly resembles, that it would not be distinguishable,
were it not that the sea perch is bigger, and has only
broad transverse lines on its back, whereas the channa has
both transverse and longitudinal lines. _ , „ .
of BengaTand district of Tipperah, situated on the great ea?tby the province of Pe-tche-
It is celebrated tor the excel ence of .ts s„uth. bv 6i,e„s» „„ the west, and •
also expressed a ucsnc ^    , t *, r ,
reprinted in four volumes 8vo ; and proposals were publish¬
ed for that purpose, but did not meet with sufficient en¬
couragement. In 1777 another work of our author was
published in one volume 4to, under the following tide.
‘‘ A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St 1 aul to
the Galatians and Ephesians, with doctrinal and practical
Observations; together with a critical and practical Com-
mentary on the two Epistles of St Paul to the. Ihessalo-
nians "
CHANDPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
igal, am
Megna.
river Megna. ^ is ceieo,^Cu ^ 0 ! S_ y l Honan on the south, by Chensi on the west, and on
oranges. Long. 90. 31. E. Eat. 23. 17. N. there are a > ^ Great Wall> It 1S exceedingly moun-
rious other towns in Bengal of this name. Chand being ^ an/in many parts the country is wild, rugged,
the Bengal word for the moon, one of the Hinuu c ei , ^ uninhabited; but in other parts the mountain districts
numerous places are dedicated to it. into terraces, and carefully cultivated from top to
CHANDRAGIRI, a large square fort of Hindustan, in a. * admirably adapted, from its unequal surface,
the province of South Canara, situated on a river of the boUom l } and exCellent grapes are
same name, which bounds Malabar on the nonh and m at ^ which are dried and exported. The
low water shallow, but very wide. Long. 75. 8. L. Eat. acco ,ces wheatj and rice, though not
12CHANDRAGUPTI, a town and fort of Hindustan, at in equal abund^wiUr toother kinds of gram. ^ ^
the north-west extremity of the Mysore. It was former * , , , • i —amnncr
ly a place of great celebrity, but is now reduced to about
a hundred houses. The first is situated on a lofty peak¬
ed hill, concerning which the natives have many absurd
traditions. Three miles to the south is a hill which pto-
duces iron ore. Long. 75. 8. E. Lat. 14. 23. N.
CHAND REE, the name of a town and district qt iim-
dustan, in the province of Malwa. The town is situated
on the west side of the river Betwah. It is of ancient date,
LclUitJ-IclUU©} ^ 1 ,
the plains. The most valuable mineral Foduced amo g
the mountains is coal, which is very abundant,
found, lapis lazuli, variously coloured jaspers, porp q |
crystal, and marble. A great quantity of salt is produce
from a lake, the waters of which are said to be saber than
the sea. Within the jurisdiction of Chansi are i
five cities of the first class, and eighty-five of the86
and third. Tai-yuen-fou, an extensive and anc e t c y
is its capital. Ping-yang, and Fuen-tcheou-fqu, on
and at one time "contained 14,000 houses; but it is now is its ^ by ^
much decayed. It is ninety miles west by south from ^UhrateiTcities. The population is esti-
Chatterpooir. An extensive manufacture of fine cotton
dcloth is still carried on here, which is held in great esti¬
mation all over India. Long. 78. 25. E. Lat. 24. 50. N.
The district is situated about the twenty-fifth degree ot
north latitude, and is intersected by the river Sinde.
among its most celebrated cities. The population is esti¬
mated at 27,000,000. • fl)urch-
CHANT (cantus) is used for the vocal "F81^ ‘ ^
es. In church history we meet with divers kuids of A _
or sof/ys. The first is the Ambrosian, established 1 y o Pnnft
CHANG, an extensive province of Thibet, extending brose ; the second is^he ^hools of chanters,
along the north side of the Himalaya Mountains, and situ- Gregory the G eat, who establislie d m
ated between the twenty-eighth and thirtieth degrees of and corrected the church song. This is
C H A
;ha r
the church under the name of plain song ; at first it was
called the Roman song. The plain or Gregorian chant is
where the choir and people sing in unison, or all together
in the same manner.
CHANTER, a singer of a choir in a cathedral. The
word is almost grown obsolete, chorister or singing-man
being commonly used instead of it. All great chapters
have chanters and chaplains to assist the canons, and offi¬
ciate in their absence.
Chanters, in the temple of Jerusalem, were a number
of Levites, employed in singing the praises of God, and
playing upon instruments before his altar. They had no
habits distinct from the rest of the people; yet in the ce¬
remony of removing the ark to Solomon’s temple, the chan¬
ters appeared dressed in tunics of byssus or fine linen.
CHANTILLY, a market-town of the department of the
Oise, in France, with 1600 inhabitants, some of whom are
employed in the linen manufacture, and in making lace
and cotton goods. Near to it was once the most magni¬
ficent palace in France, with stables and a park of great
celebrity. These premises have, however, suffered much
from neglect. It is situated on the great road from Calais
to Paris.
CHANTRY, or Chauntry, was anciently a church or
chapel endowed with lands, or other yearly revenue, for
the maintenance of one or more priests, daily saying or
singing mass for the souls of the donors, and such others
as they appointed. Hence chauntry-rents are rents paid
to the crown by the tenants or purchasers of chauntry-
lands.
CHAO-TCFIEOU-FOU, a city of China, in the pro¬
vince of Canton. It is of the second rank, and comprehends,
according to the policy of that empire, six others under
its jurisdiction. It is situated on a navigable river, which
is crossed by two bridges of boats, and is divided in the
neighbourhood into two branches. The city is surround¬
ed by ancient walls, and is irregularly built; its garrison,
which is considerable, is armed with matchlocks, bows,
and arrows. The town is not healthy, the inhabitants
being liable to a contagious disorder which is fatal to many.
There is a celebrated monastery in the neighbourhood,
the founder of which was as noted for austerity as his suc¬
cessors have been for the laxity of their manners. There
is here a manufacture of nankeen ; but the chief commerce
consists in a kind of oil extracted from the tcha-tchou,
which resembles the tea plant. It is estimated to contain
10,000 families, and is 232 miles from Canton.
CHAOLOGY, the history or description of the chaos.
CHAOS, that confusion in which matter lay when new¬
ly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the world,
before God, by his almighty word, had put it into the
order and condition which it assumed after the six days
creation. Chaos is represented by the ancients as the first
principle, ovum, or seed of nature and the world. All the
sophists, sages, naturalists, philosophers, theologues, and
poets, held that chaos was the eldest and first principle, ro
ccp/a/ov yuo;. The Barbarians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Per¬
sians, and many other nations, all refer the origin of the
world to a rude, mixed, confused mass of matter. The
Creeks, Orpheus, Hesiod, Menander, Aristophanes, Euri-
pides, and the writers of the Cyclic Poems, all speak of
the first chaos; while the Ionic and Platonic philosophers
built the world out of it. The Stoics held, that as the
world was first made of a chaos, it shall at last be reduced
to a chaos; and that its periods and revolutions in the
mean time are only transitions from one chaos to another.
Lastly, the Latins, as Ennius, Varro, Ovid, Lucretius, Sta¬
tius, &c. were all of the same opinion. Nor is there any
sect or nation whatsoever that does not derive their dia-
xogfinsig, the structure of the world, from a chaos.
C H A
319
The opinion first arose among the Barbarians, from whom
it spread to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the Ro¬
mans and other nations. Dr Burnet observes, that be¬
sides Aristotle and a few pseudo-Pythagoreans, nobody
ever asserted that our world was always from eternity of
the same nature, form, and structure, as at present; but
that it had been the standing opinion of the wise men of
all ages, that what we now call the earth was originally an
unformed, indigested mass of heterogeneous matter called
chaos, and no more than the rudiments and materials of
the present world.
It does not appear who first broached the notion of a
chaos. Moses, the eldest of all writers, derives the origin
of this world from a confusion of matter, dark, void, deep,
without form, which he calls tohu ho/iu, which is precisely7
the chaos of the Greek and Barbarian philosophers. Mo¬
ses goes no farther than the chaos, nor tells us whence it
took its origin, or whence arose its confused state; and
where Moses stops, there precisely do all the rest. Dr
Burnet endeavours to show, that as the ancient philoso¬
phers who wrote of the cosmogony7 acknowledged a chaos
as the principle of the world, so the divines, or writers of
the theogony, derive the origin or generation of their fa¬
bled gods from the same principle.
CHAPEAU, in Heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity7
w7orn by dukes, being scarlet-coloured velvet on the out¬
side, and lined with fur. It is frequently borne above a
helmet instead of a wreath, under gentlemen’s crests.
CHAPEL, a place of d ivine worship. The word is de¬
rived from the Latin capella. In former times, when the
kings of France were engaged in war, they7 always carried
St Martin’s hat into the field, which'was kept in a tent as
a precious relic; and hence the place was called capella,
and the priests who had the custody of the tent capellani.
Afterwards the word capella came to be applied to pri¬
vate oratories. /
In Britain there are several sorts of chapels. 1. Paro¬
chial chapels, which differ from parish churches only in
name ; they are generally small, and the inhabitants with¬
in the district few. If there be a presentation ad eccle-
siam instead of capellam, and an admission and institution
upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church. 2. Chapels
which adjoin to and form part of the church. These were
formerly built by honourable persons, as burydng-places
for themselves and their families. 3. Chapels of ease,
which are usually built in very large parishes, where all
the people cannot conveniently7 repair to the mother or
parochial church. 4. Free chapels, such as were founded
by kings of England. They are free from all episcopal ju¬
risdiction, and only to be visited by the founder and his
successors, which is done by the lord chancellor; yet the
king may license any subject to build and endow a cha¬
pel, and by letters patent exempt it from the visitation of
the ordinary7. 5. Chapels in the universities, belonging to
particular colleges. 6. Domestic chapels, built by noble¬
men or gentlemen for the private service of God in their
families.
Chapel is also a name given to a printer’s workhouse,
because, according to some authors, printing was first
actually performed in chapels or churches ; or, according
to others, because Caxton, an early printer, exercised the
art in one of the chapels in Westminster Abbey. In this
sense they7 say, the order or laws of the chapel, the secrets
of the chapel, and so forth.
Knights of the Chapel, called also Poor Knights of
Windsor, were instituted by Henry VIII. in his testament.
Their number was at first thirteen, but it has been since
augmented to twenty-six. They assist in the funeral ser¬
vices of the kings of England; they are subject to the
office of the canons of Windsor, and live on pensions as-
Chapeau
II
Chapel.
320
Chapel-en-
le-Frith
I!
Chaplain.
C H A
signed them by the order of the Garter. They vvear a
blue or red cloak, with the arms of St George on the lett
shoulder. • i i i i
Chapel-en-le-Frith, a market-town in the hundred
of High Peake, in Derbyshire, on the borders of Chester,
five miles from Buxton, and 166 from London. The mar¬
ket is held on Thursday. There are some cotton manufac¬
tures carried on in the town, and some lead mines near it.
The population amounted in 1821 to 3234, and in 1831 to
3220.
Chapel-Hill, a post-town of North America, in Orange
county, North Carolina, situated near the head of New
Hope Creek, a branch of the Haw. Ihis is the seat of
the university of North Carolina, which was incorporated
in 1793. The college buildings consist of a chapel, two
spacious edifices for the accommodation of students, and a
president’s house. The town is distant tvyenty-eight miles
west-north-west from Raleigh. Long. 79. 3. W. Lat 3o.
40-N- • -n i * r
CHAPELAIN, John, an eminent French poet, born
at Paris in 1595, and often mentioned in the works of
Balzac, Menage, and other learned men. He wrote seve¬
ral works, and distinguished himself by a heroic poem call¬
ed La Pucelle, ou France Ddivree, which employed him
several years, and which, the expectation of the public
being greatly raised, was as much decried by some as it
was extolled by others. He was one of the king’s coun¬
sellors, and died in 1647. Besides his Pucelle, published
in 1656, folio, Chapelain translated the Spanish romance
of Guzman dAlfarache, and wrote Paraphrase sur le Mi¬
serere, 1636, 4to ; several Odes ; and Melanges de Littera-
tures, including Memoire de [sur] quelques gens vivans en
1662, drawn up by order of Colbert.
CHAPELLE, Claudius Emanuel Luillier, the na¬
tural son of Francis Luillier, took the name of Chapelle
from a village between Paris and St Denys, wheie he was
born. He distinguished himself by writing small pieces
of poetry, in which he discovered great delicacy, an easy
turn, and an admirable felicity of expression. He was the
friend of Gassendi and Moliere, and died in 16S6.
CHAPERON, Chaperonne, or Chaperoon, properly
signifies a sort of hood or covering for the head, anciently
worn both by men and women, the nobles and the popu¬
lace, and afterwards appropriated to the doctors and licen¬
tiates in colleges. Hence the name passed to certain little
shields, and other funeral devices, placed on the foreheads
of horses which drew the hearses in pompous funerals, and
which are still called chaperoons or shafferoons, because
such devices were originally fastened on the chaperonnes
or hoods worn by those horses with their other coverings
of state.
CHAPLAIN properly signifies a person provided with
a chapel, or who discharges the duty thereof.
Chaplain is also used for an ecclesiastical person in
the house of a prince, or a person of quality, who officiates
in their chapels, and performs other clerical duties.
In England there are forty-eight chaplains to the king,
who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the
service to the family, and to the king in his private ora¬
tory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk ol the closet.
While in waiting they have a table and attendance, but no
salary. In Scotland the king has six chaplains, with a
salary of L.50 each, three of them having in addition the
deanery of the chapel-royal divided among them, mak¬
ing up above L.100 to each. The only duty at present is
to say prayers at the election of representative peers for
Scotland.
Chaplains of the Pope are the auditors or judges of
cause in the sacred palace; so called, because the pope
jinciently gave audience in his chapel, for the decision of
C H A
causes sent from the several parts of Christendom. He Chi,
summoned hither as assessors the most learned lawyers of |
his time, who hence acquired the appellation of capellani, ^1
chaplains. It is from the decrees formerly pronounced ^
by these assessors that the body of Decretals is composed:
Pope Sixtus IV. reduced their number to twelve. Some
say the shrines of relics were covered with a kind of tent-
cape, or capella, that is, little cape; and that hence the
priests, who had the care of them, were called chaplains.
In time these relics were deposited in a little church,
either contiguous to a larger, or separate from it; and the
same name, capella, which was given to the cover, was also
applied to the place where it was lodged; and hence the
priest who superintended it came to be called chaplain.
CHAPLET, an ancient ornament for the head, like a
garland or wreath; but this word is frequently used to
signify the circle of a crown. There are instances of its
being borne in a coat of arms, as well as for crests. The
paternal arms for Lascelles are argent, three chaplets,
gules.
Chaplet also denotes a string of beads used by the
Roman Catholics to count the number of their prayers.
The invention of it is ascribed to Peter the hermit, who
probably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it to the
East Indians.
Chaplets are sometimes cdAeApaternosters, and are made
of coral, diamonds, wood, and other substances. The com¬
mon chaplet contains fifty ave-marias and five paternos¬
ters. There is also a chaplet of our Saviour, consisting
of thirty-three beads, in honour of his thirty-three years
life on the earth, instituted by Father Michael the Camal-
dulian.
The orientals have a kind of chaplets which they call
chains, and use in their prayers, rehearsing one ol the
perfections of God on each link or head.
CHAPMAN, George, born in 1557, was a man highly
esteemed in his time for his dramatic and poetic works.
He wrote seventeen plays, translated Homer and some
other ancient poets, and was thought no mean genius. He
died in 1634, and was buried in St Giles’s in the Fields,
where his friend Inigo Jones erected a monument to his
memory.
CHAPPE, in Heraldry, the dividing of an escutcheon,
by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to the
angles below, into three parts, the sections on the sides
being of different metal or colour from the rest.
CHAPPEL, William, a learned and pious bishop of
Cork, Cloyne, and Ross, in Ireland, was born in Netting-
hamshire in 1582. When the troubles began under Charles
I. he was prosecuted by the puritan party in parliament,
and retired to Derby, where he devoted himself to study
till his death in 1649. He wrote Methodus Concionundi,
or the Method of Preaching; and he is one of those to
whom the Whole Duty of Man has been attributed. He
left behind him also his own life, written by himself in
Latin, which has been twice printed.
CHAPTAL, Jean Antoine Claude, count of Cnan-
teloup, was born at Nosaret, in France, in the year 17jo.
He early devoted himself to the study of the sciences and
medicine, and soon distinguished himself as
At the assault upon the citadel of Montpellier in 179b ne
rendered himself conspicuous as a revolutionist. His ame
as a chemist had become so great, that he was calle o
Paris in 1793 to assist in the manufacture of gunpowder,
a commodity much wanted at that troublous peiioc. y
his chemical knowledge and activity in the extensive ac
tory at Grenoble, he was enabled to supply the c eman ’
by the production of 3500 pounds per day. In the ye
following he returned to Montpellier, and receiveda P a
in the administration of the department of the Herau >
C H A
with the professorship of chemistry, which had been
founded there for him. He was made a member of the
• Institute in 1798, and having favoured the revolution of
' the 18th Brumaire, he was in 1799 appointed a counsellor
of state by the first consul, and in the year following mi¬
nister of the interior, in which capacity he greatly encou¬
raged the arts and sciences, and established a chemical
manufactory in the vicinity of Paris. In 1804 he fell into
disgrace; the reason assigned for this is, that he refused
to state in one of his official reports that beet-root sugar
was better than that prepared from the sugar-cane. In
1805, however, the emperor bestowed on him the grand
cross of the legion of honour, and a seat in the conserva¬
tive senate. On Napoleon’s- return from Elba he was ap¬
pointed director general of commerce and manufactures,
and a minister of state. After the restoration of the king
he retired to private life, and entered into negotiations
with the Princess of Orleans relative to Chanteloup, which
had formerly belonged to her. In March 1816 the king
nominated him a member of the Academy of Sciences.
The various vicissitudes of fortune which he underwent
never diverted his attention from the arts and sciences,
which he continued to promote and encourage till his
death, which took place at Paris in August 1832.
Chaptal was director of two chemical manufactories, at
Montpellier and Neuilly. He discovered the application
of old wool instead of oil in the preparation of soap, and
the mode of dying cotton with Turkish red. He invented
several kinds of cement and artificial puzzolanas, by means
of native calcined ochre, as also new varnishes for earthen¬
ware, without the use of lead ores or plumbago; and he
extended the application of chemical agents in bleaching.
Chaptal made no great or brilliant discoveries in chemis¬
try like Black or Davy, but he was eminently distinguish¬
ed as a practical chemist; and his new applications of
known truths have greatly increased the obligations which
the arts lie under to science. His works are numerous,
and of high authority. Elemens de Chimie, 3 vols. 8vo,
1790; Trade sur le Saltpetre, 8vo, 1796 ; Essai sur le Per-
fectionnement des Arts Chimiques en France, 8vo, 1800;
Art defaire, de gouverner, et de perfectionner, les Vins, 1 voL
8vo, 1801; Traite Tlieorique et Pratique sur la Culture de
la Vigne, avec lart defaire le Vin, les Eaux de Vie, Esprit
de Vins et Vinaigres, 2 vols. 8vo, 1801; Essai sur le Blan-
chiment, 1801; Chimie appliquee aux Arts, 4 vols. 8vo, 1807;
Artde la Teinture du Coton en rouge, 8vo, 1807 ; Art du
Teinturier et du Degraisseur, 8vo, 1800; De TIndustrie
rran^aise, 2 vols. 8vo, 1819; Memoire sur le Sucre de
Betteraves, 8vo; Chimie appliquee d l Agriculture, 2 vols.
8vo, 1823.
CHAI TER, in ecclesiastical polity, a society or com¬
munity of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals and col¬
legiate churches.
It was in the eighth century that the body of canons
egan to be called a chapter. The chapter of the canons
ot a cathedral was a standing council to the bishop, and,
ounng the vacancy of the see, had the jurisdiction of the
mcese. In the earlier ages the bishop was head of the
c aP*er ’ afterwards abbots and other dignitaries, as deans,
provosts, and treasurers, were preferred to this distinction,
i.f eans and chapters had the privilege of choosing the
is ops in England; but Henry VIII. got this power vest-
m t ie crown; and as the same prince expelled the
on s from the cathedrals, and placed secular canons in
eir roorn, those whom he thus regulated were called
eans and chapters of the new foundation, such as Canter-
^gWmchester, Ely, Carlisle, &c.
fiffur ,RACTER, in a general sense, signifies a mark or
a np6’ r^Wn °n P.aPer’ metai> stone, or other matter, with
vot> S'aver, chisel, or other instrument, to signify or
C H A
321
denote any thing. The word is Greek, yragaxrqg, formed Character,
from the verb yagacKSuv, inscidpere, to engrave or impress,
The various kinds of characters may he reduced to
three heads, viz. Literal Characters, Numeral Characters,
and Abbreviations.
I. Literal Character is a letter of the alphabet, serving
to indicate some articulate sound.
1. These may be divided, with regard to their nature
and use, into Nominal Characters, or those we properly
call letters, which serve to express the names of things ;
Peal Characters, those that instead of names express things
and ideas ; Emblematical or Symbolical Characters, which
have this in common with real ones, that they express the
things themselves, but, further, possess the peculiarity of
in some measure personating them, and exhibiting their
form, such as the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians.
2. Literal Characters may be again divided, with re¬
gard to their invention and use, into particular and gene¬
ral or universal.
Particidar Characters are those peculiar to this or that
nation, such as the Homan, Italic, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic,
Gothic, and Chinese characters.
_ Universal Characters are also real characters, and con¬
stitute what some authors call a Philosophical Language.
That diversity of characters used by several nations to
express the same idea is found the chief obstacle to the
advancement of learning. To remove this, several inge¬
nious thinkers have taken occasion to propose plans of
characters which should be universal, and which each peo¬
ple should read in their own language. The object is to
render character real, not nominal; to express things and
notions, not letters or sounds; yet to be mute like letters,
and arbitrary, not emblematical, like hieroglyphics. Thus,
every nation would retain its own language, yet every one
would understand that of every other without learning it,
only by seeing a real or universal character, which should
signify the same thing to all people, by what sounds soever
it might be expressed in their particular idiom. For in¬
stance, by seeing the character destined to signify to drink,
an Englishman would read to drink ; a Frenchman, boire ;
a Latin, bibere; a Greek, ‘mvnv, a Jew, not?; a German,
trincken, and so of the rest; in the same manner as seeing
a horse, each people would express it after their own man¬
ner, but all would mean the same animal.
The first and most considerable attempts at a real cha¬
racter, or philosophical language, in Europe, are those of
Bishop Wilkins and Dalgarno ; but they proved wholly in¬
effectual. M. Leibnitz, indeed, thought that those inge¬
nious men did not hit the right method. It was probable,
indeed, that by their contrivance people who do not un¬
derstand one another might easily have a commerce toge¬
ther ; but they have not hit on true real characters. Ac¬
cording to him, the characters should resemble those used
in algebra, which, in effect, are very simple, yet very ex¬
pressive, without any thing superfluous or equivocal, and
contain all the varieties required. M. Lodwic, in the Phi¬
losophical Transactions, gives us a plan of an universal al¬
phabet or character of another description. This was to
contain an enumeration of all such single sounds or letters
as are used in any language, by means of which people
should be enabled to pronounce truly and readily any lan¬
guage ; to describe the pronunciation of any language
that might be pronounced in their hearing, so that others
accustomed to this language, though they had never heard
it pronounced, should at first be able truly to pronounce it;
and, lastly, this character was to serve as a standard to
perpetuate the sounds of any language.
A new universal character was proposed by Mr North-
more of London, by which different nations might commu¬
nicate their sentiments to each other. His original plan
2 s
322
Character, was to make the same numerical figure represent the same
word in all languages. But he found afterwards that it
might be improved by using a figure, not for every woi d,
CHARACTER,
word horse, he would not, in the universal language, call aC^L
horse six thousand nine hundred and forti/-i/tree, but six, W';
nine, four, three; and so on for all the words of a sentence,
making the proper stop at the end of each. In the same
manner, a distinct appellation must be appropriated to
will explain the author’s meaning
Suppose the number 5 to represent the word see,
0  a man,
7’”’  happy,
   never,
  L .
“ I would then,” says he, “ express the tenses, genders,
cases, &c. in all languages^ in some such uniform manner
as the following:
but for every useful word. And even these, he thinks,
might be abbreviated by adopting certain u™ x!p ~f t}ie prefixed signs, to be pronounced immediately
signs, the number of winch after the numeral of which it is an appendage. Therefore!
the various parts of speech. \\ 01 ^ instaices if plu be the appellation or the sign of the plural number,
posed to be expressed by a prefixed srgn. A few instances ^ “s^/oar, tL*, pin, will be W
“ Thus,” says our author, “ I hope it is evident that
about thirty or forty distinct syllables are sufficient for the
above purpose ; but I am much mistaken it eleven only
will not answer the same end. This is to be done by sub¬
stituting the first twenty or thirty numerals for the signs,
and saying, as in algebra, that a term is in the power of
such a number, which may be expressed by the simple
word under. For example, let 6943 represent the word
horse, and suppose 4 to be the sign of the plural number, 1
would write the word thus, and pronounce it six, nine,
four, three, in the power of or under four. By these means
eleven distinct appellations would be sufficient, and time
and use would much abbreviate the pronunciation.
3. Literal characters may again be divided, with refer¬
ence to the nations among whom they have been invented,
into Greek characters, Roman characters, Hebrew charac¬
ters, and the like. The Latin character now used through¬
out all Europe was formed from the Greek, as the Greek
was formed from the Phoenician; and the I hcenician, as
well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic characters, were
formed from the ancient Hebrew, which subsisted till the
Babylonish captivity; for after that event the character
of the Assyrians, which is the square Hebrew now in use,
prevailed, the ancient being only found on some Hebrew
medals, commonly called Samaritan medals. It was in
1091 that the Gothic characters, invented by Ulphilas,
were abolished, and the Latin ones established in their
5
.5
:5
5:
5.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6) .
CO :
(8)
(9) .
(10)
(n)
(12)+6
(IS) 7
(14) 7
AY
(15)
= =
6 =
6 =
6 =
6" —
a woman.
present tense  see-
perfect tense  saw.
perfect participle  seen.
present participle seeing.
future  see’
substantive  sight.
personal substantive  spectator
nominative case  a man.
genitive a man.
dative.^    a man‘
feminine. 
plural  men.
positive happy.
7 — comparative  happier.
7 — superlative  happiest.
7 = as above, No. 6 happiness.
(16)—7 = negation  unhappy.
“ From the above specimen, I should find no difficulty
in comprehending the following sentence, though it were
written in the language of the Flottentots :
9) g5 ,55—7,1k / never saw a more unhappy woman.
“ Those languages which do not use the pronoun pre¬
fixed to the verb, as the Greek and Roman, may apply
it in a small character, simply to denominate the person ;
thus, instead of 9, 8, .5, I never saw, they may write 8, 9.5,
which will signify that the verb is in the first person, and
will still have the same meaning.”
Our author thinks, that according to this scheme of an
universal character, about twenty signs, and less than
10,000 chosen words, synonyms being set aside, would
answer all the ends proposed ; and that foreigners, by re¬
ferring to their numerical dictionary, would easily com¬
prehend each other. He proceeds next to show how ap¬
propriate sounds may be given to his signs, and an univer¬
sal living language formed from the universal characters.
With this view he proposes to distinguish the ten nu¬
merals by ten monosyllabic names of easy pronunciation,
or such as may without difficulty run into one another.
To illustrate his scheme, however, he calls them, for the
present, by their common English names, but suggests that
each number made use of should be pronounced by uttex--
ing separately its component parts, after the manner of
accountants. Thus, let the number 6943 represent the
A WW1AI# . •
Medallists observe that the Greek character, consisting
only of majuscule letters, has preserved its uniformity on
all medals as low as the time of Gallienus, after which it
appears somewhat weaker and rounder. From the time
of Constantine to that of Michael we find only Latin cha¬
racters ; after the time of Michael the Greek characters re¬
commence ; but from that period they began to alter with
the language, which was a mixtui-e of Greek and Latin.
The Latin medals preserved both their characters and an-
guage as late as the translation of the seat of the empire
to Constantinople. Towards the time of Deems the cha¬
racter began to lose its roundness and beauty; but some
time afterwards it retrieved, and subsisted tolerably tin tne
time of Justin, when it degenerated gradually into the l -
thic. The rounder, then, and better-formed a character
is upon a medal, the fairer pretence it has to
II. Numeral Characters, or characters used to express
numbers, are either letters or figures.
The Arabic character, called also the common one, -
cause it is used almost throughout Europe in all sorts 0
calculations, consists of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, ’
The Roman numeral character consists of seven majus
cule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, -A, L, > ’
M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten, L fifty, ^ a
dred, D five hundred, and M a thousand. Hie P
ed twice makes two, II; thrice, three, I • our ‘
pressed thus, IV, as I before V or X takes an unit rom
the number expressed by these letters. 10 expres ^
I is added to a V, thus, VI; for seven, two, VI!; a a ^
eight, three, VIII. Nine is expressed by an 1 . fore
The same remark may be made of the X vT
thus, IX. .. .
L or C, except that the diminution is by tens;
thus, XL
hai sr.
CHARACTER.
denotes forty, XC ninety, and LX sixty. The C before
D or M diminishes each by a hundred. The number five
hundred is sometimes expressed by an I before a C invert¬
ed, thus, 10 ; and instead of M, which signifies a thousand,
an I is sometimes used between two C’s, the one direct
and the other inverted, thus, CIO. The addition of C and
0 before or after raises CIO by tens; thus, CCIOO ex¬
presses ten thousand, CCCIOOO a hundred thousand.
The Romans also expressed any number of thousands by
a line drawn over any numeral less than a thousand ; thus,
y denotes five thousand, lx sixty thousand; so likewise
jyf is one million, MM is two millions, and so on.
The Greeks had three ways of expressing numbers:
1. Every letter, according to its place in the alphabet, de-
’ apostrophe
emphasis or accent
w breve
•• dialysis
A caret and circumflex
f ^ and * references
§ section or division
paragraph
“ quotation
LL. D. doctor of laws
J. U. D. doctor of civil and
canon law
M. D. doctor in physic
A. M. master of arts
A. B. bachelor of arts
F. R. S. fellow of the royal
society
323
Character.
Characters among the ancient Lawyers, and in ancient In¬
scriptions.
§ paragraph
noted a number, from a, one, to «, twenty-four. 2. The ^^igests
alphabet was divided into eight units, a one, /3 two, y
three, &c.; into eight tens, i ten, x twenty, X thirty, &c.;
and eight hundreds, g one hundred, o' two hundred, r three
hundred, &c. 3. I stood for one, II five, A ten, H a
hundred, X a thousand, M ten thousand; and when the
latter n inclosed any of these, except I, it showed the
inclosed letter to be five times its value; as, |A| fifty, |llj
five hundred, lx| five thousand, |Ml fifty thousand.
III. Characters of Abbreviations, &c. in several of
the arts, are symbols contrived for the more concise and
immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things.
d or S Conjunction
SS Semisextile
* Sextile
Q Quintile
□ Quartile
Td Tredecile
Of the Aspects.
A Trine
Bq Biquintile
Vc Quincunx
0° Opposition
Sb Dragon’s head
T) Dragon’s tail
Of Time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the sun comes upon the me¬
ridian.
O. or N. noon.
P. M. post meridiem, when the sun is past the meridian.
Characters in Commerce.
S or s, shillings
d, pence or deniers
lb pound weight
R° recto j ^
vro r tolio
V° vero J J
Rx rixdollar
D* ducat
P. S. postscript, &c.
D° ditto, the same
N° numero, or number
folio, or page
C or 0 hundredweight,
or 112 pounds
qts quarters
L. or l. pounds sterling
pr per or by, pr arm.
by the year, pr cent.
Characters in Geometry and Trigonometry.
|| the character of parallel- Z equiangular or similar
ism _2_ equilateral
A triangle ^ an angle
□ square /_ right angle
D [III rectangle _L perpendicular
0 circle
0 denotes a degree; thus, 45° implies 45 degrees.
' denotes a minute ; thus, 50' is 50 minutes. ", de¬
note seconds, thirds, and fourths; and the same charac¬
ters are used when the progressions are by tens, as it is
here by sixties.
Characters in Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, fyc.
() parenthesis D. D. doctor in divinity
[] crotchet V. D. M. minister of the word
‘hyphen of God
Scto. senatus consulto
E. extra
S. P. Q. R. senatus populus^
que Romanus
P. P. pater patriae
C. code
C. C. consvdes
T. titulus
P. P. D. D. propria pecunia
dedicavit
D. D. M. dono dedit monu-
mentum
Characters in Medicine and Pharmacy.
^ recipe
d, dd, or ana, of each alike
lb a pound, or pint
^ an ounce
3 a drachm
3 a scruple
gr. grains
E or/s half of any thing
cong. congius, a gallon
coch. cochleare, a spoonful
M. manipulus, a handful
P. a pugil
P. JE. equal quantities
S. A. according to art
q. s. a sufficient quantity
q. pi. as much as you please
P. P. pulvis patrum, the Je¬
suits’ bark
Characters upon Tombstones.
S. V. Siste viator, i. e. stop traveller.
M. S. Memorise sacrum, i. e. sacred to the memory.
D. M. Diis manibus.
J. H. S. Jesus.
X. P. a character found in the catacombs, about the mean¬
ing of which authors are not agreed.
Characters used in Music, and of Musical Notes with their
proportions, are as follows :
character of a large 8
a long 4
a breve 2
a semibreve 1
crotchet  I
quaver  ^
semiquaver -Jg-
demisemiquaver 
H
H
o
character of a sharp note; this character at the be¬
ginning of a line or space denotes that all the notes in that
line are to be taken a semitone higher than in the natural
series ; and the same affects all the octaves above and be¬
low, though not marked ; but when prefixed to any parti¬
cular note, it shows that note alone to be taken a semi¬
tone higher than it would be without such a character.
b or b, character of a flat note. This is the contrary to
the other above ; that is, a semitone lower.
tj character of a natural note. When in a line or series
of artificial notes marked at the beginning b or i^:, the
natural note happens to be required, it is denoted by this
character.
character of the treble cliff,
tj character of the mean cliff.
£); bass cliff.
! or characters of common duple time, signifying the
324 x C IT A
Character, measure of two crotchets to be equal to two notes, of
w-y-'w' which four make a semibreve.
C vj) characters that distinguish the movements
of common time, the first implying slow, the second quick,
and the third very quick.
i characters of simple triple time, the mea¬
sure of which is equal to three semibreves, or to three
minims. # ... , i
lb or tV) characters of a mixed triple time, where the
measure is equal to six crotchets or six quaveis.
9p or §, or or f, or f, characters of compound tri¬
ple time. . _
T2’ T2> If’ or T2» or T2’ characters of that species of
triple time called the measure of twelve times.
Character, in human life, that which is peculiar in
the manners of any person, and distinguishes him from all
others.
Character, in Poetry, particularly the epopee and dra¬
ma, is the effect or result of the manners or peculiarities
by which each person is distinguished from others.
The poetical character is not properly any particular
virtue or quality, but a composition of several which are
mixed together in different degrees, according to the ne¬
cessity of the fable and the unity of the action ; there must
be one, however, to reign over all the rest, and this must
be found, in some degree, in every part. The first quality
in Achilles is wrath, in Ulysses dissimulation, and in Aineas
mildness ; but as these characters cannot stand alone, they
must be accompanied with others to embellish them, as far
as they are capable, either by hiding their defects, as in the
anger*of Achilles, which is palliated by extraordinary va¬
lour ; or by making them centre in some solid virtue, as in
Ulysses, whose dissimulation constitutes part of his pru¬
dence ; and in vEneas, whose mildness is employed in sub¬
mission to the will of the gods. In the making up of this
union, it is to be observed, that the poets have joined to¬
gether such qualities as are by nature the most compa¬
tible; valour with anger, piety with mildness, and pru¬
dence with dissimulation. The fable required prudence in
Ulysses and piety in JEneas; in this, therefore, the poets
were not left to their own choice. But Homer might have
made Achilles a coward without abating any thing from
the justness of his fable ; and it was only the necessity of
adorning his character that obliged him to make him va¬
liant. The character, then, of a hero in the epic poem is
compounded of three sorts of qualities ; the first essential
to the fable, the second embellishments of the first, while
valour, which sustains the other two, constitutes the third.
Unity of character is as necessary as the unity of the
fable. For this purpose a person should be the same from
the beginning to the end; not that he is always to betray
identical sentiments, or one passion; but that he should
never speak nor act inconsistently with his fundamental
character. For instance, the weak may sometimes burst
into warmth, and the breast of the passionate may be calm;
a change which often introduces into the drama a very
affecting variety : but if the natural disposition of the for¬
mer were to be represented as boisterous, and that of the
latter as mild and soft, they would both act out of charac¬
ter, and contradict their personality.
True characters are such as we actually see in men, or
as may exist without any contradiction to nature. No man
questions but there have been men as generous and as
good .as iEneas, as passionate and as violent as Achilles,
as prudent and as wise as Ulysses, as impious and atheis¬
tical as Mezentius, and as amorous and passionate as Dido.
All these characters, therefore, are true, and nothing but
just imitations of nature. On the contrary, a character is
false when the author so feigns it that one can see nothing
C H A
like it in the order of nature in which he designs it shall Chat
stand. Such characters should be wholly excluded from W,
a poem, because, transgressing the bounds of probability
and reason, they meet with no belief from the reader.
They are fictions of the poet’s brain, not imitations of na¬
ture ; and yet all poetry consists of an imitation of nature.
CHARADE, the name of a fanciful species of compo¬
sition or literary amusement. It owes its name to the
idler who invented it. Its subject must be a word of two
syllables, each forming a distinct word; and these two syl-
lables are to be concealed in an enigmatical description,
first separately, and then together. The exercise of cha¬
rades, if not greatly instructive, is at least innocent and
amusing. Most of those which have appeared from time to
time are not only destitute of all pleasantry, but are form¬
ed in general of words utterly unfit for the purpose. In
trifles of this nature inaccuracy is without excuse. The
following examples, therefore, are at least free from this
blemish.
1, My first, however here abused,
Designs the sex alone ;
In Cambria, such is custom’s pow’r,
’Tis Jenkin, John, or Joan.
My second, oil is loudly call’d,
When men prepare to fist it;
Its name delights the female ear ;
Its force, may none resist it:
It binds the weak, it binds the strong,
The wealthy and the poor;
Still ’tis to joy a passport deem’d,
For sullied fame a cure.
It may insure an age of bliss,
Yet mis’ries oft attend it;
To fingers, ears, and noses too,
Its various lords commend it.
My •whole may chance to make one drink,
Though vended in a fish shop ;
’Tis now the monarch of the seas.
And has been an archbishop. Her-ring.
2. My Jirst, when a Frenchman is learning English,
serves him to swear by. My second is either hay or corn.
My whole is the delight of the present age, and will be the
admiration of posterity. Gar-rich.
3. My first is ploughed for various reasons, and grain is
frequently buried in it to little purpose. My second is
neither riches nor honours, yet the former would gene¬
rally be given for it, and the latter is often tasteless with¬
out it. My whole applies equally to spring, summer, au¬
tumn, and winter ; and both fish and flesh, praise and cen¬
sure, mirth and melancholy, are the better for being in it.
Season.
4. My first, with the most rooted antipathy to a Hench¬
man, prides himself, whenever they meet, umm sticking
close to his jacket. My second has many virtues, nor is
it its least that it gives name to my first. My whole may
I never catch ! Tar-tar.
5. My first is one of England’s prime boasts; it re¬
joices the ear of a horse, and anguishes the toe of a man.
My second, when brick, is good; when stone, better ; when
ivooden, best of all. My whole is famous alike for rotten¬
ness and tin. Corn-wall.
G. My Jirst is called bad or good,
May pleasure or offend ye ;
My second, in a thirsty mood,
May very much befriend ye.
My ■whole, though styled a “ cruel word,”
May yet appear a kind one;
It often may with joy be heard,
With tears may often blind one. Fare-well.
7. My first is equally friendly to the thief and the loyer,
the toper and the student. My second is light s opposite,
yet they are frequently seen hand in hand; and t ei
C H A
i union, if judicious, gives much pleasure. My whole is
tempting to the touch, grateful to the sight, but fatal to
• the taste. Nightshade.
/ CHARAIMS, a sect of the Jews in Egypt. They live
by themselves, and have a separate synagogue; and as the
other Jews are remarkable for their eyes, so are the Cha-
raims for their large noses, which run through all the fa¬
milies of this sect. They are the ancient Essenes, and
strictly observe the five books of Moses according to the
letter, receiving no written traditions. It is said that the
other Jews would join the Charaims ; but the former not
observing the exact rules of the law with regard to divor¬
ces, the latter think they live in adultery.
CHARAK, Jsjarak, or Charrack, formerly a port
of consequence, situated on the sea-shore of the Persian
Gulf,-in the province of Laristan. It stands at the foot of
a mountain, opposite the island of Ken, and is now a small
town.
CHARAMAKOTAN, one of the Kurile islands, in the
Northern Pacific Ocean, separated from the island Onne-
kostan by a channel eight miles wide. Long. 155. 0. E.
Lat. 49. 59. N.
CHARCOAL. When vegetable substances are sub¬
jected to a strong heat in the apparatus for distillation,
the fixed residue is called charcoal. Charcoal is made in
various ways. For general use it is obtained by building
up pieces of wood in a pyramidal form, then covering the
pile with earth or clay, leaving a few air-holes, which are
closed when the mass is lighted, in order that combustion
may proceed in a slow and imperfect manner. Charcoal
of a very superior kind is made in the forest of Benon, near
Rochelle, where great attention is paid to its manufacture.
Black oak from ten to fifteen years old is cut into billets
of about four feet in length, which are built up as above
described, and, before being inclosed in the clay or earth,
covered over to the depth of four inches with dry grass
or fern. W hen the mass is charred, great care is taken
to extinguish ignition, because if exposed too soon to the
atmosphere, combustion goes on, and this is not put a stop
to without difficulty. Accordingly, to obviate this, a bar¬
rel of water is throvyn over the pile, and earth to the thick¬
ness of five or six inches is spread on it, after which it is
lelt tor twenty-four hours to cool. Charcoal is also made
on a great scale in the following manner. A series of cast-
ron cylinders, about four feet in diameter and six feet in
length, are built horizontally into brick work, so that the
’ time of one furnace may play round about two cjdinders.
ie ends are made to project from the brick work, and
oth are closed with discs of iron. From the centre of one
0 t“esf an *ron tube proceeds, and enters at a right angle
t ie main tube of refrigeration. The vapour which is con-
(ensed in tlfis vessel is a strong vinegar called pyrolig-
nous acid. The tubes, of course, are filled with wood cut
i‘P into billets. Fire is applied during the day; all night
t ey are allowed to cool, and next morning the charge is
urann. Care is taken to prevent the access of air, both
winie the jvood is charring and after it has begun to cool.
ten chaicoal is wanted for the manufacture of gunpow-
necessary that the whole of the vinegar and tar
siould be allowed to escape, and that the re-absorption of
l1e !aPaurs should be prevented, by cutting off the com-
iiunication between the interior of the cylinder and the ap-
Lrr or.con^ens‘ng the pyrolignous acid, after the fire
Ji8 D.een withdrawn from the furnace. Unless this precau-
*1 ^^a^en’ gunpowder manufactured with the char-
nnrnlT1 cG 'nheri°r quality. Mr Mushet has made a
i’ll e.T 0 suable experiments respecting charcoal. The
e W.ln§ 18 his table of results, reduced to 100 parts, from
wood^mentS °n °ne Pounc^ avoirdupois of various kinds of
c H A 325
Oak  .!:7fr895"'...2M82. 0-423
 81-260 17-972  0-768 chJente.
Norway Pine 80-441 19-204 0-355
Mahogany 73-528 25-492 0-980
Sycamore 79-20  19-734 1-066
Holly 78-92  19-918 1-162
Scotch Pine 83-095 16-456 0-449
Beech 79-104 19-941 0-955
Elm 79-655 19-574 0-761
Walnut 78-521 20-663 0-816
American Maple 79-331 19-901 0-768
American Black Beech 77-512 21-445 1-033
Lab urn urn 74-234 24-586 1-180
Lignum Vitae 72-643 26-857 0-500
Sallow  80-371 18-497 1-132
Chestnut 76-304 23-280 0-416
MM. Clement and Desormes state that wood contains
one half its weight of charcoal. We are informed by M.
Proust that good pit-coals afford 70, 75, or 80 per cent, of
charcoal, which leaves of ashes after combustion only two
or three parts in the hundred. This species is much used
in Great Britain under the name of coke. Turf or peat
has been lately charred in France by a peculiar process. It
is considered as superior to that obtained from wood. It
kindles more slowly, but emits more flame, and burns
longer than the other. Gold fused by it retains its malle¬
ability ; and this property is increased in iron heated red
hot by it in a forge.
Charcoal is black, sonorous, and brittle, and generally
retains the figure of the vegetable from which it was ob¬
tained. The charcoal produced from oily or bituminous
substances is of a light pulverulent form, and rises in the
form of soot. 4 his charcoal of oils is well know n in the
arts under the name of lamp black. For an account of the
chemical and other properties of charcoal, see Chemis¬
try, where it w ill be found treated of under the scientific
appellation Carbon. (Lire’s Dictionary of Chemistry; Til-
lock’s Magazine, vols. iii. and viii.)
CHARD, a market-town of the hundred of Kingsbury,
in the county of Somerset, 143 miles from London. It is
pleasantly situated, and well built. Several clear streams
run through the principal streets. It has an excellent
market on Monday; and of late years it has increased, in
consequence of the construction of some large machines
for weaving lace, which gives employment to an augment¬
ed population. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to
2932, in 1821 to 3106, and in 1831 to 5141.
CHARDIN, Sir John, a celebrated traveller, was born
at Paris in 1643. His father, who wras a jeweller, caused
him to be educated in the Protestant religion, after which
he travelled into Persia and India. He traded in jewels,
and died at London in 1713. The account he wrote of his
travels in the above-mentioned regions is much esteemed ;
and in it Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon, Helvetius, and
other philosophers studied the political sj'stem of Persia,
and acquired a positive knowledge of despotic government,
which they have so forcibly characterized.
CHARENTE, a department of France, formed out of
a large portion of the ancient Angoumois and parts of
Saintonge and Limousin. The extent is 2280 square
miles, or, according to the royal almanack, 588,803 hec¬
tares. It is bounded on the north by the departments of
the Two Sevres and of the Vienne, on the east by the
departments of Upper Vienne and Dordogne, on the south
by Dordogne and the Low'er Charente, and on the west
by the latter department.
I he face of the country is undulating, but nowhere in
any degree mountainous. The soil is chiefly calcareous,
326
C H A
Charente dry, and warm, and on many of the hills is mixed with large
C Lowe/’ deposits of sea-shells and other organic remains. The cl -
II mate is the most agreeable, and considered as the most
Charged, healthful in France. The cultivation of the vine has the
precedence of agriculture in this department, and one
third of the land is appropriated to that object. 1 lie best
wine districts are those of Cognac and Angouleme, in both
which red and white wines are very extensively produced,
and the latter are chiefly applied to the preparation o
brandies. Each peasant has his small distillery; and the
value of the brandy exported is estimated to amount to four
millions of francs annually. The corn consists of wheat, rye,
maize, barley, and oats, but is scarcely sufficient for the
consumption ; besides the grain, some hemp, flax, saffion,
and linseed are regularly supplied. ^ There are some mines
of iron, and the metal they yield is of good quality; the
product is about 1100 tons annually. The inhabitants
amount to 326,855, of whom about 9000 are Protestants.
It is divided into five arrondissements, twenty-nine can¬
tons, and 455 communes. The chief place is the city ot
Angoukme.^, a department 0f France, formed
out of the ancient district of Annis and a part of ^ain‘
tonge. It is bounded on the north by La Vendee, on t ic
north-east by the Two Sevres, on the east by the Cha-
rente, on the south by the departments of Dordogne and
Gironde, and on the west by the Gironde and the ocean.
The extent is 2866 square miles, or, according to the royal
almanack, 716,814 hectares. The face of the country is
an undulated plain. On the sea-coast the soil is marshy
and rich ; in the interior, but especially towards the east
part, the land is either sandy or chalky. The climate is mild,
and, except on the marshy sea shore, healthy. Agriculture
is in a neglected state, and in years of average fertility
barely produces corn sufficient for the consumption of half
the inhabitants. On the meadows many cows are bred, and
on the other parts are large flocks of sheep. The depart¬
ment produces both red and white wine beyond its own
demand. One of the chief articles of commerce in the de¬
partment is salt. This is made in the summer by natural
evaporation ; and the quantity furnished amounts, in waim
seasons, to upwards of 30,000 tons. These operations are
carried on in the arrondissements of Rochelle, Rochefort,
and Marennes, and on the island of Oleron. 1 he exports
consist, besides salt, of wine, brandy, vinegar, fruit, hemp,
flax-seed, and cattle. There are few manufactures, and
these of coarse linen or woollen for domestic use. I he in¬
habitants amount to 406,579. I he capital is Rochelle.
CHARES, the Lydian, a celebrated statuary, was the
disciple of Lysippus, and made the famous Colossus of
the sun in the city of Rhodes. He flourished 288 years
before Christ.
CHARGE, in Gunnery, the quantity of powder and
ball with which a gun is loaded for execution.
Charge, in Heraldry, is applied to the figures repre¬
sented on the escutcheon, by which the bearers are dis¬
tinguished from one another; and it is to be observed
that too many charges are not so honourable as a smaller
number. ...
Charge of Lead denotes a quantity of thirty-six pigs.
Charge, in Law, denotes the instructions given to the
jury, with respect to the articles of their inquiry, by the
judge who presides on the bench.
CHARGED, in Heraldry. A shield carrying some im¬
press or figure is said to be charged with it; so also, when
one bearing, or charge, has another figure added to it, it
is properly said to be charged.
Charged, in electrical experiments, is when a phial,
pane of glass, or other electric substance, properly coated
on both sides, has a quantity of electricity communicated
C H A
to it; in which case the one side is always electrified po- q t
sitively, and the other negatively. U j
CHARIOT, a half coach, having only a seat behind,
with a stool before. The chariots of the ancients, chiefly
used in war, were called by the several names of bigee, trigee,
or quadrigae, according to the number of horses used to
draw them. Every chariot carried two men, who were
probably the warrior and the charioteer; and we read of
several men of note and valour employed in driving the
chariot. When the warriors came to encounter in close
fight, they alighted from the chariot and fought on foot;
but when they were weary, which often happened by rea¬
son of their armour, they retired into their chariot, and
thence annoyed their enemies with darts and missile wea¬
pons. These chariots were so strongly built that they
lasted for several generations.
Besides this sort, we find frequent mention of the curm
falcati, or chariots armed with hooks or scythes,'with which
"whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes cut off when they
had not the art of avoiding the danger. These were not
only used by the Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, and other
eastern nations; for we find them also among the ancient
Britons ; and, notwithstanding the imperfect state of some
of the most necessary arts among that nation before the in¬
vasion of the Romans, it is certain that they had war-cha¬
riots in great abundance. By the Greek and Roman his¬
torians these chariots are described by the various names
of henna, petoritum, currus or carrus, covinus, essedum, and
rheda. The henna seems to have been a chariot designed
rather for travelling than for war. It contained two pei-
sons, who were called combennones, from their sitting to¬
g-ether in the same vehicle. The petoritum seems to
have been a larger kind of chariot than the henna,is
thought to have derived its name from the British word
pedwar, signifying four, as this kind of carriage had our
wheels. The carrus or currus was the common cart or
wago-on. This kind of chariot was used by the ancient
Britons, in time of peace, for the purposes of agriculture
and merchandise; and, in time of war, for carrying tleir
baggage, and wives and children, who commonly followed
the armies of all the Celtic nations. The comms was a
war chariot, and a very terrible instrument of destruction,
being armed with sharp scythes and hooks for cutting and
tearing all who happened to come within its reach. 1ms
kind of chariot was made very slightly, and had few or
no men in it besides the charioteer, being designed to drive
with great force and rapidity, and to do execution chiefly
with its hooks and scythes. The essedum and rheda v/eve
also war-chariots, probably of a larger size and stronger
make than the covinus, being designed for containing a
charioteer to conduct it, and one or two warriors to ngn •
The greater number of the British war-chariots seem o
have been of this kind. These chariots, as we have already
observed, were found in great numbers among the Britons;
insomuch that, according to Caesar, Cassivelaunus, atte
dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than o
thousand war-chariots about his person. The same au¬
thor relates, that by continual practice they ha drn
at such perfection in the management of their chario
that in the most steep and difficult places they cou s P
their horses upon full stretch, turn them which way tney
pleased, run along the pole, rest on their harness, an
themselves back into their chariots with incre i c
Chariots, in the Heathen Mythology, were sometime
consecrated to the sun; and the Scripture observes
Josiah burnt those which had been offered to the J
the kings, his predecessors. This superstitious c
was an imitation of the heathens, and principa ^
Persians, who had horses and chariots consecra ec
C H A
C H A
327
hai
'y J
nour of the sun. Herodotus, Xenophon, and Quintus Whether pity be an instinct or a habit, it is in fact a pro-
Curtius, speak of white chariots crowned, which were con- perty of our nature which God has appointed; and the final
secrated to the sun, among the Persians and in their cere- cause for which it was appointed is to afford to the mise-
monies were drawn by white horses consecrated to the rable, in the compassion of their fellow-creatures, a re¬
same luminary. ^ medy for those inequalities and distresses wThich God fore-
Triumphal Chariot, was one of the principal orna- saw that many must be exposed to under every general
meets of the Roman celebration of a victory. rule for the distribution of property.
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made of The Christian Scriptures are more copious and expli-
ivory, and round like a tower, or rather of a cylindrical cit upon this duty than almost any other. The descrip-
figure. It was sometimes gilded at the top, and ornament- tion which Christ has left us of the proceedings of the
ed with crowns; and, to represent a victory more natural- last day establishes beyond controversy the obligation of
ly, it was usual to stain it with blood. It was commonly bounty. “When the Son of Man shall come in his glory,
drawn by four white horses; but oftentimes by lions, ele- and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon
phants, tigers, bears, leopards, and dogs. the throne of his glory, and before him shall be gathered
CHARISIA, in the Heathen Theology, a wake or night all nations; and he shall separate them one from ano-
festival instituted in honour of the Graces. It continued ther. Then shall the King say unto them on his right
during the whole night, most of which was spent in dan- hand, Come ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom
cing; and after the ballet, cakes made of yellow flour mix- prepared for you from the foundation of the world : for I
ed with honey, and other sweetmeats, were distributed was an hungered, and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and
among the assistants. Charisia is also sometimes used to ye gave me drink; I was a stranger, and ye took me in;
signify the sweetmeats distributed on such occasions. naked, and ye clothed me; I was sick, and ye visited me;
CHARISIUS, in the T7<eG%y, a surname given I was in prison, and ye came unto me. And inasmuch
to Jupiter. The word is derived from gratia, grace as ye have done it to one of the least of these my breth-
or favour; Charisius being the god by whose influence men ren, ye have done it unto me.” It is not necessary to
obtain the favour and affection of one another. On this understand this passage as a literal account of what will
account the Greeks used at their meals to make a libation actually pass on that day. Supposing it only a scenical
of a cup to Jupiter Charisius. , description of the rules and principles by which the Su-
CHARISTIA, a festival of the ancient Romans, cele- preme Arbiter of our destiny will regulate his decisions,
brated in the month of February, in which the relations it conveys the same lesson to us. It equally demonstrates
by blood and marriage met, in order to preserve a good of how great value and importance are these duties in
correspondence; and that if there happened to be any the sight of God, and what stress will be laid upon them,
difference among them, it might the more easily be ac- The apostles also describe this virtue as propitiating the
coramodated by the good humour and mirth of the enter- divine favour in an eminent degree. And these recom-
tainment. mendations have produced their effect. It does not ap-
CHARISTICARY, commendatory or donatory, a per- pear that before the times of Christianity an infirmary,
son on whom is conferred the enjoyment of the revenues hospital, or public charity of any kind, existed in the
of a monastery, hospital, or benefice. world; whereas most countries in Christendom have long
The Charisticaries among the Greeks were a kind of abounded with these institutions. To this it may be add-
donatories or commendatories, who enjoyed all the reve- ed, that a spirit of private liberality seems to flourish
nues of hospitals and monasteries, without giving an ac- amidst the decay of many other virtues; not to mention
count of these to any one. The origin of this abuse is re- the legal provision for the poor, which obtains in our
ferred to the iconoclasts, particularly to Constantine Co- country, and which was unknown and unthought of by the
pronymus, the avowed enemy of the monks, whose mo- most polished nations of antiquity.
nasteries he gave away to strangers. In after-times the St Paul adds upon this subject an excellent direction,
emperors and patriarchs gave many to people of quality, which is practicable by all who have any thing to give,
not by way of gift to enable the donatories to reap any “ Upon the first day of the week (or any other stated
temporal advantage from the grants, but to repair, beau- time) let every one of you lay by in store, as God hath
tify, and patronise them. But avarice having soon crept prospered him.” By this the apostle may be understood
in, those in good condition were given away, especially to i-ecommend what is the very thing wanting with most
such as were rich; and at length they were all given away,. men, the being charitable upon a plan ; that is, from a de-
rich and poor, monasteries and nunneries, and that even liberate comparison of our fortunes with the reasonable
to laymen and to married men. expenses and expectations of our families, to compute what
CHARITE, La, a city of the department of the Nievre, we can spare, and to lay by so much for charitable purposes,
in France, .in a fine situation on the banks of the Loire, in some mode or other. The mode will be a consideration
over which is a bridge to an island, which forms a beau- afterwards.
tiful object and promenade. It contains 590 houses, and The effects which Christianity produced upon some of
5302 inhabitants. Long. 2. 56. E. Lat. 47. 10. N. its converts were such as might fie looked for from a di-
CHARITY, among divines, one of the three grand theo- vine religion coming with full force and miraculous evi-
logical virtues, consisting in the love of God and of our dence upon the consciences of mankind. It overwhelmed
neighbour, or the habit and disposition of loving God with all worldly considerations, in the expectation of a more im-
all our heart, and our neighbour as ourselves. portant existence. “ And the multitude of them that be-
Charity is also used for the effect of moral virtue, lieved were of one heart and of one soul; neither said any
'vhich consists in supplying the necessities of others, whe- of them that aught of the things which he possessed was
ther with money, counsel, assistance, or the like. his. own, but they had all things in common. Neither
As pecuniary relief is generally the most efficacious w'as there any among them that lacked; for as many as
kind of charity, and at the same time that from which were possessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought
men are most apt to excuse themselves, this branch of the the prices of the things that were sold, and laid them
duty merits particular illustration ; and a better cannot be down at the apostles’ feet; and distribution was made
offered than that which is contained in the Moral Philoso- unto every man according as he had need.”
/% of Archdeacon Paley. Nevertheless, this community of goods, however it mani-
Charity.
328
C H A
Charity. Tested the sincere zeal of the primitive Christians, is no
precedent for our imitation. It was confined to the chinch
at Jerusalem; continued not long there; was never en¬
joined upon any ; and, although it might suit the particular
circumstances of a small and select society, is altogether
impracticable in a large and mixed community.
The conduct of the apostles upon the occasion deserves
to be noticed. Their followers laid down their fortunes at
their feet; but so far were they from taking advantage ot
this unlimited confidence to enrich themselves or establish
their authority, that they soon afterwards got rid of this
business as inconsistent with the main object of their mis¬
sion, and transferred the custody and management ot the
public fund to deacons elected to that office by the people
There are three kinds of charity which prefer claims re¬
spectively to attention.
1. The first, and apparently one of the best, is to give
stated and considerable sums, by way of pension or annui¬
ty, to individuals or families with whose behaviour and
distress we are ourselves acquainted. In speaking of con¬
siderable sums, it is meant only, that five pounds, 01 any
other sum, given at once, or divided amongst fiveoi fewei
families, will do more good than the same sum distribut¬
ed amongst a greater number in shillings or halt crowns,
and that, because it is more likely to be properly applied
by the persons who receive it. A poor fellow who can
find no better use for a shilling than to drink his benefac¬
tor’s health, and purchase half an hour’s recreation for
himself, would hardly break into a guinea for any such
purpose, or be so improvident as not to lay it by for an
occasion of importance, for his rent, his clothing, fuel, or
stock of winter’s provision. It is a still greater recom¬
mendation of this kind of charity, that pensions and an¬
nuities, which are paid regularly, and can be expected at
the time, are the only way by which we can prevent one
part of a poor man’s sufferings, the dread of want.
2. But as this kind of charity supposes that proper ob¬
jects of such expensive benefactions fall within our pri¬
vate knowledge and observation, which does not. happen
to all, a second method of doing good, which is in every
one’s power who has the money to spare, is by subscrip¬
tion to public charities. Public charities admit of this ar¬
gument in their favour, that the money goes farther to¬
wards attaining the end for which it is given, than it can
do by any private and separate beneficence. A guinea,
for example, contributed to an infirmary, becomes the
means of providing one patient, at least, with a physician,
surgeon, apothecary, with medicine, diet, lodging, and
suitable attendance; which is not the tenth part oi what
the same assistance, if it could be procured at all, would
cost to a sick person or family in any other situation.
3. The last, and, compared with the former, the lowest
exertion of benevolence, is in the relief of beggars. Ne¬
vertheless, the indiscriminate rejection of all who implore
our alms in this way is by no means to be approved. Some
may perish by such a conduct. Men are occasionally over¬
taken by distress, for which all other reliet would come
too late ; and besides, resolutions of this kind compel us
to offer such violence to our humanity, as may go near,
in a little while, to suffocate the principle itself; which is
a very serious consideration. A good man, it he do not
surrender himself to his feelings without reserve, will at
least lend an ear to importunities which are accompa¬
nied with outward attestations of distress; and, after a
patient hearing of the complaint, will direct himself by
the circumstances and credibility of the account he re¬
ceives.
The pretences by which men excuse themselves from
giving to the poor are various; as,
C H A
1. That they have nothing to spare, that is, nothing for q
which they have not some other use ; nothing which their
plan of expense, together with the savings they have resolv¬
ed to lay by, will not exhaust: never reflecting whether it
be in their power, or that it is their duty, to retrench their
expenses, and contract their plan, “ that they; may have to
give to them that need or rather that this ought to have
been part of their plan originally.
2. That they have families of their own, and that charity
begins at home. A father is no doubt bound to adjust his
economy with a view to the reasonable demands of his
family upon his fortune; and until a sufficiency for these
is acquired, or will be in due time probably acquired (for ,
in human affairs probability is enough), he is justified in
declining expensive liberality; for to take from those who
want, in order to give to those who want, adds nothing to
the stock of public happiness. Thus far, therefore, and no
farther, the plea in question is an excuse for parsimony,
and an answer to those who solicit our bounty.
3. That charity does not consist in giving money, but in
benevolence, philanthropy, love to all mankind, goodness of
heart, and the like. But hear St James : “ If a brother or
sister be naked, and destitute of daily food, and one of you
say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled,
notwithstanding ye give them not those things which are
needful for the body, what doth it profit?”
4. That giving to the poor is not mentioned in St Paul’s
description of charity, in the thirteenth chapter of the first
epistle to the Corinthians. This is not a description of cha¬
rity, but of good nature ; and it is not necessary that every
duty be mentioned in every place.
5. That they pay the poor-rates. They might as well al¬
lege that they pay their debts; for the poor have the same
right to that portion of a man’s property which the laws
assign them, that the man himself has to the remainder.
6. That they employ many poor persons. If they do so
for their own sake, not the poor’s, the excuse is inadmis¬
sible ; otherwise it is a good plea.
7. That the poor do not suffer so much as we imagine;
thcd education and habit have reconciled them to the evils of
their condition, and make them easy under it. Habit can
never reconcile human nature to the extremities ot cold,
hunger, and thirst, any more than it can reconcile the hand
to the touch of a red-hot iron; besides, the question is not,
how unhappy any one is, but how much more happy we
can make him.
8. That these people, give them what you will, will never
thank you, or think of you for it. In the first place, this is
not true; in the second place, it is not for the sake ot
their thanks that they ought to be relieved.
9. Thai we are so liable to be imposed upon. If due in¬
quiry be made, our motive and merit are the same; be¬
sides that the distress is generally real, whatever has been
the cause of it. .
10. That they should apply to their parishes, lhat is not
always practicable; to which we may add, that there are
many requisites to a comfortable subsistence, which pans i
relief does not always supply; that there are some who
would suffer almost as much from receiving parish rehe
as by the want of it; and, lastly, that there are many modes
of charity to which this answer does not relate at all.
11. That giving money encourages idleness and vagrancy-
This is true only of injudicious and indiscriminate gene¬
rosity. , . |
12. That we have too many objects of charity at nonie ^
bestow any thing upon strangers ; or that there are ot er
charities which are more useful, or stand in greater nee •
The value of this excuse depends entirely upon the
whether we actually relieve those neighbouring objects, an
contribute to those other charities.
C H A
This enumeration seems to exhaust the pretences which
men commonly employ to excuse themselves from dis¬
pensing private charity. What they are worth, when put
to the test of examination, the reader will judge for him-
7^ self.
Brothers of Charity, a sort of religious hospitallers,
founded about the year 1297, since denominated Billetins.
They took the third order of St Francis, and the scapulary,
making the three usual vows, but without begging.
Brothers of Charity also denotes an order of hospital¬
lers, still subsisting in Catholic countries, whose business
is to attend the sick poor, and minister to them both spi¬
ritual and temporal succour. They are all laymen, except
a few priests for administering the sacraments to the sick
in their hospitals. The brothers of charity usually culti¬
vate botany, pharmacy, surgery, and chemistry, which
they practise with success. They were first founded at
Granada, by St John de Dieu, and a second establishment
was made at Madrid in the year 1553. The order was
confirmed by Gregory XIII. in 1572. Gregory XIV. for¬
bade them to take holy orders; but by leave of Paul V.
in 1609, a few of the brothers might be admitted to or¬
ders. In 1619 they were exempted from the jurisdiction
of the bishop. Those of Spain are separated from the rest;
and they, as well as the brothers of France, Germany,
Poland, and Italy, have their distinct generals, who re¬
side at Home. They were first introduced into France by
Mary of Medicis in 1601, and have since built a fine hos¬
pital in the fauxbourg St Germain.
Sisters of Charity (Sceurs de la Charite), an order of
female hospitallers, instituted, or rather revived, in France
since the commencement of the present century, and con¬
sisting chiefly, if not wholly, of professed nuns, who de¬
vote themselves to the duties of attending the female poor
and sick in the hospitals, ministering to their wants, dress¬
ing their sores, and affording them religious consolation in
the midst of their sufferings. This order includes females
belonging to some of the first families in France.
CHARLATAN, or Charletan, signifies an empiric
or quack, who retails his medicines on a public stage, and
draws people about him with his buffooneries, feats of
activity, and the like. The word, according to Calepine,
I comes from the Italian ceretano, which signifies of or be-
j longing to Caeretum, a town near Spoleto in Italy, where
I these impostors are said to have first appeared. Menage,
however, derives it from ciarlatano, and that from circida-
torius or circulator, a quack.
CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles I. king of France, and
emperor of the West by conquest, was born at the castle
of Saltzburg, in Upper Bavaria, in 742. The events in
the life of this great monarch belong properly to the his¬
tory of France. Equally illustrious in the cabinet and in
the field, a wise legislator and a great warrior, the patron
ol men of letters and the restorer of learning, Charlemagne
has united in his favour the suffrages of statesmen and sol¬
diers, of ecclesiastics, lawyers, and men of letters, who have
all vied with one another in bestowing the homage of their
praise on the celebrated founder of the western empire.
1 oliticians indeed have blamed him for having regulated
every thing in his states except the succession to the
t none, which he left at the mercy of faction, and for hav-
ing multiplied those assemblies where the royal power is
necessarily weakened by being divided, a policy unsuitable
to the extent and condition of his empire. Nor is this
censure without foundation. By his genius, his courage,
118 “Activity, an(l the skill with which he distributed re-
vards, he unquestionably surmounted all obstacles; but
16 fortunately consolidated nothing; and hence, to suc¬
ceed him, we do not say with glory, but with safety to
c ‘e hirone and to France, it would have been necessary
vol. vi.
C H A 329
to resemble him in many of his great qualities. But such Charkow
a successor was nowhere to be found. Charlemagne was 1)
the last hero of his race ; and as he took no effectual mea- Charles,
sures to consolidate the empire which he had established,
it went to pieces not long after that disastrous day wdien
he, “ with all his peerage, fell by Fontarabia.” His death
happened on the 28th January 814, in the seventy-second
year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign. The
works of Charlemagne are, 1. His Capitularies, first col¬
lected by Ansegise, abbot of St Wandrille, the best edition
of which is that of Etienne Baluze, Paris, 1677, two vols.
fol.; 2. Letters, contained in the collection of D. Bouquet;
3. A Grammar, of which fragments are to be found in the
Polygraphia of 1 rithemus; 4. His Testament, contained
in Bouchel s Bibhotheque du BroitFranqais, tom. iii. print¬
ed at Paris, 1667, fol.; 5. Some Latin poems, such as the
Epitaph of Pope Adrian, and the Song of Roland; 6. The
Caroline Books. Of the more early historians of Charle¬
magne, the principal is Eginhard. A very respectable ac¬
count of his life and reign has been published by Mr James,
in one vol. 8vo, 1832.
CHARKOW, a circle in the Russian government of the
Ukraine, bounded on the north by Kursk, on the east by
Woltschansk, on the south-east by Kupinsk, on the south
by Smijew, and on the west by Bogoduchow. It extends
over 11380 square miles, and contains a population of
165,000 souls. The circle is watered by the Donez, which
within it receives the waters of the Kharkowka, Lepanka,
and Uda. It is highly productive of corn and fruit, but
more especially of tobacco and hemp. The chief place, a
city of the same name, is 1460 wersts, or 980 miles, from
St Petersburg, on the river Donez: it was formerly sur¬
rounded with walls, which are now converted into gardens
and promenades; and it contains a cathedral and seven
other churches, two monasteries, a university, an ecclesi¬
astical seminary, and several institutions for primary edu¬
cation. In 1815 the houses were 1552, and the inhabitants
15,000, exclusive of the military and the members of the
university. It is a place of considerable trade, which con¬
sists chiefly in the productions of the vicinity. The chief
articles prepared in the city are brandy, from corn; soap,
leather, candles, and latterly some silk. It is in loniA 36.
10. E. lat. 49. 59. 20. N.
CHARLEROY, a city, the head of a department of the
same name, in the province of Flennegou, in the Nether¬
lands. The department is divided into nine cantons, and
contains 140 communes, with 92,249 inhabitants. The
city is built on both banks of the Sambre, is strongly for¬
tified, and has 650 houses, with 4020 inhabitants. There
are many nails and other articles of iron manufactured
here, and some woollen cloths. In the neighbourhood are
glass-houses, iron founderies, and very extensive coal mines.
CHARLEVILLE, a city of France, in the department
of the Ardennes. It is situated on the left bank of the
Meuse. It is the seat of the departmental courts of law,
and contains 770 houses, and 7724 inhabitants, who are
employed in the manufacture of arms, and of linen and
woollen cloths.
CHARLES Martel, a renowned conqueror in the
early annals of France. He deposed and restored Chil-
deric, king of France; atod had the entire government of
the kingdom, first with the title of Mayor of the Palace,
and afterwards as Duke of France ; but he would not ac¬
cept the crown. He died regretted in 741.
Charles le Gros, emperor of the West in 881, king of
Italy and Suabia, memorable for his reverse of fortune,
being dethroned at a diet held near Mentz, by the French,
the Italians, and the Germans, in 887 ; after which he was
obliged to subsist on the bounty of the Archbishop of
Mentz. He died in 888.
9
330
Charles.
C II A
Charles V., emperor of Germany and king of Spain,
was son of Philip, archduke of Austria, and of Jane, queen
of Castile. He was born at Ghent on the 24th February
1500, and succeeded to the crown of Spain in lol7. Iwo
vears afterwards he was chosen emperor at Frankfort, upon
the death of Maximilian his grandfather. He was a great
warrior and politician ; and his ambition was not satisfied
with the many kingdoms and provinces he possessed; for
he is supposed, with some reason, to have aspired at uni¬
versal empire. He is said to have fought sixty battles, in
most of which he was victorious. He took the kingofh ranee,
Francis I. prisoner, at the battle of Pavia, and afterwai s
sold him his liberty on very hard terms; yet when the peo¬
ple of Ghent subsequently revolted, he asked leave to pass
through the dominions of Francis ; and though the gene¬
rous king thus had his enemy in his power, and an oppor¬
tunity offered him of revenging the ill treatment he had
experienced, yet he received and attended Charles with
the utmost pomp and magnificence. This emperor sacked
Rome, and took the pope prisoner ; and the cruelties which
his army exercised there are said to have exceeded those
committed by the northern barbarians. Yet the pious em¬
peror went into mourning on account of this conquest; for¬
bade the ringing of bells ; commanded processions to be
made, and prayers to be offered up for the deliveiance o
the pope his prisoner; and did not inflict the slightest pu¬
nishment on those who had treated the holy father and the
holy see with such inhumanity. He is accused by some
Catholic writers of favouring the Lutheran principles,
which he might easily have extirpated. But the truth is,
he found his account in the divisions which that sect oc¬
casioned ; and he never failed to take advantage of them,
sometimes against the pope, sometimes against hrance, and
at other times against the empire itself. He was a great
traveller, and made fifty different journeys into Germany,
Spain, Italy, Flanders, France, England, and Africa. I hough
he had been successful in many unjust enterprises, yet his
last attempt on Metz, which he besieged with an army of
100,000 men, and which deserved to have succeeded, prov¬
ed a total failure. #
Vexed at the reverse of fortune which seemed to attend
his latter days, and oppressed by sickness, which unfitted
him any longer for holding the reins of government with
steadiness, or guiding them with address, he lesigned his
dominions to his brother Ferdinand and his son Philip,
and retreated to the monastery of St Justus, neai a lacen-
tia, in Estremadura. _
About six months before his death, the gout, to which
he had long been subject, after a longer intermission than
usual, returned with a proportional increase of violence.
His shattered constitution had not strength enough re¬
maining to withstand such a shock. It enfeebled his mmd
as well as his body; and from this period we hardly dis¬
cern any traces of that sound and masculine understanding
which distinguished Charles among his contemporaries.
An illiberal and timid superstition depressed bis spirit.
He had no relish for amusements of any kind; and endea¬
voured to conform, in his manner of living, to all the rigour
of monastic austerity. He desired no other society than
that of monks, and wms almost continually employed in
chanting with them the hymns of the missah As an ex¬
piation for his sins, he gave himself the discipline in secret,
with such severity, that the whip of cords which he em¬
ployed as the instrument of his punishment was found,
after his decease, tinged with his blood. Nor wms he satis¬
fied with these acts of mortification, which, however severe,
were not unexampled. The timorous and distrustful so-
lieitude which always accompanies superstition still con¬
tinued to disquiet him, and, depreciating all that he had
done, prompted him to aim at something extraordinary,
C H A
some new and singular act of piety which would display his Cfc, :h
zeal, and merit the favour of heaven. The act on which
he fixed was as wild and uncommon as any that supersti- Ct c
tion ever suggested to a disordered fancy. He resolved J ^
to celebrate his own obsequies before his death. He or- ' */
dered his tomb to be erected in the chapel of the monas¬
tery. His domestics marched thither in funeral proces-
sion, with black tapers in their hands ; and he himself fol¬
lowed in his shroud. He was laid in his coffin with much
solemnity. The service for the dead wms chanted; and
Charles joined in the prayers which were offered up for
the rest of his soul, mingling his tears with those which
his attendants shed, as if they had been celebrating a real
funeral. The ceremony closed with sprinkling holy water
on the coffin in the usual form, and, all the assistants re¬
tiring, the doors of the chapel were shut. Then Charles
rose out of the coffin, and withdrew to his apartment, full
of those awful sentiments which such a singular solemnity
was calculated to inspire. But either the fatiguing length
of the ceremony, or the impression which this image of
death left on his mind, affected him so much that next
day he was seized with a fever. His feeble frame could
not long resist its violence ; and he expired on the 21st ot
September, after a life of fifty-eight years, six months, and
twenty-one days.
Charles I. \ kj g 0f Britain. See Britain.
Charles II.) &
Charles XII. king of Sweden, born in 1682, was kill¬
ed at Frederickshall, in Norway, in 1718. His military
achievements, which astonished all Europe, and his cha¬
racter as a sovereign, form parts of the history of Sweden,
and will be detailed in the account of that country. As
to his person, he was tall and of a noble mien, had a fine
open forehead, large blue eyes, flaxen hair, fair complexion,
a handsome nose, but little beard, and an agreeable smile
His manners were harsh and austere, not to say savage;
and with respect to religion, he was indifferent towards all,
though exteriorly a Lutheran, and a strong believer in pre¬
destination. A few anecdotes will illustrate his character.
No dangers, however great, made the least impression upon
him. When a horse or two were killed under him at the
battle of Narva in 1700, he leapt nimbly upon fresh ones,
saying, “ These people find me exercise.” One day, when
he was dictating letters to a secretary, a bomb fell through
the roof into the next room of the house where they were
sitting. The secretary, terrified lest the house should
come down upon them, let his pen drop out of his hand.
“ What is the matter?” said the king calmly. The secre¬
tary could only reply, “ Ah, Sire, the bomb. “ I'16
bomb!” said the king, “ what has the bomb to do witn
what I am dictating to you ? Go on.” i
He preserved more humanity than is usually fount,
among conquerors. Once, in the middle of an
finding a young Swedish officer wounded and unable to
march, he obliged the officer to take his horse, and con¬
tinued to command his infantry on foot. One day, neai
Leipsic, a peasant threw himself at his feet, with a com¬
plaint against a grenadier, that he had robbed him o cer
tain eatables provided for himself and his family. s
true,” said Charles sternly, “ that you have robbed tins
man ?” The soldier replied, “ Sir, I have not done nea.
so much to this man as your majesty has done to his ^
ter ; for you have taken from Augustus a kingdom, w e
as I have only taken from this poor scoundrel a 'nn^,
Charles made the peasant amends, and pardoned tbe _
dier for his firmness: “ However, my friend, ,
the grenadier, “ you will do well to recollect, tiat i
a kingdom from Augustus, I did not take it foi mjse
CHARLES’S Wain, in Astronomy, seven stars m
constellation called Ursa Major, or the Great Bear.
kav on
"hi 1-
C H A
CHARLESTON, a city and sea-port of South Carolina,
in a district of the same name, is situated on a tongue of
land formed by the confluence of the rivers Cooper and
Ashley. These unite immediately below the city, and
form a spacious and convenient harbour, communicating
with the ocean below Sullivan’s Island, seven miles from
Charleston. The harbour has a dangerous bar at its
mouth; but there are two channels through it, one of
which has a depth of sixteen feet water at ebb-tide. The
city is regularly laid out in parallel streets, which are in¬
tersected by others nearly at right angles. Many of the
houses are elegant, and furnished with piazzas. It is the
largest town in the state, and was formerly the seat of go¬
vernment. It contains a city-hall, an exchange, a custom¬
house, a guard-house, a theatre, several charitable institu¬
tions, two arsenals, two markets, a college, and nineteen
houses of public worship for various religions denomina¬
tions. The library of this place contains 13,000 volumes.
Charleston has a considerable commerce. The exports
consist principally of cotton, which is the staple pro¬
duction of the state, rice, lumber, tar, turpentine, pitch,
&c. The imports are cotton, woollen, and silk.goods,
hardware, sugar, coffee, tea, wine, spices, &c. The regis¬
tered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage, belonging to Char¬
leston in 1828, amounted to 32,445 tons, of which 19,239
tons were employed in the coasting trade. The climate
of this city is salubrious; but the yellow fever has fre¬
quently committed frightful ravages in it. The effects
of this dreadful distemper, however, were principally con¬
fined to persons from more northern latitudes. The po¬
pulation by the last census amounted to 30,500. Lono-.
79. 50. W. Lat. 32. 47. N.
CHARLESTOWN, a post-town in Middlesex county,
Massachusetts, one mile north of the centre of Boston.
The principal part of the town is finely situated on a penin¬
sula formed by Charles and Mystic rivers, which here flow
into the harbour of Boston. Charlestown is connected
with Boston by two bridges across Charles river, with
Chelsea and Malden by two others across Mystic river,
and with Cambridge by a bridge across a bay of Charles
river. The town is pleasant and flourishing, and advan¬
tageously situated for trade and manufactures. One of
the principal navy-yards in the United States occupi&s
about sixty acres of land in the south-east part of Charles¬
town. Bunker s Hill, on which a general battle was fought
during the American revolution, stands close to this town.
The population in 1820 was 6591.
CHARLETON, Walter, a learned English physician,
born in 1619, was physician in ordinary to Charles I. and
Charles II., one of the first members of the Royal Society,
and president of the College of Physicians. He wrote on
various subjects; but at last his narrow circumstances ob-
hged him to retire to the island of Jersey, where he died
m 1707.
CHARLIEU, a city of the department of the Loire, in
ooonC-e’ 011 ^le ™ver Cornin, containing 450 houses and
^29 inhabitants. Long. 3. 55. E. Lat. 46. 15. N.
CHARLIQUEN, a town of Asiatic Turkey, situated
e ween Erzerum and Tocat. It has a manufacture of
orocco leather. The caravans halt here during two or
three days.
CHARM, a term derived from the Latin carmen, a
verse, and used to denote a magical power, or spell, by
'vnci, with the assistance of the devil, sorcerers and
• 1 c !es Were supposed to do wonderful things, far surpass¬
es the power of nature.
.1 v ARMES, a town of France, in the department of
,on r^ver Moselle. It contains 610 houses,
CRA8p\TiTbitants' LonS- 6’ 43* E- Lat- 48- 50' N-
RNEL, or Charnel-House, a kind of portico or
H A
331
gallery, usually in or near a churchyard, over which were Charolles
anciently laid the bones of the dead after the flesh had ||
been wholly consumed. Charnel-houses are now usually Chart,
adjoining to the church. ^
CHAROLLES, an arrondissement in the department of
the Upper Saone and Loire, in Trance, extending over
1036 squaie miles, and comprising thirteen cantons, 144
communes, with 100,670 inhabitants. The chief place is
a town of the same name, on the river Reqonce, and con¬
tains 301 houses, with 2518 inhabitants trading in the
products of the district.
CHARON, in fabulous history, the son of Erebus and
Nox, whose office was to ferry the souls of the deceased
over the waters of Acheron, for which each soul had to
Pay a piece of money. For this reason the Pagans had a
custom of putting a piece of money into the mouth of the
dead, in order that they might have something to pay
Charon for their passage.
CIIARONDAb, a celebrated legislator of the Thurians,
and a native of Catanea, in Sicily, flourished 446 years before
Christ. He ordained that no person should appear armed
in the pubdc assemblies of the nation; but one day going
thithei in haste without thinking of his sword, he was no
sooner made sensible of his mistake than he ran it through
his body.
CrlARPENTTER, Francis, dean of the French aca¬
demy, was born in 1620. His early capacity inclined his
friends to educate him at the bar; but he wras much more
delighted with the study of languages and antiquity than
of the law, and preferred repose to tumult. M. Colbert
employed him in establishing his new Academy of Medals
and Inscriptions; and no person of that learned society
contributed more than himself toward that noble series
of medals which were struck on occasion of the principal
events which distinguished the reign of Louis XIV. He
published several works, which were all well received ; and
he died in 1702.
CHARR. See Ichthyology.
CHARRON, Peter, the author of a book entitled Of
Wisdom, which gained him great reputation, was born at
Paris in the year 1541. After being advocate in the par¬
liament of Paris for five or six years, he applied himself to
divinity, and became so great a preacher, that the bishops
of several dioceses offered him the highest dignities in
their gift. But he died suddenly in the street, at Paris,
on the 16th of November 1603.
CHART, or Sea-Chart, an hydrographical map, or a
projection of some part of the earth’s superficies in piano,
for the use of navigators.
Charts differ very considerably from geographical or
land-maps, which are of no use in navigation. Nor are
sea-charts all of the same kind; some being what we call
plane charts, others Mercator charts, and others globular
charts.
Plane Chart is a representation of some part of the
superficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the meri¬
dians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallels of
latitude at equal distances, and consequently the degrees
of latitude and longitude everywhere equal to each other.
Mercators Chart is that where the meridians are
straight lines, parallel to each other, and equidistant; the
parallels are also straight lines, and parallel to each other;
but the distance between them increases from the equi¬
noctial towards either pole, in the ratio of the secant of
the latitude to the radius.
Globular Chart, a meridional projection, in which the
distance of the eye from the plane of the meridian, upon
which the projection is made, is supposed to be equal to
the sine of the . angle 45°. This projection comes the
nearest of all to the nature of the globe, because the me-
C H A
C H A
ridians are placed at equal distances; the parallels also are
nearly equidistant, and consequently the several parts ot
the earth have their proper proportion of magnitude, dis¬
tance, and situation, nearly the same indeed as on the
globe itself. „, v • .
Hydrographic Charts, sheets of large paper, on which
several parts of the land and sea are described, with then
respective coasts, harbours, sounds, flats, rocks, shelves,
sands, and so forth, together with the longitude and lati¬
tude of each place, and the points of the compass.
Selenographic Charts, particular descriptions of the
snots, appearances, and maculae of the moon.
Topographic Charts, draughts of some small parts of
the earth only, or of some particular place, without regard
to its relative situation, as London, York, and so on.
CHARTA, or Carta, primarily signifies a sort ot pa¬
per made of the plant papyrus or hihlus. .
Magna Charta, the great charter of the liberties of
Britain, and the basis of our laws and privileges. Ihis
charter may be said to derive its origin from King Kd-
ward the Confessor, who granted several privileges to the
church and state by charter. These liberties and privi¬
leges were also granted and confirmed by King Henry 1.
by a celebrated great charter now lost; but it was con¬
firmed or re-enacted by King Henry II. and by King
John. Henry III. the successor of this last prince, after
having caused twelve men to make inquiry into the liber¬
ties of England in the reign of Henry I. granted a new
charter, which was the same as the present Magna Charta.
This he several times confirmed, and as often broke ; till,
in the 37th year of his reign, he went to Westminster
Hall, and there, in presence of the nobility and bishops,
who held lighted candles in their hands, Magna Charta
was read, the king all the time holding his hand to his
breast, and at last solemnly swearing faithfully and invio¬
lably to observe all the things therein contained. Then
the bishops extinguishing the candles, and throwing them
on the ground, cried out, “ Ihus let him be extinguished,
and stink in hell, who violates this charter.” It is observed
that, notwithstanding the solemnity of this confirmation,
King Henry the very next year again invaded the rights
of Ins people, till the barons entered into a war against
him ; when, after various success, he confirmed this char¬
ter, and the charter of the forest, in the fifty-second year
of his reign.
The great charter confirmed many liberties of the church,
and redressed many grievances incident to feudal tenures,
of no small moment at the time ; though now, unless con¬
sidered attentively and with this retrospect, they seem but
of trifling concern. But besides these feudal provisions,
care was also taken to protect the subject against other
oppressions, then frequently arising from unreasonable
amercement, from illegal distresses or other process for
debts or services due to the crown, and from the tyran¬
nical abuse of the prerogative of purveyance and pre-emp¬
tion. It fixed the forfeiture of lands for felony in the same
manner as it still remains; and prohibited for the future
the grants of exclusive fisheries, and the erection of new
bridges so as to oppress the neighbourhood. With respect
to private rights, it established the testamentary power
of the subject over part of his personal estate, the rest
being distributed among his wife and children ; it laid
down the law of dower as it has continued ever sinee;
and it prohibited the appeals of women, unless after the
death of their husbands. In matters of public police and
national concern, it enjoined an uniformity of weights and
measures ; gave new encouragements to commerce, by the
protection of merchant strangers ; and forbade the aliena¬
tion of lands in mortmain. With regard to the adminis¬
tration of justice, besides prohibiting all denials or delays
of it, it fixed the Court o. Common Pleas at Westminster,
that the suitors might no longer be harassed with follow¬
ing the king’s person in all his progresses ; and at the same
time brought the trial of issues home to the very doors of
the freeholders, by directing assizes to be taken in the
proper counties, and establishing annual circuits. It also
corrected some abuses then incident to the trials by wager
of law and of battle ; directed the regular awarding of in¬
quests for life or member; prohibited the king’s inferior
ministers from holding pleas of the crown, or trying any
criminal charge, whereby many forfeitures might other¬
wise have unjustly accrued to the exchequer; and regu¬
lated the time and place of holding the inferior tribunals
of justice, the county-court, sheriff s torn and couit-leet.
It confirmed and established the liberties of the city of
London, and all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports
of the kingdom. And, lastly, it protected every indivi¬
dual of the nation in the free enjoyment of his life, his
liberty, and his property, unless declared to be forfeited
by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.
CHARTER, in a written instrument, or evidence
of things acted between one person and another. The
word charter comes from the Latin charta., anciently used foi
a public and authentic act, a donation contract, or the like,
from the Greek yjtrrrii, thick paper, or pasteboard, on which
public acts were wont to be written. Britton divides char¬
ters into those of the king and those of private persons.
1. Charters of the king, are those by which the king passes
any grant to any person or body politic, as a charter oj
exemption, of privilege, &c.; charter oj pardon, by which
a man is forgiven a felony, or other offence committed
against the king’s crown and dignity; charter of the forest,
in which the laws of the forest are comprised, such as the
charter of Canutus, &c. 2. Charters of private persons,
are deeds and instruments for the conveyance of lands
and hereditaments ; and the purchaser of lands shall have
all the charters, deeds, and evidences, as incident to the
same, and for the maintenance of his title.
Charter-Party, in Commerce, denotes the instrument
of freightage, or articles of agreement for the hire of a
vessel. . . . j u • n
The charter-party must be in writing, and be signet
both by the proprietor or master of the ship, and the mer¬
chant who freights it. It must contain the name and bur¬
den of the vessel, the names of the master and the freigh¬
ter, the price or rate of freight, and the time of loading
and unloading, and the other conditions agreed on. it
is properly a deed, or policy, by which the master or pro
prietor of the vessel engages to furnish immediately a soun
vessel, well equipped, and provided with anchors, sails, cor
age, and all other furniture to make the voyage required,
in consideration of a certain sum to be paid by tie mer
chant for the freight.
Boyer says the word is derived from this, that pe
dium charta incidebatur, et sicfiebat charta partita .' because
in the time when notaries were less common, thfye *
only one instrument made for both parties; and tlls v
cut in two, giving each his portion ; but they joine e
together at their return, to know if each had done his p •
This, he observes, was the practice in his time; agreeao)
to the method of the Romans, who in their stipula
used to break a staff, each party retaining a moiety tne
of as a mark. „ ^ c .kp
CHARTOPHYLAX, the name of an officer ot n
church of Constantinople, who attends at the door
rails when the sacrament is administered, am Sives t
to the priests to come to the holy table. He rep
the patriarch upon the bench, tries all eeelesias ica >
keeps all the marriage registers, assists at the
tion of bishops, and presents the bishop elect at tl
C!a :.i
Cl;. C
ph; , *■
I
C H A
nity, and likewise all other subordinate clergy. This of¬
fice resembles in some shape that of the bibliotheearius at
Rome.
CHARTRE, an arrondissement in the department of
the Indre, in France, extending over 620 square miles.
It is divided into five cantons, and these into sixty-five
communes, with 42,475 inhabitants. The capital, which
gives its name to the arrondissement, is a city on a hill, at
whose foot the Indre flows, which contains 520 houses,
and 3926 inhabitants, who have some trade in cattle and
in wool. Long. 1. 51. E. Lat. 46. 55. N.
CHARTRES, an arrondissement of the department of
the Eure and Loire, in France, extending over 858 square
miles. It is divided into eight cantons, and these into 166
communes, containing 98,350 inhabitants. The chief city
bears the same name, and is situated in a fertile district,
on the banks of the Eure. It is surrounded by walls ; the
houses are in an antique fashion, and the streets narrow
and crooked. It contains 2000 houses and 13,000 inha¬
bitants. There is much industry applied to the making of
hats, hosiery, and in tanning leather ; and a considerable
trade is carried on in wheat and other corn. There is a
fine cathedral of the Gothic architecture, with two towers,
one of them 360 feet in height. Long. 1. 24. E. Lat. 48.
26. 54. N.
CHARTREUSE, or Chartreuse-Grand, a celebrat¬
ed monastery, the capital of all the convents of the Car¬
thusian monks, situated on a steep rock in the middle of
a large forest of fir trees, about seven miles north-east of
Grenoble, in the province of Dauphiny, in France. See
Carthusians.
From this mother convent all the others of the same
order took their name, among which was the Chartreuse
of London, corruptly called the Charterhouse, now convert¬
ed into an hospital, and endowed with a revenue of L.600
per annum.
Here were maintained eighty decayed gentlemen, not
under fifty years of age ; forty boys are also educated, and
fitted either for the university or trades. Those sent to
the university have an exhibition of L.20 a year for eight
years, and an immediate title to nine church livings in "the
gift of the governors of the hospital, who are sixteen in
number, all persons of the first distinction, and who take
their turn in the nomination of pensioners and scholars.
CHARTULARY, Chartularius, a title given to an
ancient officer in the Latin church, who had the care of
charters and papers relating to public affairs. The char-
tulary presided in ecclesiastical judgments, in place of the
pope. In the Greek church the chartulary was called
chartophylax; but his office was there much more consi¬
derable; and some even distinguished the chartulary from
the chartophylax in the Greek church. See Charto¬
phylax.
CHARY BDIS, in Ancient Geography, a whirlpool in the
•Straits of Messina, according to the poets, near Sicily,
and opposite to Scylla, a rock on the coast of Italy. Thu¬
cydides makes it to be only a strong flux and reflux in the
strait, or a violent reciprocation of the tide, especially if
the wind sets south. But on diving into the Charybdis,
there are found vast gulfs and whirlpools below, which pro-
( uce all the commotion on the surface of the water.
CHASE, or Chace, is a place of retreat for deer and
jvi. ^easts, of a middle kind between a forest and a park,
oemg usually less than a forest, and not possessed of so
many privileges. The following history of the English
chase is given by Mr Pennant {British Zool i. 42) : “ At
rst the beasts of chase had this whole island for their
range; they knew no other limits than the ocean, nor con-
e»sed any particular master. When the Saxons had esta-
) is led themselves in the heptarchy, they were reserved
C H A 333
by each sovereign for his own particular diversion. Hunt¬
ing and war in those uncivilized ages were the only em¬
ploy of the great; their active but uncultivated minds
being susceptible of no pleasures but those of a violent
kind, such as gave exercise to their bodies, and prevented
the pain of thinking.
“ But as the Saxon kings only appropriated those lands
to the use of forests which were unoccupied, so no indivi¬
duals received any injury; but when the conquest had
settled the Norman line on the throne, this passion for
the chase was carried to an excess which involved every
civil right in a general ruin : it superseded the considera¬
tion of religion even in a superstitious age; the village
communities, nay, even the most sacred edifices, were
turned into one vast waste, to make room for animals, the
objects of a lawdess tyrant’s pleasure. The New Forest in
Hampshire is too trite an instance to be dwelt on; san¬
guinary laws were enacted to preserve the game; and in
the reigns of William Rufus and Henry I. it was less cri¬
minal to destroy one of the human species than a beast of
chase. Thus it continued while the Norman line filled
the throne; but when the Saxon line was restored under
Henry II. the rigour of the forest laws was immediately
softened.
“ When our barons began to form a power, they claim¬
ed a vast but more limited tract for a diversion that the
English were always fond of. They were very jealous of
any encroachments on their respective bounds, which
were often the cause of deadly feuds. Such a one gave
cause to the fatal battle of Chevy-chase, a fact which,
though recorded only in a ballad, may, from what we
know of the manners of the times, be founded on truth ;
not that it was attended with all the circumstances which
the author of that natural but heroic composition has given
it; for on that day neither a Percy nor a Douglas fell.
Here the poet seems to have claimed his privilege, and
mixed with this fray some of the events of the battle of
Otterbourne.
“ When property became happily more divided by the
relaxation of the feodal tenures, those extensive hunting
grounds became more limited; and as tillage and hus¬
bandry increased, the beasts of chase were obliged to give
way to others more useful to the community. The vast
tracts of land before dedicated to hunting were then con¬
tracted, and, in proportion as the useful arts gained
ground, either lost their original destination, or gave rise
to the invention of parks. Liberty and the arts seem co¬
eval ; for when once the latter got footing, the former pro¬
tected the labours of the industrious from being ruined by
the licentious sportsman, or being devoured by the objects
of his diversion. For this reason the subjects of a despo¬
tic government still experience the inconveniences of vast
wastes and forests, the terrors of the neighbouring hus¬
bandmen, while in our wTell-regulated monarchy very few
chases remain. The English still indulge themselves in
the pleasures of hunting, but confine the deer kind to
parks, of which England boasts of more than any other
kingdom in Europe. The laws allow every man his plea¬
sure, but confine them in such bounds as to prevent them
from being injurious to the meanest of the community.
Before the reformation the prelates seem to have guarded
sufficiently against this want of amusement, the see of
Norwich in particular being possessed about that time of
thirteen parks.”
Chase, in the sea language, is to pursue a ship, which
is also called giving chase.
Chase-Guns are guns which are either in the head,
wrhen they are used in chasing others, or in the stern,
where they are only useful in the event of pursuit by any
other ship.
Chase.
334
Chase
II
Chateau-
Salines.
' 'Y^
i
C H A
C H A
Wild-goose Chase, a term used to express a sort of
racing on horseback formerly practised, resembling the
flying of wild geese ; those birds generally going m a tram
one after another, not in confused flocks as other birds do.
In this sort of race the two horses, after running twelve
score yards, had liberty, which horse soever could get tne
lead, to take what ground the jockey pleased, the hind¬
most horse being bound to follow him within a certain
distance agreed on by the articles, or else to be whipped
in by the triers and judges who rode by; and whichever
horse could distance the other won the race. Ibis sort
of racing was not long in common use; for it was found
inhuman, and destructive of good horses, when two such
were matched together. For in this case neither was able
to distance the other till they were both ready to sink
under their riders; and often two very good horses were
both spoiled, and the wagers forced to be drawn at last.
The mischief of this sort of racing soon brought m the
method now in use, of only running over a certain quantity
of ground, and determining the plate or wager by coming
in first at the winning-post.
CHASTITY. Purity of the body, or freedom from ob¬
scenity. The Romaft law justifies homicide in defence of
the chastity either of one’s self or one’s relations; and so
also, according to Selden, stood the law in the Jewish ic-
public. The law of England likewise justifies a woman m
killing a man who attempts to ravish her. So the husband
or father may justify killing a man who attempts a rape
upon his wife or daughter, but not it he takes tnem in
adultery by consent; for the one is forcible and felonious,
the other not.
CHATEAU-Chinon, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Nievre, in France, extending over 770 square
miles. It is divided into five cantons, and these into fifty-
eight communes, with 48,721 inhabitants. The chief place
is a city of the same name, on the summit of a hill, at the
foot of which the Yonne flows. It contains 205 houses,
with 1733 inhabitants. There are some woollen manufac¬
tures, several tanneries, and some trade in cattle, and also
in wood, which is floated down to Paris by the Seine.
Long. 3. 38. E. Eat. 47. 2. N.
Ciiateau-du-Loihe, a city of the department of the
Sarthe, in France, at the spot where the Ive falls into the
Loire. It is in a district yielding wine of an excellent kind.
It contains 425 houses, and 2823 inhabitants. Long. 0.
15. E. Lat. 47. 40. N.
Chateau-Neuf, a towm in the department of the
Loiret, in France, on the right bank of the Loire. It con¬
tains 607 houses, and 3141 inhabitants, who make some
serges and other woollen goods.
Chateau-Ponsat, a market-town of the department of
the Upper Vienne, in France, on the river Gartempe. It
contains 378 houses and 3668 inhabitants.
Chateau-Renard, a city of the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone, in France, containing 3272 inha¬
bitants.
Chateau-Roux, an arrondissement of the department
of the Indre, in France, extending over 940 square miles.
It is divided into eight cantons and ninety-three com¬
munes, containing 76,345 inhabitants. The capital, a city
of the same name, is in a fine situation, but it is an ill-
built town. It contains 1200 houses and 8512 inhabitants.
Long. 1. 36. 5. E. Lat. 46. 48. 45. N.
Chateau-Salines, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Meurthe, in France, extending over 420 square
miles, divided into five cantons, and comprehending a po¬
pulation of 60,550 persons, in 133 communes. The cluef
place, of the same name, is a city situated on the Seille,
where there is a small spring, and a refinery. There are
500 houses and 2850 inhabitants.
Chateau-Sontier, an arrondissement of the depart- Chi, |v
ment of the Mayenne, in France, the extent of which is 575 sX l
square miles. It is divided into six cantons, and these into
seventy-nine communes, containing 66,849 inhabitants. ^ o. :1‘
The chief place is a city of the same name, situated on ^ ^ '
the river Mayenne, which is navigable to a certain extent;
and it contains 700 houses, and 4834 inhabitants, who ma¬
nufacture linens, serges, eslamines, hats, and leather. It
is in long. 0. 51. W., and lat. 47. 47. N.
Chateau-Thierry, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Aisne, in France, extending over 485 square
miles. It is divided into five cantons and 127 communes,
and contains 57,013 inhabitants. The city which gives its
name to the department is situated on the side of a hill
upon the right bank of the Marne. It contains 940 houses,
with 4160 inhabitants. The chief trade is in wine and
corn, and in the making of linen and of serges, with some
considerable tanneries. There are near it two mineral
springs containing iron. Long. 3. 23. E. Lat. 49.12. N.
1 CHATEAUBIHANT, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Lower Loire, in hrance. It extends over 640
square miles, comprises seven cantons and thirty-seven
communes, containing 49,666 inhabitants. The chief place,
of the same name, is on the river Chere, and contains 650
houses, with 2733 inhabitants. Long 1. 30. W. Lat. 47.
45. N.
CHATEAUDUN, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Eure and Loire, in France, extending over
576 square miles, divided into five cantons and ninety-one
communes, and containing 53,994 inhabitants, dhe chief
city, of the same name, is situated on a rising ground on
the banks of the Loire. It has a fine market-place, and
a castle from which the prospect is most delightful. It
contains 925 houses, and 6161 inhabitants, who make wool¬
len blankets, and some thin stuffs. Long. 0. 18. 59. E.
Lat. 48. 4. 12. N.
CHATEAULIN, an arrondissement in the department
of Finisterre, in France. It is 775 square miles in extent,
comprising seven cantons, fifty-nine communes, and a po¬
pulation of 82,432 persons. The chief place, of the same
name, is a city situated on the banks of the Aulne. Ine
city itself is small, and contains not more than 100 houses,
but the parish is large, and the whole has_3172 inhabitants,
who partly depend on the fishery for their occupation, and
partly on some slate quarries near them.
CHATELLERAULT, an arrondissement of the de¬
partment of the Vienne, in France, which extends over
460 square miles. It is divided into six cantons, and these
into sixty-three communes, which contain 46,500 inhabit¬
ants. The chief city, which gives name to the department,
is situated on the river Vienne,_ a little above the spot to
which it is navigable. It contains 1575 houses, and
inhabitants, many of whom are occupied in making cutlery
goods, and some in linen and woollen manufactures, u
the former have lately declined. Long. 0. 36. 59. E. Eat.
46. 49. 6. N. , r u; u
CHATHAM, a large town in the hundred of Larktieia,
of the county of Kent. It forms a continuous street be¬
tween the city of Rochester and the town of bromptom
It is on the river Medway, in which, opposite m®’ ’
some of the largest ships of war are in ordinal y. _
fences are powerful, and are kept in good repair,
dock-yard, including the ordnance wharf, is near y a
in length, and some of the store-rooms are 700 feet wng,
while the sail-loft is more than 200 feet long. . e
rope-house, where cables are made 120 fathoms in elF
and twenty-two inches round, is 1140 feet Innek ” ,
yard are four docks for repairing and six for budding .
largest ships. The other remarkable pub he ,nstl j
are the victualling office, the marine barracks, ana
.t 11
C H A
hospitals. The population amounted in 1811 to 14,640,
in 1821 to 15,268, and in 1831 to 16,485.
Chatham Island. There are three islands of this
name. The first is about two miles long and half a mile
, broad, situated in a bay of the larger Andaman Island,
in the Bay of Bengal. The second is an island in the
South Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1791 by Lieutenant
Broughton, of which, or its products, very little is known.
Long. 183. 2. E. Lat. of the most northern point of the
island 43. 43. S. The third is another island in the South
Pacific Ocean, beautifully diversified with hill and dale,
and of a large size. Long. 172. 18. W. Lat. 13. 32. S.
CHATILLON, an arrondissement in the department of
Cote d’Or, in France. It extends over 820 square miles,
and is divided into six cantons, and these into 116 com¬
munes, containing 48,170 inhabitants. The chief place,
which is of the same name, but, to distinguish it, has the
addition “ sur Seine,” contains a population of 3900 per¬
sons. It carries on a moderate trade in cloth, serges, ho¬
siery, and cotton spinning. Long. 4. 23. E. Lat. 47. 23. N.
Chatillon les Dombes, a city of the department of
the Ain, in France, on the river Chalaronne, containing
375 houses and 3194 inhabitants.
CHATTELS, a Norman term, under which were an¬
ciently comprehended all movable goods, those immovable
being termed Jief or fee.
Chattels, in the modern sense of the word, are all sorts
of goods, movable or immovable, except such as are in the
nature of freehold.
CHATTERIS, a town in the Isle of Ely, in Cambridge¬
shire, seventy-two miles from London. It is near the
great drain from the Bedford level. It stands in a marshy
but not unhealthy situation. The inhabitants amounted in
1811 to 2399, in 1821 to 3283, and in 1831 to 4177.
CHA1TERPOOR, a city of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Allahabad, and district of Bundelcund. This is a
very ancient town, which was founded by a rajah named
Chuttersal, and was occasionally his residence. It was
in consequence a very flourishing city, and an important
commercial mart, being a great entrepot of trade between
Benares and the Deccan, and at a very short distance
from the diamond mines of Pannah. It was once an ex¬
tensive town and well built, the houses being of stone;
but it is now comparatively desolate. On the conclusion
of the last peace with the Mahrattas it came into the pos¬
session of the British, before which it was occupied, along
"ith a large portion of the surrounding territory, by a
petty chief, who, assisted by others, had rendered the
country a perpetual scene of disturbance. The travelling
distance from Agra is 212 miles, from Calcutta 698, and
from Bombay 747 miles. Long. 79. 53. E. Lat. 24. 57. N.
CHAT PER I ON, Thomas, an unfortunate poet, whose
j. 6 aild performances excited in no small degree the pub¬
ic attention, as well as gave rise to much literary contro-
He was born at Bristol on the 20th of November
1752, and educated at a charity school on St Augustin’s
Back, where nothing more was taught than reading, writ-
lng, and accounts. At the age of fourteen he was articled
as a clerk to an attorney at Bristol, with whom he conti-
micd about three years ; yet, though his education wms
uis confined, he discovered an early propensity for poetry
ant English antiquities, and particularly towards heraldry,
owsoon he took to writing and became an author is not
^own and Country Magazine for March
, there are two letters, probably from him, as they
aie ated from Bristol, and subscribed with his usual sig-
Ule’ . B, that is, Dunheluvus Bristoliensis. The for-
S^01<' ^tracts from two manuscripts “ writ-
dr11 : ^ ^ears aS° by one Rowley, a monk,” concerning
ess ‘n age of Henry II.; the latter “ Ethelgar, a Saxon
C H A
poem,” in bombast prose. In the same magazine for May
1769 there are three communications from Bristol, with the
same signature D. B. one of them entitled “ Observations
upon Saxon Heraldry, with drawings of Saxon Achieve¬
ments” and in the subsequent months of 1769 and 1770
there are several other pieces in the same magazine, which
are undoubtedly of his composition.
In April 1770 he left Bristol, disgusted with his profes¬
sion, and filled with irreconcilable aversion to the line of
life for which he was intended ; and coming to London in
hopes of advancing his fortune by his pen, he sunk at once
from the sublimity of his views to an absolute dependence
on the patronage of booksellers. He wrote incessantly in
various periodical publications. In July 1770, he tells his
sister that he had pieces last month in several magazines;
in the Gospel Magazine, the Town and Country, the Court
and City, the London, the Political Register, &c. But all
these exertions of his genius brought in so little profit,
that he was soon reduced to extreme indigence ; so that at
last, oppressed with poverty and disease, he in a fit of de¬
spair put an end to his existence, August 1770, by means
of poison.
In 1777 were published, in one volume 8vo, “ Poems,
supposed to have been written at Bristol, by Thomas Row-
ley and others, in the fifteenth century; the greatest part
now first published from the most authentic copies, with
an engraved specimen of one of the MSS.; to which are
added, a Preface, an Introductory Account of the several
pieces, and a Glossary.” And in 1778 were published,
in one volume 8vo, “ Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, by
Thomas Chatterton, the supposed author of the Poems
published under the names of Rowley, &c.” Of Rowley’s
poems we have the following account in the preface, given
in the words of Mr George Catcott of Bristol, to whom, it
is said, the public is indebted for them. “ The first dis¬
covery of certain MSS. having been deposited in Redclift
church above three centuries ago, was made in the year
1768, at the time of opening the new bridge at Bristol;
and was owing to a publication in Farley’s Weekly Jour¬
nal, Oct. 1, containing an account of the ceremonies ob¬
served at the opening of the old bridge, taken, as it was
said, from a very ancient MS. This excited the curiosity
of some persons to inquire after the original. The print¬
er, Mr Farley, could give no account of it, or of the per¬
son who brought the copy; but after much inquiry, it was
discovered that this person was a youth between fifteen
and sixteen years of age, whose name was Thomas Chat¬
terton, and whose family had been sextons of Redclift
church for near 150 years. His father, who was now
dead, had also been master of the free school in Pile Street.
The young man was at first very unwilling to discover
from whence he had the original; but, after many pro¬
mises made to him, was at last prevailed on to acknow¬
ledge that he had received this, together with many other
MSS. from his father, who had found them in a large
chest in an upper room over the chapel on the north side
of Redclift church.” It is added, that soon after this Mr
Catcott commenced an acquaintance with Chatterton, and
succeeded in procuring from him, partly as presents, part¬
ly as purchases, copies of many of his manuscripts in prose
and verse; and other copies were disposed of in like man- .
ner to different persons. But whatever may have been
Chatterton’S part in this very extraordinary transaction;
whether he was the author, or only, as he constantly as¬
serted, the copier of all these productions; he appears to
have kept the secret entirely to himself, and not to have
put it in any one’s power to bear certain testimony either
to his fraud or to his veracity.
This affair, however, gave rise to a protracted contro¬
versy among the critics. The poems in question, publish-
335
Chatter-
ton.
336
C H A
Chaucer.
ed in 1777, were republished in 1778, with an “ Appen¬
dix, containing some observations upon the language of
the poems attributed to Rowley ; tending to prove that
they were written, not by any ancient author, but entne y
by Thomas Chatterton.” Mr Warton, in the third volume
of his History of English Poetry, espoused the same side
of the question. On the other hand there have appeared,
“ Observations” upon these poems, “ in which their authen¬
ticity is ascertained,” by Jacob Bryant, Lsq. 1/81, 8vo;
and another edition of the “ Poems, with a Commentary,
in which their antiquity is considered and defended, by
Jeremiah Milles, D.D. Dean of Exeter, 1782,” 4to.
That Chatterton was the author of the Rowley poems is
now admitted by all intelligent critics. However wonder¬
ful it may seem that they were composed by a youth who
had not completed his sixteenth year, it has been satisfac¬
torily proved by Mr Warton that it was impossible that
the poems could have been written by Rowley in the fif¬
teenth century. A subscription edition of Chatterton s
works, for the benefit of his sister Mrs Newton, was an¬
nounced in 1799; but for want of encouragement the pub¬
lication was postponed till 1803, when it came forth undei
the joint editorship of Messrs Southey and Cottle, in three
vols. 8vo, with the life of Chatterton prefixed, by G. Gre¬
gory, D.D., which had appeared in Kippis’s edition of
the Biographia Britannica.
CHAUCER, Geoffrey, who has been styled the ba¬
ther of English poetry, has had many biographers, but
much of his history is involved in considerable obscurity.
The year 1328 has been usually assigned as the date of
his birth, upon the authority of an inscription on his tomb¬
stone, in which he is said to have died in 1400, aged seven¬
ty-two. This inscription, however, was not placed on his
tomb till the middle of the sixteenth century; and some
doubt of its correctness has been expressed in consequence
of Chaucer’s deposition as a witness in October 1386, in
which he states himself then to. have been “ forty years
and upwards,” and which, if strictly correct, would piace
his birth about 1345. We are certain, however, from his
own words, that he was born in London; but with regard
to his descent and parentage there is absolutely nothing
known. Leland says he was nobili loco nut us / but Speght,
in 1598, informs us, that “ in the opinion of some heralds,
hee descended not of any great house, which they gather
by his armes.” This, as an old writer observes, “ is a slen¬
der conjecture,” yet not more so than Speght s supposi¬
tion that his father was Richard Chaucer, a vintner, who
died in 1348; wdiile Pitts says that he was the son of a
knight. It may also be noticed that there was a Robert
Chaucer connected with the royal household of Edward
II. who perhaps may have stood in that relationship. (Rot.
Scot.) Leland, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., as¬
serts that he studied at Oxford ; while his signature “ Phi-
logenet of Cambridge, Clerk,” affixed to one of his early
pieces, has been brought forward as more direct proof
that he received his education at the latter university.
Some of his biographers very gravely assure us that he
was first at Cambridge, and then completed his studies
at Oxford; after which they say he went on his travels
through France and the Netherlands. I he next state¬
ment is, that he was a member of the Inner Temple, and
that whilst there he was fined “ two shillings for beating a
Franciscane frier in Fleet Street.”
Without stopping to consider the probability of these
several points, we may observe, that frequent mention of
Chaucer, during the more advanced period of his life, oc¬
curs in various public instruments ; most of which are print¬
ed in the Appendix to Mr Godwin’s life of the poet. The
first direct information we possess regarding his history
is, that, in the autumn of 1359, he was in the army with
C H A
which Edward III. invaded France. This fact we learn dj
from his own deposition, which further states that he was ^ v
made prisoner by the French near the town of Retters
during that expedition; but we are not informed at what
time he was ransomed and returned to England, although
we may conclude that he never resumed the profession of
arms. The next notice that has been discovered shows
that he had attracted the regard of the English monarch,
and that he was an attendant on the king’s person. It is a
patent in 1367, by which Edward the Third grants Chau¬
cer an annuity of twenty marks, by the title of ‘ dilectus
vallettus noster,’ our valet or yeoman, in consideration of
his former and expected services. According to Tyrwhitt,
this designation was the intermediate rank between squkr
and grome ; and this annuity may be reckoned in our pre¬
sent money at two hundred pounds. In his poem of the
Dream, or the Complaint of the Black Knight, written
before this time, the poet is supposed to allude to the
nuptials of his munificent patron John of Gaunt, with
Blanche, heiress of Lancaster. The same poem contains
an allusion to the lady whom Chaucer himself afterwards
married, although the time of his marriage is somewhat
uncertain ; but it is admitted that by this alliance he be¬
came eventually related to his illustrious patron.
In June 1370, it appears that Chaucer was abroad in the
king’s service ; and on the 12th November 1372, being at
that time one of the king’s esquires, “ scutifer noster,” he
was joined in a commission w ith two citizens of Genoa, to
treat with the Duke and Duchess of Genoa, for the pur¬
pose of fixing upon some place on the coast of England
where the Genoese might form a commercial establish¬
ment. It was at this time he enjoyed the opportunity of
visiting Petrarch, if his visit to that illustrious poet ever
took place, which, however pleasing to the imagination,
is somewhat doubtful; as the passage in his Canterbun
Tales, upon which his supposed conference with the “wor¬
thy clerk of Padua” is founded, is susceptible of a different
interpretation. The next notice of Chaucer is, that on the
23d of April 1374, he obtained a grant for life of a pitcher
of wine daily, to be received from the hands of the kings
butler in the port of London. On the 8th June 1374 he was
appointed comptroller of the customs, and subsidy of wools,
&c. in the port of London, during the king’s pleasure; but
the patent contains the following injunction, “ so that the
said Geoffrey write with his own hand his rolls touching
the said office, and continually reside there, and do and
execute all things pertaining to the said office in his own
person, and not by substitute.” The reason of such an
express injunction is not known, and it is possible that Ins
majesty may have been insensible of his poetical talents,
although this attendance on his official duties seems to
have had no prejudicial effect on his genius, as the com¬
position of his House of Fame is assigned to the same pe¬
riod. In November 1375, the wardship of Edmond, son
and heir of Edmond Staplegate of Kent, was granted to
Chaucer, for which he received L. 104; and in the follow¬
ing year, another grant, to the value of L.71. 4s. 6d. con¬
nected with his office of comptroller of tlje customs, n
February 1377 Chaucer was joined with Sir Guicftara
d’Angle, afterwards Earl of Huntingdon, and bir Ricl^
Sturry, to negotiate a secret treaty respecting the marmg
of Richard, prince of Wales, with Mary, daughter ot tne
king of France. His employment in foreign missio
shows that Chaucer had established a personal and po> ‘
tical character of some importance ; and the emo dm
which he received enabled him to live in a state o i„
ty and hospitality that was in accordance with his nat
sociality of disposition. i i not so
The reign of his successor was, on the whole,
propitious to the poet. On the accession of Ric iar
Cli|-r-
C H A
Second, the annuity of twenty marks was indeed confirm¬
ed to him, and his grant of wine was replaced by an equi¬
valent annuity of other twenty marks. He also retained
the situation of comptroller of the customs and subsidies,
which Edward the Third bestowed on him; but he was
doomed to experience a reverse of fortune, in some mea¬
sure connected with the decline of John of Gaunt’s in¬
fluence at court. The immediate cause of this reverse is
said to have been his connection with a political party, in
some disputes between the court and the city of London,
in the year 1384. This party was headed by John of
Northampton, an opulent merchant, who had been mayor,
and was attached to the religious tenets of Wykliffe, and
to the political interests of John of Gaunt. The result
was, that Chaucer was compelled to fly the kingdom ; and
he retired first to Hainault, then to France, and finally to
Zealand. How long he remained abroad is uncertain ;
but we find that Chaucer was elected a knight of the
shire for the county of Kent in the parliament which met
on the 1st October 1386. Whilst attending his parliamen¬
tary duties, he was examined at Westminster, on the 15th
of October, as a witness “ in the court of chivalry,” in the
great cause between Sir Richard Scrope and Sir Robert
Grosvenor, when he made the deposition to which we have
already alluded, the substance of which, in as far as relates
to himself, is as follows; “ Geoffrey Chaucer, Esquire, of
the age of forty and upwards, armed tw'enty-seven years,
being asked whether the arms, azure, a bend or, belonged
to Sir Richard Scrope, said Yes; for he saw him so armed
in France before the town of Retters, and Sir Henry
Scrope armed in the same arms with a white label, and
with banner; and the said Richard armed in the entire
arms, and so during the whole expedition, untill the said
Geoffrey was taken.”
Whatever may be the date of Chaucer’s return to Eng¬
land, we have his own testimony that he fled to avoid
being examined in relation to certain disturbances; and
that after his return he was arrested and confined to the
Tower of London. That he was deprived of his comptrol-
lership is also evident, as other persons are named as hold¬
ing them in December 1386. During his imprisonment he
commenced his Testament of Love, an allegorical prose
composition, in imitation of Boethius’ De Consolatione Phi¬
losophic, in which he feelingly laments his own situation,
“ berafte out of dignitie of office, in which he had made a
gatheringe of worldly goodes and “ enduring penance in
this dark prison, caitifned from frendship and acquaintance,
and forsaken of al that any word dare speak.” As the price
of his release, it is said, he was obliged to make a confes¬
sion respecting the conspiracy in which he had been im¬
plicated. In May 1388 he found it necessary to apply for
permission to surrender his two grants of twenty marks
each in favour of one John Scalby. After this he is said
to have retired to Woodstock, and employed himself in
revising and correcting his writings, and enjoying the calm
pleasures of rural contemplation, amidst the scenes which
inspired his youthful genius. The composition of his Can¬
terbury Tales is usually assigned to this period; when,
though long past the prime of life, his mental powers
must have been in their fullest vigour.
In 1389 the Duke of Lancaster having returned from
Spain, and resumed his influence at court, it was probably
through his influence that, on the 12th July 1390, Chaucer
"as appointed to the office of clerk of the king’s works,
the duties of which he was permitted to execute by de¬
puty, with a salary of two shillings per diem. In this
oihce, however, he seems to have been superseded in the
course of the following year; but, on the 28th of February
n u 6 a grant of twenty pounds yearly for life.
n the 4th May 1398, letters of protection were granted
c H A 337
him for the space of two years. On the 13th October in Chaucer,
the same year he obtained another grant of wine, being ^
one tun yearly during his life.
Henry the Fourth, the son of his great patron the Duke
of Lancaster, ascended the throne in 1399; and from him
Chaucer had his annuity of twenty pounds confirmed,
with the additional sum of forty marks yearly. The last
record of Chaucer that has been discovered is a lease of a
tenement in the garden of the chapel of the Blessed Mary
of Westminster, dated on Christmas eve 1399. But the
poet was not privileged to benefit long by these grants, as
his death is said to have occurred at London on the 25th
October 1400, at the age of seventy-two. The chief evi¬
dence on which the date of his decease rests is the in¬
scription on his tomb, which was erected in the year 1556,
by Nicholas Brigham, a gentleman of Oxford, an ardent
admirer of the great English poet, and who no doubt had
sufficient grounds, either from a previous inscription, or
other information, for fixing the date. Chaucer lies in¬
terred in the south cross aisle of Westminster Abbey, in a
place consecrated to the poetical genius of England.
Such is a brief abstract of nearly every fact relating to
Chaucer that has been discovered; and upon which, aided
by ample conjectural inferences, Mr Godwin constructed
a life of the poet, which extends to two large volumes in
4to, and was reprinted in four vols. 8vo. Besides the Me¬
moir by Sir Harris Nicolas, contained in his valuable histo¬
rical and genealogical notes to the Scrope and Grosvenor
Roll, recently printed, the curious reader is referred to
the Reverend Mr Todd’s “ Illustrations of the Lives and
Writings of Gower and Chaucer.” Lond. 1810, 8vo.
Chaucer’s works have been preserved in a variety of
early manuscripts, which attest their continued popularity,
and have been very frequently printed. One of the ear¬
lier productions of Caxton’s press is an edition of the Can¬
terbury Tales, without date, but printed about 1475. He
also published a second edition, six years after the first,
on being informed of the imperfections of that edition.
It may be worthy of mention, in proof of Chaucer’s po¬
pularity in Scotland, that one of the earliest specimens of
the Scotish press was an edition of his Complaynt of the
Black Knight, which was printed at Edinburgh, by Chep-
man and Myllar, in 1508, under the title of “ The Maying
or Disport of Chaucer.” The first collected edition of his
works was edited by William Thynne, and printed by God¬
frey in 1532. They passed through several subsequent
editions during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
besides later republications. The edition of the Canter¬
bury Tales edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt, one of the most
learned and accomplished of scholars, whose attention had
been directed to old English literature during the last cen¬
tury, is worthy of the highest commendation for accuracy
and critical acumen. It was printed at London 1775, in 5
vols. 8vo, and reprinted at Oxford 1798, in 2 vols. 4to, and
also more recently in London in its original form. A com¬
plete edition of Chaucer’s works, from a collation of the
earlier MSS. would be a most important addition to old
English literature.
Chaucer’s merits as a poet are of no ordinary kind; but
in considering his poetical character, it is necessary to at¬
tend to the age in which he lived, in order to ascertain to
what extent he may be said to have improved our lan¬
guage and versification. Chaucer himself, while he ex¬
poses the absurdity of his countrymen, like Gower, writ¬
ing in a foreign language, seems to have entertained no
very exalted idea of the vernacular tongue. During the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there had been seve¬
ral English poets whose remains are interesting chiefly for
their antiquity; but it remained as a distinction for the
reign of Edward the Third to produce works which tend-
338
C H A
Chaucer, ed to exalt and fix the standard of our present language.
In our veneration for Chaucer, however, too much influ¬
ence in this respect has been attributed exclusively to lus
writings. It was the policy of the English monarch, rather
than the poetical genius of Chaucer, which gave import¬
ance and dignity to the language, by causing it to be spo¬
ken at court, and to be substituted in all public and judi¬
cial proceedings, instead of the Norman-French, which
had been introduced at the Conquest in 1066, and which
had continued to be employed for nearly three centuries.
Among the eminent men who adorned the reign ot Ed¬
ward the Third, the first in priority of date is Langland,
the reputed author of the Visions of Piers Plowman. In
his Visions, which are written in very obscure alliterative
language, the author’s object was to expose the abuses
which then prevailed, and to bring about a reform in t ic
morals both of the clergy and aristocracy, lo accom¬
plish this, with striking originality in his character as a
moral satirist he depicts the various orders of society, and
inveio-hs with great boldness against the depraved conduct
of the clergy, and the corruptions of the papal government.
The composition of this work has been fixed to the year
1362; and although the satire is considerably affected by
the general personification in which the author indulged,
there can be little doubt that the Visions contributed to
improve the moral feelings of his contemporaries; and if
his work had no beneficial effect upon the literature of
the time, it at least remains as a monument of true poeti¬
cal genius.
Another poet of distinction, contemporary with Chau¬
cer, was John Gower. He is generally allowed to have
been a man of extensive learning, but not of much natu¬
ral genius. In fact his claims as an English poet are con¬
siderably lessened, as his French ballads are among his
best productions; and one of his great works, the Vox Clci-
mantis, is in Latin. Neither is Laurence Minot, who wrote
various narrative ballads on the subject of the Wars or
Edward the Third, entitled to any very marked distinction
as an original writer.
Chaucer may have been known as a poet at the time
Langland’s Visions were written; but his greatest work
is at least twenty years later in date. His chief merit
in regard to versification consisted in rendering it more
natural, regular, and comprehensive, by discarding alli¬
teration, and by reducing the irregular Alexanchine me¬
tre to the heroic measure in an uniform and equal number
of syllables. This adoption of the decasyllabic couplet has
been used by nearly every great English poet from Spen¬
ser to Byron, who declared it to be “ the best adapted
measure to our language.” In the structure of his verse
generally, when compared with some previous writers, or
with the numerous class of English metrical romances,
there will not be found any essential distinction. But in
contributing to the improvement of the English language,
perhaps no author ought to be put into competition with
the illustrious reformer Wykliffe. In addressing the dif¬
ferent classes of society, he was obliged to use the verna¬
cular dialect; and he inveighed against the corruptions of
the time, not under the veil of cold allegorical personifica¬
tion, but in a bold and open manner, which must have been
productive of important consequences in exciting the in¬
tellectual energies of the people. The extent and variety
of knowledge he displayed far exceeded that of most of
his contemporaries; and, being persuaded that the surest
mode of enlightening the people would be the perusal of
the Scriptures in their own tongue (although at the time
it was affirmed by illiterate ecclesiastics to be heresy to
speak of the Holy Scriptures in English), he accomplished
a translation, which of itself, in a literary point of view, is
sufficient to have immortalized his name.
C H A
Chaucer’s waitings partake much of his own personal Ch;!r
character and spirit, as influenced by his intercourse with
the world and his employment in public affairs. If his^m
writings had not much influence upon the moral feelings^T;
of his contemporaries, they had at least a most important
influence upon the literature of his country. But while
his more immediate followers imitated the peculiarities
of his “ ornate” style and manner, they suffered his spirit
and grace to evaporate ; their chief object being an accu¬
mulation of ornament and an exuberance of diction to
which every thing else was subservient. It is sufficiently
remarkable, that during the greater part of Chaucer’s poe¬
tical career, he contented himself with transferring into
our language the most popular works of contemporary
French and Italian writers, but in a manner which gives
them the character of original productions rather than that
of translations. In these earlier works there is elegance of
fancy and picturesqueness of description ; but all the grace
and beauty of his allegorical compositions fall infinitely
short of his power of delineating living character, as dis¬
played in his immortal work the Canterbury Tales.
In this work, the idea of which was no doubt derived
from Boccaccio, he brings together a motley crew of “ syn-
dry folke,” who “ in felowshyp” are travelling together on
a pilgrimage to the shrine of St Thomas of Becket, to
Canterbury ; and, as the means of affording instruction and
amusement, they agree, each of them in their turn, to re¬
late a story, the details of which, with the incidents that
happen, and, above all, the description of the character and
manners of the persons themselves who are thus assem¬
bled, form a picture of life and manners altogether unri¬
valled. Nothing can exceed the skill shown in the gene¬
ral prologue, in which the habits of life and peculiarities
of disposition of the different pilgrims are so singularly
and so strikingly contrasted, with a rich vein of humour,
and great discrimination of human nature.
We cannot do better than conclude with an extract from
the work of an eminent contemporary, who has shown him¬
self to be in every respect a master in the art of poetical
criticism.
“ Chaucer’s forte,” says Mr Campbell, “ is description;
much of his moral reflection is superfluous; none of his
characteristic painting. His men and women are not mere
ladies and gentlemen, like those who furnish apologies for
Boccaccio’s stories. They rise before us minutely traced;
profusely varied, and strongly discriminated. Their fea¬
tures and casual manners seem to have an amusing con-
gruity with their moral characters. He notices minute
circumstances as if by chance ; but every touch has its
effect to our conception so distinctly that we seem to live
and travel with his personages throughout the journey.
“ What an intimate scene of English life in the fourteent
century do we enjoy in those tales, beyond what history
displays by glimpses, through the stormy atmosphere o
her scenes, or the antiquarian can discover by the cold
light of his researches ! Our ancestors are restored to us,
not as phantoms from the field of battle, or the sca“® ’
but in the full enjoyment of their social existence. Alter
four hundred years have closed over the mirthful featuies
which formed the living originals of the poet’s descriptions,
his pages impress the fancy with the momentary ere ence
that they are still alive ; as if Time had rebuilt his rums,
and were re-acting the lost scenes of existence.
mens of the British Poets, vol. ii. p. 21. (c- c; cv
CH AUD Medley, in Paw, is of much the same imp
with Chance Medley. The former in its etymology signi¬
fies an affray in the heat of blood or passion; the latter,
casual affray. In Scotch law it is Chaude Melle.
CHAUMONT, an arrondissement of the departmen
the Upper Marne, in France, extending over 1015 squa
C H A
CHE 339
y miles, divided into ten cantons, and containing 78,804 in¬
habitants in 198 communes. The city which gives name
es’ to the district is situated on the acclivity of a hill, between
,J the rivers Suize and Marne. It contains 1100 houses, and
6504 inhabitants, whose chief employment consists in mak¬
ing woollen stuffs, gloves, hosiery, and serges. Long. 4.
49. 55. E. Lat. 48. 6. 13. N.
CHAUNY, a city in the department of the Aisne, in
France. It is situated on the river Oise, which is navigable,
and, by means of a canal, is united to the Somme. It con¬
tains 816 houses and 3500 inhabitants. There are some of
the largest-sized plate glasses and mirrors made here.
CHAUVIN, Stephen, a celebrated minister of the re¬
formed religion, born at Nismes, left France at the revoca¬
tion of the edict of Nantes, and retired to Rotterdam, where
he began a new Journal des Sfavansya.nA, afterwards re¬
moving to Berlin, continued it there three years. At this
last place he was made professor of philosophy, and dis¬
charged that office with much honour and reputation.
His principal work is a philosophical dictionary in Latin,
which he published at Rotterdam in 1692, and gave a new
edition of it, much augmented, at Lewarden, in 1703, in
folio. He died in 1725, aged eighty-five.
CHAVES, a fortified town of Portugal, in the province
Entre-Duero-e-Minho. It is situated on the northern fron¬
tier, towards Galicia, distant three leagues from Monter¬
rey, and near the banks of the Tamaga, over which there
is a bridge of Roman construction, with sixteen arches,
and whose strength shows the antiquity of its date. It pos¬
sesses 3650 inhabitants. Lat. 41. 46. N.
CHAUX de Fonds, a town in the canton of Neufchatel,
in Switzerland, the capital of a district of the same name.
It stands in an elevated situation, 1750 feet above the level
of the sea, and it contains 559 palace-like houses, and 5900
inhabitants, chiefly employed in the jewellery and watch¬
making trade, and in the preparation of various instru¬
ments in metals. It is in longitude 6. 44. 35. E. and lati¬
tude 47. 6. 5. N.
CHAYANTA, a province of Bolivia, in the department
ofPotosi. It produces in abundance maize, wheat, and
other European grain. It abounds in cattle of all sorts,
and contains several gold mines. The population is about
100,000.
CHAZELLES, Jean Mathieu, a celebrated French
mathematician and engineer, was born at Lyons in 1657.
M. Duhamel, with whom he got acquainted, finding his
genius incline towards astronomy, presented him to M.
Cassini, who employed him in his observatory. In 1684
the Duke of Mortemar made use of Chazelles to teach
him mathematics, and, the year after, procured him the
preferment of hydrographic professor for the galleys of
Marseilles, where he set up a school for young pilots de-
signing to serve aboard the galleys. In 1686, the galleys
made four little campaigns, or rather four courses, purely
for exercise. Chazelles went on board every time with
them, kept his school upon the sea, and showed the prac¬
tice of what he taught. In the years 1687 and 1688 he
made two other naval campaigns, in which he drew a great
many plans of ports, roads, towns, and forts, which w'ere
lodged with the ministers of state. At the beginning of
the war which ended with the peace of Ryswick, some
marine officers, and Chazelles among the rest, fancied that
the galleys might be so contrived as to live upon the ocean ;
that they might serve to tow the men of war when the
''md failed or proved contrary, and also help to secure
the coast of France. Chazelles was sent to the west coasts
m July 1689 to examine the practicability of this scheme ;
and in 1690 fifteen galleys, newly built, set sail from Roche-
mt, and cruised as far as Torbay, in England, and proved
serviceable at the descent upon Tinmouth. After this he
digested into order the observations he had made on the Chazinza-
coasts of the ocean, and drew distinct maps, with a portu- rians
lan to them, namely, a large description of every haven, of II
the depth, the tides, the dangers and advantages disco- CheesaP-
vered, and so forth. These maps were inserted in the  •
Neptune Frangais, published in 1692, in which year Cha-
zelles acted as engineer at the descent at Oneille. In
1693, Monsieur de Pontchartrain, then secretary of state
for the marine, and afterwards chancellor of France, re¬
solved to get the Neptune Frangais carried on to a second
volume, which was to include the hydrography of the Me¬
diterranean. Chazelles desired that he might have a year’s
voyage on this sea for making astronomical observations;
and the request being granted, he passed through Greece,
Egypt, and other parts of Turkey, with his quadrant and
telescope in his hand. When he was in Egypt, he mea¬
sured the pyramids; and finding that the angles formed
by the sides of the largest were in the precise direction
of the four cardinal points, he concluded that this position
must have been intended, and also that the poles of the
earth and meridians had not deviated since the erection
of these colossal structures. Chazelles likewise made a
report of his voyage in the Levant, and gave the academy
all the satisfaction they desired concerning the position of
Alexandria; upon which he was made a member of the
academy in 1695. He died in 1710.
CHAZINZARIANS, a sect of heretics who appeared
in Armenia in the seventh century. The word is formed
of the Armenian chazus, cross. They were also called
staurolatree, which in Greek signifies the same as Chazin-
zarians in Armenian, namely, adorers of the cross, because
they were charged with paying adoration to the cross alone.
In other respects they were Nestorians, and admitted two
persons in Jesus Christ. Nicephorus ascribes other sin¬
gularities to this sect, particularly their holding an annual
feast in memory of the dog of their false prophet Sergius,
which they called artzihartzes.
CHECKY, in Heraldry, is when the shield or a bor-
dure is chequered, or divided into chequers or squares,
in the manner of a chess-board. This is one of the most
noble and most ancient figures used in armory; and a
certain author says that it ought to be given to none but
great warriors, in token of their bravery; for the chess¬
board represents a field of battle; and the pawns placed
on both sides represent the soldiers of the two armies,
and move, attack, advance, or retire, according to the will
of the gamesters, who are the generals. This figure is
always composed of metal and cojour; but some authors
are disposed to reckon it as a sort of fur.
CHEDUBA, an island in the Bay of Bengal, lying off
the coast of Arracan. It is distant from the main land
about ten miles. It is the most westerly of a cluster of in¬
habited islands, and produces such abundance of rice, that
it is exported in great quantities. The channel between
this island and the mainland is navigable for boats, but
not for large vessels. Cheduba was taken from the Bur¬
mese in 1824, by a British detachment. It was of little
advantage in furnishing supplies, and it proved very fatal
to the garrison, most of whom died. It was retained by
the British at the treaty of peace.
CHEEK, in Anatomy, that part of the face situated
below the eyes on each side. See Anatomy.
Cheeks, a general name among mechanics for almost
all those pieces of their machines and instruments that
are double and perfectly alike. Thus the cheeks of a
printing prc.s are its two principal pieces : they are placed
perpendicularly, and parallel to each other, serving to sus¬
tain the three sommers, viz. the head, shelves, and winter,
which bear the spindle and other parts of the machine.
CHEESAPANY, a town and small fort in the Nepaul
340 CHE CHE
Cheese territories. The fortress stands upon a perpendicular rock,
II 530 yards in height. The natural strength of its position
Cheke. is its defence, as it is not capable of containing more
than 100 men. The village contains twenty houses; and
there is here a custom-house, at which all goods passing
from the British territories pay a duty, from a position
about 120 yards above the fort the great Himalaya range
is to be seen towering amid the regions of eternal snow.
Long. 85. 30. E. Lat. 27. 23. N.
CHEESE, a sort of food prepared of curdled mdk purg¬
ed from the serum or whey, and afterwards dried for use.
See Agriculture and Dairy.
CHEKE, Sir John, a celebrated statesman, gramma¬
rian, and divine, descended of an ancient family in the Isle
of Wight, was born at Cambridge in the year 15141, and
educated at St John’s College in that university. After
taking his degrees in arts, he was first chosen Greek lec¬
turer, and then, in 1540, professor of that language, with a
stipend of L.40 a year. In this station he was principally
instrumental in reforming the pronunciation of the Greek
language, which, having been much neglected, was imper¬
fectly understood. About the year 1543 he was incor¬
porated as master of arts at Oxford, where, we are told,
he had studied for some time. In the following year he
was sent to the court of King Henry VIII. and appointed
tutor for the Latin language, jointly with Sir Anthony
Cooke, to Prince Edward, about which time he was made
canon of the college newly founded at Oxford ; so that he
must by this time have been in orders. On the accession
of his royal pupil to the crown, Mr Cheke was first re¬
warded with a pension of a hundred merks, and afterwards
obtained several considerable grants from the crown. In
1550 he was made chief gentleman of the privy chamber,
and was knighted the following year; in 1552, chamberlain
of the exchequer for life; in 1553, clerk of the council;
and soon afterwards secretary of state and privy counsellor.
But these honours were of short duration. Having con¬
curred in the measures of the Duke of Northumberland for
settling the crown on the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey, and
acted as her secretary during the nine days of her reign,
Sir John Cheke was, on the accession of Queen Mary, sent
to the Tower, and stripped of the greater part of his pos¬
sessions. In September 1554 he obtained his liberty, and
a license from her majesty to travel abroad. He went first
to Basel, thence to Italy, and afterwards returned to Stras-
burg, where he was reduced to the necessity of reading
Greek lectures for subsistence. In 1556 he set out in
an evil hour to meet his wife at Brussels; but before he
reached that city he was seized by order of Philip II.,
hoodwinked, and thrown into a waggon, and thus ignomi-
niously conducted to a ship, which brought him to the
Tower of London. He soon found that religion was the
cause of his imprisonment; for he was immediately visited
by two Catholic priests, who piously endeavoured to con¬
vert him, but without success. However, he was at last
visited by Fleckenham, who told him from the queen that
he must either comply or be burned. This powerful ar¬
gument had the desired effect; Sir John Cheke formally
complied, and his lands, upon certain conditions, were re¬
stored ; but his remorse soon put an end to his life. He
died in September 1557, at the house of his friend Mr
Peter Osborne, in Wood Street, London, and was buried
in St Alban’s church. He left three sons, the eldest of
whom, Henry, was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. He
wrote, 1. A Latin translation of two of St Chrysostom’s
homilies, Lond, 1543, 4to ; 2, A Latin translation of six
homilies of the same Father, Lond. 1547 ; 3. The Hurt of
Sedition, Lond. 1549, 1576, 1641; 4. A Latin translation of
the English Communion Service, printed among Bucer’s
Opuscula; 5. De Obitu doctissimi et sanctissimi theologi
Domini Martini Buceri, &c. Lond. 1551 ; 6. Carmen He- CL i
roicum, or Epitaphium, in Antonium Deneium clarissi-
mum virum, Lond. 4to ; 7. De Pronunciatione Graecae, Ba- Ch; %
sel, 1555, 8vo ; 8. De Superstitione ad Regem Henricum
8. Several letters published in his life by Strype; 10. A
Latin translation of Archbishop Cranmer’s book on the )e
Lord’s Supper, 1553 ; 11. Translation of Leo de Apparatu -
Bellico, Basel, 1554. Sir John Cheke left also a great
many unpublished writings, which are most probably lost.
CHEKWALL, a town of the Sikk territories, in the pro¬
vince of Lahore. About ten miles to the south of this
place are pits which yield salt, alum, and sulphur. 107
miles north-west from Lahore. Long. 72. 16. E. Lat. 32.
39. N.
CHELIDONIAS, according to Pliny, an annual or ete-
sian wind, blowing at the appearance of the swallows, and
otherwise called Favonius or Zephyrus.
CHELIDONIUS Lapis, in Natural History, a stone
said by the ancients to be found in the stomachs of young
swallows, and greatly esteemed for its virtues in the fall¬
ing sickness.
CHELMSFORD, a town in the hundred of the same
name, in the county of Essex. It is twenty-nine miles
from London, on the junction of the rivers Cann and Chel-
mer. It is well built, and situated in a fine country, but
has little trade. The assizes and sessions are held here,
and the jail, of modern erection, is in this town. The mar- )r
ket is held on Friday, and is well supplied. The-inhabit¬
ants amounted in 1811 to 4649, in 1821 to 4994, and in
1831 to 5435. \ I
CFIELSEA, a parish in Middlesex, adjoining to Lon¬
don, which has grown to be more populous than many cities.
It contains the hospital for invalid soldiers, the military
asylum, a noble institution for the orphan children of sol¬
diers, three churches, two of recent erection, and the bo¬
tanic garden. A bridge across the Thames connects it
with the county of Surrey. The palace of the Bishop of
Winchester, which stood here, has been lately taken down.
There are several extensive nursery-grounds and gardens,
and some large floor-cloth manufactories. The inhabitants
amounted in 1811 to 18,262, in 1821 to 26,860, and in
1831 to 32,371.
CHELTENHAM, a town in the hundred of the same
name, in the county of Gloucester, ninety-five miles from
London. It takes its name from the small river Chilt,
which passes through the town in its way to the Severn.
It has long been celebrated for its mineral spring, whose
supply of water was small; but of late years new springs
have been discovered, more copious in their produce, in
consequence of which the company resorting to it has in¬
creased, and a corresponding number of new private and
public buildings have been erected. It now, in extent and
elegance, more resembles a large city than the small town
it was forty years ago. The situation, at the foot of the
Chiltern Hills, is healthy, picturesque, and pleasant, and
affords means of gratifying both pedestrians and eques¬
trians. The pump-rooms, theatre, ball-rooms, hotels, pub¬
lic walks, and lodging houses, are well arranged, and ad- ^
mirably adapted for the visitors wdio resort to this Spa. ^
The markets are well and reasonably supplied. Ihc pO' tu
pulation amounted in 1811 to 8325, in 1821 to 13,3J ,
and in 1831 to 22,942.
CHEMISE, in Fortification, the wall with which a bas¬
tion or any other bulwark of earth is lined, for its greater
support and strength ; or it is the solidity of wall from the
talus to the stone row.
Fire Chemise, a piece of linen cloth, steeped in a com¬
position of oil of petroleum, camphor, and other combus¬
tible matters, used at sea for setting fire to an enem) s
vessel.
341
CHEMISTRY
efii m. Is a science, the object of which is to determine the con-
stituents of bodies, and the laws which regulate the com¬
binations of the elementary particles of matter. As an
art, it has made very considerable progress. The methods
of separating the constituents of bodies from each other,
and of determining their properties, have been investigated
with great success. But as a science, chemistry is still
in its infancy; very little being known of the laws which
regulate the combinations and separations of the simple
substances.
Our object in the following article will be to give as
clear and concise a view as possible of the present state
of chemistry in all its different branches. We shall in the
first place, however, lay before our readers a sketch of
the history of the science, constituting, as it does, one of
the most remarkable examples of the aberrations of the
human intellect, and exhibiting an example of much im¬
portant information, resulting from a pursuit at first both
frivolous and absurd.
HISTORY.
Ijgi The word Chemistry (in Greek yr^xtia) first occurs in
Suidas, a Greek writer who is supposed to have lived in
the eleventh century, and to have written his lexicon
during the reign of Alexius Comnenus. The term indeed
is said to occur in various Greek manuscripts deposited in
the libraries of Rome, Venice, and Paris, and written be¬
tween the fifth and eleventh centuries; but as these ma¬
nuscripts have never been printed, nor their exact date
determined, nothing positive can be stated on the subject.
Chemistry, as understood by Suidas, was the art of pre¬
paring gold and silver. He assures us that this art was
known before the time of Diocletian. He even affirms
that the golden fleece, in search of which Jason and the
Argonauts went to Colchis, was nothing else than a trea¬
tise on the art of making gold, written on skins. The
Argonautic expedition is commonly believed to have been
made as early as one thousand two hundred and twenty-
five years before the beginning of the Christian era, As
early, therefore, in the opinion of Suidas, was chemistry, or
the art of making gold, studied and known. ,
This opinion of the antiquity of chemistry was zealous¬
ly supported by Olaus Borrichius, and almost the wdiole
body of alchymistical writers. The generally received
opinion among them was, that chemistry originated in
Egypt-; and the honour of the invention has been unani¬
mously conferred on Hermes Trismegistus. He is by
some supposed to be the same person with Chanaan, the
son of Ham, whose son Mizraim first occupied and peopled
Egypt. Plutarch informs us that Egypt was sometimes
called Chemia. This name is supposed to be derived
froin Chanaan. Hence it was inferred that Chanaan was
the inventor of chemistry, to which he affixed his own
lerm name. Whether the Hermes of the Greeks was Chanaan,
ls'or IE® son Mizraim, it is impossible to decide ; but to Her¬
mes is assigned the invention of chemistry, or the art of
making gold, by almost the unanimous consent of the
adepts.
According to Albertus Magnus, “Alexander the Great
nscovered the sepulchre of Hermes in one of his jour¬
neys, full of all treasures, not metallic, but golden, written
°n a table of zatadi, which others call emerald.’’ This pas¬
sage occurs in a tract of Albertus Magnus, De Secretis Che-
which is considered as supposititious. Nothing is
said of the source whence the information contained in
this passage is drawn ; but, from the quotations produced
by Kriegsmann, it would appear that the existence of this
emerald table was alluded to by Avicenna and other Ara¬
bian writers. According to them, a woman called Sarah
took it from the hands of the dead body of Hermes, some
ages after the flood, in a cave near Hebron. The inscrip¬
tion was written in the Phoenician language; but two
different Latin translations were published by Kriegs¬
mann and Gerard Dorneus. The following is a literal
translation of this far-famed inscription.
1. I speak not fictitious things, but what is true and
most certain.
2. What is below is like that which is above, and what
is above is similar to that which is below—to accomplish
the miracles of one thing.
3. And as all things were produced by the meditation
of one Being, so all things were produced from this one
thing by adaptation.
4. Its father is Sol, its mother Luna, the wind carried it
in its belly, the earth is its nurse.
5. It is the cause of all perfection throughout the
whole world.
6. The power is perfect, if it be changed into earth.
7. Separate the earth from the fire, the subtile from the
gross, acting prudently and with judgment.
8. Ascend with the greatest sagacity from the earth to
heaven, and then again descend to the earth, and unite
together the powers of things superior and things inferior.
Thus you will possess the glory of the whole world ; and
all obscurity will fly far away from you.
9. This thing has more fortitude than fortitude itself;
because it will overcome every subtile thing, and penetrate
every solid thing.
10. By it this world was formed.
11. Hence proceed wonderful things, which in this wise
were established.
12. For this reason I am called Hermes Trismegistus,
because I possess three parts of the philosophy of the
whole world.
13. What I had to say about the operation of Sol is
completed.
Such is a literal translation of the celebrated inscrip¬
tion of Hermes Trismegistus upon the emerald tablet. It
is sufficiently obscure to put it in the power of commen¬
tators to affix almost any explanation to it which they
choose. The two individuals who have devoted most
time to elucidate this tablet are Kriegsmann and Gerard
Dorneus. They both agree that it refers to the universal
medium, which began to acquire celebrity soon after the
time of Basil Valentine.
This exposition, which appears as probable as any, be¬
trays the time when the inscription seems to have been
really written. Had it been taken out of the hand of the
dead body of Hermes by Sarah (obviously intended for
the wife of Abraham), as is affirmed by Avicenna, it is not
possible that Herodotus, and all the writers of antiquity,
both Pagan and Christian, should have entirely overlooked
it. And how could Avicenna have learned what was un¬
known to all those who lived nearest the time when the
discovery was supposed to have been made? Had it
been discovered in Egypt by Alexander the Great, would
it have been unknown to Aristotle, and to all the nume¬
rous tribe of writers whom the Alexandrian school pro¬
duced, not one of whom, however, makes the least allu¬
sion to it. It bears all the marks of a forgery of the fif-
Historv.
342
CHEMISTRY.
Geberf
History, teenth century; and even the tract ascribed to Albertus
  ^ Magnus, in which the tablet of Hermes is mentioned,
and the discovery related, is probably also a forgery, and
doubtless a forgery of the same individual who fabricated
the tablet itself, in order to throw a greater air ot pro¬
bability upon a story which he wished to palm upon the
world as true. . . , c ,
Chemistry, or the art of making gold, as it is dehned
by Suidas, must have been unknown during the classic
ages of Greece and Rome, otherwise it is impossible to
account for the total silence of all the Greek and Roman
writers. It is most probable that it originated among
the Arabians when they began to turn their attention to
medicine, after the establishment of the caliphs ; or, it it
had previously been cultivated by the Greeks, that it was
taken up by the Arabians, and reduced by them into re¬
gular form and order. , . , .
The writings of Geber (if we admit them to be genu¬
ine) constitute the oldest chemical tract in existence ; and
deserve to be particularly noticed, because they make
us acquainted with the state of the science during the
eighth century. Geber, whose real name was Abou-Mussah-
Dschafar-Al-Soli, was a Sabean of Harran, in Mesopota¬
mia, and lived during the eighth century. His works were
translated into Latin as early as the year 1529, and an
English translation by Richard Russel was published in
the&year 1678. They consist of four tracts, distinguished
by the following quaint and not very intelligible titles:
1. Of the Investigation of Search of Perfection; 2. Of
the Sum of Perfection, or of the Perfect Magistery; 3. Of
the Invention of Verity or Perfection; 4. Of Furnaces,
<&c., with a recapitulation of the author’s experiments.
The object of Geber’s work is to teach the method of
making the Philosophers Stone, which he distinguishes
usually by the name of Medicine of the Third Class. The
whole is in general written with so much plainness, that
we can understand the nature of the substances which
he employed, the processes which he followed, and the
greater number of the products which he obtained. \v e
shall give the following summary of his opinions, and of
the facts which he knew.
He considered all the metals as compounds of mercury
ittcuo and sulphur. It is evident from what he says that this
known by. notion had been adopted by his predecessors; men whom
he speaks of under the title of the ancients.
The metals with which he was acquainted were gold,
silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. Ihese are usually dis¬
tinguished by him under the names of Sol, Luna, \ enus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Gold and silver he consider¬
ed as perfect metals; but the other four were imperfect
metals. The difference between them he considered as
depending partly upon the proportions of mercury and
sulphur in each, and partly upon the purity or impurity
of the mercury and sulphur which enters into the com¬
position of each.
In his book on furnaces he gives a description of a fur¬
nace proper for calcining metals ; and, from the fourteenth
chapter of the fourth part of the first book of his Sum of
Perfection, it is obvious that the method of calcining or
oxydizing iron, copper, tin, and lead, and also mercury
and arsenic, were familiarly known to him. He gives a
description of a furnace for distilling, and a pretty minute
account of the glass or stone ware, or metallic aludel and
alembic, by means of which the process was conducted.
He was in the habit of distilling by surrounding his alu¬
del with hot ashes, to prevent it from being broken. He
was acquainted also with the water bath. The descrip¬
tion of the distillation of many bodies occurs in his work;
but there is not the least evidence that he was acquaint¬
ed with ardent spirits. The term spirit, indeed, frequent-
Chemical
facts
ly occurs in his writings; but it was applied to volatile H T
bodies in general, and in particular to sulphur and white Cy
arsenic, which he considered as substances very similar in
their properties. Mercury also he considered as a spirit.
The method of distilling per descensum, as is practised in
the smelting of zinc, was also known to him. He describes
an apparatus for the purpose,'and gives several examples
of such distillation in his writings.
He gives also a description of a furnace for smelting
metals, and mentions the vessels in which such processes
were conducted. He was acquainted with crucibles, and
even describes the mode of making cupels nearly similar
to those used at present. The process of cupellating gold
and silver, and purifying them by means of lead, is given
by him pretty minutely and accurately. He called it cine-
ritium ; at least that is the term employed by the Latin
translator.
He was in the habit of dissolving salts in water and
acetic acid, and even the metals in different menstrua.
Of these menstrua he nowhere gives an account; but
from our knowledge of the properties of the different me¬
tals, and from some processes which he notices, it is easy
to perceive what his solvents must have been; namely,
the mineral acids, which were known to him, and to which
there is no allusion whatever in any preceding writer that
we have seen. Whether he was the discoverer of these
acids cannot be known ; he nowhere claims the discovery.
Indeed his object appears to have been to slur over these
acids as much as possible, that their remarkable proper¬
ties might not be suspected by the uninitiated. It was
this affectation of secrecy and mystery which has deprived
the earliest chemists of that credit and reputation to which
they would have been justly entitled had their discoveries
been made known to the public in a plain and intelligible
manner.
The mode of purifying liquids by filtration, and of se¬
parating precipitates from liquids by the same means, was
known to him. He called the process distillation through
a filter.
Thus the greater number of chemical processes, such as
they were practised in the eighteenth century, were known
to Geber. When we compare his works with those of
Dioscorides and Pliny, we perceive the great progress
which pharmacy had made in the interval. This progress
was probably due to the Arabian physician. We shall
now notice the different chemical substances or prepara¬
tions that were known to Geber. _
He knew common salt, and was acquainted with potash
and soda, at least in the state of carbonates. Potash was
obtained by burning cream of tartar. Carbonate of soda
he calls sagimen vitri ; and he points out how it may e
made caustic by means of quicklime. Saltpetre was known
to him ; and Geber is the first writer in whom we find an
account of this salt. Sal ammoniac would appear to have
been quite common in his time, though there is no evi¬
dence that it was known during the classical ages of the
Greeks and Romans. The same remark applies to aim,
of which he mentions three kinds; icy alum or Rocca alum,
Jamenous alum or alum of Jameni, and feather alum. e
first two of these were named from the place where t ey
were manufactured; the third kind was probably a na
tive variety. Sulphate of iron, or copperas, in the state o
crystals, w7as known to him, and appears to have been ma
nufactured in his time.
Baurachor borax is mentioned by him, but without any
description by which we can know whether or not it was
our borax. Sulphuric acid was obtained by him by dis¬
tilling alum by a strong heat. In like manner nitric an
was obtained by him by putting into an alembic one P0^'
of sulphate of iron of Cyprus, half a pound of saltpetr,
CHEMISTRY.
srti]
Ui
and a quarter of a pound of alum of Jameni, and distill-
L jng till every thing liquid was driven over. To the niT
trie acid thus procured he gave the name of dissolving
water. The acid thus obtained he employed to dissolve
silver, and he concentrated the solution till the nitrate
of silver was obtained in crystals. He was in the habit
also of dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid, and employ¬
ing the solution, which was the aqua regia of the old che¬
mists, as a solvent for gold. There can be no doubt that
he was acquainted with corrosive sublimate, cinnabar, red
oxide of mercury, sulphuret of copper, black oxide of copper,
metcdlic arsenic, and red oxide of iron.
Such is a short summary of the facts known to Geber,
so far as they can be deduced from his writings. He is
the only Arabian writer whose chemical works deserve to
be noticed; for Avicenna, though his reputation was
much higher, and though he ruled for many ages with
despotic sway over the medical faculty in Europe, or at
least divided the medical sceptre with Galen, is not en¬
titled to notice as a chemist. The Arabians, however, had
the merit of conveying a knowledge of pharmacy, and of
chemistry as they understood it, to the inhabitants of Eu¬
rope. This communication took place by the channel of
Spain.
It is universally known that the kingdom of the Goths in
Spain was overturned by the Saracens, who made themselves
masters of the fairest portion of that peninsula, and retain¬
ed it for a long period. The Mahommedan states in Spain
had arrived at such a degree of prosperity in commerce,
manufactures, population, and wealth, as is hardly to be
credited. The three Abdalrahmans and Alhakem carried,
from the eighth to the tenth century, the country subject
to the caliph of Cordova to the highest degree of splen¬
dour. They protected the sciences, and governed with
so much mildness, that Spain was probably never so happy
under the dominion of any Christian prince. Alhakem
established at Cordova an academy, which for several ages
was the most celebrated in the whole world. All the
Christians of Western Europe repaired to this academy
in search of information. It contained in the tenth cen¬
tury a library of 280,000 volumes. The catalogue of this
library filled no fewer than forty-four volumes. Seville,
Toledo, and Murcia, had likewise their schools of science
and their libraries, which retained their celebrity as long
as the dominion of the Moors lasted. In the twelfth cen¬
tury there were seventy public libraries in that part of
Spain which belonged to the Mahommedans. Cordova
had produced one hundred and fifty authors, Almeria fifty-
two, and Murcia sixty-two.
It was to these celebrated seats of learning that the cu¬
rious flocked from all parts of Europe. Here they acquir¬
ed a knowledge of Arabic, and of all the sciences prosecut¬
ed by the Mahommedan sages. Among others, they stu¬
died the pharmacy of the Arabians, which differed from
that of the Greeks and Romans by containing numerous
chemical processes and chemical medicines. Chemistry,
or Alchymy as the Arabians called it, became gradually
known to the curious in Europe. And when the human
mind, which had lain so long torpid in Europe, began to
awaken towards the end of the twelfth century, w-riters on
't gradually made their appearance. At first these were
yery few in number; but they multiplied by degrees, and
ln,ll k ^our*;e^n^1 century they became very numerous. It
Wl 1 be sufficient here if we notice a few of the most re¬
markable of these votaries of alchymy ; by which was un-
erstood the art of artificially making silver and gold out of
the baser metals. -r & &
Ihe first alchymist who deserves notice is Albert Groot,
°r i bertus Magnus as he is usually styled, a German,
nowas k°rn in the year 1193, at Bollstaedt, and died in
343
the year 1282. He studied the sciences at Padua, and History,
afterwards taught at Cologne, and finally at Paris. He
travelled through all Germany as provincial of the order
of dominican monks; visited Rome, and was made bishop
of Ratisbon. But his passion for science induced him
to give up his bishopric, and return to a cloister at Co¬
logne. Albertus was acquainted with all the sciences cul¬
tivated in his time. He was at once a theologian, a phy¬
sician, and a man of the world. He was an astronomer
and an alchymist, and even dipt into magic and necro¬
mancy. He wrote seven or eight treatises on various
branches of chemistry, which still remain. There is no
evidence that his knowledge surpassed that of Geber. But
it is clear from his book De Philosopliorum Lapide, that he
was a believer in the existence of the philosophers’ stone,
and in the possibility, by means of it, of transmuting the
base metals into gold. In that treatise he gives the pro¬
cess for making the philosophers’ stone ; but it is not in¬
telligible. This is very remarkable, because every other
part of his writings on chemical subjects is quite plain.
It seems to have been the opinion of the adepts that it
was unlawful to communicate the more recondite proces¬
ses of their art to mankind in general. This is the rea¬
son why all that they have left us respecting the philoso¬
phers’ stone is written in such a manner that it is impos¬
sible to understand the nature of the processes, or the kind
of substance which they succeeded in forming by these
processes. It is this circumstance that renders the writ¬
ings of the alchymists in general of so little value. They
were laborious men, who subjected the various substances
within their reach to a great variety of processes, and who
must therefore occasionally have obtained results of im¬
portance. Had they related these processes with plainness
and simplicity, we should have known the extent of their
knowledge, and allowed them the credit due to their in¬
genuity and discoveries. But as they thought proper to
adopt a different plan, their labours have been lost to pos¬
terity, and all their discoveries required to be discovered
again.
Soon after Albertus, lived Roger Bacon, by far the most Roger
illustrious, the best informed, and the most philosophical Bacon,
of all the alchymists. He was born in 1214, in the coun¬
ty of Somerset. After studying at Oxford and in Paris,
he became a friar; and devoting himself to philosophical
investigations, his discoveries, notwithstanding the pains
which he took to conceal them, made such a noise that he
was accused of magic, and his brethren in consequence
threw him into prison.
From an attentive perusal of his works, many of which
have been printed, it is clear that Bacon was a great lin¬
guist, being familiar with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Ara¬
bic; and that he had perused the most important books
at that time existing in all these languages. He was also
a grammarian ; he was well versed in the theory and prac¬
tice of perspective ; he understood the use of convex and
concave glasses, and the art of making them. The came¬
ra obscura, burning glasses, and the powers of the tele¬
scope, were well known (o him. He knew the great error
in the Julian calendar, assigned the cause, and proposed
the remedy. He understood chronology well; he was a
skilful physician and an able mathematician, logician, me¬
taphysician, and theologist. As a chemist, it is clear that
he was acquainted with the mode of making gunpowder,
and with the violence and noise with which it burns. But
there is no evidence that he was aware of the use to which
it might be applied in propelling bullets from a gun-barrel
with fatal velocity. We have evidence that gunpowder
was known in China and India at a very remote period.
These nations knew how to make it, and were in the habit
of using it in fire-works; but they never seem to have
344
CHEMISTRY.
Raymond
Lully.
History, thought of the more important application of it as a mov-
ing force to propel bullets. This last was a European
invention, though the individual to whom it was due seems
not to be known. As Bacon was acquainted M’lth Arabic,
it is probable that he derived his knowledge of gunpowder
from some eastern treatise.
Raymond Lully is said to have been a scholar and a
friend of Bacon. He was a most voluminous writer, and
acquired as high a reputation as any of the alchymists.
According to Mutius, he was born in Majorca in the year
1235. His father was seneschal to King James 1. ot Aia-
son. In his younger day she went into the army, but
afterwards held a situation in the court of his. sovereign.
Devoting himself to the sciences, he soon acquired a com¬
petent knowledge of Latin and Arabic. After studying
iii Paris, he got the degree of doctor conferred on him.
He entered into the order of Minorites, and induced King
James to establish a cloister of that order in Minorca.
He afterwards travelled through Italy, Germany, Eng¬
land, Portugal, Cyprus, Armenia, and Palestine. He is
said by Mutius to have died in 1315, and to have been
buried in Majorca. The following epitaph is given by
Olaus Borrichius, as engraven on his tomb:
Raymundus Lulli, cujus pia dogmata nulli
Sunt odiosa viro, jacet hie in marmore miro
Hie M. et CC. Cum P. caepit sine sensibus esse.
MCCC in the last line denote 1300, and P, which is the
fifteenth letter of the alphabet, denotes.fifteen ; so that it
this epitaph be genuine, it follows that his deatli took place
in the year 1315.
The writings of Raymond Lully are so obscure that the
writer of this article has repeatedly tried, but without
success, to understand them. In addition to the i e-agents
known to Geber, he was acquainted with spirit of wine,
which he denotes in his writings by the names of aqua
vital ardens and argentum vivum vegetabile. He was ac¬
quainted also with ammonia. How far this volatile alkali
was known to any of his predecessors we do not know.
He was acquainted with cupellated silver,, and hist ob¬
tained rosemary oil by distilling the plant with watei. e
employed a mixture of flour and white of egg spread upon
a linen cloth to cement cracked glass vessels, and used
other lutes for similar purposes.
Arnoldus de Villanova is said to have been born at
Villeneuve, a village in Provence, about the year 1240.
Olaus Borrichius assures us that in. his time his posterity
lived in the neighbourhood of Avignon, that he was ac¬
quainted with them, and that they were by no means
destitute of chemical knowledge. He is said to have been
educated at Barcelona, under John Casamila, a celebrated
professor of medicine. This place he was obliged to leave
in consequence of foretelling the death of Peter of Ara-
o-on. He went to Paris, and likewise travelled through
Italy. He afterwards taught publicly in the university of
Montpellier. His reputation as a physician became so
o-reat, that his attendance was solicited in dangerous cases
by several kings, and even by the pope himself. He was
skilled in all the sciences of his time, and was besides a
proficient in Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. Vv hen at Paris
he studied astrology, and calculated that the end of the
world would be in 1335. In consequence of this he was
condemned as a heretic, and obliged to leave France ; but
the pope protected him. He died in the year 1313, on
his way to visit Pope Clement V. who lay sick at Avignon.
His works are voluminous ; but there is no evidence that
he added any thing material to the stock of chemical
knowledge derived from his predecessors.
Arnoldus
de Villa-
nova.
John Isaac Hollandus, and his countryman of the same H ,
name, were either two brothers or a father and son, it is U. j
uncertain which. They were born in the village of Stolk in Job ^
Holland, it is supposed in the thirteenth century. TheyHoi %
wrote many treatises on chemistry, remarkable, consider¬
ing the time when they lived, for clearness and precision,
describing their processes with accuracy, and even giving
figures of the instruments which they employed.
Basil Valentine is said to have been born about the yearBas 1
1394. He is perhaps the most celebrated of all the al-lent
chymists, if we except Paracelsus. He was a benedictine
monk at Erford, in Saxony. Much of his time seems to
have been employed in the preparation of chemical medi¬
cines. It was he that first introduced antimony into me¬
dicine ; and it is said, though on no good authority, that
he first tried the effects of antimonial medicines upon the
monks of his convent, on whom it acted with such vio¬
lence, that he was led to distinguish the mineral from
which these medicines had been extracted by the name
of antimoine (hostile to monks). But Basil \ alentine was
a German, and wrote and spoke in that language. Now
the German name for antimony is not antimoine, but spiess-
glass.1 The work on antimony of this chemist was pub¬
lished originally in German ; but there is an excellent
Latin translation, with a commentary, which was publish¬
ed at Amsterdam in the year 1671.
The alchymists just named constitute those who ac-Op to
quired the highest reputation, and were considered asthe
possessed of the greatest quantity of knowledge of all the™
adepts. Many other names might be added to the list
were it worth while to fill our pages with a long.catalogue
of names that had better be consigned to oblivion. Ihe
opinion of the alchymists was, that all the metals aie com¬
pounds; that the baser metals contain the. same constitu¬
ents as gold, contaminated indeed with various impurities,
but capable, when these impurities are removed or reme¬
died, of assuming all the properties and characters of gold.
The substance possessing this wonderful power they call¬
ed lapis philosophorum, or philosophers stone ; and they
usually describe it as a red powder, -having a peculiar
smell. Many of them assure us that they had seen it,
and many of them profess to give processes by which it
could be made, though none of these processes are intel¬
ligible. They nowhere (or at least very seldom) affirm
that they were in possession of this grand arcanum; but
there can be no doubt, from the processes which they give,
that it was their intention to induce their readers to be¬
lieve that they were acquainted with it. Many stories o
the transmutation of the baser metals into gold are on re¬
cord, and attested by evidence that at first sight appears
unimpeachable. The following relation of this in is
given by Mangetus, on the authority of M. Gros, a clergy¬
man of Geneva, of the most unexceptionable character,
and at the same time a skilful physician and expert ctie-
mist. T .To
About the year 1650 an unknown Italian came tobe-
neva, and took lodgings at the sign of the Gw*.
After remaining there a day or two, he requested uei ,
the landlord, to procure him a person acquainted vu
Italian to accompany him through the town, and poin
those things which deserved to be examined. Deiuc re¬
quested M. Gros, at that time a student in Geneva, an
about twenty years of age, to accompany the strange •
This he did during about a fortnight, at the endofwli
the stranger began to complain of the want ot m F
This rather alarmed M. Gros, as he was apprehensive
that the stranger intended to ask the loan o
1 It was probably so named from a common shape of one
of the most abundant ores of antimony, for sjriest in German sit
, ■ ■ ■ indv ib r »  
gnifies a ifa
CHEMISTRY.
■v. from him. But instead of this the Italian asked him if he
was acquainted with any goldsmith whose bellows and
other utensils they might be permitted to use, and who
would not refuse to supply them with the different arti¬
cles requisite for a particular process which he wanted to
perform. M. Gros named a M. Bureau, to whose house
the Italian immediately repaired. He readily furnished
crucibles, pure tin, quicksilver, and the other things re¬
quired by the Italian. The goldsmith left his workshop
that the Italian might be under less restraint, leaving M.
Gros with one of his own workmen as an assistant. The
Italian put a quantity of tin into one crucible and a quan¬
tity of quicksilver into another. The tin was melted in
the fire, and the mercury heated. It was then poured
into the melted tin, and at the same time a red powder
inclosed in wax was projected into the amalgam. An agi¬
tation took place, and a great deal of smoke was exhaled
from the crucible; but this speedily subsided, and the
whole being poured out, formed six heavy ingots having
the colour of gold. The goldsmith was called in by the
Italian, and requested to make a rigid examination of
the smallest of these ingots. The goldsmith, not content
with the touchstone and the application of aquafortis, ex¬
posed the metal on the cupel with lead, and fused it with
antimony; but it sustained no loss. He found it possess¬
ed of the ductility and specific gravity of gold ; and, full
of admiration, he exclaimed that he had never worked be¬
fore on gold so perfectly pure. The Italian made him a
present of the smallest ingot as a recompense ; and then,
accompanied by M. Gros, he repaired to the mint, where
he received from M. Bacuet, the mint master, a quantity
of Spanish gold coin, equal in weight to the ingots which
he had brought. To M. Gros he made a present of twen¬
ty pieces, on account of the attention which he had paid
him. And after paying his bill at the inn, he added fif¬
teen pieces more to serve to entertain M. Gros and M.
Bureau for some days; and, in the mean time, he ordered
a supper, that he might on his return have the pleasure
of supping with these two gentlemen. He went out, but
never returned, leaving behind him the greatest regret
and admiration. It is needless to add, that M. Gros and
M. Bureau continued to enjoy themselves at the inn till
the fifteen pieces which the stranger had left were ex¬
hausted.
The preceding story, taken from the preface of Mange-
tus s Bibliotheca Chemica, is as well authenticated as any
alchymistical story whatever. The reader will observe
that it is stated, not on the authority of a person who was
the actor, but by a stranger, to whom a witness of the
transmutation related it. Now this evidence, though the
best that can be got, is not sufficient to authenticate so
wonderful a story. .A little latent vanity might easily
induce the narrator to suppress or alter some particulars,
which, if known, might have stripped the narrative of every
thing marvellous which it contains, and led us into the
secret of the origin of this gold which the Italian is said
to have transmuted from tin.
*s In consequence of the universality of the opinion that
gold could be made by art, there was a set of impostors
w 10 went about pretending that they were in possession
0 the philosophers’ stone, and offering to communicate
the secret of making it for a suitable reward. Nothing is
rnore astonishing than that persons should be found cre¬
dulous enough to be the dupes of such impostors. The
dery circumstance of their claiming a reward was a suffi-
c'ent proof that they were ignorant of the secret which
iey pretended to reveal; for what motive could a man
lave for asking a reward who was in possession of a me-
0 of making gold at pleasure. Yet strange as it may
ppeai, they met with abundance of dupes credulous enough
345
to believe their asseverations, and to supply them with History,
money to enable them to perform the wished-for process-
es. The object of these impostors was either to pocket
the money thus furnished, or they made use of it to pur¬
chase various substances, from which they extracted oils,
acids, or similar products, which they were enabled to sell
with profit. To keep the dupes who supplied them with
money in good spirits, it was necessary to show them oc¬
casionally small quantities of the baser metals transmuted
into gold. This they performed in various ways.
Sometimes they made use of crucibles with a false bot¬
tom. At the real bottom they put a quantity of gold or
silver. This was covered with a portion of powdered cru¬
cible glued together by gum or wax. The materials be¬
ing put into the crucible, and heat applied, the false bot¬
tom disappeared, and at the end of the process the gold
or silver was found at the bottom of the crucible. Some¬
times they made a hole in a piece of charcoal, and filled it
with oxide of gold or silver, and stopped up the hole with a
little wax ; or they soaked the charcoal in solutions of these
metals; or they stirred the mixture in the crucible with hol¬
low rods, containing oxide of gold or silver within, and the
bottom shut with wax. By these means the gold or silver
wanted was introduced during the operation, and considered
as a product. Sometimes they used solutions of silver in ni¬
tric acid, or of gold in aqua regia, or an amalgam of gold or
silver, which being adroitly introduced, furnished the re¬
quisite quantity of metal. A common exhibition was to
dip nails into a liquid, and take them out half converted
into gold. The nails were one half gold, one half iron,
neatly soldered together, and the gold covered with some¬
thing to conceal the colour, which the liquid was capable
of removing. Sometimes they had metallic rods one half
gold and one half silver, and the gold end whitened with
mercury; the gold end was dipt into the transmuting li¬
quid, and then heated. The mercury was dissipated, and
the gold appeared.
The alchymists, notwithstanding the absurdity of their
pursuits, contributed something towards the progress of
chemistry; and when Basil Valentine restored the art to
the object for which it was original!}' cultivated by the
Arabians, namely, the preparation and improvement of
medicines, it began to attract a little more of the atten¬
tion of mankind. But the person who first shook the
throne of Galen and Avicenna to its foundation, and who
satisfied the public of the paramount importance of che¬
mistry in medicine, and who therefore must be consider¬
ed as indirectly the author of its subsequent popularity
and consequent progress, was Paracelsus, of whom there¬
fore it will be proper to give a short account here.
Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Paracelsus Bombast Paracelsus,
ab Hohenheim, was born at Einsideln, two German miles
from Zurich, where his father was a medical practitioner.
After receiving the first rudiments of his education, he
became a wandering scholar, as was at that time custom¬
ary with poor students. ITe wandered from province to
province, predicting the future by the position of the stars
and the lines on the hand, and exhibiting all the chemical
experiments which he had learned from founders and al¬
chymists. He seems to have been for some time an army
surgeon; but whether he ever enjoyed the benefit of an
university education is not certain. At the age of thirty-
three the great number of fortunate cures which he had
performed rendered him an object of admiration to the
people of Germany. He assures us that he cured eighteen
princes, whose diseases had been aggravated by the prac¬
titioners devoted to the system of Galen. Among others,
he cured Philip, margrave of Baden, of a dysentery, wffio
promised him a great reward, but did not keep his pro¬
mise, and even treated him in a way unworthy of that
2 x
>4G C H E M I
History, prince. This cure, however, and others of a similar na-
—v—' ture, added greatly to his celebrity ; and in order to raise
his reputation to the highest pitch, he announced publicly
that he was able to cure all the diseases hitherto reckon¬
ed incurable; and that he had discovered an elixir by
means of which the life of man might be prolonged at
pleasure to any extent whatever. _ , .
In the year 1526 he was appointed professor of physic
and surgery in the university of Basil, in consequence, it
is said, of the recommendation of CEcolampadius. He in¬
troduced the custom of lecturing in the common language
of the country, as is at present the universal practice.
But during the time of Paracelsus, and long after, indeed,
all lectures were delivered in Latin. The new method
which he followed in explaining the theory and prac¬
tice of the art, the numerous fortunate cures which he
stated in confirmation of his method of treatment, the
emphasis with which he spoke of his secrets for prolong¬
ing life, and for curing every kind of disease without dis¬
tinction, but still more, his lecturing in a language under¬
stood by the whole population, drew to Basil an immense
crowd of idle, enthusiastic, and credulous heaieis. .
His lectures on the practice of medicine still remain,
written in a confused mixture of German and barbarous
Latin, and containing little or nothing except a farrago of
empirical remedies, advanced with the greatest confidence.
They have a greater resemblance to a collection of quack
advertisements than to the sober lectures of a professor
in a university. Pie began his professorial career by burn¬
ing publicly in his class-room, and in the presence of his
pupils, the works of Galen and Avicenna, assuring his
hearers that the strings of his shoes possessed more know¬
ledge than those two celebrated physicians. All the uni¬
versities united had not, he assured them, so much know¬
ledge as was contained in his own beard; and the hairs
upon his neck were better informed than all the writers
that ever existed put together.
But his popularity was short lived, being destroyed not
so much by the grossness of his language, as by the irre-
o-ularity and immorality of his life. He hardly ever went
to his class-room to deliver a lecture till he was half intoxi¬
cated, and scarcely ever dictated to his secretaries till he
had lost the use of his reason by a too liberal indulgence
in wine. If he was summoned to visit a patient, he scaice-
ly ever went but in a state of intoxication. Not unfre-
quently he passed the whole night in the ale-house in the
company of peasants, and, when morning came, was quite
incapable of performing the duties of his station, to¬
wards the end of the year 1527 a disgraceful dispute into
which he entered brought his career as a professor to a
sudden termination. The canon Cornelius of Lichtenfels,
who had been long a martyr to the gout, employed him as
a physician, and promised him one hundred florins if he
could cure him. Paracelsus made him take three pills of
laudanum, and having thus freed him from pain, demand¬
ed the sum agreed upon. But Lichtenfels refused to pay
him the whole of it. Paracelsus summoned him before
the court, and the magistrate of Basil decided that the
canon was bound to pay only the regular price of the
medicine administered. Irritated at this decision, our in¬
toxicated professor uttered a most violent invective against
the magistrate, who threatened to punish him for his
outrageous conduct. His friends advised him to save
himself by flight. He took their advise, and thus abdi¬
cated the professorship. But by this time his celebrity
as a teacher had been so completely destroyed by his
foolish and immoral conduct, that he had lost all his
hearers. In consequence of this state of things, his flight
from Basil produced no sensation whatever in that uni¬
versity.
S T R Y.
He betook himself, in the first place, to Alsace, and His
sent for his faithful follower the bookseller Operinus, to- W)
gether with the whole of his chemical apparatus. In 1528
we find him at Colmar, where he commenced his ambu¬
latory life of a theosophist, which he had led during his
youth. In 1531 he was at St Gallen, in 1535 at Pfef-
fersbode, and in 1536 at Augsburg. At the request of
John de Leippa, marshall of Bohemia, he undertook a
journey into Moravia, to cure him radically of the gout.
But John de Leippa, instead of receiving benefit from his
medicines, became daily worse, and at last died. This
was the fate also of the lady of Zerotin, on whom the re¬
medies of Paracelsus produced no fewer than twenty-four
epileptic fits in one day. Instead of waiting the disgrace
with which the death of this lady would have overwhelm¬
ed him, Paracelsus announced his intention of going to
Vienna, that he might see how they would receive him in
that capital. In 1538 we find him at Villach. In 1540
he was at Mindelheim, and in 154<1 at Strasburg, where
he died in St Stephen’s Hospital, in the forty-eighth year
of his age.
When we attempt to form an accurate conception of
the medical and philosophical opinions of this singular
man, we find ourselves beset with almost insurmountable
difficulties. His statements are so much at variance with
each other in his different pieces, and so much confu¬
sion reigns with respect to the order of publication, that
we know not what to fix on as his last and maturest opi¬
nions. His style is execrable, filled with new words of
his own coining, and of mysticisms either introduced to
excite the admiration of the ignorant, or from the fanati¬
cism and credulity of the writer, who was to a considerable
extent the dupe of his own impostures. That he was in
possession of the philosophers stone, or of a medicine ca¬
pable of prolonging life to an indefinite length, as he all
along asserted, he could not himself believe. But he had
boasted so long and so loudly of his wonderful cures, and
of the efficacy of his medicines, that he seems ultimately
to have placed implicit faith in them.
His obscurity may have been partly the effect of design,
and may have been intended to exalt the notions enter¬
tained of his profundity. He uses common words in new
significations, without giving any indication of the change
which he introduced. Thus cmatomiy signifies, in his writ¬
ings, the nature, force, and magical designation of a thing.
Paracelsus calls anatomy the knowledge of that model
after which all things are created. He terms the funda¬
mental force of a thing a star, and defines alchymy the art
of drawing out the stars of metals. The star is the source
of all knowledge. When we eat, we introduce into our
bodies the star, which is then modified, and favours nutri¬
tion. _ . ,
It is likely that many of his obscure expressions are tn
result of ignorance. Thus he uses the term pagoyus for
paganus. He gives the name of pagoyai to the four enti¬
ties or causes of disease founded on the influence o
stars, the elementary qualities, the occult qualities, and
the influence of spirits, because these had been already
admitted by the pagans. But the fifth entity, or cause o
disease, which has God immediately for its author, is non
pagoya. As is the case with all fanatics, he treated will
contempt every kind of knowledge acquired by a ou
and application, and boasted that his wisdom was com¬
municated to him directly by God Almighty. r0IT;n
careful inspection of his works, it appeals prH y P
that he was both a fanatic and an impostor, and tliat
theory (if such a name can be given to the reveries 0‘
drunkard) consisted in uniting medicine with the doctri
of the cabala. . ,
He continually cries up the importance of chemical
CHEMISTRY.
347
H«s
Joseii dii
Chei
dans
dicines, and condemns with great violence and coarseness
of language the Galenical remedies employed by the phy¬
sicians of his time. It was this circumstance that made
chemical preparations become fashionable among medical
men. It was this that drew the attention of apothecaries
and physicians to chemical medicines, and occasioned
those numerous investigations which contributed so es¬
sentially to the improvement and progress of chemistry
as a science. He himself employed mercurial prepara¬
tions without scruple in the cure of the venereal disease.
And his success was such as to add greatly to his me¬
dical reputation. There is no reason for believing that
the use of mercury in this disease was a contrivance
of Paracelsus. It is generally admitted that it was first
tried for that disease by Carpus of Bologna, and that it
was to that Italian physician that Paracelsus was indebt¬
ed for his knowledge of this most important medicine.
Paracelsus seems to have been the first who employed
opium freely; and he relied upon it to remove not mere¬
ly pain, but to cure several acute diseases. It would seem
to have been his remedy for gout, and even for fever.
Nothing is known respecting the source from which he
derived his knowledge of this powerful medicine. His
reputation as a chemist does not depend on any discove¬
ries which he actually made, but upon the great impor¬
tance which he attached to the knowledge of it, and to his
making an acquaintance with chemistry an indispensable
requisite of a medical education.
Paracelsus had many followers, who cried up chemical
remedies to the skies, and ridiculed the inert medicines of
the Galenists. This led to a violent controversy", especially
in France, where the opinions of Paracelsus were zealous¬
ly supported by Joseph du Chesne, better known by the
name of Quercitanus, who was physician to Henry IV.
He was opposed by Riolanus, who attacked chemical reme¬
dies with much bitterness. The medical faculty of Paris
took up the cause of the Galenists, and prohibited their
fellows and licentiates from using any chemical medicine
whatever. Fenot affirmed that gold possesses no medi¬
cinal properties whatever, that crabs’ eyes are of no use
when administered internally, and that the laudanum of
Paracelsus (being an opiate) is in reality hurtful instead
ol being beneficial. The decree of the medical faculty of
Paris, which placed antimony among the poisons, was fol¬
lowed by that of the parliament of Paris, strictly prohibit¬
ing the internal administration of any preparation of that
metal. In 1603 the celebrated Theodore Turguet de
Mayenne was prosecuted, because, in spite of the prohi¬
bition, he continued to sell antimonial preparations. The
decree of the faculty against him exhibits a remarkable
proof of the bigotry and intolerance of the times. Yet
Turguet does not seem to have been molested in conse¬
quence of this decree. He ceased indeed to be professor
of chemistry, but continued to practise medicine as for¬
merly. At last he went to England, whither he had been
invited to accept an honourable appointment.
The mystical doctrines of Paracelsus are supposed to
lave given origin to the sect of the Rosicrucians; but
t ie probability is that no such sect ever existed. The no¬
tion of their existence seems to have been owing to a lu-
icrous performance of Valentine Andreae, an ecclesiastic
o Calwe, in the country of Wirtemburg. A crowd of en-
tiusiasts swallowed his fictitious statements as true, and
en eavoured to unite the followers of the rosa crux into a
sect. According to them, every thing is accomplished,
provided only we possess sufficient faith. “ To fly in the
air, to transmute metals, and to know all the sciences,
nothing more is requisite than faith.” Oswald Crollius,
P ysician to the Emperor Rodolph II. must take his sta-
10n among these enthusiasts. His opinions were refuted
by Andrew Libavius of Halle in Saxony, one of the most History,
enlightened men, and one of the most successful chemists,
of the time. The bichloride of tin, which he first formed,
still goes by the name of fuming liquor of Libavius. His
system of chemistry, published at Frankfort in 1595, is
really an excellent book, and deserves the attention of
every person who is interested in the history of chemistry.
Libavius found, in Angelus Sala of Vicenza, a successor
worthy of his enlightened views and indefatigable exer¬
tions to oppose the torrent of fanaticism which threatened
to overwhelm all Europe. Sala was still more addicted
to chemical remedies than Libavius himself; but he had
abjured a multitude of prejudices which had distinguish¬
ed the school of Paracelsus. He discarded aurum po-
tabile, and considered fulminating gold as the only medi¬
cine of that metal which deserved to be prescribed. He
first ascertained the constituents of sal ammoniac. To him,
therefore, wre are indebted for the first accurate notion of
ammonia.
But chemistry was destined speedily to undergo a new
revolution, which shook the Spagirical system to its foun¬
dation, substituted other principles, and gave to medicine
an aspect entirely new. This revolution was in some mea¬
sure due to the labours of Van Helmont.
John Baptist Van Helmont was a gentleman of Bra-Van Heh
bant. Born in Brussels in 1577, he studied scholastic phi-mont.
losophy at Louvain till the age of seventeen. He next
associated himself to the Jesuits, who then delivered
courses of philosophy at Louvain, to the great displeasure
of the professors of that city. But Van Helmont w"as dis¬
appointed of the knowledge that he expected from them.
Nor was he better satisfied with the doctrine of the Stoics.
At last the works of Thomas a Kempis, and of John Tau-
lerus,. fell into his hands. These sacred books of mysti¬
cism attracted his attention. He perceived that wisdom
is the gift of the Supreme Being; that it must be obtained
by prayer; and that we must renounce our own will, if
we wish to participate in the influence of the divine grace.
From this moment he imitated Jesus Christ in his humi¬
lity. He abandoned his property to his sister, and re¬
nounced his rank in society. It was not long before he
reaped the fruit of these abnegations. A genius appeared
to him in all the important circumstances of his life. In
the year 1633 his own soul appeared to him under the
figure of a resplendent crystal. His desire of imitating
Christ induced him to study medicine. He made him¬
self master of the works of Hippocrates and Galen. But
as his taste for mysticism was insatiable, he soon became
disgusted with the writings of the Greeks. An accident led
him to abandon them for ever. Happening to take up the
glove of a young girl affected with the itch, he caught that
disagreeable disease. The Galenists whom he consulted
attributed it to the combustion of the bile, and the saline
state of the phlegm. They prescribed a course of purga¬
tives, which weakened him considerably, without produ¬
cing a cure. This led him to form the plan of reforming
medicine. He first studied the works of Paracelsus ; but
could not avoid despising the disgusting egotism and the
ridiculous ignorance of that fanatic. He took the degree
of doctor of medicine in 1599. After travelling through
France and Italy, he married a rich Brabantine lady, by
whom he had several children. He died in the year
1644, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. Flis works
were published after his death by his son Mercurius. As
a medical man he must be considered as a great improver
on the miserable system of practice at that time followed.
As a chemist he is far from being without merit. To him
we are indebted for the invention, or at least the first ap¬
plication, of the term gas, in the sense in which it is em¬
ployed by modern chemists. He was aware that gas was
348
C H E M I S T R Y.
History, extricated in abundance during the application of heat to
various bodies, and during the solution of various carbo¬
nates and metals in acids. His theory of the formation
of urinary calculus does him great credit, and constituted
a first step towards the elucidation of that important por¬
tion of physiology. He satisfied himself that these cal¬
culi differ completely from common stones, and that they
do not exist in the food or drink. Tartar, he says, pre¬
cipitates from urine, not as an earth, but as a crystalliz¬
ed salt. In like manner, the natural salt of urine precipi¬
tates from that liquid, and gives origin to calculi. We
may imitate the natural process by mixing spirit of urine
with rectified alcohol. Immediately an offa alba is preci¬
pitated. .
The decided preference given to chemical medicines
by Van Helmont, and the uses to which he applies che¬
mical theory, had a natural tendency to raise chemistry to
a higher rank in the eyes of medical men than it had yet
reached. But the man to whom the credit of founding the
latro-che- iatro-chemical sect is due, is Francis de la Boe Sylvius,
mists. who was born in 1614. While a practitioner of medicine
at Amsterdam, he studied with profound attention the sys¬
tem of Van Helmont, and the rival and much more popu-
lar theory of Descartes. Upon these he founded his own
theory, which contains little entitled to the name of ori¬
ginal, notwithstanding the tone in which he Speaks of it,
and his repeated declarations that he had borrowed from
no one. He was appointed professor of the theory and
practice of medicine in the university of Leyden, where
he taught with such eclat, and drew after him so great a
number of pupils, that Boerhaave alone surpassed him in
that respect. Every thing was explained by him accord¬
ing to the principles of chemistry, as at that time under¬
stood. And certainly both his physiology and his. prac¬
tice are absurd in an almost incredible degree. All dis¬
eases were occasioned by a superabundance of an acid or
an alkali in the blood. The acid diseases were cured by
the administration of an alkali, and the alkaline diseases
by the administration of an acid.
It is a remarkable circumstance, and shows clearly that
mankind in general had become disgusted with the dog¬
mas of the Galenists, that iatro-chemistry was adopted
more or less completely by almost all physicians. And
the few that opposed it combated its dogmas by argu¬
ments not less nugatory than those of the iatro-chemists
themselves. The first person who really shook the pillars
on which this sect rested their opinions was Mr Boyle.
This he did in 1661, by the publication of his Sceptical
Chemist. His rmnimcrifs did not indeed immediately nut
cine in the university of Leyden. His reputation speed!- Hit l
ly became very high : he was successively appointed pro- ; -
lessor of botany and of chemistry, while rectorships and
deanships were showered upon him with an unsparing
hand.
His system of chemistry, published in two quarto vo¬
lumes in 1732, and of which we have an excellent English
translation by Dr Shaw, was the most learned and most
luminous treatise on chemistry that the world had yet seen,
being nothing less than a collection of all the chemical
facts and processes that were known in Boerhaave’s time,
collected from a thousand different sources, and from wri¬
tings equally disgusting for their obscurity and their mys¬
ticism. Every thing is stated in the plainest way, and
chemistry is shown as a science, and an art of the first im¬
portance, not merely to medicine, but to mankind in ge¬
neral.
Towards the end of the seventeenth century several
other chemists appeared, who contributed considerably to
the increase of chemical facts, or to the improvement of
chemical processes. It will be sufficient to mention the
names of Glauber, the discoverer of the salt that bears
his name ; of Kunkel, the discoverer of phosphorus; of
Lemery, who rendered the science so popular in France;
and of Homberg, and the two Geoffreys, successively mem¬
bers of the French Academy of Sciences, and makers of im¬
portant discoveries.
The first person who attempted to arrange all the known Deed,
chemical facts under & theory, was John Joachim Beecher,
who was born at Spires, in Germany, in the year 1635.
His father v/as a Lutheran clergyman; but he lost him
early ; and as the part of Germany where he lived had been
ruined by the thirty years’ war, his family was reduced
to great poverty. Yet he contrived to procure a medical
and chemical education. In 1666 he was appointed pro¬
fessor of medicine in the university of Mentz, and soon
after chief physician to the elector. There he was fur¬
nished with an excellent laboratory. But he soon fell
into difficulties, and was obliged to take refuge in Vienna.
Thence he repaired to Holland, and settled in Haerlem.
In 1680 we find him in Great Britain, where he examined
and in 1681
the Scottish lead mines and smelting work ,
and 1682 he traversed Cornwall, and studied the mines
Boerhaave
Chemist. His arguments did not indeed immediately put
an end to the sect, but they served somewhat to shake
the confidence with which they supported their peculiar
opinions. These opinions were successfully refuted by the
celebrated Dr Archibald Pitcairn of Edinburgh; and they
finally disappeared, being unable to stand their ground
against the unrivalled celebrity of Boerhaave.
Herman Boerhaave possesses so much merit as a che¬
mist, that his name cannot be omitted in this sketch. He
was born at Voorhout, a village near Leyden, in 1688,
where his father was parish clergyman. At the age of
sixteen he was left an orphan, without protection, advice,
or fortune. Fie had already studied theology and the
kindred sciences, and meant to offer himself as a clergy¬
man ; but being accused of leaning towards the principles
of Spinoza, he was obliged to turn his attention to medi¬
cine. In 1693 he graduated and began to practise, sup¬
porting himself by teaching mathematics, till his medical
fees became sufficient to support him. Meanwhile he
erected a laboratory, and devoted a considerable time to
the study of chemistry and of botany. On the death of
Drelincourt in 1702 he was appointed professor of medi-
and smelting works of that great mining county. He died
suddenly in 1682, while he was negotiating about an ad¬
vantageous situation offered him by the Duke of Mecklen¬
burg Gustrow. _ •
His chemical theory was given to the world in his P%-Stal
sica Subterranea; and it was soon after embraced and im¬
proved upon by Stahl. George Earnest Stahl was certain¬
ly one of the most remarkable men of the age in which he
lived. He was born at Anspach in the year 1660. He B
studied medicine, and in 1694 was named, at the solicita¬
tion of Frederick Hoffmann, second professor of medicine
in the university of Halle, which had just been establish¬
ed. It is probable that he also taught chemistry in the
same university. He aimed at legislating, both in medi¬
cine and chemistry; and this aim, ambitious as it was, was
in some measure successful. The chemical theory invent¬
ed by Beecher, and simplified by Stahl, had tor its object
the explanation of combustions, and the reasons of. the
alterations induced by it on bodies. All combustible DO'St ■
dies, in their opinion, are compounds, and contain one n 1
principle in common, to which they owe their combustibi¬
lity. To this principle they gave the name of phlogiston.
When a body burns, the phlogiston leaves it, and occa¬
sions the appearance of the heat and the light which con
stitute combustion in common language. What remains is
the other constituent of the body. When sulphur burns,
sulphuric acid remains. Therefore sulphur is a compoun
CHEMISTRY.
349
of sulphuric acid and phlogiston. When the metals are
burnt, earthy bodies or calces remain. Hence the metals
are compounds of calces and phlogiston. This theory was
universally adopted by succeeding chemists, and was only
overturned in consequence of the prodigious accumula¬
tion of new facts for which the Stahlian theory had not
provided, towards the end of the eighteenth century.
The chemical school of Berlin, of which Stahl may in
some measure be considered as the founder, has furnished
an almost uninterrupted series of eminent chemists. Neu¬
mann, Pott, Eller, and Margraaf, are the most celebrated
advocates of the Stahlian theory who adorned that school.
During the same period a series of most meritorious men and
distinguished chemists adorned the Academy of Sciences
of Paris. The most deservedly celebrated of them were
Reaumur, Hellot, Duhamel, Macquer, and Rouelle.
Hitherto chemistry had attracted but little attention in
Great Britain, and had been cultivated chiefly as an ad¬
junct of medicine. It was in this way that it made its
way into the different universities. It was considered as
a science necessary for physicians, in order to enable them
to prepare chemical medicines. The first person who
seems to have viewed chemistry as capable of becoming a
separate and important science, equally useful to mankind
as mechanics itself, and capable of raising the successful
cultivator of it to a high station among men of science,
was Dr William Cullen, who afterwards raised the uni¬
versity of Edinburgh to such celebrity as a medical school.
He was born at Hamilton in 1712, and after serving an
apprenticeship to a surgeon in Glasgow, he settled, when
very young, at Shotts in Lanarkshire. There he acci¬
dentally formed an acquaintance with Archibald duke of
Argyll, who at that time bore the chief political sway in
Scotland. By his influence he was appointed lecturer on
chemistry in the University of Glasgow. There he began
to explain his views respecting the science; and such was
his popularity, that his class soon became crowded with
students. Such was his reputation as a chemist, that on
Dr Plummer’s death in 1756 he was unanimously invited
to fill the vacant chemical chair in the University of Edin¬
burgh. There his popularity followed him, and continued
to increase in consequence of his own admirable conduct,
notwithstanding the attempts of some of his colleagues to
injure him with the public. Though his appointment to
the medical chair in the University of Edinburgh in the
year 1766 put an end to his chemical career, yet he had
the merit of drawing the attention of the public to that
fascinating and most important science, and pointing out
what might be done by an experimental cultivation of it.
He had the merit also of being the teacher of Dr Black,
and of filling that eminent chemist with a passion for the
science in which he was destined to distinguish himself.
Joseph Black was born in France, on the banks of the
Garonne, in the year 1758. His father was a native of
Belfast, but of a Scotch family. Young Black was educa¬
ted in Belfast, and in 1746 he was sent to continue his
education in the University of Glasgow. It was at that
time that Dr Cullen began to teach chemistry in that
university. Young Black, who had made choice of me¬
dicine as his profession, naturally attended the chemical
lectures. He was soon fascinated with the study, became
intimate with Cullen, and soon assisted him in his experi¬
ments. He went to Edinburgh to finish his medical studies
in 1751. Here he discovered the nature of the difference
between limestone and quicklime. The first is a salt, a
compound of carbonic acid (which he called fixed air)
nnd lime; the second is the lime uncombined. He showed
tnat carbonic acid is a gas possessed of the properties of
air’ but capable, like other acids, of combining with bases,
and constituting a genus of salts to which the name of
carbonates has been since given. He made this discovery History,
the subject of his inaugural dissertation when he took his
medical degree in 1756; and gave, in the same thesis, an
account of his experiments on magnesia and its salts, prov¬
ing it to possess properties analogous to, but quite different
from, those of lime. This thesis immediately raised him
to the rank of a first-rate chemist.
It was at this time that Dr Cullen was removed to Edin¬
burgh, and in 1756 Dr Black succeeded him as lecturer
on chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Here he
brought to maturity his speculations respecting latent heat,
which first enabled chemists to give the doctrines of heat
a scientific form. In 1766 he was appointed professor of
chemistry in Edinburgh. Here he continued annually to
deliver an admirable course of lectures; but contributed
but little afterwards to the progress of the science, except
by his annual explanation of its doctrines. He died in
November 1799, in the seventy-first year of his age.
The tempting career which Dr Black had opened, but Cavendish,
which his slender stock of health unqualified him for pro¬
secuting, was entered on by Mr Cavendish, and prosecuted
with uncommon accuracy. To him we are indebted for
the knowledge of the properties of carbonic acid and hy¬
drogen gases, and for the discovery of the composition of
water and of nitric acid. He first gave a rigid analysis
of the air, and showed that its constituents underwent
no sensible variation. To him also we are indebted for
our knowledge of the freezing point of mercury. He died
on the 4th of February 1810, in the seventy-ninth year of
his age.
But the man who contributed the most to the rapid pro-priestiev.
gress of chemistry, and to whom it is chiefly indebted for
the great degree of popularity which it enjoyed towards
the end of the eighteenth century, was Dr Priestley. We
cannot here expatiate upon the life of this extraordinary
man, which will doubtless find a place in another part of
this work; but shall merely confine ourselves to an enu¬
meration of some of the most important additions which he
made to chemistry. To him we are indebted for a know¬
ledge of the mode of preparing nitrous gas, or deutoxide of
azote as it is now called, of its remarkable properties, and
in particular for the use that may be made of it in analy¬
sing atmospheric air. On the 1st of August 1774 he dis¬
covered oxygen gas, by heating the red oxide of mercury,
and collecting the gaseous matter given out by it. He
almost immediately detected the remarkable property
which it has of supporting combustion better, and animal
life longer, than the same volume of common air. He
first made known sulphurous acid, jluosilicic acid, muriatic
acid, and ammonia, in the gaseous form, and pointed out
easy methods of procuring them; he describes with ex¬
actness the most remarkable properties of each. He like¬
wise pointed out the existence of carburetted hydrogen,
though he made few experiments to determine its na¬
ture. His discovery of protoxide of azote affords a beau¬
tiful example of the advantages resulting from his method
of investigation, and the sagacity which enabled him to
follow out any remarkable appearance which occurred.
Carbonic oxide gas was discovered by him while in Ame¬
rica, and it was brought forward by him as an incontro¬
vertible refutation of the antiphlogistic theory. Though
he was not the discoverer of hydrogen gas, yet his expe¬
riments on it were highly interesting, and contributed es¬
sentially to the revolution which chemistry soon after
underwent. He first discovered the great increase of
bulk which takes place when electric sparks are passed
through ammoniacal gas, a fact which led Berthollet to
the analysis of this gas. His experiments on the amelio¬
ration of atmospherical air by the vegetation of plants, on
the oxygen gas given out by their leaves, and on the re-
350
History.
CHEMISTRY.
Swedish
chemists.
Bergman.
Seheele.
spiration of animals, are not less curious and interesting.
Such are the most striking of his discoveries ; but his
three volumes on air constitute one of the richest store¬
houses of chemical facts in existence. It may be said
without exaggeration that Dr Priestley was one of the
most diligent and successful pioneers in chemistry that
ever existed. He was too rapid, and too little given to pon¬
der over his opinions before he gave them to the world, to
constitute a good philosopher; but in genius and inven¬
tion he was not inferior to any of his contemporaries. Dr
Priestley died in America in the year 1804, in the eighty-
first year of his age.
While the boundaries of chemistry were so rapidly ex¬
tending by the discoveries of the British chemists, there
were two chemists in Sweden who contributed fully as
effectually towards the prodigious revolution which it was
so soon destined to undergo: these were Bergman and
Scheele.
Torbern Bergman was born in the year 1735, in West
Gothland. After finishing his education at the University
of Upsala, where he had displayed a decided taste for
mathematics and the physical sciences, he was appointed,
about the year 1758, magister docens in natural philosophy.
In 1767 he succeeded Walerius as professor of chemistry
in Upsala, and filled the chair with the highest reputa¬
tion for seventeen years; for he died on the 8th of July
1784, at the baths of Medevi, to which he had repaired
in hopes of an alleviation of his malady. His works were
published in six octavo volumes, under the name of Opus-
cula. It would be tedious to notice all the different facts
which Bergman ascertained. It may be sufficient to say,
that to him chemistry is indebted for the art of analysis,
constituting at present the* grand instrument for the im¬
provement of the science. His methods of analysing wa¬
ters, stony bodies, and ores, were indeed imperfect, but
they constituted a beginning which was afterwards im¬
proved and new-modelled by Klaproth and Vauquelin, and
brought to the state of perfection which it has recently
attained by different chemists, who still continue to culti¬
vate the science with ardour.
The other Swedish chemist of that period was Scheele,
who constitutes one of the most extraordinary chemists
that ever existed. Charles William Scheele was born on
the 18th of December 1742, at Stralsund, the capital of
Swedish Pomerania. He was bound apprentice to an
apothecary in Gottenburg, from which place, after an in¬
terval of several years, he went successively to Malmo,
Stockholm, and Upsala, and at last he settled at Koping
as an apothecary, where he died in 1786, in the forty-
fourth year of his age. Scheele’s discoveries were so nu¬
merous and important, that a bare catalogue of them will
be sufficient to convince the most careless reader of the
great services which he performed to the science.
He first pointed out the method of obtaining tartaric
acid in a state of purity. What a benefit this has been to
the manufactures of Great Britain every calico-printer is
able to appreciate. He discovered fluoric acid, and point¬
ed out some of its most remarkable properties. He did
not, indeed, obtain the acid in a state of purity, but united
to silica in the state offluosilicic acid. Pure fluoric acid
was first made known in 1811 by Gay-Lussac and The-
nard. His experiments on manganese constitute a memo¬
rable era in chemistry. It was during them that he dis¬
covered chlorine and barytes, the first of which has quite
altered the mode of bleaching formerly followed in this
country; and the second is an indispensable article in
analysis. It was during these experiments also that he
discovered the constituents of ammonia. By heating the
bleaching oxide of manganese, he obtained oxygen gas,
the remarkable properties of which he ascertained; so
that if oxygen had not been discovered by Priestley, it jj;
would have been soon after made known by Scheele, who 'w H
possessed all the merit, though the want of priority de- *
prived him of the reputation which would otherwise have
accrued to him.
He discovered arsenic acid, molybdic acid, tungstic acid,
uric acid, mucic acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, malic acid,
gallic acid, citric acid. He ascertained the constituents of
prussic acid, the nature of plumbago, and pointed out the
characters of silica and alumina, which till then had been
confounded by various chemists of some note. The pre¬
ceding enumeration contains but an imperfect sketch of
the numerous discoveries of Scheele. The necessity of ir
being brief has obliged us to omit much which was high¬
ly deserving of notice.
The discoveries of the British and Swedish chemists
made known a prodigious number of facts which had not
been anticipated by Beecher and Stahl, and which their
theory was inadequate to explain. It was clear, therefore,
that the Stahlian theory could not much longer maintain
its ground. The chemist to whose exertions that over¬
throw was immediately owing wras Lavoisier.
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier was born in Paris in 1743.LaX
He was opulent, and had received a liberal education. It
was Dr Black’s discovery of fixed air that induced him to
make choice of chemistry as a field in which much repu¬
tation might be gained. He became a member of the
Academy of Sciences in 1768, and from that period till
the year 1794, or twenty-six years, he was the author of
no fewer than sixty memoirs, most of them upon chemical
subjects. In the year 1772 he discovered that when me¬
tals are converted into calces, they increase in weight. This
led him to suspect the non-existence of phlogiston. This
notion he prosecuted with unexampled industry for twen¬
ty-four years, till he finally established it to the satisfac¬
tion of the chemical world. Combustion, according to hisThio
view, is the combination of the burning body with oxygen.coni
The oxygen loses the gaseous form, and therefore depo-t® ■
sits the heat and the light with which it was formerly pu
united. Hence the reason why bodies after combustion
are heavier than they were before. Combustible bodies
are either simple substances, or combinations of various
simple substances. When they undergo combustion, the}
unite with oxygen. Hence all the products of combustion
are compounds. Sulphur, for example, is a simple body.
When burnt it combines with oxygen, and is converted
into sulphuric acid ; so that sulphuric acid is a compounc.
of sulphur and oxygen. In 1786 Berthollet, at a meeting
of the academy, declared himself satisfied of the truth o
Lavoisier’s opinions. He was soon followed by Fourcroy,
who had succeeded Bucquet as professor of chemistry m
the Jardin du Roi, and was at that time the most popular
teacher of the science in France. Soon after Morveau,
who had greatly distinguished himself as a chemist, and
had given" gratuitous lectures on chemistry at Dijon for
many years, and who was employed in writing the chemica
part of the Encyclopedic Methodique, was also converted to
the same opinions. . ,
The old chemical phraseology was at that time exceed-^
ingly imperfect, entirely moulded on the Stahlian theory,^
and quite inadequate to express the opinions of the o
phlogistians, as the adherents of Lavoisier were ca ec
Morveau suggested the propriety, or rather the nece*slJ’
of forming a new chemical nomenclature; and thougi
views were at first opposed by the chemical membeis
the Academy of Sciences, they were finally accecec >
and Lavoisier, Berthollet, Morveau, and FOU1C10J7 0
ed themselves into a committee for the purpose ot
structing a new chemical nomenclature. The neW
menclature was published in the. year 1787. It was av
CHEMISTRY.
351
iis ••
uted
edly the production of Morveau, except a few terms which and Germany; and, notwitl,standing the horrors of the m.,
had been previously introduced by Lavoisier Though French revolution, and the confusioi? into which it plu„! "
farfrom perfect, it was so superior to the old barbarous ged Europe, Berthollet, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and PeUe-
jargon of the science, that it was in a few years almost tier in France, and Klaproth in Germany, w^re the indt
universally adopted,jind conh-ibuted more than any thing viduals to which this progress was chiefly owing Ha-
proth in particular extended the bounds of the science by
the discovery of several new metals, and by bringing the
difficult art of analysis to a regular system. To Vauquelin
the science was indebted for the discovery of a new metal
uijivtiociJij Liian any iiiniy
else to the overthrow of the Stahlian theory; for thinking
is so much dependent upon language, and the old nomem
clature was so much identified with the Stahlian theory,
that, had it continued to be used, it is doubtful whether
i t .1 • ii • . 11, , r* * waa mueuteu lor uie aiscoverv oi a new metal
the hypothesis o phlogiston could have been got rid of, and a new earth, and to an infinite number of anataes
at least so speedily.  i _i, ^ c
at least so speedily.
Mr Kirwan, who had established a high reputation by
his labours as a chemist, undertook the task of refuting
the antiphlogistic theory, and with that view published a
work, to which he gave the name of An Essay on Phlo
mineral, vegetable, and animal, all of them calculated to
enlarge our knowledge, and extend the dominion of the
science of chemistry.
About the termination ol the eighteenth century a new
' ° ... r. . . , T ~ra electrical instrument was discovered by Volta, now uni-
glston, and the Composition of Acids. In that book he versally known under the name of the galvanic or VoCc
maintained an opinion which seems to W been pretty pile. This new instrument was destined to produce a new
general y adopted by the chemists of the time, namely, revolution in chemistry, nearly as great as the antinhWis
that phlogiston is the same thing with what is at present tic theory of Lavoisie£ About the time that this cfisco-
eM hydwyen, and which, when Kirwan wrote, was call- very was made, a new race of chemists had begun to dis-
ed light inflammable air. Of course Mr Kirwan under- tinguish themselves in Britain. One of the most remark- Daw
took to prove that every combustible substance, and every able of these was Humphry Davy, who was in a weat
metal, contains hydrogen as a const.tuent, and that hydro- measure self.taught, and who possessed such genius and
gen escapes in every case of combustion and calcination, ardour, that he was sure to make a figure in whatever
On the other hand, when calces are reduced to the metal- branch of science he chose to cultivate. His predilection
he state, hydrogen is absorbed. The book was divided for chemistry was strong, and he saw at once the celebrity
into thirteen sections. In the first, the specific gravity of likely to accrue from a successful development of the
gases was stated accoidmg to the best data then existing; laws which regulate the chemical phenomena connected
the second sec ion treats of the composition of acids and with the action of the Voltaic battery. He accordingly
of water ; the third, of sulphuric acid; the fourth, of nitric devoted himself to the study of these phenomena ; and
f f a^,d;ihe .S1ft’ °1 a(lu1a reSia ’ about the year 1807 he succeeded in demonstrating that
he seventh, of phosphoric acid ; the eighth, of oxalic acid; the galvanic energy has the property of decomposinf com-
he ninth, of the calculation and reduction of metals, and pound bodies according to a determinate law ; oxygen and
,tirrn l°f fiXfid aif;t?e tent-h • °f •t le d‘ssolutlon of acids attach themselves to the positive pole of tlJ battery,
£ey.en&. °r£e PreciF!atl0«. ot metals by while hydrogen, sulphur, metals, alkalies, and earths, attach
themselves to the negative pole. He concluded from this
that oxygen and acids are naturally negative, while hydro¬
gen, sulphur, metals, earths, and alkalies are naturally posi¬
tive. Ihis led to the conclusion that chemical affinity is
merely a case of electrical attraction, and that bodies com¬
bine because they are in opposite electrical states, and that,
in order to produce decomposition, we have only to bring
them into the same electrical state. This hypothesis,
"f i • „ . . ^ ~ *“—.. ..wit known by the name of the electrical theory, was generally
and nlST f?V<iUr 0f •the ldenyy ,of hydroSen by chemists; and it is by means of it that the na-
"„, gst™, and of the existence of hydrogen in all ture of combination and decomposition is at present at-
combustible bodies, exceedingly inconclusive. Kirwan’s tempted to be explained.
rim,r. If aid11hold °rhy the. Freacb chemists as affording Davy drew as a consequence from his theory, that if
of - opportunity of showing the superiority the current of electricity can be made sufficiently large, it
ithe new opinions over the old. Kirwan’s view of the will decompose all compound bodies whatever. He tried
potash and soda, and succeeded in showing that they are
compounds of peculiar metals and oxygen. It was imme¬
diately inferred that the earths also are metallic oxides.
This was demonstrated by Davy himself with respect to
it wnnlri ^ ALT T“r T ^ m the alkaline earths ; and it has been since shown that all
wis tranelf t0 TJle book accordingly the earths proper are also oxides, though the bases of all
tio ated lnt0 Frencb’ an(l published with a refuta- of them are not metals.
nmfp l T °f eVeiT chaPter* Tllese refutations were Davy succeeded also (chiefly in consequence of the im-
samp il, W 1 S° mUC1 urbanity of manner, and at the portant labours of Gay-Lussac and Thenard) in satisfying
effects ef f° co™ldete> tbat they produced all the chemists that chlorine is not a compound, but a simple
candour peeteci from them. Mr Kirwan, with a degree of substance, analogous to oxygen in its nature, and, like it,
examnlpf llb^rallty> °f which, unfortunately, very few attracted by the positive pole of the Voltaic battery. The
adonted tl CaIi be PradVced» abandoned phlogiston, and subsequent discovery of iodine and bromine, substances
e tlleorv °r his nrmnnpnf-o analogous in their nature, and the probable evidence that
4* 11/3 r\OC>/3 r\T rk i s\rv*/i si 1 „ L' _ _* * 1 1 • 1
each other; the twelfth, of the properties of iron and steel;
while the thirteenth sums up the whole argument by way
of conclusion.
In this work Kirwan admitted the truth of Lavoisier’s
theory, that during combustion and calcination oxygen
unites with the burning and calcining body. He admit¬
ted also that water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen.
Inow, these admissions, which, however, it was scarcely
possible for a man of candour to refuse, rendered the whole
- uvci me uiu. jvu wan s view or tne
subject had been taken by Bergman and Scheele, and in¬
deed by every chemist of eminence who still adhered to
ie phlogistic system. A refutation of it, therefore, would
e a death-blow to phlogiston, and would place the anti-
pi ogistic theory upon a basis so secure, that henceforth
It would hp imnnecihlo rPK„ i   i
Thii« ni " [ J 10 utJFUIlcUL&- analogous in tneir nature, and the probable evidence that
voisier m 116 ^^ar 1790 °r 1792, the doctrine °f La- the base of fluoric acid is a substance of a similar kind,
Ifanv be con®ldered .t0 have been fully established, have completely new-modelled the Lavoisierian theory.
Ifanv "c WIJBluerea to n^ve been fully established, have completely new-modelled the Lavoisierian theory,
utterly u leients Pbl°giston still remained, they were There are five substances analogous tooxigen, which may
current ln .tbeb’ feeble attempts to stem the be called supporters of combustion. They are all capable
current wh' i i f —. . uj blcuj me ue ecuieu Auppu/ib/s oi comousuon. loey are an capable
them. lad set la w*tb 80 mucb violence against of uniting with combustible bodies, and the union may be
e science continued to be prosecuted in France attended with the phenomena of combustion. When they
CHEMISTRY.
Dalton.
Wentzel,
combine with one set of combustible bodies they form
acids ; when with another set, alkalies or bases. Thus there
are at least five different classes of acids, and as many
different classes of alkalies. Acids and alkalies of the same
class unite together and form salts; but acids and bases
of different classes mutually decompose each other, and
in general, therefore, cannot unite. Thus there are as
many classes of salts as there are of acids and bases.
Such is an imperfect sketch of his present chemical theo¬
ry, which may be fairly considered as having originated
with Sir H. Davy, though it has been carried a greater
length than he anticipated, and many new facts have been
discovered of which he was ignorant.
Another improvement has been introduced into che¬
mistry by Mr Dalton, which is, if possible, still more im¬
portant, by affording a test of accuracy m our experi¬
ments, and enabling us to eliminate errors by a method
somewhat analogous to that. employed by astronomers.
Even at present, while only in its infancy, this improve¬
ment has made a complete alteration in the mode of ex¬
perimenting. What may not be expected from it when it
has come to a state of maturity? The improvement to
which we allude is usually known by the name of the
citoiYtic theory.
This theory did not originate at once, but was gradu¬
ally brought into light. A short account of the steps by
which it came into view will terminate this imperfect his¬
torical detail of the progress of chemistry. The very at¬
tempt at analysis is an acknowledgment that bodies unite
only in definite proportions ; for unless this were the case,
all attempts to determine the proportions in which the
constituents of bodies are united, would be obviously ab¬
surd. The first accurate set of experiments to analyse
the salts was made by W entzel, and published by him in
1777, in a small volume entitled Lehre von der Verwands-
chaft der Kdrper, or Theory of the Affinities of Bodies.
These analyses are much more accurate than those of
Bergman, yet the book fell almost dead-born from the
press. Wentzel was struck with a phenomenon, which had
indeed been noticed by preceding chemists ; but they had
not drawn the advantages from it which it was capable of
affording. There are several saline solutions, which, when
mixed with each other, completely decompose each other,
so that two new salts are produced. Thus, if we mix to¬
gether solutions of nitrate of lead and sulphate of soda, in
the requisite proportions, the sulphuric acid of the latter
salt will combine with the oxide of lead of the former,
and will form with it sulphate of lead, which will precipi¬
tate to the bottom in the state of an insoluble powder,
while the nitric acid formerly united to the oxide of lead
will combine with the soda formerly in union with the
sulphuric acid, and form nitrate of soda, which being so¬
luble, will remain in solution in the liquid. Thus, instead
of the two old salts, sulphate of soda and nitrate of lead,
we obtain the two new salts, sulphate of lead and nitrate
of soda. If we mix the salts in the requisite proportions
the decomposition will be complete; but if there be an
excess of one of the salts, that excess will still remain in
solution without affecting the result. If we suppose the
two salts anhydrous, then the proportions necessary to
complete the decomposition are,
Sulphate of soda  9
Nitrate of lead 20-75
We see that the absolute weights of the two sets of salt Hi: f
are the same. All that has happened is, that both the'--4 “
acids and both the bases have exchanged situations. Now,
if, instead of mixing them in the above proportions, we
employ sulphate of soda 9, and nitrate of lead 25-75; that
is to say, if we employ five parts of nitrate of lead more
than is sufficient for the purpose, we shall have exact¬
ly the same decomposition as before. . But the five of
excess of nitrate of lead will remaNa in solution mixed
with the nitrate of soda. These will be precipitated as
before sulphate of lead 19; and there will remain in so¬
lution nitrate of soda 10-75, and nitrate of lead 5. The
phenomena are precisely the same as before. The addi¬
tional five of nitrate of lead has occasioned no alteration.
The decomposition has gone on just as if they had not
been present.
Now, the phenomenon which drew the particular at¬
tention of Wentzel is, that if the salts were neutral before
being mixed, the neutrality was not affected by the de¬
composition which took place on their mixture. A salt is
said to be neutral when it neither possesses the character
of an acid nor an alkali. Acids redden vegetable blues,
while alkalies render them green. A neutral salt pos¬
sesses no effect whatever on vegetable blues. This ob¬
servation of WentzeT is very important. It is obvious that
the salts, after their decomposition, could not have re¬
mained neutral, unless the elements of the two salts had
been such that the bases in each just saturated the acids
in either of the salts. The constituents of the two salts
are as follows:—
, „ . 15 sulphuric acid.
9 suphate of soda, -j ^ g0(jla>
1 j f 6*75 nitric acid.
20-75 nitrate of lead, ^ oxide of lead.
While the constituents of the new salts are,
f 5 sulphuric acid.
19 sulphate of lead, -j - - ’
29-75
and the quantity of the new salts formed will be
Sulphate of lead 19
Nitrate of soda 10-75
29-75
14 oxide oflead.
„ . f 6*75 nitric acid.
10-75 nitrate of soda, < ^ soc[a<
It is obvious from this that five sulphuric acid just sa¬
turate four soda and fourteen oxide of lead; while 6-m p
nitric just saturate the same quantities of each of these ti
bases. Thus the saturating powers of soda and oxide ot
lead are to each other as 4 to 14; while the saturating
powers of sulphuric and nitric acids are to each other as
5 to 6-75. . j ri ii
In the year 1792 another labourer in the same depart-Ricj
ment of chemistry appeared. This was Jeremiah ienja-
min Richter, a Prussian chemist, who died in the prime
of life in the year 1807. In 1792 he published a work
entitled Anfangsgrunde der Stochiometne ; oder Messkuns
Chymischer Elemente, Elements of Stochiometry, or
Mathematics of the Chemical Elements. A secon
third volume of this work appeared in 1/93, and a
in 1794. The object of the book was a rigid analys s
the different salts, founded on the fact just mention ,
that when two salts decompose each other, the salts )
formed are neutral as well as those winch have been
composed. He took up the subject near y in - ,
way as Wentzel had done, but advanced much fartae,
and endeavoured to determine the capacity o <
of each acid and base, and to attach numbers toeacti,
dicating the weights which mutually saturate eac o
He gave the whole subject a mathemattcal
deavoured to show that the same relation exlsKd e‘" rf
the numbers representing the capacity of ^
these bodies, as does between certain classes of g j
numbers. When we strip the subject of tlie mv _
form under which he presented it, the labours ^
ter may be exhibited under the two followi g
CHEMISTRY.
353
Sif
which represent the capacity of saturation of the acids
,J anci bases, according to his experiments.
I. Acids.
II. Bases.
Fluoric. 
Carbonic....
Sebacic 
Muriatic,...
Oxalic,.,....
Phosphoric
Formic 
Sulphuric...
Succinic....
Nitric 
Acetic 
Citric 
Tartaric 
427
577
706
712
755
979
988
1000
1209
1405
1480
1683
1694
Alumina  525
Magnesia  615
Ammonia    672
Lime  793
Soda..,  859
Strontian 1329
Potash 1605
Barytes 2222
halt s
,beo
To understand this table it is only necessary to observe,
that if we take the quantity of any of the acids placed
after it on the table, that quantity will, according to Rich¬
ter, be exactly saturated by the weight of each base put
after it in the second column. Thus 1000 grains of sul¬
phuric acid will be saturated by 525 grains of alumina,
615 of magnesia, 672 of ammonia, 793 of lime, and so on.
On the other hand, the quantity of any base placed after
its name in the second column will be just saturated by
the weight of each acid placed after its name in the first
column. Thus 793 parts of lime will be just saturated by
427 parts of fluoric acid, 577 of carbonic acid, 706 of se¬
bacic acid, and so on.
Richter’s labours in this important field produced as
little attention as those of Wentzel. Indeed, as his expe¬
riments were far from accurate, and his numbers not ex¬
act, the accuracy of his principles was not at first sight
perceptible. How'ever, his views were not altogether
overlooked. They were appreciated by Berzelius, who
devoted several years to put them to the test of experi¬
ment, and who was at last able, by gradually bringing the
analysis of the salts nearer and nearer to perfection, to
see the justice of the principle which Richter had spent
his life in endeavouring to establish.
Mr Dalton of Manchester had laid the foundation of
the high reputation which he has so justly obtained by his
papers on Vapour, published in the Memoirs of the Lite¬
rary Society of Manchester in the year 1802. Soon after
this, probably as early as 1803, he began to speculate re¬
specting the nature of the ultimate elements of bodies.
He had been occupied in determining the composition of
the two gases distinguished by the names of carburetted
hydrogen and olefiant gas. He observed, that for com¬
plete combustion they require different but determinate
quantities of oxygen gas. A volume of carburetted hy¬
drogen requires for complete combustion two volumes,
while a volume of olefiant gas requires three volumes of
oxygen gas. When one volume of carburetted hydrogen
is burnt, there is formed just one volume of carbonic acid
gas; but when a volume of olefiant gas is burnt, there are
formed two volumes of carbonic acid gas, or double the
former quantity. Now, carbonic acid is a compound of
oxygen and carbon. The oxygen gas supplies the first of
these, and the inflammable gases the second. It is clear
from the experiment, that the quantity of carbon in a
volupe of olefiant gas is just twice as great as that in a
volume of carburetted hydrogen. It had been shown by
Lavoisier that carbonic acid gas contains just its own bulk
of oxygen ga's. It is evident from this that one of the two
volumes of oxygen gas employed in the combustion of
carburetted hydrbgen went tt> the formation of carbonic
acid; while two df the three volumes employed in the
combustion of olefiant gas went to the same purpose.
VOL. VI.
There remained in each combustion one volume of oxy- History,
gen gas, which was employed in uniting to hydrogen con-
tained in each gas, and in forming water. Now, as the
quantity of oxygen necessary to convert the hydrogen
into water is the same in each, it is clear that a volume
of each gas contains exactly the same quantity of hydro¬
gen. In this way did Mr Dalton, with much sagacity,
demonstrate that a volume of carburetted hydrogen gas
and of olefiant gas contains each the same weight of hy¬
drogen ; but that the weight of carbon in the latter gas is
just double that in the former.
This led him to attend to the nature of the ultimate
particles of bodies; and he concluded, with the ancients,
that they consisted of atoms incapable of further diminu¬
tion or division. It was known already, that when bodies
unite chemically, it is the ultimate particles or atoms that
unite. And he concluded (very naturally), from the facts
above stated respecting the combustion of the two in¬
flammable gases, that carburetted hydrogen is a compound
of one atom hydrogen and one atom earbon ; while olefiant
gas is a compound of one atom hydrogen and two atoms
carbon. He inferred further, that every atom of a body
(viewed along with its atmosphere of heat) is a sphere.
He represented an atom of hydrogen by the symbol ©
(a circle with a dot in the centre), and an atom of carbon
by the symbol © (a circle blackened in the inside) ; and
he denoted an integrant particle of the two gases in the
following manner :—
Carburetted hydrogen  ©
Olefiant gas t ® © @.
The former is a binary compound, or a compound of two
atoms ; while the second is a ternary compound, or a com¬
pound of three atoms.
It was this happy idea of representing the atoms of bo¬
dies by symbols that gave Mr Dalton’s opinions so much
clearness. Oxygen was represented by O (a circle) ;
azote by (D (a circle with a vertical diameter). The com¬
position of several of the best-known bodies was repre¬
sented by him as follows :—
Water © © a binary compound.
Nitrous gas OQ) a binary compound.
Ammonia (D© a binary compound.
Carbonic acid..© ® © a ternary compound.
Nitric oxide.... © (D O a ternary compound.
Ether @ © @ a ternary compound.
It is easy to see (if this view be correct), that if we can
determine the composition of these bodies with accuracy,
we shall have the ratios of the weights of the atoms of the
simple bodies. For example, Dalton concluded from his
experiments, that carburetted hydrogen is composed of
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 5
while olefiant gas is composed of
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 10
Now, as the former gas is a compound of one atom of hy¬
drogen and one atom of carbon, it follows that the weights
of the atoms of hydrogen and carbon are to each other as
the numbers one to five. If, therefore, we represent the
weight of the atom of hydrogen by one, that of carbon
will be five.
If water be a compound of
Hydrogen 1
Oxygen  8
then (if its symbol be © ©) it is clear, that if the atom of
hydrogen be unity, that of oxygen will be eight. In this
way the weight (or at least the ratios of the weight) of
the atoms of all the simple bodies may be determined by
an accurate analysis of the compound bodies formed by
the union of these simple bodies.
2 Y
354
CHEMISTRY.
History. When Mr Dalton first started the atomic theory, it was
not possible to determine the weights with any thing like
an approach to accuracy, because at that time chemistry
did not possess a single analysis which could be consider¬
ed as even approaching to accuracy. We need not be
surprised then that Mr Dalton’s first numbers were not
exact. It required infinite sagacity, and not a little labour,
to come so near the truth as he did. In consequence ot
this state of the science, neither the importance nor the
truths of the theory were at first appreciated; and seve¬
ral chemists, from whom better things might have been
expected, refused to admit it, and even turned the whole
doctrine into ridicule. It may be sufficient yo mention k?h
Humphry Davy, who expressed himself very strongly at
first in opposition to the atomic theory.
The first direct proofs in favour of the theory were ad¬
vanced by Dr Wollaston, who showed the existence of
three salts composed of oxalic acid and potash, the oxa¬
late, binoxalate, and quateroxalate. In these, if the quan¬
tity of potash be reckoned unity, that of oxalic acid will
be respectively one, two, and four. Hence he concluded,
that oxalate of potash is a compound of 1 atom potash
+ 1 atom oxalic acid; binoxalate, of 1 atom potash + 2
atoms oxalic acid ; and quateroxalate, of 1 atom potash + 4
atoms oxalic acid. He showed also that carbonic acid and
potash unite in two proportions, forming carbonate and
bicarbonate of potash ; the former composed of I atom
potash + 1 atom carbonic acid, and the latter of 1 atom
potash + 2 atoms carbonic acid. About the same time
Dr Thomson showed that* there are two oxalates of stron-
tian, the oxalate and binoxalate, the former composed of
1 atom strontian + 1 atom oxalic acid, and the second
of 1 atom strontian and 2 atoms of oxalic acid. Some
years after, M. Berzelius brought forward a great many ex¬
amples, and fully confirmed the great principle of Richter.
It was easy to apply this principle to the atomic theory
of Dalton, and to show that it was merely a case of this
theory. In consequence of these confirmations the atomic
theory gradually gained ground, and was at last univer¬
sally adopted by chemists. But it was adopted with two
different modifications.
In the year 1809 M. Gay-Lussac published, in the se¬
cond volume of the Memoires cCArcueil, a paper on the
union of the gaseous bodies with each other. In this
paper he shows that the proportions in which the gases
unite with each other are of the simplest kind, one vo¬
lume of one gas either combining with one volume of ano¬
ther, or with two volumes, or with half a volume. The
atomic theory of Dalton had been opposed with consider¬
able keenness by Berthollet, in an introduction which he
prefixed to the French translation of Dr Thomson’s sys¬
tem of chemistry. Nor was this opposition to be wonder¬
ed at, because it was evident that its admission would
overturn the opinions which Berthollet had laboured to
establish in his Chemical Statics. The object of Gay-Lus¬
sac’s paper was to confirm and establish the atomic the¬
ory, by exhibiting it in a new point of view. Nothing
can be more ingenious than his mode of treating the sub¬
ject, or more complete than the proofs which he brings
forward in support of it. It had been already establish¬
ed that water is formed by the union of one volume of
oxygen with two volumes of hydrogen gas. Gay-Lussac
found by experiment that one volume of muriatic acid
gas is just saturated by one volume of ammoniacal gas.
Fluoboric acid unites in two proportions with ammoniacal
gas ; one volume of the acid gas with one and with two vo¬
lumes of the alkaline gas. Carbonic acid gas and ammonia¬
cal gas unite also in two similar proportions. M. A. Ber¬
thollet had proved that ammonia is a compound of one
volume of azotic and three volumes of hydrogen gas ; and
Gay-Lussac had shown that sulphuric acid is a compound
His;;
of one volume of sulphurous acid gas and half a volume ti
Gay-Lus¬
sac’s the¬
ory of
volumes.
of oxygen gas. He showed further, that the compounds
of azote and oxygen are composed as follows:
Azotic. Oxygen.
Protoxide of azote 1 volume + volume.
Deutoxide of azote 1 ... + 1
Nitrous acid 1 ... + 2
He showed also, that when two gases, after combining,
remain in the gaseous state, the diminution of volume is
either 0, or L, or
The constancy of these proportions left no doubt that
the combinations of all gaseous bodies were definite. The
theory of Dalton applies to them with great facility. We
have only to consider a volume of gas to represent an
atom, and then we see that in gases one atom of one gas
combines either with one, two, or three atoms of another
gas, and never, or very seldom, with more.
In this country chemists have in general adopted the
simple theory of Dalton. But Berzelius has founded his
notions of the atomic theory upon the doctrine of volumes
of Gay-Lussac; and this view of the subject has been
generally embraced on the Continent. The principal dif¬
ference between the two views consists in the composition
of water. Whenever hydrogen and oxygen gas are burnt,
in what proportion soever they are mixed, they form wa¬
ter; and they cannot be made to unite directly in any
other proportion. This induced Dalton to consider water
as a compound of one atom oxygen and one atom hydro¬
gen. But water being composed by weight of eight parts
of oxygen and one part of hydrogen, it follows from this,
that the atom of oxygen is eight times heavier than the
atom of hydrogen. On the other hand, water is formed
by the union of two volumes of hydrogen with one volume
of oxygen gas. Hence, if we consider a volume of a
gas as in all cases equivalent to an atom, it will follow
that water is a compound of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen. This would make an atom ot oxygen ^
sixteen times heavier than an atom of hydrogen. Thus, ^
we have two different atomic weights for hydrogen, one
adopted in Great Britain, and another on the Continent.
Nor has it yet been decided by decisive arguments which
of these two view's is Correct. Analogy is in favour of the
view taken by British chemists ; but further investigations
will be necessary, and more knowledge of the subject must
be obtained, before a final decision can be made. A
Though chemists have agreed to consider all those C(
bodies which they have been unable to decompose as „
simple, yet by that term they do not mean to insinuate
that they are absolutely simple, but merely that, relative
to our state of knowledge, they cannot be reduced into
simpler constituents. It is by no means impossible that
the metals themselves may be compounds. But as no one
has hitherto succeeded in decomposing them, or has been
able to produce any plausible evidence of their being com¬
pounds, we are obliged to consider them as simple. Suc¬
ceeding chemists may in progress of time be more fortu¬
nate than we are, ancl may be able to show that they are
all compounds. When this happens, a new set of simple
bodies will come into view, of which at present we have
no notion.
To the ultimate integrant part of those bodies wmcn .j
we consider as simple, we apply the term atoms; and the
weights (or rather the ratios of the weights) of these atoms
have been determined in numbers. Thus an atom of cop¬
per weighs 4, an atom of iron 3‘5, and an atom of lea
Should, it be discovered hereafter that these metals aie
compounds of two ingredients, it is clear that the atonltc
weight of these two ingredients must be such that the
CHEMISTRY.
355
!on a*
ion d
leci l0*
sit 1 2 3
sum will be equal to the present atomic weight of the
metal. Thus, for example, the atomic weight of potash
is 6. For a long period potash was considered as a simple
body, till Davy ascertained that it is a compound of potas¬
sium and oxygen. The atom of potassium weighs 5, and
that of oxygen is 1. Now 5 + 1 = 6, the atomic weight of
Potasl1, _ . , .
These observations are sufficient to show the probabi¬
lity that all our atoms are compounds. Hence it is con¬
ceivable that they may admit of subdivision. This makes
the existence of half atoms and thirds of atoms, which
we are obliged to admit occasionally, cease to be an ab¬
surdity. Indeed, from some facts that have of late come
into view, it is not unlikely that the atoms of simple sub¬
stances may usually appear united in groups of two, three,
or more atoms. Hence what we call an atom may pro¬
bably be a congeries of two or more atoms. Should
this be the case, the existence of half or a third of an
atom would no longer be problematical. We shall find
that oxygen, water, and even hydrogen, not unfrequently
combine to the amount of half an atom or the third of an
Carbon 
Nickel
Cobalt
Manganese
Copper
Iron
Platinum
Palladium J
Zinc   
Rhodium 1
Tellurium
Chromium j
Molybdenum.
Silica 1
Titanium J
Cadmium 
Arsenic 1
Phosphorus >
Antimony J
Bulk of Atoms-
 1
 1-75
.2-6
.2-75
.3
.3*25
.3-5
.3-75
.A
- Bulk of Atoms.
Tungsten ^
Bismuth  4*25
Mercury
Tin
Sulphur
Selenium
Lead
Gold
Silver
Osmium
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Azote
Chlorine
Uranium 13-5
Columbiuml
Sodium J  
Bromine 15‘75
Iodine 24
Potassium 27
.4-66
,5-4
.6
.9-33
Combina¬
tion and
Decompo¬
sition.
atom.
Having thus finished our historical sketch of the pro¬
gress of chemistry, it is now time to enter upon a detail
of the great collection of facts which constitute the body
of the science. For the sake of perspicuity we shall di¬
vide the subject into four parts. In the first part we shall
treat of the laws of combination and decomposition; in
the second, of the chemistry of inorganic bodies; in the
third, of the chemistry of vegetable bodies; and in the
fourth, of the chemistry of animal bodies. Of these four
parts, the second, in the present state of the science, is
most important, and must therefore be treated most in
detail.
PART I.
Uon: mly
:omb k.
ri*ei ulk,
OF THE LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND DECOM¬
POSITION.
1. When bodies urtite chemically, it is the atoms or ul¬
timate particles of each which combine ; not large masses
of matter. Thus, when copper combines with oxygen, it
is converted into a black powder called oxide of copper.
How small soever the quantity of this black powder which
we examine, we shall find in it both copper and oxygen.
This oxide is formed by the union of an atom of copper
with an atom of oxygen.
2. Now the atoms of bodies are small to a degree of
which we can form no adequate conception. Gold leaf is
beat out so thin, that 50#7 square inches of it weight only
one grain. Now the 1000th part of a line or inch is easily
visible through a common pocket-glass. A square inch
of gold therefore is divisible into a million of parts, each
visible through a common microscope. Hence it follows,
that when gold is reduced to the thinness of gold leaf,
Toyoooob^ a grain of gold may be distinguished by
the eye. But Reaumur has shown that one grain of gold
of the thinness which it is upon silver wire, will cover an
area of 1400 square inches. It is plain that in this case
rrobbWobb^1 a grain of gold may be rendered visi¬
ble. But small as this particle is, we have no reason for
believing that it does not constitute a considerable num¬
ber of atoms.
3. But small as these atoms are, the ratios of their weight
to each other have been determined with considerable ex¬
actness. The weight of the atom, together with the spe¬
cific gravity of a body, enables us to determine its relative
volume. In this way may the volumes of the atoms of
different bodies be determined. The following table ex¬
hibits these bulks, that of carbon being reckoned one.
4. We have no means of determining the shape of these Shape,
atoms, but the most commonly received opinion is that
they are spherical, or at least spheroidal.
5. When the atoms of two different bodies unite, the
compound which they form differs so much in its proper¬
ties from the constituents, that we could form no notion
whatever what these constituents are. Thus, zvater bears
no resemblance whatever to either of its constituents, oxy¬
gen or hydrogen ; nor saltpetre to its constituents, nitric acid
and potash.
6. When bodies combine chemically, the union is always
accompanied by a change of temperature. Sometimes the
temperature sinks, but in by far the greater number of
cases it rises.
7. When two substances unite chemically, the bulk of the Volume
compound is very seldom exactly the same as that of its altered by
constituents. In most cases the bulk diminishes, in a few c.om^ina'
cases it increases, and in some rare instances no altera¬
tion in bulk whatever takes place. One volume of azotic,
and half a volume of oxygen gas united, constitute only
one volume of protoxide of azote. When copper and gold
are melted together, the bulk of the compound is greater
than that of the two constituents before their union ; 916f
cubic inches of gold and 83|- of copper, after union, become
1029 cubic inches, instead of 1000, which was their bulk
before combination. Finally, one volume of azotic and
one volume of oxygen gas united, constitute two volumes
of deutoxide of azote ; so that no alteration of bulk what¬
ever has taken place.
8. When bodies are chemically united with each other,
we cannot separate them again by filtration, or any mecha¬
nical means whatever. Heat sometimes enables us to pro¬
duce a separation, but in the greater number of cases this
expedient is quite unsuccessful. When a volatile sub¬
stance is united to another which is more fixed, it cannot
be again separated so easily by applying heat as we might
be led to expect from our knowledge of the difference be¬
tween the volatility of the two constituents. Sulphuric
acid does not boil till beated above 600°, while water boils
at 212°. But a mixture of sulphuric acid and water does
not boil till much hotter than 212°; and what is driven
off by boiling is not water, but a compound of sulphuric
acid and water.
9. It is therefore impossible, in the greater number of A corn-
cases, to separate substances that have been combined, pound de-
either by mechanical means or by the application of heat,
But by multiplying experiments in the way of mixture, aa^i|ir(iir^
discovery has been made which has been of infinite use to body,
chemists, and has greatly enlarged their power over com-
356
CHEMISTRY.
Combina¬
tion and
Decompo¬
sition.
Combina¬
tion owing
to attrac¬
tion.
Chemical
affinity.
Order of
decompo¬
sition.
pounds. It has been found that the addition of some third
body to a compound of two ingredients which are strong¬
ly united by chemical combination, will in many cases dis¬
pose them to separate from each other. Ihe third body
unites to one of the constituents of the compound, and Sets
the other constituent at liberty. Thus, if we add potash
in the requisite quantity to a compound of sulphuric acid
and water, it will combine with the acid, and set the win¬
ter at liberty. If we now apply heat, the water may be
distilled off pure, while sulphate of potash remains behind.
The whole art of chemistry consists in forming compounds
by uniting different bodies with each other ; anti he. is
the best and most skilful chemist who knows what third
body will answer to effect the decomposition which he has
in view. > . .
10. The phenomena of combination and decomposition
were at first explained by chemists by the application of
supposed mechanical powers. When a fluid has the pro¬
perty of dissolving a solid body, it was supposed to abound
in sharp and pointed particles, having the form of needles
or wedges, which were agitated in the fluid with a rapid
and confused intestine motion. The solid again was sup¬
posed to contain pores of such sizes and shapes as were
fitted to the pointed particles of the fluid. These pores
were penetrated by the fluid, and the solid torn asunder.
The precipitating bodies again were supposed to be porous
and spongy; and by this configuration, and by a confused
motion, they break the spiculse of the solvent, and thus
allow the solid again to fall down. This explanation is so
crude and unsatisfactory, that it is not entitled to the
honour of a refutation.
11. The first attempt at a rational explanation of che¬
mical combination was by Sir Isaac Newton. He had de¬
monstrated that the planets are retained in their orbits by
the attraction of gravitation. He conceived that there
are other forces or principles of motion in nature, by which
certain bodies act, or appear to act, at sensible distances
from each other. This is the case with the attractions
and repulsions connected with electricity and magnetism.
He suspected that there are still other forces whose sphere
of action is confined to the ultimate particles or atoms of
bodies. Capillary attraction, and the inflection and deflec¬
tion of light, are examples of such actions. Chemical com¬
binations and decompositions, in his opinion, depend upon
powers somewhat resembling the others. He was of opi¬
nion that the ultimate particles of certain bodies attract
each other with a certain unknown but enormous force,,
which begins to exert itself only at very minute distances.
Hence, when such bodies are mixed, the particles of each
being brought within the requisite distance, this force ex¬
erts itself, and the bodies unite. The decomposition pro¬
duced by a third body he ascribes to the superiority of
the attraction of this third body for one of the constitu¬
ents of the compound, in consequence of which it unites
with that constituent, and separates the other which was
previously in combination.
These views of Newton made their way into the science
very slowly; but before the middle of the eighteenth cen¬
tury they seem to have been almost universally adopted.
Chemists, however, instead of the term attraction employ¬
ed by Newton, substituted affinity, first introduced into
chemistry by Dr Hook, and caught with avidity by the
chemists on the Continent. By chemical affinity then is
meant that unknown force which causes the ultimate par¬
ticles of different bodies to unite together, and to remain
united.
As soon as the Newtonian notions of affinity were adopt¬
ed by chemists, they naturally concluded, that when a
compound a b was decomposed by the body c, which com¬
bined with b, disengaging a, this was because c had a
stronger affinity for b than a had. Decomposition there- Com c
t'     ^ 4-V-no 4-Vl Wioocnv/^ r\T frlTO C + t*mrts\.4-L - IT
fore came to be considered as the measure of the strength tion:t
of affinity. In the year 1718, M. Geoffroy, senior, thought t D
of arranging bodies in the order in which they separate
each other from a given substance. Bodies thus arranged 1
were considered as exhibiting the order of the affinity of
the respective bodies for the substance with which they
united; that body being placed highest which had the
strongest affinity, or was capable of displacing all the others.
The rest of the bodies were placed in the_order of their
affinity. The following little table will show the nature
of Geoffroy’s method.
Sulphuric Acid.
Barytes.
Soda.
Strontian.
Lime.
Potash.
Magnesia.
All the substances in the table combine, or have an
affinity, for sulphuric acid. If magnesia, which is at the
bottom of the table, be united to sulphuric acid, the addi¬
tion of lime, soda, potash, or any of the substances in the
table, will separate it. Lime will be separated by any of
the substances except magnesia; potash will be separated ic
by barytes or strontian, but not by soda, lime, or magne¬
sia. Barytes, which stands highest, will be separated by
none, while it separates all below it. In short, every sub¬
stance in the table is capable of separating sulphuric acid
from all the bodies placed below it, but not from those
placed above it.
The tables of Geoffroy were necessarily very imperfect,
but they were successively improved by Gellert, Lim-
bourg, &c.; and in 1775 a very copious table of ekclm
attractions, as he termed affinity, was published by Berg¬
man. This work of Bergman appears to have fixed the
opinions of chemists in general to his own views of the
subject. According to him, the affinity of each of the Berg! s
bodies a, b, c, d, &c. for x differs iri intensity in such a view;
manner that the intensity of the affinity of each may be
expressed by numbers. He was of opinion also that affi¬
nity is elective, in consequence of which, if a have a great¬
er affinity for x than b has, if we present a to the com¬
pound bx, x separates altogether from b, and unites to a.
These opinions of Bergman continued to be admittedKefu )i
till Berthollet published his Chemical Statics in 1803. Hebert t
considered affinity as an attraction similar to that which
exists between the planetary bodies. But in consequence
of the very small distance between the attracting bodies,
the strength of affinity depends not merely upon the quan¬
tity of matter which they contain, but likewise upon their
shape. Affinity being an attraction, must always produce
combination; and its strength must increase with the mass
of the attracting body. According to this doctrine of Ber¬
thollet, affinity is not elective. A substance which has a
stronger affinity is not capable of separating those which
have a weaker affinity; or, if this happens, some other cause
intervenes. It will be acknowledged that Berthollet was
successful in overturning Bergman’s notions of elective at¬
traction ; for Bergman’s explanation, why a body having
a stronger affinity is capable of displacing one having a
weaker affinity, is not satisfactory.
But Berthollet’s own views were not more solid than
those of Bergman. He denied that bodies united m e "
nite proportions, but affirmed that they were capable o
combining in all proportions whatever. This occasione
a controversy between him and Proust, in which the a
ter was obviously victorious. , .
The electrical theory, first started by Sir H. Davy, na
CHEMISTRY.
,ctic»f
eat
juntu
. enabled us at last to form some idea of the way in which
one substance is capable of displacing another. Oxygen,
• chlorine, bromine, and iodine, are always in a negative state;
while the other simple bodies are positive. Hence the
^ reason why these four bodies have a tendency to combine
with all the others. Potassium is strongly while
oxygen is strongly negative. Hence the strong affinity
which exists between these two bodies, and the difficulty
of decomposing them when united. If a current of chlorine
gas be passed through hot potash (which is a compound
of potassium and oxygen), the oxygen is disengaged in
the state of gas, and the chlorine unites to the potassium
in its place. This decomposition is brought about by the
agency of two forces. Chlorine, like oxygen, is negative.
It is therefore attracted by potassium and repelled by
oxygen. The heat acts partly perhaps by diminishing the
cohesion that exists between the particles of potash, but
chiefly by exalting the negative energy of the chlorine.
This energy, when increased by heat, is greater than that
of oxygen. Hence its attraction for potassium must exceed
that of .oxygen for the same base. It therefore takes the
place of the oxygen; and the mutual repulsion between
. chlorine and oxygen, together with the elasticity of the
oxygen, is sufficient to cause that principle to fly off and
make its escape.
The reason why many bodies require a red heat before
they combine, and why, when raised to that temperature,
they unite with great energy, may be conceived from the
data furnished by the electric theory of affinity. Let us
take the case of oxygen and hydrogen gases. The former
of these bodies is negative, and the latter positive. They
have therefore a strong attraction ; but this attraction is
not sufficient to overcome the mutual elasticity of the two
gases, occasioned probably by an atmosphere of heat sur¬
rounding the atoms of each. But a red heat exalts the
electric energies of both so much that they are enabled
to overcome the resistance occasioned by the elasticity of
the gases, and in consequence to combine together.
To what circumstance the negative state of oxygen,
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, and the positive state of
the other simple bodies, is owing, cannot be explained.
Were we to admit, with electricians in general, that nega¬
tive and positive electricity constitute two distinct fluids,
it would follow that a coating of negative electricity must
be deposited on the surface of the particles of the simple
supporters, while a coating of positive electricity is depo¬
sited on the surface of the other simple bodies. These
electricities are attached to the respective bodies in a
way which we cannot at present explain ; but from the
well-known phenomena of electricity, it can scarcely be
doubted that the electricities are not inseparably attached,
hut capable of being increased or diminished according
to the laws which bodies follow with regard to electri¬
city. Hence it happens that a substance may be in one
electrical state when compared with one body, and in
another electrical state when compared with another. In
oxygen there is a great preponderancy of negative elec-
tncity; it is negative with respect to every other body,
bulphur is negative with regard to most bodies, but it is
obviously not so powerfully negative as oxygen. Let us
suppose an atom of sulphur to be placed within a very
small distance of an atom of oxygen. We know that the
two electricities will act on each other. The negative elec¬
tricity of the oxygen atom will repel the negative electri¬
city of the sulphur; and as an atom of oxygen is almost
wice the size of an atom of sulphur, and contains a much
greater quantity of negative electricity, it is evident that
1 will act with greater energy. A portion of the negative
e ectncity of the sulphur will be driven off, while the po-
si ive electricity will accumulate in it, in consequence of
357
the attraction exercised on it by the negative1 electricity Combina-
of the oxygen. Positive electricity will accumulate in tion and
the sulphur, and negative electricity will diminish. This Lecompo-
will of course render it positive, though, before the action sitkm-
of the oxygen on it, it had been negative. In consequence
of these two different states, the two atoms combine, and
the attraction subsisting between the two electricities will
prevent any alteration in their state as long as they re¬
main united. Thus we may conceive how an atom may
be positive when it combines with one body, and negative
when it combines with another. Hence the reason why
oxygen is capable of combining with the other supporters,
and why the different positive bodies are capable of unit¬
ing with each other. Thus sulphur and phosphorus unite
with the metals, and the different metals with each other.
Salts are composed of an acid united to an alkali, usu- Salts more
ally atom to atom; and it is generally observed that they difficult of
are more difficult of decomposition than the acids and decomposi-
bases of which they are constituted when in an insulatedtion’ and
state. Thus sulphuric acid is decomposable at a redw^‘
heat; but sulphate of potash may be exposed to a red
heat without undergoing any alteration. The reason of
this increase of permanence is probably owing to the way
in which the constituents combine. The acid being com¬
posed of two constituents, one of which is positive and
the other negative, may be represented thus, -| . The
alkaline base being similarly composed, may be represent¬
ed by the same symbol, K Now there can be little
doubt that the acid and base, when combined, will ar¬
range themselves thus,
+ -
 f"
That is to say, the positive ingredient of the one will at¬
tach itself to the negative ingredient of the other. * Thus
every negative body will be placed between two positive,
and every positive between two negative—a situation
which ought to increase the firmness and steadiness of
the compound.
The black or gray oxide of manganese employed for ob- yyjjy oxy-
taining oxygen and chlorine, is a compound of one atom gen disen-
of manganese and two atoms of oxygen. When strong gaged from
sulphuric acid is poured over this compound, one half of'manganese-
the oxygen of the oxide is disengaged, and makes its es¬
cape in the gaseous form, while the sulphuric acid unites
with protoxide of manganese, and forms a sulphate of
manganese. To account for this curious decomposition,
it may be observed, in the first place, that manganese is
the most positive of all the metals. Hence it is capable
of uniting with and condensing into a solid no fewer than
three atoms of oxygen, although the size of an atom of
oxygen is more than four times as great as that of an atom
of manganese. When manganese is united with only one
atom of oxygen, it still retains its positive nature so strong¬
ly as to possess powerful alkaline qualities, and to be ca¬
pable of uniting with and neutralizing the different acids.
But when it has combined with three atoms of oxygen, it
has become negative, and possesses the characters of an
acid. Hence three atoms of oxygen are more than ca¬
pable of neutralizing an atom of manganese. Even the
gray oxide (containing two atoms of oxygen united to one
atom of manganese), though nearly neutral, rather leans
to an acid than a base, as it is capable of uniting indefi¬
nite proportions with barytes and lime. But the second
atom of oxygen cannot be retained by the manganese
with the same force as the first atom.
Sulphuric acid is a compound of one atom of sulphur
and three atoms of oxygen. The oxygen is obviously not
neutralized by the sulphur, for the compound possesses
strong acid properties. Here then we have two bodies
brought into contact, containing both oxygen in consider-
358
CHEMISTRY.
Combina- able quantity, and not neutralized by the bases with which
tion and it is combined. The oxygen in both being highly nega-
Decompo- t[ve) jt is obvious that the atoms of it must repel each
sition. other The voiume of the sulphur atom, being much lar-
o-er than that of the atom of manganese, acts with most
energy in retaining the oxygen. The protoxide of man¬
ganese being positive, will be attracted by the sulphuric
acid, while the second atom of oxygen united to the man¬
ganese will be repelled by the oxygen in the acid, and
even by the other atom of oxygen united to the manga¬
nese. It will therefore be expelled, and sulphate of man¬
ganese formed. . .
It may be asked why the same decomposition of gray
oxide of manganese does not take place when nitric acid
is poured over it. The reason seems to be, that the azote,
the atom of which is of the same size with that of oxygen,
more completely neutralizes the oxygen in the nitric acid.
It does not therefore act with so much energy in repel¬
ling the oxygen united to the manganese ; but that it acts
is evident, because when a little sugar is added to the mix¬
ture, the second atom of oxygen in the oxide combines
with carbon, and the nitric acid immediately forms a ni¬
trate of manganese.
Chlorine decomposes lime, or oxide of calcium as it may
be called, because, when assisted by heat, it becomes more
negative than oxygen : it therefore repels the oxygen,
and attracts the calcium; and these two forces acting to¬
gether are sufficiently strong to expel the oxygen from
the calcium, and enable the chlorine to take its place.
When a body is applied to a binary compound which is
capable of combining with both its constituents, it seldom
fails to produce decomposition, though it would not have
been able to have effected it had it been capable of unit¬
ing only with one of the constituents. For example, when
charcoal heated to redness is placed in contact with steam,
it decomposes that fluid, though hydrogen, being more
strongly positive than carbon, ought not to be disengaged
from oxygen by that substance. The reason of the dis¬
engagement is, that the charcoal combines both with the
oxygen and the hydrogen of the water, to the one being
positive, and to the other negative. It is for the same
reason that oxygen is capable of decomposing many sul-
phurets, while sulphur equally decomposes many oxides.
When two neutral saline solutions are mixed, we would
naturally expect that the two salts should unite together
and form a double salt. This frequently happens. But
often also they show no tendency to unite; and when the
mixed saline solution is evaporated, the two salts crystal¬
lize separately.
Table of The tables which originated with Geoffroy, and which
theelectri- Bergman improved so much, instead of being called tables
cal state of of affinity, should be considered as merely representing
bodies. the order of decomposition. And if the order of decom¬
position were regular and unvaried, such tables would be
of considerable utility. The order of decomposition seems
to be intimately connected with the electric state of the
respective bodies. The reason why it varies seems to be,
that the electrical state of a body is susceptible of varia¬
tion according to the temperature, being exalted by heat
and depressed by cold. The following table exhibits the
non-metallic bodies in the order of their electricity, begin¬
ning w ith the most positive, and ending with the most ne¬
gative :
Hydrogen. Sulphur.
Boron. Azote.
Silicon. Iodine.
Carbon. Bromine.
Arsenic. Chlorine.
Phosphorus. Oxygen.
Selenium.
Hydrogen is positive with respect to every body, and Inorf.
oxygen is negative with respect to every body. Sulphur is Bo®,' ‘j
positive with regard to all the substances below it in the^ ' j
table, but negative with regard to all the substances above it.
The following table exhibits the substances w ith which
each of these bodies is capable of combining, arranged ac¬
cording to their greatest electro-negative energy, and there¬
fore in the order in which they decompose each other:—
1.
Hydrogen.
2.
Boron.
3.
Silicon.
Fluorine ?
Chlorine.
Oxygen.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Sulphur.
Selenium.
Carbon.
Phosphorus.
Arsenic.
Azote.
Fluorine ?
Chlorine.
Oxygen.
Sulphur.
Fluorine ?
Chlorine.
Oxygen.
Sulphur.
4.
Carbon.
Oxygen.
Chlorine.
Iodine.
Sulphur.
Azote.
5.
Arsenic.
Oxygen.
Fluorine ?
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Selenium.
Sulphur.
Phosphorus.
6.
Phosphorus.
Oxygen.
Fluorine ?
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Selenium.
Sulphur.
7-
Selenium.
Oxygen.
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Sulphur.
8.
Sulphur.
Oxygen.
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Selenium.
9.
Azote.
Chlorine.
Iodine.
Oxygen.
10.
Iodine.
Oxygen.
Chlorine.
Bromine.
11.
Bromine.
Chlorine.
Oxygen.
12.
Chlorine.
Oxygen.
Table i
decoc I
sitioj
As we know of no substance more electro-negative than
oxygen, of course no column under oxygen can be drawn
up. These columns are, several of them, necessarily im¬
perfect, from the combinations of the substances standing
at the head of them being still imperfectly known; but
so far as they go, they mark the order of decomposition.
The order of separation is the position in which they stand
in the column, every substance being capable of separat¬
ing all the bodies below it from the substance standing at
the head of the column, but none of the substances placed
above it. The bromine is capable of separating iodine, sul¬
phur, selenium, &c. from hydrogen, but not oxygen, fluo¬
rine, or chlorine.
PART II.
OF THE CHEMISTRY OF INORGANIC BODIES.
We shall arrange the facts belonging to this part of our
subject, which are the most copious and important ot aib
into three divisions. In the first we shall treat o
substances, in the second of primary compounds, and in
third of secondary compounds.
DIVISION i.
». -OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES.
The simple substances at present known amount to ^
fifty-four in number. Of these there are five whieft seen
capable of combining with all the others. They are
-Wt-
CHEMISTRY.
,ic most electro-negative of all known bodies. Hence, when
>• compounds containing them are decomposed by galvanism,
they always attach themselves to the positive pole. When
they combine with a certain portion of the other simple
bodies, they form with them acids y when with the rest,
they constitute bases or alkaline bodies, capable of uniting
with and neutralizing the acids. To these five bodies the
name of supporters of combustion may be given. The eigh¬
teen bodies which, when combined with the supporters, be¬
come acids, may be distinguished by the name of acidiji-
able bases. The thirty-one bodies wdiich, when united with
the supporters, become alkalies, may be called alkalifiable
bases. These three sets of simple bodies will occupy our
attention in the three following chapters.
CHAP. I.—OF THE SIMPLE SUPPORTERS OF COMBUSTION.
The simple supporters of combustion at present known
are the following five :
1. Oxygen. 4. Iodine.
2. Chlorine. 5. Fluorine.
3. Bromine.
They act so important a part in chemistry, that the stu¬
dent requires to be made acquainted with them as early
as possible. We shall treat of them successively in the
five following sections.
Sect. I.— Of Oxygen.
Oxygen is a gaseous or aerial substance, and constitutes
isco y.a portion of the atmosphere. It was discovered by Dr
Priestley on the 1st of August 1774, and called by him
dephlogisticated air; Scheele discovered it before 1775,
and called \tempyreal air ; Condorcet gave it the name of
vital air; and Lavoisier (from a plausible but erroneous
hypothesis) contrived the term oxygen, by which it is now
generally known. By oxygen he meant the generator or
producer of acids.
It may be obtained by exposing black oxide of manga¬
nese in fine powder to a red heat in an iron bottle, to
which a metallic tube with a joint is fixed air-tight, in
order to convey it to the proper gas-holders, which may be
either copper vessels or glass jars filled with water, stand¬
ing inverted on the shelf of the pneumatic trough. It
may be obtained also by mixing strong sulphuric acid
with black oxide of manganese in a glass retort, and ap¬
plying the heat of a lamp to the mixture. The purest oxy¬
gen gas of all is obtained by putting about an ounce of
chlorate of potash into a very small green glass retort with
a long beak, and heating it to redness over a charcoal
fire. I he salt melts, and yields pure oxygen gas in great
abundance.
ropei t8, ^ygen gas is colourless, destitute of taste and smell,
and possessed of all the mechanical properties of atmosphe¬
rical air. Its specific gravity is Mill, that of common
an being reckoned unity. Hence, at the temperature of
sixty degrees, and when the barometer stands at thirty
inches, a hundred cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 34-60
grains. & a
Combustible bodies burn in it with more splendour, and
give out more heat and light, than when they burn in com¬
mon air. Animals breathe it without inconvenience for a
much longer time than they can do the same bulk of com¬
mon air.
It has been demonstrated that common air, not reckon¬
ing some vapour of water and some carbonic acid which it
a ways contains, is a mixture of oxjrgen gas and azotic gas
m >e proportion of 20 volumes of the former and 80 of
the latter.
Oxygen refracts light rather badly. If the refracting
1 wer of air be unity, that of oxygen gas, according to
Omong, is 0-324. s > o
359
repa
. Oxygen has the property of combining with every other Inorganic
simple body. The compounds thus formed are frequent- Bodies,
ly called oxides, sometimes acids, and sometimes bases or
alkalies.
Oxygen gas is not sensibly absorbed by water. Water
previously boiled has been shown by Dr Henry to be ca¬
pable of absorbing 3-55 per cent, of its volume of oxygen gas.
In the subsequent part of this article the weight of an
atom of oxygen will be considered as 1. A volume of
oxygen gas is equivalent to two atoms, provided we sup¬
pose w ater to be a compound of one atom of oxygen and
one atom of hydrogen.
Sect. II.— Of Chlorine.
This substance, which is also a gas, was discovered by Discovery.
Scheele, and an account of it published in the Memoirs
of the Stockholm Academy of Sciences for 1774. He o-ave
it the name oi'dephlogisticated muriatic acid. The French
chemists, in consequence of the experiments of Berthollet,
gave it the name of oxygenized muriatic acid, which was
afterwards contracted into oxymuriatic acid. The term
chlorine, by which it is at present known, was applied to
it by Davy in 1810, when he showed it to be a simple
substance.
It may be obtained by putting a quantity of gray oxide Prepara-
of manganese in fine pow der into a retort, and then pour-tion.
ing over it the muriatic acid of commerce. An efferves^
cence takes place, and a yellowish green coloured gas is
extricated, which may be received in glass phials previ¬
ously filled with water, and having their heads sunk into
a small water trough. When the gas ceases to come over,
the extrication wall be renewed by heating the mixture in
the retort.
Chlorine has a yellowish-green colour, and a strong suf- Properties,
focating smell similar to that oi' aqua regia. It has also a
pretty strong astringent taste.
Its specific gravity is 2-5, if we reckon that of air unity.
It refracts light very powerfully. If the refracting power
of light be one, that of chlorine gas, according to Dulong,
is 2-628.
It has the property of destroying vegetable colours, and
of rendering vegetable bodies exposed to its action white.
This property has occasioned the introduction of chlorine
into the process of bleaching. See the article Bleaching
in this Encyclopaedia.
A lighted taper plunged into chlorine gas burns with a
low red flame, giving but little light, but emitting a great
deal of smoke. But several metals, as antimony and arse¬
nic, take fire of their own accord when thrown into it.
This is the case also with phosphorus, which first melts,
and then burns with a low greenish-yellow flame. No
animal can breathe this gas without suffocation.
When exposed to a pressure of about four atmospheres,
and at the same time cooled, it is condensed into a liquid,
as was first observed by Faraday. In this state it is a
limpid yellow-coloured fluid, exceedingly volatile. Its spe¬
cific gravity is very nearly 1-33, its refracting power is less
than that of water. It is a non-conductor of electricity.
Water, according to Dalton, absorbs twice its volume
of this gas. It acquires a greenish-yellow colour, and the
smell and properties of chlorine. When water thus im¬
pregnated is kept for some time in a temperature as low
as 36°, crystals in plates, of a lively yellow colohr, are
formed. The specific gravity of these crystals at 32° is
1-2. They have been shown by Faraday to be composed of
1 atom chlorine  4*5
10 atoms water 11-25
15-75
They constitute therefore a decihydraie of chlorine.
360
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
Com¬
pounds
Chlorine combines with oxygen in four different propor¬
tions, and forms four compounds, which deserve to be de-
scribed,
1. When a current of chlorine gas is passed through
a solution of carbonate of potash, an effervescence takes
, 1 11  to which
pounus a solution ui ecu uunatc    
with oxy- place, and small crystals in plates are deposited, to which
n-pn. J , P 7. 7 S 7„„7. Koor, o-ivpn. ThlSSalt
gen
the'"name' ofchlorate of potash has been given. This salt
is a compound of chloric acid and potash. It possesses
many properties similar to those ot saltpetre, though it
acts as a supporter of combustion with much greater vi¬
gour If 15-5 parts of chlorate of potash be heated to in¬
cipient redness, the salt melts, and effervesces violently,
giving out six parts by weight of pure oxygen gas, and leav¬
ing 9-5 parts of the salt called chloride of potassium. Chlo¬
ride of potassium is composed of
potassium 5
Chlorine ^
of boiling water, a bright yellowish-green gas separates,
which may be received over mercury. Its smell is pecu¬
liar and aromatic, and it has a colour still more intense
than that of protoxide of chlorine. Water absorbs at least
seven times its volume of it. The solution is deep yellow,
and has an astringent and corrosive taste, leaving a disa¬
greeable and lasting impression on the tongue. It does
not act on mercury, but it destroys vegetable blues.
When heated to 212° it explodes and increases in volume.
It is now decomposed, and the gaseous mixture remaining
is, according to the best experiments, a mixture of one
volume chlorine and four volumes oxygen. Hence its con¬
stituents are,
1 volume chlorine 2*5 or 4*5
2 volumes oxygen 2*222 or 4
Thus this compound consists in weight of chlorine 4-5
oxygen 4
In. nit Ii
B .
v-’
9*5
8*5
Hence it follows that chlorate of potash is composed of
Potassium &
Chlorine ^'5
Oxygen ^
15*5
But 5 potassium + 1 oxygen constitute 6 potash
may therefore say that the constituents of the salt are,
Potash 6
Chlorine   4*51 _ g.^
Oxygen 5
We
1. Chloric
acid.
It has been called quateroxide of chlorine, but it is more
probably a teroxide. It has been supposed by some to
possess acid properties, and has therefore been called chlo- ,
rous acid. But this is only as yet an hypothesis.
4. When quateroxide of chlorine is extricated from 4.1
the mixtures of sulphuric acid and chlorate of potash, ark
peculiar salt is formed, which remains behind in the re¬
tort. We obtain this salt best when we use three or four
orains of strong sulphuric acid for every grain of chlorate
of potash. After the first violent action of the acid is at
an end, heat is to be applied and continued till the yellow
If we dissolve this residue
gether
ThTmlthoaTto prepie chlorate of barytes, and to add of potash has been given. It j. quite neutral .s not aner-
to th™sorution of if /water dilute sulphuric acid as long ed by exposure to the a,r, and has a wealt saline taste. It
as any precipitate continues to fall. Decant off the pure
liquid. It is water holding chlorine acid in solution. It
has no sensible smell nor colour, and reddens vegetable
blues. When concentrated by evaporation, it has some»
thing of an oily consistency. When heated, it is partly
volatilized and partly decomposed. It is composed of
Chlorine 4i*5
Oxygen 5
9*5
2. Protox- 2. If chlorate of potash be put into a small flask or re-
ide of chlo-tort with a sufficient quantity of dilute muriatic acid, and
is pretty soluble in boiling water, but very little soluble in
cold water, and quite insoluble in alcohol. Its crystals are
elongated octahedrons. When heated to the temperature
of 412° it gives out abundance of oxygen gas, while chlo¬
ride of potassium remains. According to the experiments
of Count Von Stadion, 17*5 parts of it, when thus treated,
give out 8 parts of oxygen, while 9*5 of chloride of potas¬
sium remain. Hence the constituents of the salt are,
Potassium  5
Chlorine ^
Oxygen 8
3. Ter¬
oxide.
a very moderate heat be applied, a gas gradually escapes,
which may be collected over mercury. This gas (the
euchlorine of Davy) is the protoxide of chlorine. It has
a much more intense greenish-yellow colour than chlo¬
rine. Its smell has some resemblance to that of burnt su¬
gar. It does not act upon mercury, though chlorine ra¬
pidly combines with that metal. When moderately heat¬
ed, it explodes very feebly, and five volumes of it become
six, and these consist of four volumes of chlorine and two
volumes of oxygen gas. We see from this that the con¬
stituents of this gas are,
2 volumes of chlorine 5 or 4*5
1 volume of oxygen 1*1111 or 1
Hence the gas is composed by weight of
Chlorine 4*5
Oxygen I1
3. When chlorate of potash is mixed with sulphuric
acid, and made into small balls about the size of a pea, if
we expose these balls to a heat somewhat lower than that
17*5
or Potash  A
Chlorine 
Oxygen 7 .
In the salt the 4*5 chlorine and 7 oxygen are united to¬
gether, constituting perchloric acid ; which is therefore a
compound of 4*5 chlorine and 7 oxygen.
We may exhibit the constituents of these oxides o
chlorine in the following table :
Chlorine.
Protoxide of chlorine..4*5
Teroxide of chlorine...4*5
Chloric acid 4*5
Perchloric acid 4*5
Oxygen.
+ 1
+ 3
+ 5
+ 7
If 1 denotes- an atom of oxygen, it is evident that 4*5 must
be the weight of an atom of chlorine ; so that these
are compounds of an atom of chlorine with 1,3,, a
are compounds
of oxygen respectively,
1 From late experiments, it appears that this gas is not in fact a protoxide of chlorine, but a mixture of chlorine and <1
of chlorine. Calomel absorbs the chlorine and leaves the quateroxide.
CHEMISTRY.
3GI
.11U
’rop ies.
Sect. III.— Of Bromine.
This substance was discovered by Balard of Montpellier,
who investigated its properties, and made it known to the
public on the 3d of July 1826. It was obtained by him
from the mother water of the brine springs in the neigh¬
bourhood of Montpellier. It is a constituent of brine springs
in general, and also of sea-water.
Balard’s process was as follows. A current of chlorine
gas is passed through the liquid containing it, taking care
not to add too much. - A quantity of sulphuric ether is
now poured on the liquid in a phial, taking care that the
phial is completely filled. The two liquids being agitated
together, are then left in a state of rest. The ether swims
on the top, having acquired a fine hyacinth colour by dis¬
solving the bromine. Agitate the ether with a strong so¬
lution of caustic potash. A salt is formed, which crystal¬
lizes in cubes. It is a bromide of potassium. Reduce these
cubes to powder, mix them with gray oxide of manganese
in powder, and dilute sulphuric acid, and distil. Red va-
uours rise, which condense in drops on the beak of the
retort, and fall to the bottom of the receiver. This liquid
is bromine.
Bromine has a brownish-red colour, so intense as to ap¬
pear opaque. Its smell is very disagreeable, and has some
resemblance to that of protoxide of chlorine, but is stronger
and more suffocating.
Its taste is sharp and strong; and when taken internal¬
ly, it acts as a violent poison. It acts with energy upon
organic bodies, and particularly on the human epidermis,
which it corrodes, giving it a yellow tinge.
Its specific gravity is 2*96. It remains liquid at zero,
but becomes solid and brittle at — 4 degrees. It is very
volatile, and boils when heated to 116^ degrees. The
specific gravity of its vapour is probably 5-5555, that of air
being unity. It is a non-conductor of electricity. A taper
is extinguished when plunged into its vapour; but several
of the metals burn brilliantly when they come in contact
with it.
It destroys vegetable colours almost as powerfully as
chlorine itself. It is slightly soluble in water, communi¬
cating a yellow colour to that liquid. It is more soluble
in alcohol, and much more soluble in sulphuric ether;
olive oil acts on it slowly. It is insoluble in sulphuric acid.
When dropt into a solution of starch, it communicates a
fine yellow colour.
Its atomic weight, from the experiments of Balard, Lie¬
big, and Berzelius, appears to be ten.
It unites with oxygen, so far as is known, only in one
proportion, forming a compound to which the name of
bromic acid has been given. When bromine is agitated
with a sufficiently concentrated solution of potash, two
compounds are formed; namely, hydrobromate of potash,
or bromide of potassium, which remains in solution ; and
bromate of potash, which being very little soluble in wa¬
ter, precipitates in a white crystalline powder. We may
form bromate of barytes by agitating chloride of bromine
ln a concentrated solution of barytes. The bromate
of barytes precipitates in the state of a whole powder,
by solution in boiling water it may be obtained in aci-
cuiar crystals. These crystals may be dissolved in hot
water, and the barytes thrown down by dilute sulphuric
acid. What remains is bromic acid held in solution by
water.
By gentle evaporation, a part, but not the whole, of the
Hater can be driven off. A syrupy liquid remains, which
16 cj®ns Btmus paper, and then discolours it. It has little
smell; the taste is acid, but not caustic. When bromate
0 potash is heated it gives out oxygen gas, and is convert-
e into bromide of potassium. From the experiments of
vol. vx. 1
Balard, there is reason to conclude that bromic acid is a Inorganic
compound of Bodies.
1 atom bromine 10
5 atoms oxygen  5
15
We are acquainted at present with only one compound Chloride of
of chlorine and bromine. It is a very volatile liquid, which bromine,
may be formed by passing a current of chlorine gas through
bromine, and condensing the vapour formed, by passing
them into a receiver, surrounded by a mixture of snow and
salt. .It has a reddish yellow colour, a strong disagree¬
able smell, and a strong taste. It is very fluid, and very
volatile. Metals plunged into it become incandescent,
and are converted into chlorides and bromides. It dis¬
solves in water. When potash is added to the aqueous
solution, the chloride is decomposed, and an alkaline bro¬
mate and muriate is formed. No attempt has yet been
made to analyse this chloride.
Sect. IV.— Of Iodine.
This substance was discovered in the year 1811, by M. Discovery.
Courtois, a saltpetre manufacturer near Paris. Its proper¬
ties were first investigated by Gay-Lussac and Sir H. Davy.
It is obtained from help by the following process : The Prepara-
kelp is lixiviated with water till every thing soluble is taken tion.
up; the liquid is concentrated till all the crystals which it
can be made to deposit are separated. The liquid is now
mixed with sulphuric acid, and boiled for some time, till all
the muriatic acid is expelled. Gray oxide of manganese
being now added, the whole is put into a retort or stone¬
ware still, with a glass capital, and heat is applied. Violet-
coloured vapours pass into the receiver, and are condens¬
ed : these constitute iodine.
Iodine thus obtained is a solid substance of a grayish-Properties,
blue colour, and something of the metallic lustre. It is
usually in scales, but may be crystallized in octahedrons,
similar to the primary form of sulphur. Its specific gra¬
vity is 3-0844. It has a disagreeable smell, similar to that
of chlorine, but not nearly so strong. Its taste is acrid
and hot, and it continues for some time in the mouth. It
possesses poisonous properties. It is strongly stimulating,
and has of late been much employed as a medicine.
It destroys vegetable colours, but with less intensity
than chlorine. It melts when heated to 224^ degrees,
and is volatilized under the common pressure of the at¬
mosphere when heated to 3511 degrees. Its vapour has a
beautiful violet colour, and hence the name iodine
The specific gravity of this vapour is 8-8.
It is very slightly soluble in w^ater, but more soluble in
alcohol and ether. It gives a blue colour when it comes in
contact with the solution of starch in water, or indeed with
starch in almost any state.
From the experiments of Dr Thomson and Professor
Berzelius, the atomic weight of iodine appears to be 15*75.
Iodine combines with oxygen, chlorine, and bromine,
and forms compounds which deserve to be noticed.
1. Iodic acid, as the combination of iodine and oxygen Iodic acid,
is called, may be obtained in the following way : Put
forty grains of iodine into a thin long-necked receiver;
and into a bent tube shut at one end put 100 grains of
chlorate of potash, and pour over it 400 grains of muriatic
acid, of the specific gravity 1*105; then introduce the
point of the bent tube into the receiver, and apply a gentle
heat to it; protoxide of chlorine is generated. As soon
as it comes in contact with the iodine, a combination
takes place, and two new substances are formed; 1, a
compound of iodine and chlorine; 2, a compound of iodine
and oxygen. When heat is applied to the mixture, the
first of these compounds is volatilized, and the last remains,
2 z
362
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic constituting iodic acid. It is a white semi-transparent
Bodies, solid, without smell, but having a strong astringent som
taste. When heated to a temperature somewhat higher
than that at which olive oil boils, it is decomposed, being
converted into iodine and oxygen. From the experiments
of Davy, it appears to be composed of
1 atom iodine lowo
5 atoms oxygen  5
20-75
It is very soluble in water, and when exposed to a moist
atmosphere it gradually deliquesces.
Mr Connell of Edinburgh has lately discovered that this
acid may be formed by digesting nitric acid on iodine till
the whole is dissolved. ^ .
lodous According to Sementini of Naples, there exists another
acid. compound of iodine and oxygen, containing ess oxygen
than iodic acid, and to which he has given .the name ot
iodous acid. It may be obtained by triturating together
equal parts of iodine and chlorate of potash. . When this
mixture is exposed in a small retort to a spirit lamp, yel¬
low fumes may be distilled over. They condense into a
yellow fluid constituting iodous acid. . .
Chloriodic 2. The compound of chlorine and iodine has received
acid. the name of chloriodic acid. It is easily formed by pass¬
ing a current of chlorine gas into a vessel containing io¬
dine. It is a yellow-coloured volatile body, which deli¬
quesces when exposed to the air. Its solution in watei
possesses acid properties. It would appear probable, from
the experiments of Davy, that it is a compound of
1 atom iodine 15-75
2 atoms chlorine  9
of hydrogen with an unknown supporter, to which the Inqj^
name olfluorine may be given. This opinion was taken Bo;, h
up by Davy in 1811, and his experiments, though they '-njL ^
have not demonstrated the truth of Ampere’s hypothesis,
have rendered it at least exceedingly likely to be true.
We may state here some of the strongest proofs of the
hypothesis which Davy was able to adduce.
1. When fluoric acid and potassium are brought intoProc ,t
contact, a violent action takes place; a solid white sub-it is t,
stance is formed, and a quantity of hydrogen gas is dis-jj0UI '
Siaiice IS IUIUICU, aiiu Cl vjucmcii,j ^ ^ f]
engaged. In this case the probability js that the fluorine"™’
24-75
Bromides. 3. Bromine and iodine seem to be capable of uniting in
two proportions. When the two bodies are placed in contact
in certain proportions, we obtain a solid compound, which,
when heated, gives out reddish-brown vapours, condensing
into small crystals of the same colour, and lesembling fcin
leaves in appearance. A new addition of bromine transforms
these crystals into a liquid, resembling hydriodic acid, con¬
taining a great excess of iodine. This liquid bromide is so¬
luble in water, to which it communicates the property of
destroying the colour of litmus paper without reddening it.
Sect. V.— Of Fluorine.
Origin and The mineral called fluor spar, or Derbyshire spar, is
common in lead mines. It is translucent, crystallized in
cubes or octahedrons, and is either colourless or tinged yel¬
low, green, red, or violet. If a quantity of this stone be
reduced to powder and put into a retort of lead or silver,
after being made into a magma with sulphuric acid, and,
after applying a leaden or silver receiver, heat be applied,
there gradually passes over a colourless and very volatile
liquid, which has received the name ot fluoric acid.
prepara- It continues fluid at — 4°, and is still liquid at the tempe-
tion of nature of 60°. Its boiling point is low, but has not been deter¬
mined. When exposed to the air it smokes, and has a smell
similar to that of muriatic acid. When as concentrated as
possible, its specific gravity is T0609 ; but when united with
a certain portion of water, its specific gravity becomes T25.
Its attraction for water is very strong. Its fumes are very
deleterious when drawn into the lungs. When a drop of it
falls on the skin it acts as a corrosive, and produces a sore
which does not soon heal. It corrodes glass with great rapi¬
dity, combining with and carrying off the silica of the glass.
Fluoric was l°ng t^ie 0pini°n chemists that this acid is a
acid. compound of oxygen and an unknown combustible basis.
But all attempts to obtain this basis having failed, Am¬
pere suggested, in 1810, that it was probably a compound
of the fluoric acid unites to the potassium, and forms thegen
white salt, while the hydrogen is disengaged.
2. When potassium is heated in contact with sal am¬
moniac, chloride of potassium is formed, and a quantity of
gas disengaged. This gas is a mixture of ammonia and
hydrogen, and consists" of two volumes of ammoniacal,
and one volume of hydrogen gas. Now when fluate ot
ammonia is treated with potassium, a similar effect is pro¬
duced. A white salt is formed, and a gas evolved consist¬
ing of a mixture of two volumes of ammoniacal and one
volume of hydrogen gas. It is probable that the salt form¬
ed in this case is fluoride of potassium.
3. When fluoric acid is exposed to the action of gal¬
vanism, hydrogen gas is given out at the negative wire;
and the positive wire, supposing it platinum, is coated with
a chocolate powder. ^Vhen muriatic acid is treated in
the same way it is decomposed, its hydrogen being given
off at the negative wire, while its chlorine unites with the
positive wire. Is it not probable that the chocolate pow¬
der is a compound of fluorine and platinum ?
It has been shown that the atomic weight of fluorine
(supposing it to exist) must be 2-25.
Such are the properties of the supporters of combus¬
tion. They seem capable of uniting with every one of
the other simple bodies. By uniting with one set they
constitute acids ; by uniting with another they constitute
alkalies or bases. Those acids and bases _ containing the
same supporter are capable of uniting with each other,
and of forming salts without decomposition. _ But when
an acid containing one supporter is brought into contact
with a base containing another supporter, it is more rare y
that they combine. Much more frequently they mutually
decompose each other. Thus there exist oxygen acids,
chlorine acids, bromine acids, iodine acids, and fluorine
acids ; and the same number of sets of bases.
The atomic weights of the supporters are as follows
Oxygen  1
Fluorine  2-25
Chlorine  T-5
Bromine 10
Iodine 15*75
Chlorine is just double the weight of fluorine, and iodine
just seven times the weight of the same atom.
It is probable that fluorine is still more negative than
even oxygen, which excels all other supporters m this
respect. But as fluorine has not yet been obtained in a
separate state, our conclusions can only be supported y
conjectures and analogy.
1. Hydrogen.
2. Azote.
3. Carbon.
4. Boron.
5. Silicon.
6. Phosphorus.
13. Vanadium.
CHAP. II. OF THE SIMPLE ACIDIFIABLE BASES.
The simple acidifiable bases at present known are the
following :—
7. Sulphur.
8. Selenium.
9. Arsenic.
10. Antimony.
11 Tellurium.
12. Chromium.
14. Uranium.
List
acid
15. Molybdenum
16. Tungsten.
17. Titanium.
18. Columbium.
last
CHEMISTRY.
363
[no lie
s.
✓ V
The first two of these bodies, hydrogen and azote, are
gases which have never been reduced to a liquid or solid
state. Carbon, boron, and silicon, are black powders,
which have never been melted nor volatilized. Phospho¬
rus, sulphur, and selenium, are solids easily fused and vo¬
latilized by heat. Arsenic, antimony, and tellurium, are
metals easily fused and volatilized. The remaining seven
bodies are difficultly fusible metals, which have been hither¬
to reduced to the metallic state only in minute quantities.
'ref J-
iun.
’rof Jsies.
Wat
Sect. I.— Of Hydrogen.
Pure hydrogen can scarcely be said to exist in an isolat¬
ed state; but it constitutes one of the ingredients of water,
from which it may be disengaged by simple processes.
Its properties were first investigated by Cavendish in
1766. It may be obtained by dissolving zinc or iron fil¬
ings in dilute sulphuric acid in a flask or small retort. An
effervescence takes place, and hydrogen is evolved. It
may be received in glass jars filled with water, and invert¬
ed on the shelf of the water-trough.
The gas, when pure, is colourless, and destitute of taste
or smell. But it usually has a bituminous and disagreeable
smell, which is very strong when we employ cast-iron turn¬
ings to procure it.
It is the lightest body with which we are acquainted,
its specific gravity being only 00694, that of air being 1.
So that oxygen gas is sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen
gas. In consequence of this lightness it is employed to
elevate air-balloons.
It refracts light much more powerfully than any other
gaseous body, if we take into account its small specific
gravity ; for if the refracting pow'er of air be one, that of
hydrogen gas is 0‘4)70, as determined by Dulong. It has
a great effect in blunting the sound of sonorous bodies
struck in an atmosphere of this gas. It is well known that
sound moves at least thrice as fast in this gas as it does in
common air.
Burning bodies plunged into it are immediately extin¬
guished. Animals, when obliged to breathe it, soon die,
precisely as if they were plunged into water. When a
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases is made in the
same proportion as in common air, hydrogen being substi¬
tuted for azote, animals breathe it with impunity. But
Messrs Allen and Pepys observed, that when animals are
put into such an atmosphere, they are thrown into a pro¬
found sleep.
A hundred cubic inches of water previously deprived
of air by boiling were found by Dr Henry to absorb P53
cubic inches of this gas.
When mixed with oxygen gas in the proportion of one
volume of oxygen to two volumes of hydrogen, it burns
with a loud explosion by an electric spark, or the contact
of a red-hot wire. Mr Cavendish first ascertained that
the product of this combustion is water; so that water is
a compound of one volume of oxygen and two volumes
of hydrogen gas, or, by weight, of oxygen eight, and hy¬
drogen one.
If we mix a hundred volumes of air with forty-two vo¬
lumes of hydrogen gas, and pass an electric spark through
the mixture, a detonation takes place, and sixty volumes
disappear. Now one third of this loss is oxygen. If we
examine the residuary gas, we shall find no trace of oxy¬
gen in it. Hence it is evident that a hundred volumes of
air contain just twenty of oxygen.
Water, or oxide of hydrogen as it might be called, is a
transparent and colourless liquid, destitute of smell, and
having but little taste. It freezes at 32°, and boils at 212°.
Its density is greatest at the temperature of 39°. A cu¬
bic inch of water at the temperature of 62°, and when the
barometer stands at thirty inches, weighed in air with
brass weights, weighs 252-458 grains. Hence at the tern- Inorganic
perature of 60° the weight of a cubic inch of water is very Bodies,
nearly 252-5 grains.
A hundred cubic inches of air at the temperature of 60°,
and when the barometer stands at thirty inches, weigh
31-1446 grains. Hence it follows that water at that tem¬
perature and pressure is 810-734 times heavier than air.
Water, if we are to judge from the combinations into
which it enters, is a neutral body. It shows little ten¬
dency to combine with simple bodies, whether supporters
or acid or alkaline bases. But it combines, and appa¬
rently with equal ease, both with acids and bases, though
without disguising their peculiar properties, or neutraliz¬
ing their energies. To these combinations the term hy¬
drate was applied by Proust, which, though somewhat ex¬
ceptionable, has been generally adopted. It is not easy
to form an accurate idea of the way in which water unites
with other bodies. The electric theory of combination
will scarcely apply to it; or at least we cannot determine,
except from analogy, whether it be positive or negative
with respect to those bodies with which it unites.
Hydrogen is capable of uniting with another dose ofDeutoxide
oxygen, and of forming anew liquid compound, which has of hydro-
been distinguished by the name of deutoxide of hydrogen. Sen-
It was formed by Thenard by dissolving peroxide of ba¬
rium in dilute muriatic acid, and then precipitating the
barytes by means of sulphuric acid. This process is re¬
peated a number of times, and then the muriatic acid is
removed by treating the liquid with sulphate of silver.
The sulphuric acid left by this process is removed by
means of barytes. Nothing now remains but a mixture of
water and deutoxide of hydrogen, which is put into the
exhausted receiver of an air-pump over sulphuric acid.
The water gradually evaporates, and leaves the deutoxide
of hydrogen in a state of purity.
It is a liquid which has a specific gravity of 1-453. It
attacks, the epidermis almost instantly, and produces a
prickling pain, the duration of which varies according to
the quantity of liquid applied. It whitens the tongue, and
thickens the saliva.
When deutoxide of hydrogen is left to itself, it under¬
goes spontaneous decomposition, oxygen gas being given
out. When heated to 80° it is decomposed with a violent
explosion, oxygen gas being evolved in great abundance.
By collecting the gas thus driven oft’ from a given weight
of deutoxide, it has been shown that it contains twice as
much oxygen as water does. It is therefore a compound of
Hydrogen  1
Oxygen 16
If water be a compound of one atom of oxygen and one atom
of hydrogen, and if the atom of oxygen be represented by
unity, it is evident that the weight of an atom of hydrogen
will be 0*125. Water is a compound of
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
1 atom oxygen 1*
1-125
and its atomic weight is 1-125. Deutoxide of hydrogen
is a compound of
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
2 atoms oxygen 2
2-125
and its atomic weight is 2*125.
Many substances, when placed in contact with deutoxide
of hydrogen in the state of powder, have the property of
decomposing it, and evolving oxygen gas. This is the
case with charcoal, silver, platinum, gold, osmium, palla¬
dium, rhodium, and iridium. Lead, bismuth, and mercury
exercise an action, slow at first, but gradually increasing
364
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic in energy. The oxygen is driven off, and the metals are
Bodies, not oxydized. Several bodies, as selenium, arsenic, mo-
lybdenum, tungsten, and chromium, are oxydized when
placed in contact with deutoxide of hydrogen. Several of
the metallic oxides absorb an additional dose of oxygen,
while others drive off the second portion of oxygen from
the deutoxide without any of it combining with them.
Muriatic Hydrogen has the property of combining with chlorine,
acid. and of forming the very important chemical substance
known by the name of muriatic acid. If equal volumes of
chlorine and hydrogen gas be put into a glass tube, and
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, an explosion takes
place. If this mixture be put into an exhausted glass ves¬
sel, it will be found that after the explosion the two gases
have disappeared, and a quantity of muriatic acid gas has
come in their place, exactly equal to the volume and weight
of the two gases. It follows from this that muriatic acid
gas is a compound of one volume of hydrogen and one vo¬
lume of chlorine gas united together, without any altera¬
tion in bulk. Hence, the specific gravity of muriatic acid
gas is the mean between that of hydrogen and chlorine
gases, or 1*2847.
Muriatic acid, or hydrochloric acid as it is also called, is
a gaseous body, invisible, and elastic like common air, and
having a peculiar smell and a very sour taste. No com¬
bustible body will burn in it, and it destroys life instantly
when any attempt is made to breathe it. It is composed of
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
1 atom chlorine 4*5
It is colourless and elastic like common air, has a smell Inor: [r
similar to that of muriatic acid, and a very acid taste. Bot' ]
When left in contact with mercury, that metal absorbs ^ v -
the iodine and leaves the hydrogen. By this process the
volume of the gas is reduced to one half. It is evident
from this, that hydriodic acid gas is a compound of one
volume hydrogen gas and one volume iodine vapour unit¬
ed together without any alteration of bulk. Hence its ,
specific gravity is the mean of that of its two constituents,
or 4*40972. It is a compound of
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
1 atom iodine 15*75
15*875
and its atomic weight is 15*875.
Water absorbs this gas with avidity. When the solution
is heated rather below 262°, the greater part of the water
is driven off, and a liquid obtained having the specific gra¬
vity T7. At 262° it boils, and may be distilled over.
It is at present generally admitted by chemists that flu- Flue:
oric acid is a compound oi fluorine and hydrogen, though acid
hitherto it has been impossible to decompose it or obtain
the fluorine in a separate state. The characters of this
acid bear a strong analogy to those of muriatic, hydro-
bromic, and hydriodic acids. Hence it is not unlikely that
it will be found a compound of
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
1 atom fluorine 2*25
2*375
4*625
and its atomic weight is 4*625.
Hydrobro- The combination of hydrogen and bromine is called hy-
mic acid, drobromic acid. It may be obtained by mixing with sulphu¬
ric acid the cubic crystals mentioned when describing the
process for obtaining bromine, and heating the mixture in
a small retort, the beak of which is plunged into mercury.
A gas comes over, which is hydrobromic acid. But this
gas may be obtained in a state of greater purity by mois¬
tening bromide of phosphorus, and exposing it in a small
retort to the heat of a lamp.
It is a colourless gas, having an acid taste, and smoking
when mixed with atmospheric air. Water absorbs it abun¬
dantly, but it is not altered by standing over mercury.
Tin, when heated in it, absorbs the bromine and leaves the
hydrogen; so does potassium. By this process the vo¬
lume of the gas is reduced to one half. Hence hydro¬
bromic acid gas is a compound of equal volumes of hydro¬
gen gas and bromine vapour united together without any
alteration of volume. Its specific gravity is 2*8125, and it
is a compound of
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
1 atom bromine 10
10*125
and its atomic weight is 10*125.
When chlorine gas is mixed with hydrobromic acid, the
bromine is immediately precipitated in drops, and muria¬
tic acid is formed equal in bulk to the original gas. But
it is not decomposed by oxygen or iodine, even at a red
heat. Neither is bromine capable of decomposing water,
when the mixed vapours of the two liquids are passed through
an ignited porcelain tube.
Hvdriodic Hydrogen and iodine, when united together, constitute
acid. a gaseous substance, distinguished by the name of hydrio¬
dic acid. It may be obtained by mixing together four
parts of iodine and one part of phosphorus, moistening
the compound with water, and heating it in a small retort.
The gas which comes over must be received over mercury.
This gas is hydriodic acid.
Such are the compounds which hydrogen forms with the ™
supporters, so far as the subject has been investigated.
The order in which they are decomposed by the support¬
ers may be represented as follows:
Hydrogen.
Fluorine.
Chldrine.
Oxygen.
Bromine.
Iodine.
That is to say, hydriodic acid is decomposed by all the sup¬
porters except iodine; hydrobromic acid is decomposed
by chlorine and oxygen, but not by iodine; water is de¬
composed by chlorine, at least when assisted by heat, but
not by bromine or iodine. As to fluoric acid, it is notde- )
composed by any of the supporters, even when assisted by f |
heat.
Sect. II.—Of Azote.
This gas, which constitutes so great a portion of the at-Dis« 1
mosphere, was first recognised as a peculiar substance in
1772 by Dr Rutherford, afterwards professor of botany in
the University of Edinburgh. Being one of the constitu¬
ents of air, it may be obtained by various processes. Elf
we leave a stick of phosphorus in a jar of air inverted oyer
water till it ceases to smoke, the residual gas, after being
washed with water, is azote. 2. If yve mix in a wide jar
standing over water a hundred cubic inches oi common
air with eighty cubic inches of deutoxide of azote, a great
diminution of volume takes place, and about eighty cu ic
inches of a gas remains, which is azote nearly in a state o
purity. 3. If a small tubulated retort be filled with bieacn-
ing powder (or chloride oi lime) brought to the consisten
cy of cream by water, and pieces of sal ammoniac be pu^
into the retort through the tubular mouth, a pretty strong
ertervescence takes place, and azotic gas is disengage
abundantly'-. _ . f n p
Azotic gas possesses the mechanical properties o
mon air, and, like it, is destitute of colour, taste, and sme ¬
lts specific gravity is 0*9722. It refracts light ia
S65
CHEMISTRY.
lie more powerfully than air. If we reckon the refracting
power of air one, that of azotic gas is 1-020, as determined
by Dulong. It cannot be breathed by animals without
suffocation. Animals obliged to breathe it die precisely
as if they were plunged under water; hence the name
azote, by which it was distinguished by the French che¬
mists (from a and No combustible will burn in it.
It is not sensibly absorbed by water; but 100 volumes of
water recently boiled were found by Dr Henry to absorb
1-47 volumes of this gas.
It has doubtless the property of combining with all the
supporters of combustion, though hitherto the subject has
not been investigated successfully.
With oxygen it unites in no fewer than five proportions,
constituting the five following compounds :
1. Protoxide of azote.
2. Deutoxide of azote.
3. Hyponitrous acid.
4. Nitrous acid.
5. Nitric acid.
The last of these compounds, nitric acid, exists in salt¬
petre, which is a compound of nitric acid and potash. This
salt forms spontaneously in the soil of different countries.
The presence of animal matters and of lime has been
found to promote its formation. It is obtained in different
countries, particularly in India, by lixiviating the soil, and
evaporating the lixivium to dryness, or till crystals are
deposited. These crystals are afterwards purified by a
second crystallization.
When 12-75 parts of pure saltpetre are mixed in a re¬
tort with 6-125 parts of sulphuric acid of the specific
gravity 1-837, and heat is applied, a fuming liquid passes
over into the receiver, which is nitric acid. When thus
obtained it is a yellowish red liquid, which has a peculiar
smell, and smokes when it comes in contact with atmo¬
spherical air. When heated, a gaseous matter is driven
off, and it becomes colourless like water. Its specific
gravity, when as strong as possible, is said to be T55.
Its taste is intensely sour. When applied to any part of
the body, it acts as an escharotic, and speedily produces a
sore, by destroying the texture of the part. It is one of
the most powerful and useful of all the acids. Its atomic
weight is 6-75, that of oxygen being considered as unity.
It is by means of nitric acid that all the other compounds
of oxygen and azote are obtained.
1. Protoxide of azote was discovered by Dr Priestley,
and called by him dephlogisticated nitrous gas. It is most
easily obtained by saturating nitric acid with ammonia,
and evaporating the liquid to dryness. A fibrous deli¬
quescent salt is obtained, known by the name of nitrate of
ammonia. When this salt is heated in a small retort to
about the temperature of 400°, it melts and effervesces,
and protoxide of azote is given out abundantly.
This gas is colourless, and destitute of smell. It has a
sweetish taste, and its specific gravity is T5277. Water
absorbs about three fourths of its volume of this gas. Its
refracting power, according to Dulong, is T710, if we
reckon that of air unity.
It is capable of supporting combustion, and bodies burn
in it with as much brilliancy as in oxygen gas. But the
combustion lasts only for a very short time, and it does
not begin unless the body be in the first place heated to
whiteness. Animals are capable of breathing this gas for
a few minutes without inconvenience, as was first disco¬
vered by Sir H. Davy. The breathing of it sometimes
produces feelings of intoxication, but they are not follow¬
ed by that languor and debility which is a constant at- Inorganic
tendant of intoxication by ardent spirits. Bodies.
It is not altered by exposure to light, or by any heat
below- ignition. When passed through a red hot tube, or
when electric sparks are passed through it, decomposition
takes place, and nitric acid is formed. When exposed to
a pressure of fifty atmospheres at the temperature of 45°,
it becomes liquid. In that state it is transparent and
colourless, exceedingly volatile, and it does not become
solid though cooled down to —10°.
When mixed with hydrogen gas, and an electric spark
passed through the mixture, a detonation takes place, and
water is deposited, while a quantity of azotic gas remains,
just equal (supposing it dry) to the original volume of
protoxide of azote present. 100 volumes of protoxide of
azote must be mixed, for complete combustion, with 100
volumes of hydrogen. After the combustion there re¬
mains nothing but 100 volumes of azotic gas,1 while the
inside of the tube is moistened with water. The hundred
volumes of hydrogen gas having been converted into water,
required for complete combustion 50 volumes of oxygen,
which must have existed in the gas. Hence 100 volumes
of protoxide of azote are composed of 100 volumes azotic
gas, and 50 volumes oxygen gas, united together, and
condensed into 100 volumes; or, which is the same thing,
of one volume of azotic gas and half a volume of oxygen
gas condensed into one volume. Or by weight, of
Azote 0-9722 or 1-75
Oxygen 0-5555 or 1
1-5277 2-75
If we reckon the atomic weight of oxygen one, and con¬
sider this gas as a compound of one atom oxygen and one
atom azote, then an atom of azote will weigh 1-75.
Charcoal, phosphorus, sulphur, &c. may be burnt in this
gas, and the phenomena are similar to what takes place
w-hen hydrogen is burnt in it.
Protoxide of azote is probably a neutral substance, atleast
we have no evidence that it possesses either acid or alkaline
qualities; for it will not combine either with acids or bases.
2. When dilute nitric acid is put into a small retort or Deutoxide
flask, with some copper or mercury, it dissolves either of of azote,
these metals, an effervescence takes place, and a gas is ex¬
tricated, which may be received in glass jars standing over
water. This gas is deutoxide of azote, or nitrous gas as it
was called by Dr Priestley, the original discoverer of it.
It is colourless and invisible, like common air. Whether
it has any taste or smell cannot easily be determined, be¬
cause, whenever it comes in contact with air, nitrous acid
is formed, which communicates its peculiar odour to the
gas. Its specific gravity is 1-0416. If we reckon the re¬
fracting power of air one, that of this gas is 1-03, accord¬
ing to Dulong.
It is not sensibly absorbed by water. When that liquid
is freed from air by boiling, 100 volumes of it absorb five
volumes of this gas.
When deutoxide of azote is mixed with common air or
oxygen gas, red fumes of nitrous acid are produced, heat
is evolved, and the volume of gas is diminished. This is
owing to the union of the gas with oxygen, and the forma¬
tion of acid fumes, which are absorbed by water. The
proportion of the two gases which unite varies according
to circumstances. If we make the mixture in a glass
tube 0-9 inch in diameter, then one volume of oxygen gas
unites with two volumes of deutoxide of azote. When we
put deutoxide of azote into a globular vessel, and let up
(supposing the thermometer at 60° and the barometer at 30 inches) of moist azotic gas, which is equiva-
3G6
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
Hyponi-
trous acid.
Nitrous
acid.
common air to it bubble by bubble, agitating after the ad¬
dition of each bubble, then one volume of oxygen gas will
be found to unite with four volumes of deutoxide of azote.
All intermediate proportions between these two extremes
may be made to unite by varying the circumstances.
A solution of green vitriol, or of chloride of iron, has the
property of absorbing this gas slowly, while at the same
time it acquires a dark brown colour, and becomes opaque.
By this absorption the purity of the gas may be determined.
When electric sparks are passed through this gas it un¬
dergoes decomposition, being converted into nitrous acid
and azotic gas. When passed through an ignited porce¬
lain tube, it undergoes the same decomposition.
Charcoal and phosphorus may be burnt in this gas.
When charcoal is burnt in it, the bulk of the gas is not
altered, but it is converted into a mixture of equal volumes
of carbonic acid and azotic gas. Now carbonic acid gas
contains its own volume of oxygen gas. Hence it is ob¬
vious that deutoxide of azote is a compound of one volume
of azote and one volume of oxygen gas united^ together,
without any alteration of volume; consequently its spe¬
cific gravity is the mean of that of oxygen and azotic
gases. It is composed, by weight, of azote 0*9722 or 1*75,
oxygen 1*1111 or 2. If we reckon the atomic weight of
azote 1*75, this gas is obviously a compound of one atom
azote and two atoms oxygen.
3. When deutoxide of azote is mixed with oxygen gas,
, bubble by bubble, in a wide glass vessel, four volumes of
deutoxide combine with one volume of oxygen gas, and
form an acid which is absorbed by the water. Now four
volumes of deutoxide of azote consist of two volumes azotic
and two volumes oxygen gas united together. It is clear,
therefore, that the acid formed must be a compound of
two volumes azotic and three volumes oxygen gas, or of
one volume azotic and one and a half volume oxygen gas.
This, by weight, constitutes azote 0*9722 or T75, oxygen
1-6666 or 3. If we reckon the atomic weight of azote T75,
we see that the acid formed in this case is a compound of
one atom of azote and three atoms of oxygen.
This acid has received the name of hyponitrous. It
can exist only in combination. All the salts formerly
called nitrites are in fact combinations of this acid with a
base. Hyponitrous acid readily combines with bases, and
forms a genus of salts to which the name of hyponitrites
has been given. When we attempt to separate the acid
from any of these salts, it is immediately resolved into ni¬
trous acid and deutoxide of azote. Hyponitrous acid is
always formed whenever deutoxide of azote is left in con¬
tact with a powerful base.
4. If we take a quantity of pure crystallized nitrate
of lead, and, after drying it for some time at the tempera¬
ture of 300°, reduce it to powder and put it into a small
bottle-glass retort; when heated almost to redness an acid
liquid comes over, which must be collected in a receiver
surrounded by a mixture of snow and salt. This acid has
received the name of nitrous.
It is a liquid of an orange-yellow colour, has a caustic
taste, a very strong smell, and a specific gravity of 1*451.
It boils at 82°*5, and assumes the form of an orange-red
vapour. Water decomposes it instant!}', and converts it
into nitric acid and deutoxide of azote. It does not seem
capable of combining with bases; hence no such genus of
salts as nitrites exist. Dulong analysed it by passing it
through red-hot copper turnings. Azotic gas was driven
off, and the copper was oxydized. From this analysis it
appears that it is a compound of one volume azotic and two
volumes oxygen gas. Hence its constituents by weight
are, azote 0*9722 or T75, oxygen 2*2222 or 4. So that
(supposing an atom of azote to weigh T75) it is a com¬
pound of one atom azote and four atoms oxygen.
5. It has been ascertained by experiments that appear Int ^ io
decisive, that nitric acid is a compound of one volume azotic B 5, 5c
and two and a half volumes oxygen gas. Hence its con-r
stituents by weight are, azote 0*9722 or 1*75, oxygen^1 I
2*7777 or 5. Hence it is a compound of one atom azoteacu
and five atoms oxygen.
Such are the poperties and constitution of the com¬
pounds of azote and oxygen. If we consider the consti¬
tuents as in the gaseous state, their relative proportions
will be as follows:
Azotic. Oxygen.
Protoxide of azote 1 volume + 0*5 volume
Deutoxide of azote 1 + 1
Hyponitrous acid 1 + T5
Nitrous acid 1 + 2
Nitric acid 1 .. + 2*5
If we take the weights of the constituents only into
view, the constituents of these compounds will be repre¬
sented as follows:
Azote. Oxygen.
Protoxide of azote 1*75 + 1
Deutoxide of azote 1*75 + 2
Hyponitrous acid 1*75 + 3
Nitrous acid 1*75 + 4
Nitric acid I’^S + 5
It is obvious that 1*75, or some multiple or submultiple a;
of that number, represents the atomic weight of azote.
Chemists are not quite agreed about the atom of azote.
The difference of opinion depends upon the view taken of
the constitution of water. Those who consider water as
a compound of one atom hydrogen and one atom oxygen,
draw, asa necessary consequence, that half a volumeof oxy¬
gen is equivalent to an atom, while a whole volume of most
other gases represents an atom. Those who have adopt-
ed this opinion represent the atom of azote by 1*75. But
those chemists who consider water as a compound of two
atoms hydrogen and ohe atom oxygen, naturally deduce the
number of atoms in each compound from the number ot
volumes of each constituent. Deutoxide of azote being
a compound of one volume of each constituent, they con¬
sider it as a compound of one atom of azote and one atom
of oxygen. Hence the atomic weight of azote will be 0*875,
and life composition of the various compounds will be as
follows: - rn
Azote. Oxygen.
Protoxide of azote 2 atoms + 1 atom
Deutoxide of azote 1 .....+ 1
Hyponitrous acid 2 + 3
Nitrous acid 1 + 2
Nitric acid 2 + 5
It would be premature to say that the truth of either ot
these views can be demonstrated; but the first of the
two is the simplest, and has been generally adopted by
British chemists. _ , , ,
Azote has the property of combining with chlorine, ana in
of forming a very singular compound, first notice }
Dulong, to which the name of chloride of azote has been
given. . „
To procure it, dissolve a quantity of nitrate ot ammo¬
nia in water of the temperature 110°, put the solution
into a flat dish, and invert over it a phial or cylindrical
glass jar, previously filled with chlorine gas. The chlorine is
slowly absorbed. A yellowish oily looking matter colJe<r
on the surface of the liquid within the jar, and gia ua )
falls to the bottom. This is the chloride of azote. It is s
formidable a compound, that experiments on it should
made upon a very small scale. _ .. .
Its colour is similar to that of olive oil. _ Its smell is p
culiar and strong. It is very volatile, and is soon dissip
ed when left in the open air. It may be distilled ove
CHEMISTRY.
367
. 160°, but when heated to 212° it explodes with prodigious
lod violence. In a vacuum it is converted into vapour, which
^ is again condensed into a liquid when the pressure of the
atmosphere is restored. If this vapour be heated suffi¬
ciently, it explodes with as much violence as the liquid it¬
self. The specific gravity of this liquid is 1*653. It does
not become solid though exposed to the cold produced
by a mixture of ice and chloride of calcium. When it
comes in contact with phosphorus or oils, a violent deto¬
nation takes place. The effect is so instantaneous and so
great that it has been impossible to collect the products.
When chloride of azote is brought in contact with cop¬
per, azotic gas is disengaged, and there is formed a solu¬
tion of chloride of copper. This shows that the substance
is a compound of azote and chlorine. Davy, from decom¬
posing it by mercury, concluded that it is composed of one
volume azotic and four and a fourth volumes chlorine gas.
Probably it is in reality a compound of one volume azotic
and five volumes chlorine gas. This would be equivalent
to
1 atom azote T75
5 atoms chlorine 22*5
jmii
izot
amoi
24*25
The bromide of azote is still unknown ; but M. Courtois
discovered an iodide of azote, which may be prepared in
the following manner: Put a quantity of iodine, in powder,
into a solution of ammonia in water. It is converted into
a brownish black matter, which is iodide of azote. While
still moist, the whole may be thrown on a filter, to allow
the ammoniacal liquid to pass through. While the iodide
is still moist, the filter should be stretched on a board,
and fixed firm to it by means of a little paste or mucilage ;
for the powder, when dry, detonates violently upon the
smallest agitation. If potash solution or hydriodate of am¬
monia be poured upon it, azotic gas is evolved, and the
iodide is decomposed. Even water occasions a slow evo¬
lution of azotic gas. The iodide detonates with great
violence when slightly touched or when heated. The only
products are azotic gas and iodine. These are of course
its constituents, but it has not been possible to determine
the proportions in which they are united.
Azote is capable likewise of combining with hydrogen,
and of forming an important compound called ammonia.
Ammonia may be obtained in the state of gas by means
of the salt called sal ammoniac, which is a compound of
muriatic acid and ammonia. Introduce into a small retort
about half an ounce of sal ammoniac, previously reduced
to powder; reduce about half an ounce of unslaked
quicklime to powder, and introduce it into the same retort.
Shake them well so as to mix them together ; then fill the
whole belly of the retort with unslaked lime in powder.
Plunge the beak of the retort under mercury, and apply
the heat of a lamp. Ammoniacal gas is disengaged abun¬
dantly, and must be received in glass jars standing over
mercury.
Ammoniacal gas is colourless, and possesses the mecha¬
nical properties of air. Its smell is strong, pungent, and
quite peculiar. Its taste is acrid and caustic, and when
drawn into the mouth it destroys the cuticle. It cannot
be breathed, nor even drawn into the lungs. Its specific
gravity is 0*59027. If we reckon the refracting power of
■nr 1, that of ammoniacal gas is T309, according to Dulong.
It converts vegetable blues into green.
When this gas is subjected to a pressure of six and a
jalf atmospheres at the temperature of 50°, it is con¬
densed into a colourless fluid, having a greater refracting
power than water, and a specific gravity of 0*76.
Water absorbs 780 times its volume of this gas, and ac-
qmres the smell and properties of ammonia. In this state
it is employed for chemical purposes. It is specifically Inorganic
lighter than water, and it is lighter in proportion to the Bodies,
quantity of gas which it contains. The following table
by Dalton exhibits the specific gravity, the boiling point,
and the quantity of ammoniacal gas, in liquid ammonia,
from the strongest to the weakest.
When electrical sparks are passed through ammoniacal
gas, it is slowly decomposed, its volume is doubled, and
the gaseous matter into which it is converted is found to
be a mixture of one volume of azotic and three volumes of
hydrogen gas. It is clear from this that ammonia is a
compound of one volume azote and three volumes hydro¬
gen united together and condensed into two volumes ; or,
which is the same thing, it is composed of
1 atom azote T75
3 atoms hydrogen 0*375
2*125
So that its atomic weight is 2*125. Its specific gravity
must be obtained by adding together the specific gravity
of three volumes of hydrogen and one volume of azotic
gas, and dividing the same by two, because these volumes
in the gas are reduced to half their natural bulk.
Hydrogen 0*0694 X 3 = 0*2083
Azote 0*9722
2| 1*1805
0*59027= sp. gr.
of ammoniacal gas.
Ammoniacal gas, when mixed with oxygen gas, may be
detonated by electricity. When chlorine and ammonia
are mixed in the gaseous state, a sudden combustion and
detonation takes place. The chlorine unites with the hy¬
drogen of the ammonia, and forms muriatic acid, while
the azote is disengaged in the state of gas. The muriatic
acid formed combines with a portion of ammonia, and
forms sal ammoniac.
Ammonia possesses the characters of an alkali very de¬
cidedly. It neutralizes acids and forms salts, many of
which are known, and of considerable importance.
The union of the different bodies with azote cannot be
considered as very intimate ; for they can all be destroyed
by the application of a sufficiently strong heat. In this
respect they differ exceedingly from the compounds of
hydrogen.
Sect. III.—Of Carbon.
Carbon exists in immense quantity in the vegetable king-
368
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic dom, and is easily obtained by heating to redness woods in
Bodies. ciose vessels, in a state of greater or less purity. It exists
likewise in the earth in two distinct states, which are dis¬
tinguished by the names of anthracite and plumbago. It
occurscrystallized and transparent, when it is distinguished
by the name of diamond.
Charcoal. There are two varieties of wood charcoal. If the wood
be not heated to ignition, but only till all vapours cease
to be emitted, we obtain a black shining mass, having the
shape of the pieces of wood employed, but much lighter.
Charcoal made in this way burns with some smoke and
flame. It is a non-conductor of electricity, and cannot be
employed as one of the elements of the galvanic pile. It
is a very bad conductor of heat.
If the heat be raised to redness, and kept at that point
till all smoke and vapour cease to be emitted, the charcoal
obtained is black, and, like the former, retains the shape of
the pieces of wood employed. It is an excellent conductor
of electricity, and may be substituted for one of the metals
in the galvanic pile. It is also a good conductor of heat,
and not nearly so combustible as the first species of char¬
coal.
Charcoal is insoluble in water; it is destitute of taste
and smell, and may be exposed to the most violent heat
that we can raise in close vessels without alteration. It
does not putrefy, like wood. It has the curious property
of absorbing bad smells from cloth when wrapt up in them.
New-made charcoal absorbs moisture with avidity. It also
absorbs gases, and many of them become much more con¬
densed in the pores of the charcoal than in their natural
state. This will be obvious from the following table by
De Saussure, exhibiting the number of volumes of various
gases absorbed by one volume of boxwood charcoal.
Ammoniacal gas 90
Muriatic acid 85
Sulphurous acid 65
Sulphuretted hydrogen 55
Protoxide of azote 40
Carbonic acid 35
Olefiant gas 35
Carbonic oxide 9-42
Oxygen 9’25
Azotic 'i’'5
Oxycarburetted hydrogen 5
Hydrogen 1,75
Charcoal appears light, and sometimes even swims on
water; but when allowance is made for the cells which it
contains, the real specific gravity is very nearly 3-5.
Well-burnt charcoal consists almost wholly of carbon.
There is present also a minute quantity of hydrogen, and
a small quantity of earthy matter, which existed in the
wood from which the charcoal was made.
Anthracite Anthracite, though it is most frequently found in the
and plum- transition formation, sometimes likewise is met with in
bago.
ness in the open air, it consumes slowly without flame; by . n,
but in a close vessel it withstands the most violent heat Hi ’* B
that can be applied, without undergoing any alteration. U ^ *
Carbon combines with all the supporters of combustion,
and likewise with hydrogen and azote. Let us take a view
of these combinations.
I. There are three combinations of carbon and oxygen, pc,
namely, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, oxalic acid. The tiori L
A T11 I V4* T1 ^ o'1 vw r 1 C r>lri ir\v*r\ir\   '
**»-****'-'V '      7    ✓   '    -mCUOl iR
first and third of these compounds possess acid properties;oxj;
but the second is neutral, or at least has not hitherto been
observed to have any tendency to combine either with
bases or acids.
1. When charcoal is burnt in a given volume of air,Ca:;
though no smell is evolved, yet the nature of the air is soacfif ir
much altered that animals can no longer breathe it without
death. It was ascertained by Lavoisier, that in such cases
of combustion the oxygen of the air is converted into car¬
bonic acid, which is the substance that gives the air its
suffocating properties. When charcoal is ignited in oxy¬
gen gas, the volume of the gas is not altered; but it is
gradually converted into carbonic acid gas.
The easiest method of procuring carbonic acid is to put
pure calcareous spar or chalk into a small retort or flask,
and to pour over it muriatic acid previously diluted with
water. The chalk dissolves, an effervescence takes place,
and carbonic acid gas is disengaged abundantly. It may
be received over water.
It is a colourless gas, possessing the mechanical pro¬
perties of common air. When applied to the nose it ex¬
cites a pungent sensation, similar to that produced by brisk
beer. Its taste is that of a weak but distinct acid. Its
specific gravity is 1*5277. If the refracting power of air
be 1, that of this gas is 1*526, according to Dulong. It
acts feebly upon vegetable blues. It gives a purple colour
to litmus infusion, but has no sensible effect on water ren¬
dered blue by the juice of red cabbage. It cannot be
breathed, nor even drawn into the lungs; the attempt is
speedily followed by asphyxia and death, unless the ani¬
mal be immediately removed into pure air.
No combustible will burn in it. A mixture of nine vo¬
lumes air and one volume carbonic acid gas extinguishes a
candle. Water absorbs about its own volume of this gas,
and acquires a sour taste and the properties of a weak
acid. When water thus impregnated is exposed to the
open air, the carbonic acid speedily makes its escape.
When exposed at 32° to a pressure of thirty-six atmo¬
spheres, it is condensed into a liquid, which is colourless,
very fluid and light, and which has a less refractive power
than water. It may be passed through an ignited porce¬
lain tube without alteration ; but when electric sparks are
passed through it for some time, it is probably decomposed
into carbonic oxide and oxygen gas. When a mixture of ^
Diamond.
equal volumes of this gas and hydrogen is passed through ^
the common coal-beds. It is black, has a splendent lus¬
tre, and a specific gravity approaching to 1*5. It burns
without flame, and consists chiefly of carbon. The same
remark applies to plumbago, which is a soft mineral, hav¬
ing a greasy feel, the metallic lustre, and a colour approach¬
ing that of lead. Its specific gravity varies from 1*9 to 2*32.
It is a conductor of electricity, and, when strongly heated,
burns slowly, and without emitting any flame.
The diamond has been hitherto found only in the torrid
zone, and the two known localities are India and Brazil.
It is said to have been lately discovered in Siberia; but
no accurate information on the subject has yet reached
this country. It is usually white and transparent, has a
splendent lustre, is crystallized in octahedrons, and has a
specific gravity of 3*52. It refracts light powerfully, and
is a non-conductor of electricity. When heated to red-
an ignited porcelain tube, the carbonic acid is converted
into carbonic oxide and water. If we pass the gas through
ignited charcoal, it will be converted into carbonic oxide,
and its bulk will be doubled.
As oxygen gas is converted into carbonic acid without
any alteration of bulk by burning in it charcoal or diamond,
while these bodies disappear, it is obvious that this gas is
a compound of oxygen and carbon. The proportion of the
carbon may be learned by subtracting the specific gravity
of oxygen gas from that of carbonic acid gas.
Specific gravity of carbonic acid gas 1*52/7
Specific gravity of oxygen gas 1*1111
Weight of carbon z: 0*4166
Hence carbonic acid is composed of oxygen 1*1111 or ,
carbon 0*4166 or 0*75. If we consider 0*75 as denoting
the atomic weight of carbon, then cai’bonic acid wil e a
CHEMISTRY.
lor >c
'l
rbon
ide.
compound of one atom carbon and two atoms oxygen; and
its atomic weight will be 2-75.
As carbonic acid gas is formed by the breathing of ani¬
mals and the combustion of wood and coal, it is not sur¬
prising that a portion of it should always exist in the at¬
mosphere. The proportion varies somewhat, being dimi¬
nished by rain and increased by dry weather. The mean
bulk of this gas in 10,000 volumes of air is, according to
Saussure,4T5 volumes. The greatest quantity observed by
him was 5-74 volumes, and the smallest 3*15 volumes.
This gas combines with bases, and forms a genus of salts
called carbonates. Like all weak acids, it unites in various
proportions with most of the bases.
2. Carbonic oxide may be obtained by mixing equal
weights of carbonate of lime or carbonate of barytes with
iron filings, and exposing the mixture to a strong red heat
in an iron bottle. A mixture of carbonic acid and car¬
bonic oxide is extricated, the former of which may be re¬
moved by washing the gaseous product in milk of lime.
Carbonic oxide gas is colourless, and destitute of taste
and smell. Its specific gravity is 0*9722. Its refractive
power is 1*157, that of air being 1. Water freed from air
369
absorbs about ^th of its volume of this gas. No animal
can breathe it, one or two inhalations producing asphyxia.
It burns with a blue flame, and gives but little light. It
explodes by electricity when mixed with oxygen gas. One
volume of the gas requires for complete combustion half a
volume of oxygen gas. The product is a volume of car¬
bonic acid gas. It is clear from this that one volume of car¬
bonic oxide gas contains just as much carbon as carbonic
acid gas, but only one half the volume of oxygen gas. It
is therefore composed of
1 atom carbon 0*75
1 atom oxygen 1-00
1*75
We may consider carbonic
and its atomic weight is 1*75,
acid gas as composed of
1 volume carbon vapour 0*4166
1 volume oxygen 1*1111
acid, it is converted into a mixture of equal volumes of Inorganic
carbonic acid and carbonic oxide. We see from this that Bodies,
the acid is a compound of 'w-y-w
1 atom carbonic acid 2-75
1 atom carbonic oxide 1*75
4*50
Hence its atomic weight is 4*5; and it is a compound of
2 atoms carbon 1-5
3 atoms oxygen 3-0
4*5
II. Carbon and chlorine are capable of uniting in three Comnounds
different proportions, as was first ascertained by Mr. Fara- with chlo-
^aJ* rine.
.1. Sesquichloride of carbon. This compound was ob- Sesqui-
tained by mixing together olefiant gas and chlorine gas, chloride,
and exposing the mixture to sunshine. Muriatic acid
gas was formed, which was absorbed by water; and more
chloiine being introduced, the vessel was again exposed
to sunshine. These processes were repeated till white
crystals were deposited on the inside of the vessel con¬
taining the gases. These crystals constitute sesquichloride
of carbon.
When pure it is a transparent colourless substance, with
scarcely any taste, but having an aromatic odour bearing
some analogy to that of camphor. Its specific gravity is
2. Its refractive power is nearly equal to that of flint-
glass (1*5767). It is very friable, and is a non-conductor
of electricity. Its crystals are usually six-sided prisms.
It is not readily combustible. It is insoluble in water, but
dissolves readily in alcohol, and still more easily in ether.
It is scarcely acted on by acids or alkalies. It is not act¬
ed on by oxygen at temperatures below a red heat. It de¬
tonates by electricity when its vapour is mixed at once
with oxygen and hydrogen gases. Mr Faraday has shown,
from the quantity of chlorine and olefiant gas necessary to
form it, that this substance is a compound of
14 atom of chlorine 6*75
1 atom of carbon 0*75
1*5277
while carbonic oxide is composed of
1 volume carbon vapour 0*4166
^ volume oxygen 0*5555
alic
i.
0*9722
Carbonic oxide gas combines with its owrn volume of
chlorine, and forms a gas distinguished by the name of
'phosgene gas or chloro-carbonic acid. To form the com¬
pound, it is only necessary to expose the mixture to sun¬
shine for a quarter of an hour.
3. Oxalic acid was discovered by Scheele. It may be
formed by digesting sugar in nitric acid till all efferves¬
cence is at an end. On cooling, the liquid deposits crys-
ta s of oxalic acid in small prisms. When shavings of wood
are mixed with caustic potash, and exposed to a heat
considerably higher than that of boiling water, the wood
su ers decomposition, and is partly converted into oxalic
acic. This is probably the mode taken by the manufac-
urers of oxalic acid in this country.
xalic acid crystallizes in small prisms. Its taste is
ln ens_ejy acid, and when taken internally, even in small
quantities, it destroys^ life. When taken to the extent of
‘ ou,. la^ an ounce it proves almost instantly fatal. It
o/T bases, and forms a genus of salts called ox-
i es: Oxalate of ammonia is very much employed in
frnm'tk analysis t0 throw down lime, and to separate it
Wh 1 6 °1^ler 90n®t'tuents minerals which contain it.
vol °Xa iC ac^ boated with concentrated sulphuric
7*50
so that its atomic weight is 7*5, or ten times that of car¬
bon.
2. Chloride of carbon. When sesquichloride of carbon Chloride,
is exposed to a red heat, it loses some chlorine, and is con¬
verted into a liquid to which the name of chloride of car¬
bon has been given.
It is colourless and very fluid. Its specific gravity is
1*5526. Its refracting power is 1*4875, or very nearly
that of camphor. It does not congeal at zero. Between
160° and 170° it is converted into vapour. It is insoluble
in water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether. Oxygen de¬
composes it at high temperatures. From the analysis of
Faraday, it appears to be a compound of
1 atom chlorine 4*5
1 atom carbon 0*75
5*25
so that its atomic weight is 5*25.
3. Dichloride of carbon. This is a solid white substance Bichloride,
in feathery crystals, accidentally obtained by M. Julin of
Abo while distilling a mixture of nitre and sulphate of
iron. From the analysis of Faraday and Philips, it appears
to be a compound of
1 atom chlorine   4*5
2 atoms carbon 1*5
so that its atomic weight is 6.
6
3 A
370
Inorganic
liodies.
Bromide.
Sesqui-
odide.
Iodide.
CHEMISTRY.
III. Bromide of carbon may be formed by throwing ses-
quiodide of carbon upon bromine in a glass tube, llie
action is instantaneous, and two bromides are formed a
once. Water dissolves the bromide of iodine, while the
bromide of carbon remains in the state of a liquid at the
bottom of the tube. It contains an excess of bromine,
which may be removed by potash. ,
Bromide of carbon is a colourless liquid. It has an ethe¬
real smell and very sweet taste. By exposure to air it be¬
comes red coloured. When heated at the flame of a can¬
dle it gives out red vapours of bromine, but does not burn
with flame. , . , . i
Bromine readily combines with olefiant gas when placed
in contact with it. The compound is an aromatic liquid,
volatile, and decomposed by a red heat. Ibis compound
has been called hydro-carburet of bromine.
IV. Carbon and iodine unite in two proportions, forming
a spsouiodide and an iodide of carbon. _
1. Sesquiodide of carbon. This substance is easily form¬
ed in the following manner. To an alcohol solution of io¬
dine add caustic potash till the colour is destroyed. A
white powder consisting of iodate of potash falls. Lhstn
with a very gentle heat the alcohol from the clear liquor.
The sesquiodide of carbon is deposited during the process.
It is in small plates, opaque, and of a sulphur-yellow co¬
lour. It has a strong aromatic odour, like that ot sattion.
Its taste has been compared to that of nitric ether. Its
specific gravity is 2. When heated it melts, and if the
heat be increased, iodine vapours rise, and carbon remains.
It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol an
ether. From the analysis of Serullas, it appears to be a
compound of .
1-^ atom iodine  ^ o ^
1 atom carbon 0*75
atom to atom, and form a white crystalline body, having ln0rf!
an aromatic odour and a sweet taste. Boc< n<
V. Carbon and hydrogen have the property of combin- W B
ing with each other in a great variety of proportions, and^ii *
of forming many compounds, all of which are remarkably
combustible, and many of them are of great importance. n
We shall notice a few of the simplest of these compounds
here.
1. Carburetted hydrogen. This gas may be collected Carb I
pure, or nearly so, from a blower in a coal mine. It is led k I
formed also abundantly at the bottom of stagnant pools8™'
containing decayed vegetable matter during the summer
season. When the bottom of the pool is stirred, abun¬
dance of gas is extricated, consisting of carburetted hy¬
drogen, mixed with a little carbonic acid gas, and usually
also with some atmospherical air.
It is a colourless gas, destitute of taste and smell. Its
specific gravity is 0-5555. Its refracting power is 1-504,
that of air being unity. It cannot be breathed, the at¬
tempt bringing on instant asphyxia. It burns with a yel¬
low flame, and gives a good deal of light. V hen mixed
with air or oxygen gas in the requisite proportions, it de¬
tonates by the electric spark. For complete combustion,
it requires twice its volume of oxygen gas, and produces
exactly its own volume of carbonic acid gas. fhe only
other product is water. Now, one of the volumes of oxy¬
gen gas went to the formation ot carbonic acid gas, and it
must have united with a volume of carbon vapour. The
other volume of oxygen gas, in order to be converted into
water, must have combined with two volumes of hydrogen
gas. It is clear from this that a volume of carburetted
hydrogen must contain
1 volume carbon vapour 0-4166
2 vplumeshydrogen gas .....0-1388
24-375
so that its atomic weight is 24-375. . . ,
2. Iodide of carbon. This compound was obtained by
Serullas by the following process. Equal weights of per-
chloride of phosphorus and sesquiodide of carbon are tri¬
turated together in a mortar. This mixture is put into a
phial, into the mouth of which a bent tube is luted, liea
is applied to the bottom of the phial, while the open end
of the tube is plunged into a vessel filled with ivater. ihe
heat must just be sufficient to melt the iodide of carbon.
Some vapours of iodine first make their appearance, then
a red liquid passes over and falls to the bottom of the wa¬
ter, where it speedily loses its colour. Iodine, chloride of
iodine, and iodide of phosphorus, remain in the phial.
The liquid is separated from the water by means of a fun¬
nel with a capillary tube. It is purified by washing it in
caustic potash. It is freed from hydrocarburet ot chlorine
by pouring on it about five times its bulk of concentiated
sulphuric acid, and stirring the mixture from time to time
with a glass rod. The hydrocarburet is destroyed, and the
pure iodide of carbon collects at the bottom, being hea-
vierf than!sulphuric acid.
It is a transparent light yellow liquid, having a peculiar
and strong ethereal smell. Its taste is very sweet, with a
sensation of coolness analogous to that produced by mint.
It does not become solid when cooled down to 32°. It is
slightly, soluble in water. It does not burn. When ex¬
posed to air it assumes a red colour. From tlpe analysis
of Serullas, it appears to be a compound <h\, ,
of hoaoqxo J atom iodine...15-75 igm^>ctQ0 :j
boJoordna nnioli atom carbon........,.t<^5^....ijj03 a
olBtcqoa ot .loqsq guittoid 'fo aWdl
0-5555
These three volumes, when condensed into one, make
up exactly the specific gravity of carburetted hydrogen.
The atomic constitution of this compound must be
1 atom carbon   d-7.)
2 atoms hydrogen d*25
so that the atomic weight is unity. _ . ,
When this gas is mixed with chlorine, no action takes
place in the dark; but when exposed to the light, it the
mixture be in contact with water, it is gradually convert¬
ed into carbonic acid. That the decomposition maybe
complete, we must mix four volumes ot chlorine with one
volume of carburetted hydrogen. One volume of carbonic
acid is formed, two volumes of water are decomposed, an
four volumes of chlorine are converted into munahc aciu.
2. Olefiant gas. This gas is evolved when a mature
of one part by weight of alcohol, and four parts of strongg
sulphuric acid, are heated in a retort. the gas evo
invisible, and possesses the mechanical properties of ai .
It is destitute both of smell and taste, specific g
ty is 0-9722. Its refracting power is 2-302, that 0
being unity. It is unfit for respiration, producing imm
diateS asphyxia, as is the case with all gases containm0
carbon as a constituent.
caroon as a cuusmuc.!.*, ♦Ks vo-
When electrical sparks are passed through it, t
4t i. •jL.gUmwi.U /mUEvWi i's thrown down, n
16-5
SO that its atomic weight is 16-5. .abihni sidi to hrcq inyirp-
Faraday found that iodine and olefiant gas combine,
lume of the gas increases, and carbon is fKrown
is said that in this way the whole' carbon may be tl>m
down, and the gas converted into pure hydroge • ^
this done, the volume of the gas would be Just ^att;
Olefiant gas burns with great splendour, anc . a
very loudly when electrical sparks are Pa?se^ th tfons.
mixture of it with oxygen gas in the be
For complete combustion, one volume of the gas
J ? .§
f-ic
y
irbo
ogei
upen
ant^
CHEMI
mixed with three volumes of oxygen gas. The products
are two volumes of carbonic acid gas, and a quantity of
water. Two volumes of the oxygen gas went to the for¬
mation of carbonic acid gas; the other volume formed water
by uniting with two volumes of hydrogen gas. From this
it is clear that a volume of olefiant gas is a compound of
2 volumes carbon vapour 0-8333
2 volumes hydrogen gas 0-1388
0-9722
These four volumes, added together, just make up the spe¬
cific gravity of olefiant gas.
The atomic constitution of the gas is obviously
2 atoms carbon  T5
2 atoms hydrogen, .0-25
F75
so that its atomic weight is 1-75, or the same as that of
azote. It differs from carburetted hydrogen by contain¬
ing an additional dose of carbon.
Olefiant gas and chlorine gas, when placed in contact,
unite in equal volumes, and form a colourless transparent
fluid, having an agreeable smell, and a sweetish, sharp,
agreeable taste. It has a specific gravity of T22, and
boils at 152°. At 49° its vapour is capable of supporting
a column of mercury of 24-66 inches in length. The spe¬
cific gravity of this vapour is 3-4722, showing that it is a
compound of one volume of olefiant gas and one volume
of chlorine gas united together and condensed into one
volume. Hence its atomic weight is 6-25. This liquid
has received the name of hydrocarburet of chlorine. It burns
with a green flame, giving out copious fumes of muriatic
acid and much soot.
3. Carbo-hydrogen. When one part of pyroxylic spirit,1
three parts of muriatic acid, and one part of nitric acid,
are heated in a flask, an effervescence takes place, and a
gas is extricated which must be received over mercury.
This gas is transparent and colourless, has a pungent and
disagreeable smell, and burns with a lively bluish-white
flame. Water absorbs five times its volume of this gas,
and oil of turpentine absorbs thirty times its volume of it;
but it is neither absorbed by acids nor alkalies. It con¬
sists of a mixture of about eight volumes of azotic gas,
sixty-three volumes of deutoxide of azote, and twenty-nine
volumes of an inflammable gas, to which the name of ses-
quichloride of carbodiydrogen may be given, as, according
to the analysis of Dr Thomson, it is a compound of
1 volume carbon vapour 0-4166
1 volume hydrogen gas.... 0-0694
volume chlorine gas 3-7500
4-2361
so that its specific gravity is 4-2361. Its basis is a gas
composed of one volume of carbon vapour and one volume
of hydrogen gas condensed into one volume ; so that its
specific gravity is 0-4861, and its atomic weight 0-875, or
just one half of that of olefiant gas.2
4. Superolefiant gas. When whale oil is exposed to an
incipient red heat, it is converted into a gas which burns
with a beautiful and very strong light, and which has been
proposed as a substitute for coal gas for illuminating the
streets, &c. Mr Dalton, in examining this gas, found that
it contained a portion of gaseous matter, one volume of
which required for complete combustion 4-5 volumes of
oxygen gas, and formed three volumes of carbonic acid
gas. Hence it follows that it is a compound of three
volumes carbon vapour and three volumes hydrogen gas
S T Jt Y. 371
condensed into one volume. Hence its specific gravity Inorganic
must be 1-4583, and it must be composed of Bodies.
3 atoms carbon j 2-25
3 atoms hydrogen .0-375
10 a899*r9 2-625 mottod
Hence its atomic weight is 2-625. This body was called
superolefiant gas by Mr Dalton. But as a considerable
number of gases and vapours seem to exist, distinguished
from each other merely by the number of atoms of car¬
bon and hydrogen (both equal in number) contained in a
volume, it becomes necessary to contrive a mode of nam¬
ing which may be extended to any number of these com¬
pounds. The simple compound of one volume carbon
vapour and one volume hydrogen gas may be called carbo-
hydrogen, and the others may be distinguished by prefix¬
ing an abbreviation of the Greek numeral indicating the
number of atoms conjoined in each volume. Thus a vo¬
lume of
Carbon. Hydrogen.
Carbo-hydrogen contains 1 atom + 1 atom.
Deuto-carbo-hydrogen or olefiant gas 2 +2
Trito-carbo-hydrogen or superolefiant
gas   3 +3
At least three more of these compounds are at present
known. spronft* a and il .tttol
This view of the subject is not yet familiar to chemists ;
but it may ultimately throw much light upon the nature
of many vegetable substances which at present seem so
mysterious. The Ails, for example, though they are all
peculiar bodies, are composed of carbon and hydrogen
in nearly the same proportions. May not these diversi¬
ties be partly accounted for by this grouping of the atoms
to constitute an integrant particle of a more or less com¬
plicated nature ?
5. Tetarto-carbo-hydrogen. When oil gas is compressed, Tetarto-
it is partially condensed into a transparent liquid of a carb°-hy-
light yellow tinge. Mr Faraday, by repeated distillations. drogen.
separated this oily body into a variety of volatile oils, dif¬
fering from each other in their volatility. One of these,
at 6°, is a transparent colourless liquid; but when slightly
heated, it begins to boil, and before it has reached the
temperature of 32° it is all resolved into a vapour or gas,
which burns with a brilliant white flame. Its specific
gravity is 1-9444. At zero it is again condensed into a li¬
quid, whose specific gravity is only 0-627 at the tempera¬
ture of 54°. When this liquid is converted into a vapour,
it increases in volume 261^ times. It is slightly soluble in
water, and abundantly in alcohol and olive oil. One vo¬
lume of the vapour of this oil requires for complete com¬
bustion six volumes of oxygen gas; water is formed, and
four volumes of carbonic acid gas. It is obvious from this,
that a volume of the vapour contains
4 volumes carbon vapour   .1-6666
4 volumes hydrogen gas   0-2777
1-9444
Hence the specific gravity is 1-9444. It is comoosed of
4 atoms carbon   3-0
4 atoms hydrogen........;   0-5
3-5
so that its atomic weight is 3-5.
6. Bicarburet of hydrogen. A portion of the oil from Bicarburet
condensed oil gas, which boiled at 176°, was exposed toof hydro-
the cold of zero. It became partly solid. Being subjected Scn-
to pressure between folds of blotting paper, to separate
a Sf n£dure and history of this spirit will be given in a subsequent part of this article.
t he pamjjlne of Iteicbenbaeh, which is a solid crystalline substance, has been shown by Jules Gay-Lussac to be a compound of
°Ne atom hydrogen and one atom carbon. It is therefore connected with carbo-hydrogen. ' •-
Inorganic
Bodies.
Hexa-car-
bo-hydro-
gen.
Naphtha¬
line.
the liquid part as completely as possible, it was allowed
to liquefy. It constituted a colourless transparent liquid,
whose specific gravity at 60° was O-SS. It crystallized
when cooled down to 32°. Hie crystals melted at 42 . It
contracted very much in the act of freezing, nine parts
becoming eight. The specific gravity of its vapour at 60
is 2-7083. It is a non-conductor of electricity. It is
slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in fixed and vo¬
latile oils, ether, alcohol, &c. The vapour, when mixed
with oxygen gas, detonates by electricity. For complete
combustion, one volume of the vapour requires /-o volumes
of oxygen gas, and there are formed six volumes of caibo-
nic acid gas: six of the volumes of oxygen gas went to the
formation of carbonic acid. The remaining 1-5 volumes
of oxygen united with three volumes of hydrogen gas, and
formed water. It is evident from this, that one volume of
the vapour is composed of six volumes carbon vapour and
three volumes hydrogen gas condensed into one volume; so
that its specific gravity is 2-7083, and it is a compound of
6 atoms carbon 4-5
3 atoms hydrogen .....0-375
4-875
and its atomic weight is 4-875. This compound differs
from all the species of carbo-hydrogen, containing twice
as many atoms of carbon as of hydrogen. It might be
distinguished by the name of bicarbo-hydrogen; and the
peculiar species just described might be called trito-bi-
carbo-hydrogen.
7. The portion of the oil which boiled at 186°, but re¬
mained liquid at zero, differed obviously from the portion
which congealed at zero. Its specific gravity at 60° was
0-86. Its vapour at 60° had a specific gravity of 2-9166.
A volume of this vapour is composed of six volumes car¬
bon vapour and six volumes hydrogen gas condensed into
one volume. Hence its specific gravity is 2-9.166, and it
is a compound of
6 atoms carbon 4-5
. 6 atoms hydrogen 0-75
5-25
so that its atomic weight is 5-25. It constitutes a new
species of carbo-hydrogen, and must be denominated hexa-
carbo-hydrogen.
8. Naphthaline. This is a substance which is obtained
during the distillation of coal tar, a semifluid substance,
which distils over during the formation of coal gas. It is
a white substance in scales, having a pearly lustre. It has
an aromatic smell, and a pungent and disagreeable taste.
It is very little heavier than water. It melts at 174°, and
boils at 410°. It is easily sublimed, and is always depo¬
sited in crystalline plates. It does not burn easily, but
when suddenly heated it may be made to burn with a
strong yellow flame, emitting much smoke. It is very
slightly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol
and ether, and in volatile and fixed oils. It dissolves in
sulphuric acid, and forms an acid to which the name of
theio-naphihalic acid may be given. It is composed of car¬
bon and hydrogen, in the ratio of one and a half atom
carbon to one atom hydrogen; but the number of atoms
of each constituent that go to the formation of an inte¬
grant particle of naphthaline is still unknown. From the
analysis of theio-naphthalic acid by Faraday, it is probable
that naphthaline is a compound of
15 atoms carbon 11-25
10 atoms hydrogen  1-25
12-5
This would make its atomic weight 12*5, and it might be Inorj
called deka-sesqui-carbo-hydrogen, if a name indicating the Bor
number and ratio of its atomic constituents were to be W
considered as proper.
Coal gas, now so extensively used in this country for Coal
lighting the streets of our towns, and even in private houses,
is obtained by distilling cannel coal in iron or clay retorts,
and purifying the gas which is evolved. Its goodness de¬
pends not only on the nature of the coal employed in its
production, but also upon the heat to which these coals
are exposed, the gas being always the better the lower
the temperature at which it is evolved. It consists of a
mixture of different gases, which have been described in
this section. The higher the specific gravity of the gas,
the better is it fitted for the purposes of illumination.
The specific gravity is sometimes as high as 0*650, and
sometimes as low as 0-345. It is usually a mixture of
olefiant gas, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and
hydrogen gases. The following table exhibits the consti¬
tution of a portion of coal gas of the specific gravity of
0-620, analysed by Dr Henry :
Olefiant gas 12 volumes
Carburetted hydrogen 64-53
Carbonic oxide  7-63
Hydrogen 15-84
Total 100-00
The constituents of an oil gas of the specific gravity
0-909 were determined by Dr Henry as follows:
Superolefiant gas 38 volumes
Carburetted hydrogen 42-16
Carbonic oxide 14-26
Hydrogen  5-58
Total 100-00
The illuminating power of the best oil gas is to that of
the best coal gas as 2-25 to 1.
VI. Carbon, so far as we know at present, combines
with azote in only one proportion, and forms a very im¬
portant compound, discovered by Gay-Lussac in 1815,
and called by him cyanogen.
It may be obtained by exposing prussiate or cyanodideCpn?
of mercury1 to a heat rather under redness. The salt
blackens, and a gas is extricated, which must be received
over mercury.
It is colourless, has a strong and disagreeable smell. Its
specific gravity is 1-8055. It cannot be breathed without
destroying life. It burns with a purple flame. Water ab¬
sorbs 4£, and alcohol 40 times its volume of this gas. For
complete combustion it requires twice its volume of oxy¬
gen. The products from the combustion of one volume of
cyanogen are two volumes of carbonic acid and one volume
of azotic gas. Hence a volume of it is composed of two
volumes carbon vapour and one volume azotic gas con¬
densed into one volume. We have from this the specific
gravity of the gas,
2 volumes carbon vapour 0-8733
1 volume azotic gas 0-9722
1-8055
and its atomic weight
2 atoms carbon F5
1 atom azote 1'7;
3-25
Cyanogen has the property of combining with a great
variety of bodies, and forming many important compoun s,
which will occupy our attention in a subsequent part o
1 A salt obtained by boiling in water a mixture of Prussian blue and red oxide of mercury, and crystallizing the
thus obtained.
colourless liquid
2
CHEMISTRY.
c this article. It bears a striking analogy to the supporters
of combustion, and resembles them in the nature of the
compounds into which it enters.
Sect. IV.—Of Boron.
Borax is a salt usually imported from Thibet and China,
where it is found on the borders of certain lakes. It ex¬
ists also (at least one of its constituents) in certain lakes
in Tuscany and Sicily, seemingly in large quantities. When
this salt is dissolved in hot water, and the solution mixed
with sulphuric or nitric acid till it becomes sensibly sour,
if we set it aside till it cools, a quantity of fine white scaly
crystals are deposited. These constitute boracic acid, one
of the constituents of boron, the other constituent being
soda. When one part of dry powdered boracic acid is
mixed with two parts of potassium in a platinum crucible,
and heated to incipient ignition, a detonation takes place,
the boracic acid is decomposed, giving out its oxygen to
the potassium, while its base, boron, is set at liberty. Mix
the matter in the crucible with water, and throw it on a fil¬
ter. Potash is dissolved in the water, while the boron re¬
mains on the filter.
s When washed and dried, it is a powder of a deep-brown
colour, almost black, and without either taste or smell. In
close vessels it may be exposed to the most violent heat
that can be raised, without any alteration. It is insoluble
in water, alcohol, ether, and oils, whether hot or cold. It
does not decompose water. It is a non-conductor of elec¬
tricity. When heated in air or oxygen it burns with
splendour, and is converted into boracic acid. The atomic
weight of boracic acid, determined from the composition
of borax, is three. There is reason to believe that when
boron is converted into boracic acid, it combines with
twice its weight of oxygen. Hence the atomic weight of
boron must be 1, and boracic acid is a compound of
1 atom boron 1
2 atoms oxygen... 2
373
Boron combines readily with chlorine, and forms an acid
compound which is in the state of a gas. It may be call¬
ed borochloric acid. It may be obtained by putting a mix¬
ture of very dry boracic acid and charcoal into a porcelain
tube, heating the mixture to redness, and passing a cur¬
rent of chlorine gas through it. The boracic acid is de¬
composed by the joint action of the chlorine and charcoal.
The gas which is extricated is a mixture of two volumes
borochloric acid and three volumes oxide of carbon. Bo¬
rochloric acid is a colourless gas, possessing the mechanical
properties of common air. It has a very strong and pe¬
culiar smell. When it comes in contact with common air
it gives out thick vapours. Its specific gravity, according
to Dumas, is Water absorbs it with avidity, and
the gas is changed into muriatic and boracic acids by the
decomposition of water. It is absorbed also by water.
This gas has not yet been subjected to a satisfactory ana¬
lysis.
We are not acquainted with any compound of boron
with bromine or iodine; but it has the property of com¬
bining with fluorine, and of forming a powerful acid, to
which the name of jluoboric acid has been given. It was
.covered by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, and may be ob¬
tained by heating a mixture of one part anhydrous bora¬
cic acid, two parts fluor spar, and twelve parts of sulphu-
ric aci^ A gas comes over, which must be collected over
mercury. A still easier method is to dissolve boracic
lotioi Flm ^U?r‘c anc^ apply a slight heat.
I 01 | ‘uoboric acid is a colourless gas, having a smell simi-
ar to that of muriatic acid, and an exceedingly acid taste.
Its specific gravity is 2-3611. Water absorbs 700 times Inorganic
its volume of it, and a liquid is obtained of the specific Bodies,
gravity 1-77. It has a certain degree of viscosity, and re-
quires a high temperature to cause it to boil. This acid
seems to be a compound of
1 atom fluorine ...2-25
2 atoms boron 2-00
4-25
and its atomic weight is 4-25.
The combinations of boron with hydrogen, azote, and
carbon, are still unknown.
Sect. V.— Of Silicon.
Quartz or rock-crystal, which constitutes so large a por¬
tion of the crust of the earth, consists essentially of a pe¬
culiar acid substance, to which the name of silica or sili¬
cic acid has been given. It is a white tasteless powder,
insoluble in water, but capable of combining with the dif¬
ferent bases in definite proportions, and forming compounds
analogous to the salts.
Silica constitutes one of the constituents of fluosilicic Silica.
acid, a gas which is extricated when a mixture of fluor
spar and sulphuric acid is heated in a glass retort. If we
mix fluosilicate of potash in powder with five fourths of its
weight of potassium, and apply heat, a violent combustion
takes place, and a coherent mass of a liver-brown colour is
the result. Digest this substance in cold water. A brown
matter remains, which must be well washed in cold water,
and then dried; it is silicon, or the basis of silica.
Silicon is a powder of a deep-brown colour, and so simi- Silicon,
lar in its appearance to boron, that it would be difficult to
distinguish them. It is a non-conductor of electricity. It
stains the fingers, and adheres to every thing that comes
in contact with it. It may be exposed to a very high tem¬
perature in close vessels without fusion, but it becomes
harder, and its properties are materially altered.
Before having been strongly heated, it is readily com¬
bustible in the air, and burns with a lively flame. By this
combustion about one third of it is converted into silica,
which forming a crust, prevents the other two thirds from
coming in contact with the atmosphere, and consequently
from burning. There is always a quantity of water form¬
ed at the same time, showing that the silicon before igni¬
tion is not pure, but is combined with a certain quantity
of hydrogen. It is not acted on by sulphuric or nitric
acid, or aqua regia, but liquid muriatic acid dissolves it
even without the application of heat. So also does a con¬
centrated solution of caustic potash when assisted by
heat.
After silicon has been ignited, its specific gravity is
higher than 1-837. It neither burns in air nor in oxygen
gas. It is not altered by the action of the blowpipe, even
when mixed with chlorate of potash; nor does it burn
though heated to redness with saltpetre. Neither fluoric
acid nor solution of caustic potash has any action on it;
but a mixture of fluoric and nitric acid dissolves it with
great facility, while at the same time deutoxide of azote
is given out.
When mixed with dry carbonate of potash or soda, and
heated far below redness, it burns vividly at the expense
of the carbonic acid; carbonic oxide is disengaged, and
the residue is tinged black by carbon deposited. By this
process the silicon is converted into silica, which combines Silica,
with the alkali. The atomic weight of silica is 2. From
the phenomena of the combustion of silicon, it follows
that silica is composed of equal weights of silicon and
oxygen. Hence it follows that the atomic weight of sili¬
con is 1, and that silica is a compound of
374
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
1 atom silicon..
1 atom oxygen.
Chloride of When silicon is heated in chlorine gas, it burns vividly,
silicon. and is rapidly volatilized. The compound thus formed
When heated to 170°, it is volatilized in the state of a ln0r?
fine powder called Jlowers of sulphur. It melts at 218°, Bod-
and is very liquid and amber coloured till the temperature W
reaches 252°. About 340° it begins to get thick, and as-
sumes a reddish colour ; and between 428° and 482° it is
so thick that the vessel containing it may be inverted
liquid Which is a chloride of without spilling a drop. From 482° to its boiling point,
condenses into a colou q , ,mi frnm 7.^0°. it becomes thinner, but never
silicon. It is limpid, and very volatile. It boils below
212°, and the specific gravity of its vapour, as determined
by Dumas, is 5-939. It has a suffocating smell, not unlike
that of cyanogen. It seems to possess acid properties.
When dropt into water, it swims on the surface of that
liquid, and is gradually dissolved, depositing at the same
time a little gelatinous silica. By the action of water it is
converted into muriatic acid and silica. It follows from
this that chloride of silicon is composed of
1 atom chlorine 4-5
1 atom silicon   1
Fluosilicic
acid.
■ ■ 5-5
Its atomic weight is 5-5. Now 5-5 X 1-1111 — 6T111.
This must be the true specific gravity of the gas. It is a
little higher than the statement of Dumas.
The bromide and iodide of silicon still remain unknown.
Silicon unites with fluorine, and forms an acid gas, first
noticed by Scheele, and now known by the name oijluosi-
licic acid. It is formed when a mixture of fluor spar and
sulphuric acid is heated in a glass retort. The gas is
transparent and colourless, smokes when mixed with moist
air, has a smell similar to that of muriatic acid, is rapidly
absorbed bv water, while at the same time gelatinous sill- ~ . y, . fv,0 oamp t-
ra :s denosited in such abundance as speedily to deprive and burns with a pale blue flame, and at the sa
the water of its liquidity. The specific gravity of this gas emits abundance of fumes, having a very suffocating ocoui.
k 3-6 By meaJof ammonia U may be riolved into By this combustion it is converted mto^.nvnuble gas, to
fluoric acid and silica; and from the proportions of these
obtained, there can be little doubt that the gas is a com¬
pound of
1 atom fluorine 2-25
1 atom silicon 1
which is not far from 750°, it becomes thinner, but never
so thin as when below 248°, and its reddish-brown colour
does not alter. When suddenly cooled when in the most
liquid state, as by throwing it into water, it becomes hard
and brittle ; but if it be suddenly cooled when viscid, it re¬
mains quite soft,so that it maybe drawn out into threads. In
the first case it crystallizes, in the second case it does not.
It crystallizes in two different and incompatible forms.
1. An octahedron with scalene triangular faces. It con-
sists of two four-sided pyramids applied base to base, the
common base of which is a rhomboid, the laiger diago¬
nal of which is to the shorter as five to four. It is found
crystallized in this state native. 2. An oblique prism with
a rhombic base. The larger angle of the base is 90 32,
and the base makes an angle of 85° 54' with the lateral
faces of the prism. This is the form which sulphur as¬
sumes when it is fused and left to cool slowly.
I. Sulphur combines with five different proportions of Comp i
oxygen, and forms five compounds, all of which are pos-with-
sessed of acid properties. These are sulphuric acid, sul~'£ai
phurous acid, hyposulphurous acid, subsulphurous acid, and
hyposulphuric acid. • , , ii
1. Sulphurous acid. When sulphur is heated to thesulpl
temperature of about 300° in the open air, it takes firwousa
3-25
so that the atomic weight of this acid is 3-25. ,
The brown matter described at the beginning of this
section is obviously a silicet of hydrogen, or a compound
of silicon and hydrogen. It has not been analysed, but is
probably a compound of
1 atom silicon 1
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
1-125
No compound of silicon and azote has hitherto been ob¬
tained; but silicon and carbon combine when they come
in contact in a nascent state. 4 his carburet, which is a
dark-brown powder, burns when heated, silicic and car-
bonic acid gas being formed, but without any sensible
augmentation of weight.
No compound of silicon and boron has been hitherto
obtained.
which the name ol sulphurous acid has been given. Ihe
easiest method of obtaining this gas in a state of purity is
to heat a mixture of sulphuric acid and mercury in a small
glass retort by means of a spirit-lamp. An effervescence
takes place, and a gas is extricated which must be receiv¬
ed over mercury.
It is colourless, and possesses the mechanical properties
of common air. It has a strong suffocating odour, pre¬
cisely the same as that of burning sulphur. It converts
vegetable blues into red, and gradually destroys them. Its
specific gravity is 2-2222. Water absorbs about thirty
times its volume of this gas, and acquires the taste, smell,
and properties of sulphurous acid. When sulphur is burn
in oxygen gas, the volume of the gas is not altered; Du
it is converted into sulphurous acid, while at the same
time the sulphur disappears. It is evident from this that
sulphurous acid is a compound of oxygen and sulphur,
and that it contains its own volume of oxygen gas. mi
the specific gravity of sulphurous acid is just double tha
of oxygen gas. It must therefore be composed of equa
weights of oxygen and sulphur. Its constituents must
Sulphur   * ^
Oxygen ^
Sulphur.
Sect. VI.—Of Sulphur.
Sulphur, or brimstone as it is also called, has been known
from the earliest ages, as it occurs abundantly in the earth,
either in a state of purity, or combined with different me¬
tals, particularly iron, copper, lead, and antimony.
It is a brittle substance, having a greenish-yellow co¬
lour, without any smell, and having a weak though sensible
taste. It is a non-conductor of electricity, and has a spe¬
cific gravity of 2-0332. It is not altered by exposure to
the air, and is insoluble in water, but slightly soluble in
alcohol, ether, and oils both fixed and volatile.
Now, by analyzing the sulphites (as the sglts consisting of
sulphurous acid combined with a base are calle ),J
shown that the atomic weight of sulphurous acid is >
we represent the atomic weight of oxygen by unity-,
we suppose this acid to be a compound o one • -u*
sulphur and two atoms of oxygen, then the atomic 0
This acid is made in great
for the use of bleachers and other manufacturers, by ^
ing sulphur in leaden chambers. At the sa^e - tre
quantity of nitric acid from the decomposition of s< p
3
CHEMISTRY.
C is let into the chamber. The sulphur is converted into
sulphurous acid. Five atoms of this acid unite with one
atom of nitric acid and two atoms of water, and form a white
solid salt, which falls to the bottom of the chamber into a
quantity of water placed to receive it. As soon as it comes
in contact with the water a strong effervescence takes
place, the nitric acid is decomposed and converts the sul¬
phurous into sulphuric acid, while at the same time a
quantity of deutoxide of azote is disengaged. This gas
coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, is converted
into nitric acid, which combines with an additional dose
of sulphurous acid, and is decomposed as before. Thus
the process goes on as long as sulphurous acid and oxygen
gas exist in the leaden chamber.
Sulphuric acid thus obtained is a colourless liquid, hav¬
ing some viscidity; and when as much concentrated as pos¬
sible it has a specific gravity of 1*837. A stronger acid may
be made by exposing sulphate of iron, previously deprived
of its water, to a strong heat. When this acid is heated
in a retort, a portion of it is volatilized in the form of a
white, fibrous, tough matter, which smokes violently when
in contact with the air, and unites with water with great
violence. In this state it constitutes sulphuric acid totally
destitute of water.
Sulphuric acid is a very powerful and corrbsive acid. It
is easy, by the analysis of the sidphates (as the salts con¬
taining sulphuric acid are called), to show that the atomic
weight of sulphuric acid is five. If we digest two grains
of pure sulphur in dilute nitric acid in a retort, we gra¬
dually convert them into sulphuric acid. The weight of
the acid thus formed is exactly five. Hence it is a com¬
pound of
Sulphur 2
Oxygen 3
i )l[l 5
Tins constitution of sulphuric acid is further confirmed by
the fact, that when four sulphurous acid is combined with
a base, and exposed in solution in water to the air, it is
gradually converted into five sulphuric acid. Thus we see
that four sulphurous acid and five sulphuric acid contain
each the same quantity of sulphur, namely two. Conse¬
quently the oxygen in them must be, respectively, two and
three. J
3. Subsulphurous acid. A solution of pure sulphurous
acid in water has the property of dissolving zinc without
effervescence. The zinc, when thus dissolved, is converted
into an oxide by uniting with an atom of oxygen. It must
get this atom from the sulphurous acid, which contains two
, atoms of oxygen. It is obviously deprived of half its oxy¬
gen, and converted into a new acid composed of
1 atom sulphur   2
1 atom oxygen   1
iSLit ^T0i> ?J: Ttutor1;H 3
ts atomic weight is three, and it may be distinguished by
tlie name of .mbsidphurous acid. It does not Seem capable
w existing in a separate state, but it unites readily with
oases, and forms a genus of salts, to which the name of sub-
suiphites may be given.
4. Hyposuiphurous acid. This acid, or at least the salts
containing it, was discovered by Mr. Herschell. If sulphu-
etot calcium be dissolved in water, and the solution left for
ome time it becomes colourless; and when the solution is
sM yT31— 11 yie,ds large crystals having the form of six-
e« pngfus?. These crystals Constitute the hyposulphite
IG ac‘(* may easilJ be transferred from the lime
ter bases, and thus other hyposulphites may be formed
375
at pleasure. But the acid does not seem capable of exist- Inorganic
ing in a separate state. Dr Ihomson has shown, by the Bodies,
analysis of hyposulphite of soda, that hyposuiphurous acid s—
is a compound of
2 atoms sulphur 4,
1 atom oxygen 1
5
Its atomic weight is the same as that of sulphuric acid,
though its constitution be quite different.
5. Hyposulphuric acid. This acid was discovered byHyposul-
Gay-Lussac and Welter. It may be obtained by the fol-phurie
lowing process: Pass a current of sulphurous acid gasacid*
through gray oxide of manganese suspended in water. A
neutral salt is formed, which dissolves in the water. To
the filtered solution add barytes water till the whole man¬
ganese and sulphuric acid be thrown down. There re¬
mains in solution hyposulphate of barytes. Crystallize
the salt, redissolve it in water, and throw down the barytes
by means of sulphuric acid, taking care not to add the acid
in excess. Filter the liquid. It now consists of water
holding hyposulphuric acid in solution.
Ihis acid is colourless, and destitute of smell. It may
be concentrated till the specific gravity amounts to 1*347.
If we carry the process further, sulphurous acid flies off,
and sulphuric acid remains behind. It may in this way be
completely resolved into sulphurous and sulphuric acid,
in the proportion of four parts of the former to five of the
latter. It is therefore composed of an integrant particle
of sulphuric acid united to an integrant particle of sulphu¬
rous acid. Its constituents therefore are,
2 atoms sulphur  4
5 atoms oxygen 5
9
and its atomic weight is 9.
^ Such are the five compounds of sulphur and oxygen.
The following little table exhibits the constitution and
atomic weight of these compounds :
Sulphur. Oxvfjen. Atomic
tt i 1 .1 weight.
Hyposuiphurous acid 2 atoms + 1 atom 5
Subsulphurous acid 1 -j- 1 3
Sulphurous acid 1 +24
Sulphuric acid 1 -j- 3 5
Hyposulphuric acid.„ 2 +5 9
II. Chlorine and sulphur are capable of combining, pro¬
bably in various proportions, though the different com¬
pounds have not yet been accurately distinguished from
each other.1 When a current of chlorine gas is passed Chloride
over flowers of sulphur, the sulphur becomes orange co-of sulphur,
loured, then moist, and is at last resolved into a brownish-
red liquid, which is a cldoride of sulphur. A similar com¬
pound may be formed by heating sulphur in a dry glass
vessel filled with chlorine gas.
The smell of this chloride is strong and peculiar. Its
taste is acid, hot, and bitter. It does not change the
colour of dry litmus paper, but if the paper be moist it is
rendered red. Its specific gravity is about 1*7. It dis¬
solves sulphur and phosphorus readily. It is very vola¬
tile. When dropt into water it is decomposed, sulphur
being evolved. When dropt into nitric acid a violent ef¬
fervescence is produced, and sulphuric acid formed. A
specimen of this chloride, analysed by Davy, was found
composed of
1 atom chlorine    4-5
1 atom sulphur...   2
’    —  
' ' 080 has ktely examined the chlorides of sulphur, and was unable to form any other than the dichloride.
376
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
Bromide.
Iodide.
Another specimen, analysed by Dr Thomson, was com¬
posed of
1 atom chlorine 
2 atoms sulphur ^
8-5
The first was a chloride, the second a dichloride. When
the dichloride is left to spontaneous evaporation, it depo¬
sits octahedral crystals of sulphur.
HI, Bromide of sulphur is easily formed by pouring
bromine on flowers of sulphur. An oily fluid is formed,
having a much deeper red colour than chloride of sulphur.
It is very volatile, and its smell is analogous to that of
chloride of sulphur. Cold water has but little action on
it; but with boiling water it slightly detonates; hydro-
bromic acid is formed together with sulphuric acid and
sulphuretted hydrogen. Chlorine decomposes this bro¬
mide ; bromine is driven off and chloride ot sulphur form¬
ed. Hence this bromide seems to be a compound of
I atom bromine 10
1 atom sulphur  2
12
and its atomic weight is 12. ...
IV. Iodide of sulphur is easily formed by mixing the
two ingredients in a glass tube, and heating the mixture
till it undergoes fusion. A grayish-black mass is obtained,
having a radiated structure like that of sulphuret of anti¬
mony. It has not been hitherto formed in definite pro¬
portions. The usual compound obtained seems to be a
compound of
1 atom iodine IS'lo
2 atoms sulphur  4<
19-75
No doubt an iodide
Fluoride.
Sulphuret
ted hydro-
gen.
It is therefore a diodide of sulphur
might likewise be obtained.
V. From an experiment of Davy, it seems probable that
fluoride of sulphur may be formed, and that it is a liquid.
He mixed sulphur and fluoride of lead, and distilled in a
platinum vessel. Sulphuret of lead was formed, and a li¬
quid volatilized. But the properties of this liquid have
not been determined.
VI. Sulphur forms with hydrogen an important gaseous
compound, distinguished by the names of sulphuretted hy¬
drogen and of hydrosulphuric acid. It may be obtained
by melting iron filings and sulphur in a Hessian crucible.
Leaving the sulphuret thus formed in contact with water
for twenty-four hours, and then pouring over it dilute sul¬
phuric acid, a copious effervescence takes place, and sul¬
phuretted hydrogen is evolved abundantly. We may ob¬
tain it also very pure by pouring concentrated muriatic acid
on sulphuret of antimony in the state of powder.
This gas is colourless, and possesses the mechanical
properties of common air. It has a strong foetid and pe¬
culiar smell, approaching somewhat that of rotten eggs.
Its taste is sweetish, it does not support combustion, nor
can animals breathe it without suffocation. Its specific
gravity is 1*1805. Its refracting power is 2-187, that of
air being unity. When subjected to a pressure of seven¬
teen atmospheres, it is condensed into a transparent and
colourless fluid, having a specific gravity of about 0*9.
Water absorbs 3-66 times its volume of this gas. Alco¬
hol absorbs it in still greater quantity. It is soluble also
in ether. Water thus impregnated has the smell and taste
of the gas, and reddens vegetable blues.
This gas is combustible ; it burns with a bluish-red
flame, and at the same time deposits a quantity of sul¬
phur. For complete combustion we must mix one volume
of this gas with one and a half volume of oxygen gas.
When an electric spark is passed through this mixture it Inorga
is converted into water and sulphurous acid. From this Bodies
combustion we see that the constituents are hydrogen and
sulphur. The sulphurous acid formed amounts to the
same volume as that of the sulphuretted hydrogen gas
consumed. It is obvious from this that this gas contains
one volume of sulphur vapour and one volume of hydro¬
gen gas united together and condensed into one volume;
hence its specific gravity is equal to that of these two
bodies added together.
Specific gravity of sulphur vapour ...Mill
Specific gravity of hydrogen gas, 0-0694
1-1805
Its atomic constituents are obviously
1 atom sulphur 2
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
2-125
and its atomic weight is 2-125.
When electric sparks are passed for a long time through
this gas, the whole sulphur is deposited and pure hydro¬
gen gas remains, but the gaseous volume is not altered.
When sulphur is heated in hydrogen gas it is partially
converted into sulphuretted hydrogen, but the volume of
gas is not altered.
2. Hydrosidphurous acid. When three volumes of sul-Hydro*
phuretted hydrogen gas and two volumes of sulphurousphurou
acid gas are mixed together over mercury, they unite to-acid,
gether, and are condensed into a solid body, which adheres
firmly to the sides of the jar. This compound has receiv¬
ed the name of hydrosulphurous acid.
It has an orange colour, an acid and hot taste, and it
leaves a disagreeable impression in the mouth. It does
not alter litmus paper when dry, but if it be moist the pa-
per becomes red. Water, alcohol, nitric acid, sulphuric
acid, decompose it and disengage sulphur. W hen agitat¬
ed in barytes water, no immediate precipitate appears.
For fusion, a higher temperature is requisite than the fus¬
ing point of sulphur. When it is kept in fusion an effer¬
vescence takes place, and pure sulphur remains behind.
From the proportions employed in forming it, it is obvi-
ously a compound of one volume sulphurous acid and one
and a half volume sulphuretted hydrogen, or, substituting
atoms for volumes, we have
1 atom sulphurous acid 4
atom sulphuretted hydrogen 3-1875
7-1875
so that its atomic weight is 7-1875, or some multiple of
that number. . , ,
3. There is another compound of sulphur and hydrogen, Bisulpj
which was first observed by Scheele, and to which the
name of hisulphuret of hydrogen has been given. I o torra
it, we may fuse carbonate ot potash in a covered ciuci e,
with a considerable excess of sulphur. By this process we
obtain persulphuret of potassium, composed of five atoms
of sulphur and one atom of potassium. A concentratea
solution of this sulphuret is to be poured into dilute muria¬
tic acid by little and little, taking care to mix the two
liquids well after every addition. A yellow oily looking
liquid collects at the bottom of the vessel. It is transparent
if the process has been successfully conducted. I his liqui
cannot be preserved, undergoing spontaneous decompos -
tion even in well-closed vessels. It is a compound ot
2 atoms sulphur 4
1 atom hydrogen   0-125
4125
No compound of sulphur and azote is at present known.
CHE M I
^anic VII. Bisulphuret of carbon. Sulphur combines with
odies. carbon, and forms a very remarkable compound, first dis-
-yw' covered by Lampadius in 1796, while distilling a mixture
alpha- 0f pyrites and charcoal. It may be obtained by filling an
car‘ inclined porcelain tube with fragments of charcoal, heat¬
ing it to redness, and making a current of melted sulphur
pass slowly through the ignited charcoal. A liquid passes
through the tube, which is condensed at the bottom of a
glass jar filled with water. Bisulphuret of carbon, when
first formed, is yellow, but when rectified by distillation at
the temperature of 110° it is transparent and colourless
like water.
Its taste is acid, pungent, and somewhat aromatic. Its
smell is nauseous and fetid, though quite peculiar. Its
specific gravity is 1-272. It boils briskly between 105°
and 110°. It does not congeal, though cooled down to
— 60°. It is very volatile, and produces much cold during
its evaporation. A thermometer, the bulb of which is
covered with lint moistened with this liquid, sinks in the
exhausted receiver of an air-pump to — 82° in less than
two minutes. It takes fire when heated to the tempera¬
ture at which mercury boils, and burns with a blue flame,
giving out the smell of sulphurous acid. When its vapour
is mixed with oxygen gas it detonates by electricity. If
the oxygen gas amount to six or seven times the bulk of
the vapour, the whole is converted into sulphurous acid
and carbonic acid.
It is scarcely soluble in water, but dissolves readily in
alcohol and ether. When passed through red-hot copper
filings, it combines with that metal, forming a carbo-sul-
phuret. When passed slowly through red-hot peroxide of
iron it is completely decomposed, and converted partly
into sulphuret of iron, and partly into sulphurous acid and
carbonic acid gases. By these processes the proportions
of its constituents have been determined, and it has been
found a compound of
2 atoms sulphur »...4
1 atom carbon 0-75
4-75
consequently its atomic weight is 4*75.
2. There seems likewise to be a solid compound of sul¬
phur and carbon, but its properties have not been accu¬
rately investigated. When gunpowder (which is made by
triturating together saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal) is
digested in water, the saltpetre is dissolved out. A black
matter remains, consisting of sulphur and charcoal, united
so intimately that the sulphur cannot be separated by
sublimation. But the properties of this substance, which
seems to be a compound of five atoms charcoal and one
atom sulphur, have not been examined.
3. From an experiment of Scheele, not attended to by
modern chemists, it would seem that a gaseous com¬
pound of sulphur and carbon also exists. He mixed per-
sulphuret of potassium and well-burnt charcoal, and heat¬
ed the mixture. A gas was obtained having the smell
of sulphuretted hydrogen, but not absorbable by water.
It was inflammable, and when burnt, the products were
carbonic acid gas and sulphurous acid. Chlorine de¬
composes it instantly, and a portion of sulphur is depo¬
sited.
phuret VIII. Sulphuret of boron. When boron is heaved to
won. whiteness in the vapour of sulphur, it burns with a red
flame. The sulphuret formed is white and opaque. If it
be kept red-hot till the vapour of sulphur with which it is
surrounded be condensed on the colder parts of the ap¬
paratus, it dissolves in water with a violent evolution of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, while the water holds boracic
acid in solution. Hence it is probably a bisulphuret, com¬
posed of
VOL. VI.
S T R Y. 377
2 atoms sulphur   4 Inorganic
1 atom boron   1 Bodies.
5
When the sulphuret of boron is withdrawn from the fire,
as soon as the combustion is at an end it dissolves in wa¬
ter with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas and
the formation of boracic acid; but at the same time a
portion of sulphur is deposited. It must, therefore, con¬
tain more than two atoms of sulphur combined with an
atom of boron.
IX. Sulphuret of silicon. When silicon is heated in the Sulphuret
vapour of sulphur, it burns with a red-coloured flame. The of silicon,
product is a white-coloured earthy looking matter, which
may be preserved unaltered in a dry atmosphere. In a
red heat it is slowly decomposed, sulphurous acid being
given out and silica remaining. The same decomposition
takes place in a moist atmosphere. Wlien thrown into
water it is completely resolved into sulphuretted hydrogen
and silica, showing that it is a compound of
1 atom sulphur 2
1 atom silicon 1
3
Sect. VII.— Of Selenium.
This substance was discovered by Berzelius in a reddish-
brown matter, which remained after the combustion of an
impure sulphur extracted from the iron pyrites at Fahlun,
to supply a small sulphuric acid work in that place. From
this matter it may be extracted in the following manner:
Put a pound of it into a tubulated retort, and pour over it,
by small quantities at a time, a mixture of 8 lbs. muriatic
acid of the specific gravity T2, and 4 lbs. nitric acid of
the specific gravity T5. To the retort is to be luted a
large globular receiver, from which proceeds a glass tube
plunging into a flask filled with water. After every addition
of acid a violent effervescence takes place, and abundance
of red vapours pass, which give a reddish-yellow colour to
the water in the flask. After adding the whole acid, dis¬
til it over into the receiver by a gentle heat. Pour the
liquid of the receiver back into the retort, and distil
again. Add lb. of strong nitric acid to the matter in
the retort, and distil it off*. Finally, boil the residue in the
retort with a sufficient quantity of distilled water, and throw
the whole on a filter. To the liquid thus obtained add
fresh sulphite of ammonia. The selenium precipitates in
large red flakes, which is to be washed and dried. When
the liquid is concentrated, the addition of sulphite of am¬
monia throws down a new dose of selenium. The acid
liquor distilled over contains also some selenium, which
may be precipitated by putting into it bars of zinc.
Selenium thus obtained, when exposed to a heat rather Properties,
higher than 212°, melts, and on cooling becomes solid.
In this state it has the metallic lustre, and a deep brown
colour. Its powder is deep red. It crystallizes with dif¬
ficulty in cubes, or four-sided prisms. Its specific gravity
is 4-3. It is soft, and easily reduced to powder. At 212°
it becomes semiliquid, and it melts when raised a few de¬
grees higher. After cooling, it remains long in a soft and
semifluid state. It is a bad conductor of heat, and a non¬
conductor of electricity.
I. It combines with three different portions of oxygen, Combina-
and forms three compounds, which have been distin- tions with
guished by the name of oxide of selenium, selenious acid, oxygen.
and selenic acid.
1. Oxide of selenium has not yet been obtained in a Oxide,
separate state. It is formed whenever selenium is strong¬
ly heated in the open air, and is distinguished by a very
strong smell of horse-radish. Berzelius considers it as a
3 B
378
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
Selenious
acid.
Selenic
acid.
gas. It does not appear to possess acid or alkaline pro-
Pe2.ieSelenious acid may be formed by burning selenium
in oxygen gas, or by heating it in contact with nitric acid
or aqua regia. When the solution cools, the selenious
acid is deposited in large prismatic crystals, longitudinally
striated, and similar to nitrate of potash. It distils over
at a heat inferior to what is necessary to draw over sul¬
phuric acid. It condenses in the receiver in long tour¬
sided needles. Its vapour resembles chlorine gas in co¬
lour. Its taste is acid, and it leaves a slightly burning im¬
pression upon the tongue. It is very soluble m water and
alcohol. , . ... ^
The atomic weight of this acid is seven, and it is a com¬
pound of
Selenium °
Oxygen ^
7
Hence it is probable that the atom of selenium weighs
five, and that selenious acid is a compound ot one atom
selenium and two atoms oxygen.
3. Selenic acid may be obtained by detonating an in¬
timate mixture of one part of selenium and three paits
of nitre, in small quantities at a time, in a red-hot cruci¬
ble. The residue, which contains seleniate of potash, is
to be dissolved in water, and nitrate of lead added to the
neutralized solution, till all the selenic acid is thrown down
in the state of seleniate of lead. This powder being washed
and diffused in water, a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
is passed through the liquid, till the whole lead is con¬
verted into sulphuret. The filtered liquid, alter being
heated to drive off any excess of sulphuretted hydrogen,
is an aqueous solution ol selenic acid.
It may be concentrated by evaporation, till the tempe¬
rature reaches 536°. But if we raise the heat higher,
oxygen gas is given out, and the acid is changed into se¬
lenious. It resembles sulphuric acid in its consistence,
and in the heat evolved, when it is mixed with water. In
its most concentrated state it consists of
Real acid 84 or 8
Water 16 1*523
100
From the analysis of Mitcherlich, the discoverer of this
acid, it is a compound of
1 atom selenium 5
3 atoms oxygen 3
8
We perceive that concentrated selenic acid is a compound
of
I atom selenic acid 8
II atom water 1*6875
of sulphur and oxygen may be also formed with selenium Inorga
and oxygen, remains still to be ascertained. Bodie:
II. Chlorine and selenium appear to combine in two
proportions, forming a chloride and bichloride, the former
of which is liquid and the latter solid.
When selenium is put into a glass tube, and a current Bichlor:
of chlorine gas passed over it, the selenium absorbs the
chlorine, and fuses into a brown liquid. By degrees this
liquid, by a further absorption of chlorine, is converted
into a solid matter having a white colour. When this
matter is heated, it sublimes without melting, and con¬
denses into small crystals in the upper part of the vessel.
If any confidence can be put in an imperfect analysis of
this substance by Berzelius, it is a compound of
2 atoms chlorine 9
1 atom selenium 5
14
When selenium is added to this bichloride, a combina- ChloriJ
tion may be produced by the assistance of heat, and a
deep yellow translucid liquid is obtained, which may be
distilled over, though it is much less volatile than the bi¬
chloride. It falls to the bottom of water, and is gradually
decomposed into muriatic and selenious acids, leaving a
quantity of undissolved selenium. According to Berze¬
lius, this liquid is composed of one volume chlorine gas
and one volume vapour of selenium, condensed into a liquid.
If so, it is composed of
1 atom chlorine 4*5
1 atom selenium 5
9*4
III. Bromide of selenium may be obtained by simply Bromii
pouring bromine upon selenium in powdey. Ihe two bo¬
dies combine rapidly, much heat is evolved, and the bro¬
mide formed is solid. It has a reddish-brown colour, gives
out vapours, and has the smell of chloride of sulphur.
Water dissolves it, converting it into selenious acid and
hydrobromic acid. Hence its constituents must be
2 atoms bromine 20
1 atom selenium  5
9-6875
The compounds of selenium and oxygen bear a striking
analogy to three of the compounds of sulphur and oxygen ;
namely, subsulphurous acid, sulphurous acid, and sulphuric
acid. This will be evident from the following table.
Selenium. Oxygen. weight
Oxide of selenium 1 atom + 1 atom 6
Selenious acid 1 +2 7
Selenic acid 1 +3 8
Sulphur. Oxygen. weight
Subsulphurous acid 1 atom + 1 atom 3
Sulphurous acid 1 +2 4
Sulphuric acid 1 +3 5
Whether substances analogous to the other two compounds
25
Nothing is yet known respecting the combinations of
selenium with iodine or fluorine.
IV. But it combines with hydrogen, and forms a gase-Selenie-
ous substance, which has been distinguished by the name to i)
of selenietted hydrogen gas. YV hen selenium and potassium
are fused together, a compound is formed which dissolves
in water without the evolution of any gas. ihe liquid
has the colour of beer, and contains in solution hydrosele-
niet of potash. Wlien dilute muriatic acid is poured upon
seleniet of potassium in a small retort, an effervescence
takes place, and selenietted hydrogen gas is driven oft.
This gas is colourless, and possesses the mechanical
properties of common air. Its smell has some resemblance
to that of sulphuretted hydrogen, but it acts much more
powerfully, destroying the sense of smell, and occasioning
a copious expectoration. It is more soluble in water than
sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution precipitates all the
metals from their solutions. The gas reddens vegetable
blueSj and possesses other acid characters. It is a com
pound of
1 atom silenium 5
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
5*125
so that its atomic weight is 5*125.
The specific gravity of selenietted hydrogen gas. ias
not yet been determined; but there can hardly exist a
CHEMISTRY.
379
j nic doubt that it is 2*8472, for it is undoubtedly composed of
ilies. one volume selenium vapour and one volume hydrogen gas
united together and condensed into one volume. From
the analogy of sulphur, there can be little doubt that the
specific gravity of selenium vapour is equal to its atomic
weight multiplied by 0*5555. But 5 X 0*5555 = 2*7777,
which, added to 0*0694 (the specific gravity of hydrogen
gas), makes 2*8472 for the specific gravity of selenietted
hydrogen gas.
Nothing is known respecting the compounds which se¬
lenium may be capable of forming with azote, carbon, bo¬
ron, and silicon.
S -uisul- V. When sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through
F ^et* a solution of selenic acid in water, a sulphuret of seleniufn
is formed, which renders the liquid muddy and lemon-
yellow, but does not easily separate. The precipitation is
facilitated by the addition of some muriatic acid to the
liquid. Sulphuret of selenium has a deep orange colour ;
it softens at 212°, and becomes liquid at a few degrees
higher. At a still higher temperature it boils, and may
be distilled over. The portion distilled over is transpa¬
rent, has a reddish-orange colour, and resembles melted
orpiment. It dissolves in the caustic fixed alkalies, and
in the sulphohydrates: the solution has a very dark orange
colour. This sulphuret is not easily acidified by nitric
acid: nitro-muriatic acid acts more powerfully. From the
analysis of Berzelius, it appears to be a compound of
atom sulphur 3
1 atom selenium 5
8
It is therefore a sesquisulphuret, and its atomic weight is 8.
Sect. VIII.— Of Tellurium.'
This scarce metal was detected in the mine of Maria-
holf, in Transylvania, long since abandoned. ' Its peculiar
nature was first determined by Klaproth.
I lerties. Tellurium has a silver-white colour, and considerable
brilliancy. Its texture is laminated. Its specific gravity
is 6*1379. It is very brittle, and may easily be reduced
to powder. For fusion it requires a temperature rather
•higher than what is necessary to melt lead. It easily
boils, and it maybe distilled over in a glass retort.
(Je. I. So far as we know, it combines with only one propor¬
tion of oxygen, and forms a compound possessing at once
acid and alkaline properties. It has been called oxide of tel¬
lurium. When tellurium is heated before the blowpipe it
burns with a blue flame, emitting a white smoke, which is
the oxide. It may be obtained most easily by dissolving
tellurium in nitro-muriatic acid, and diluting the solution
with a large quantity of water. A white powder falls,
which is the oxide of tellurium. It is a white, tasteless
powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in acids. When
heated it melts into a straw-coloured matter, which when
congealed assumes a radiated texture. When made into
a paste with oil, and heated in charcoal, it is reduced to the
metallic state with great facility. It may be volatilized
by heat. From the experiments of Klaproth and Berze¬
lius, it would appear that the atomic weight of tellurium
is four, and that the oxide is a compound of
1 atom tellurium 4
1 atom oxygen 1
5
so that its atomic weight is 5.
II. Tellurium burns spontaneously when introduced in¬
to chlorine gas. The chloride of tellurium formed is white
and transparent. When heated it rises in vapours, and Inorganic
crystallizes. Water decomposes it into oxide of tellurium Bodies,
and muriatic acid. Hence it is probably a compound of
1 atom chlorine 4*5
1 atom tellurium 4
8*5
The combination of bromine and tellurium has not been
examined.
III. Iodine combines readily with tellurium when the two Iodide,
substances are brought into contact. The solution in water
has a dark purple colour. It combines readily with potash,
and forms a colourless solution, which yields, by evapora¬
tion, crystals in small white prisms.
Nothing is known respecting the compounds of tellurium
with fluorine and azote.
IV. It combines with hydrogen, and forms a gas to which Telluret-
the name of telluretted hydrogen has been given. It may ted hydro-
be formed by mixing together oxide of tellurium, potash, £en*
and charcoal, and exposing the mixture to a red heat. It
is then put into a retort, diluted sulphuric acid is poured
on it, and the beak of the retort is plunged under mer¬
cury ; the gas comes over. It is transparent and colour¬
less, and has a strong smell, somewhat analogous to that of
sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns with a bluish flame, and
oxide of tellurium is deposited. It possesses the charac¬
ters of an acid, and is quite analogous to sulphuretted and
selenietted hydrogen. No doubt it is a compound of
1 atom tellurium 4
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
4*125
If it be a compound of one volume vapour of tellurium and
one volume of hydrogen gas condensed into one volume,
its specific gravity will be 2*2916.
Tellurium combines with carbon, and the compound is
a black powder which has not been examined.
The other combinations of tellurium are still unknown.
Sect. IX.— Of Phosphorus.
Phosphorus is usually prepared from the earth of bones,
which consists chiefly of phosphate of lime. This salt is
decomposed byr means of sulphuric acid. The liquid, freed
from sulphate of lime, is evaporated to dryness. A salt is
obtained consisting of phosphoric acid combined with a little
lime. This salt is mixed with about one sixth of its weight
of charcoal powder, and heated strongly in a stoneware
retort, the beak of which is plunged into a receiver con¬
taining Mater. The charcoal decomposes the phosphoric
acid, and the phosphorus passes over into the receiver in
melted drops.
Phosphorus is an amber-coloured and semitransparent Properties,
solid. Its specific gravity is T748. When heated to 108°
it melts ; it evaporates at 219°, and boils at 554°. It crys¬
tallizes in dodecahedrons. It is slightly soluble in alcohol,
ether, and oils. When taken internally it acts as a poison.
When exposed to the open air (unless the temperature
be very low*) it emits a white smoke having the smell
of garlic, and appears luminous in the dark, undergoing
in fact a slow combustion. At the temperature of 148°
it burns with a very large bright flame, giving out much
white smoke, being converted into phosphoric acid. An
orange coloured residue1 is left, which, however, may be
gradually dissipated by keeping it in a red heat.
I. Phosphorus combines M'ith oxygen in various proper-Combina¬
tions, two of which have been long known, and distinguish-ti°ns wkh
ed by the names of phosphorous and phosphoric acid. oxygen.
1 This is an oxide of phosphorus, composed of three atoms phosphorus and one atom oxygen.
380
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic 1. The easiest method of obtaining phosphoric acid is
Bodies, to saturate the impure phosphoric acid (separated trom
earth of bones by means of sulphuric acid) with ammonia,
Phosphoric which throws down a little phosphate of lime.. When the
acld’ filtered liquid is concentrated it deposits large crystals
of phosphate of ammonia. These crystals are to be cauti¬
ously heated in a platinum crucible. They melt and swell
up, giving out water and ammonia. The heat is to be
continued till the matter in the crucible is reduced to a
state of tranquillity. Let it be now kept for a little in a
red heat, in a state of fusion. On cooling, it will be pine
phosphoric acid. ...
Phosphoric acid thus prepared is a transparent solid
body like glass; its taste is acid. It dissolves very slow¬
ly in water; but when sufficiently digested in it, that li¬
quid dissolves a great deal of the acid, without showing
any disposition to deposit it again. Liquid phosphoiic
acid thus obtained is glutinous. It has no smell, but an
exceedingly sour taste ; it is not coriosive. W hen heat¬
ed to redness it parts with most of its watei, but not the
whole. At a red heat it smokes, and might be wholly vo¬
latilized by continuing the heat in an open crucible.
The atomic weight of phosphoric acid is Lb, and it is a
compound of
1 atom phosphorus 2 ^
2^ atoms oxygen 2*5
4-5
so that if we reckon the atomic weight of phosphorus 2,
the acid will contain two and a half atoms of oxygen,—
certainly an unexpected proportion ; but it seems to be
established by incontrovertible experiments.
Pvrophos- Mr Clarke observed, that when phosphate of soda is ex-
phoric acid, posed to a red heat, the nature of the acid is changed. Pie
called the newly modified acid pyrophosphoric acid. Com¬
mon phosphoric acid throws down oxide of silver of a yel¬
low colour, and the salt is not neutral ; but pyrophospho¬
ric acid throws down oxide of silver white, and the salt is
neutral. The atomic weight of pyrophosphoric acid is
precisely the same as that of phosphoric. Hence its con¬
stituents must be the same. But phosphoric acid is a
stronger acid than the pyrophosphoric, and decomposes
the pyrophosphates.
Phospho- 2. Phosphorous acid was first obtained pure by Davy, by
rous acid, dissolving chloride of phosphorus in water, and evaporat¬
ing the solution. The phosphorous acid was obtained in
crystals. This acid has an acid taste, and reddens vege¬
table blues. It is obviously a very feeble acid. When ex¬
posed to the air it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into
phosphoric acid; but the change goes on very slowly if the
acid be concentrated. When mixed with oxide of mercury
it is instantly converted into phosphoric acid, while the oxide
assumes the metallic state. If we attempt to dissolve iron
or zinc in this acid, sesquihydret of phosphorus is given
out, and phosphoric acid remains to unite with the oxides
of the metals employed. This acid is a compound of
1 atom phosphorus 2
II? atom oxygen 1'5
3-5
Ilypophos
phorous
acid.
so that its atomic weight is 3"5, and it contains an atom
of oxygen less than phosphoric acid.
3. There is another acid of phosphorus which was dis¬
covered by Dulong, and to which he gave the name of
hypophosphorous acid. It may be obtained thus: Mix
together a quantity of barytes and phosphorus, and boil
the mixture in a flask with water. Phosphuretted hydro¬
gen gas is given out, and hypophosphite of barytes formed
in the liquid. When the process is terminated, the liquid
is filtered and mixed with an excess of sulphuric acid, to
throw down the barytes. The filtered liquid is left in Inorgg
contact with carbonate of lead. The sulphate of lead re- Bodf
mains insoluble, but the hyposulphite of lead dissolves.
Filter the liquor and pass a current of sulphuretted hy¬
drogen through it. The lead is thrown down, and hypo-
phosphorous acid remains in solution in the water. This
acid has a sharp and very sour taste. It is distinguished
by the great solubility of all the salts which it forms in
water, every one of them hitherto examined being soluble.
According to the analysis of Rose, it is a compound of
2 atoms phosphorus 4
1 atom oxygen 1
5
so that it is similar in its constitution to the hyposulphu-
rous acid of Herschell.
4. When phosphorus is exposed to the air, arranged inpi^
the inside of a funnel with a capillary beak, i t gradually acid,
absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, and a liquid drops
from the beak of the funnel, which may be received in a
proper vessel. This acid was first accurately examined
by Dulong, who gave it the name of phosphatic acid.
By determining the quantity of oxygen absorbed during
the formation of this acid, it has been ascertained that it
is composed of phosphorus 2, and oxygen 2*166.
Now we obtain the same ratios if we consider phospha¬
tic acid not to be a peculiar acid, but a compound of
Phosphorus. Oxygen.
2 atoms phosphoric acid 2 atoms + 5 atoms
1 atom phosphorous acid... 1 + L5
3 -j- 6*5
Now, 2 atoms phosphorus = 6, and 6*5 atoms oxygen
= 6*5. Dividing by 3, we get phosphorus 2, oxygen 2*166,
which is the very constitution found .by experiment.
There is no reason, therefore, to consider phosphatic
acid as any thing else than a combination of
2 atoms phosphoric acid 4*5
1 atom phosphorous acid 3*5
8
This would make its atomic weight 8. It does not com¬
bine with bases and form salts.
II. Phosphorus unites in two proportions with chlorine,
and forms two compounds, which have received the name
of sesquichloride vend, per chloride of phosphorus.
1. Sesquichloride of phosphorus may be prepared inSesqui
this way: Into a tube shut at one end put a quantity ofchlond
phosphorus, and fill a considerable portion of the tube
with corrosive sublimate, and let the extremity of the tube
pass into a proper receiver. Heat the portion of the
tube containing the corrosive sublimate, then sublime the
phosphorus through it. A liquid collects in the receiver,
which is sesquichloride of phosphorus.
It is colourless like water, smokes strongly when it
comes into the atmosphere, and has an acid and very
caustic taste. Its specific gravity is 1*45. It readily dis¬
solves phosphorus, and usually contains a little of it in
solution. When dropt into water it is decomposed and
converted into muriatic acid and phosphorous acid. From
this decomposition it follows that the chloride is a com¬
pound of
atom chlorine 6*75
1 atom phosphorus 2
8*75
Three atoms of water must be decomposed by every two
atoms of the chloride. The three atoms of hydrogen go
to the formation of muriatic acid, while the three atoms
of oxygen go to the formation of phosphorous acid.
ay  .... gf1
CHEMISTRY.
•ganic 2. The perchloride of phosphorus may be formed by
dies, burning phosphorus in dry chlorine gas in the proportion
of one grain of the former to twelve cubic inches of the
ll10- latter. It is a snow-white substance, exceedingly volatile,
rising at a temperature below that of boiling water. Un¬
der pressure it may be fused, and then crystallizes in
transparent prisms. When thrown into water it acts with
great violence, the wrater is decomposed, and muriatic
acid and phosphoric acid are formed. It is obvious from
this decomposition that the perchloride is a compound of
1 atom phosphorus 2
21 atoms chlorine 11*25
13*25
Two atoms of it decompose five atoms of water, the hy¬
drogen of which unites with the chlorine, and the oxygen
with the phosphorus. It is therefore analogous to phos¬
phoric acid in its composition.
nides. HI- Bromine and phosphorus likewise combine in two
proportions, forming a sesquibromide, which is liquid, and
a perbromide, which is solid.
When dry phosphorus is drop't into bromine in a glass
tube, the action is violent, both heat and light being evol¬
ved. Indeed an explosion usually takes place, and the
whole is thrown out of the tube. It is best, therefore, to
mix the two bodies in minute quantities at a time. Two
compounds are formed ; a solid body, which sublimes and
crystallizes in the upper part of the tube; and a liquid,
which remains at the bottom. The solid contains most
bromine; for the liquid may by the addition of bromine
be converted into the solid.
ubro- 1. The liquid or sesquibromide does not lose its fluidity
when cooled down to 10*°5. It is very volatile, and emits
pungent vapours. It is capable of dissolving an excess
of phosphorus. When put into water that liquid is decom¬
posed, and hydrobromic acid formed. When the liquid
is evaporated to dryness, a slight combustion takes place,
and phosphoric acid remains. We see from this that it
was phosphorous acid that was formed at first. Hence it
is evident that the sesquibromide must be a compound of
]£ atom bromine 15
1 atom phosphorus  2
17
2. The solid bromide has a yellow colour. When slight¬
ly heated it melts into a red liquor, which gives out va¬
pours having the same colour. When these vapours are
condensed they crystallize in long needles ; but when the
fused bromide is allowed to cool, it forms rhomboidal crys¬
tals. In the open air it gives out dense and pungent va¬
pours. When mixed with water a double decomposition
takes place, hydrobromic acid and phosphoric acid being
formed, showing that the constituents of this bromide are
2^ atoms bromine 25
1 atom phosphorus   2
27
IV. Iodine and phosphorus combine also in two propor¬
tions similar to the chlorides and bromides of the same base.
1. When two parts by weight of phosphorus are mixed
with twenty-four parts of iodine in a glass tube, they unite
with great rapidity, and the product is a reddish brown
solid body, which melts when heated to the temperature
of about 84°. Water decomposes this compound, and con¬
verts it into hydriodic and phosphorous acids. Hence it
is obviously a sesquiodide composed of
1^ atom iodine 23*625
1 atom phosphorus  2
381
2. When two parts by weight of phosphorus are mix- Inorganic
ed with forty parts of iodine, the combination takes place Bodies,
with equal violence, but the iodide is black, and does
not melt till heated to 115°. When dissolved in water it Periodide.
is decomposed and converted into hydriodic and phospho¬
ric acids. Hence its constituents must be
21 atoms iodine 39*375
1 atom phosphorus  2
41*375
We may also combine
1 atom iodine 15*75
1 atom phosphorus  2
17*75
It has an orange colour, and does not melt till heated to
212°. It may be sublimed unaltered. Water decomposes
it into hydriodic acid and phosphorous acid, a little red-
coloured phosphorus remaining behind.
V. When phosphorus is mixed with fluoride of mer-seSqUi_
cury or fluoride of lead, and the mixture distilled in a pla-fluoride,
tinum vessel, a liquid passes over, which is probably a flu¬
oride of phosphorus. It is a fuming liquid, which may
be burnt in oxygen gas. When mixed with water it is
decomposed into hydrofluoric acid and phosphorous acid,
showing that it must be a compound of
1^ atom fluorine 3*375
1 atom phosphorus 2
5*375
It is therefore a sesquifluoride.
The compounds of phosphorus with oxjrgen, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and fluorine, are quite analogous; and,
doubtless, when the investigation of them is farther ad¬
vanced, they will be all equally numerous.
VII. Phosphorus combines with hydrogen in various pro¬
portions, two of which have been particularly examined.
1. Phosphuretted hydrogen, the first of these, may be ob- Phosphu-
tained by the following process : Fill a small retort with retted by¬
water acidulated by muriatic acid, and then throw into itdrogen.
phosphuret of lime in lumps. Plunge the beak of the re¬
ceiver into water recently well boiled to deprive it of air.
An effervescence takes place, and phosphuretted hydrogen
is disengaged. Half an ounce of phosphuret of lime yields
seventy cubic inches of a gas composed of
87 volumes phosphuretted hydrogen,
13 volumes hydrogen gas.
100
When the gas is obtained by boiling phosphorus in contact
with caustic potash, it is composed of
37*5 volumes of phosphuretted hydrogen,
62*5 volumes hydrogen gas.
100*0
25*625
This gas is colourless, and possesses the mechanical pro¬
perties of common air. Its smell resembles that of garlic,
and it has a very bitter taste. Its specific gravity is 1*7708.
When heated with corrosive sublimate it is completely de¬
composed, and a quantity of muriatic acid gas is formed,
equal to three times the volume of the phosphuretted hy¬
drogen gas. But muriatic acid gas contains half its vo¬
lume of hydrogen gas. Hence, a volume of phosphuretted
hydrogen gas contains one and a half volume of hydrogen
gas; the rest is phosphorus. To discover the weight of
phosphorus contained in a volume of this gas, we have
only to subtract 0-10416 (the specific gravity of one and a
half volume of hydrogen gas) from 1*7708, the specific gra¬
vity of phosphuretted hydrogen. The remainder is 1*6666.
Hence the gas is composed of
382
Inorganic
Bodies.
C H E M I S T R Y.
Hydrogen 0’10416 or 0‘125
Phosphorus P6G666 or 2-
Thus it appears that the gas is a compound of ^
1 atom hydrogen 0T25
1 atom phosphorus 2*
2-125
and its atomic weight is 2'125.
When this gas comes in contact with air or oxygen gas,
it burns spontaneously with considerable splendour, bor
complete combustion one volume of the gas requires 1 87o
volumes of oxygen gas; but a volume of it contains l^ vo¬
lume of hydrogen gas, which will require 0-75 volume ot
the oxygen to convert it into water. There remains 1-125
volume of oxygen to combine with the phosphoius; but
1-125 is equivalent to 2^ atoms of oxygen. But phospho¬
rous acid being a compound of 1 atom phosphorus + 1^
atom oxygen, it is clear that 2^ atoms of oxygen will con¬
vert l^ atom of phosphorus into phosphorous acid.
A volume of vapour of phosphorus is equivalent to an
atom, and its specific gravity is Mill. But the weight
of phosphorus in a volume of the gas is 1-6666, which is
equal to a volume and a half. Thus it appears that a vo¬
lume of phosphuretted hydrogen gas is composed of 1| vo¬
lume of hydrogen gas and 1| volume of phosphorous vapour
united together and condensed into one volume.
The gas, then, is a compound of
11 atom phosphorus 3
11- atom hydrogen 0-1875
, 3-1875
and its atomic weight, instead of 2-125, is 3-1875.
A volume of phosphuretted hydrogen gas will burn also
with 2-625 volumes of oxygen gas, and be converted into
water and phosphoric acid. 0-75 of the oxygen will go to
the formation of water. The remaining 1-875 of oxygen
will convert the Ig- volume of phosphorus into phosphoric
acid-
This gas may be detonated also with protoxide and
deutoxide of azote. When mixed with chlorine gas it
burns with a greenish-yellow flame. When the two gases
are mixed in the proportion of one volume phosphuretted
hydrogen and three volumeschlorine, the whole disappears,
being converted into muriatic acid and a brown matter
which speedily dissolves in water.
Water absorbs about two per cent, of this gas, and ac¬
quires an intensely bitter taste, and a smell similar to that
of the gas. It precipitates silver, mercury, and copper,
from their solutions of a dark colour. It unites readily to
hydriodic acid, and forms a white substance, which crys¬
tallizes in cubes. It is composed of one volume of hydri¬
odic acid and half a volume of phosphuretted hydrogen
gas.
Hydro- 2. Hydro-phosphoric gas, or sesquihydret of phosphorus,
phosphoric was first particularly examined by Davy in 1812. He ob-
gas- tained it by heating crystallized phosphorous acid. It may
be obtained also by exposing phosphuretted hydrogen gas
to the direct rays of the sun. A quantity of phosphorus
is deposited, and the gas is changed into sesquihydret.
This gas is colourless, and possesses the mechanical pro¬
perties of common air. Its smell is similar to that of phos¬
phuretted hydrogen, but not so strong. When mixed with
oxygen gas, it does not burn spontaneously unless it be ra¬
refied. When so rarefied as to support a column of mer¬
cury twenty inches in height, it detonates spontaneously
at 68°; but if the temperature be lower the rarefaction
must be carried farther.
Its specific gravity is T21527. For complete combus¬
tion a volume of it requires one and a half or two volumes
of oxygen gas. The products are water and phosphorous
or phosphoric acid, according to the quantity of oxygen Inor;!: [
consumed. When a volume of this gas is heated with Bod;'
corrosive sublimate, it is decomposed, and leaves three ^ '
volumes of muriatic acid. Hence a volume of it contains
one and a half volume of hydrogen gas. Ihe rest is phos¬
phorus.
Specific gravity of sesquihydret 1-21527
Specific gravity of 1^ volume of hydrogen gas, 0-10416
Phosphorus  1-11111
Hence the constituents of the gas by weight are,
Hydrogen 0*10416 or 0T8/t>
Phosphorus IT 1111 or 2
But 0-1875 is 1£ atom of hydrogen, and 2 is 1 atom of
phosphorus. Hence the gas is composed of
11 atom hydrogen 0-1875
1 atom phosphorus 2
2-1875
and its atomic weight is 2-1875. It differs from phosphu¬
retted hydrogen merely by containing hall an aitom ot
phosphorus less.
When mixed with chlorine gas it burns spontaneously
with a white flame. Water absorbs the eighth part of its
volume of this gas, so that its absorbability is the same as
that of olefiant gas.
No combination of phosphorus and azote has yet been
discovered. . .
VIII. Phosphorus and carbon are capable of combining.
The compound frequently remains, when phosphuret ofretoi
lime, after being allowed to remain in water till phosphu- on-
retted hydrogen has ceased to be disengaged, is treated
with muriatic acid. It is a powder having a dirty lemon-
yellow colour, and destitute both of taste and smell. It
slowly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. When
heated to redness in a close vessel, phosphorus is driven
off, and charcoal remains.
IX. Sulphur and phosphorus combine. Put five partsSulph t
of sulphur, and seven of phosphorus into a glass tube, andofplio o
melt them together. Agitate this compound in liquidrus’
ammonia, and then set the whole aside for some hours.
It becomes light yellow, transparent, and of greater fluidi¬
ty. When left for some weeks in water, it deposits crys¬
tals of sulphur, becomes less fluid, and at 40° congeals
into a crystalline mass. In this state it is sometimes a
disulphuret of phosphorus, or a compound of
1 atom sulphur 2
2 atoms phosphorus 4
sometimes a sesquiphosphuret of sulphur, or a compound of
I atom sulphur....* 2
II atom phosphorus 3
5
And probably the two substances combine in other pro-
1 X. Selenium and phosphorus may be melted together Seler
in almost any proportion. When phosphorus is saturate
with selenium, we obtain a very fusible compound, having
a dark brown colour, a good deal of lustre, and a vitreous
fracture. When the phosphorus is in excess, the com¬
pound is red, and destitute of the metallic lustre.
Sect. X.— Of Arsenic.
Arsenic occurs in commerce in the state of a white
heavy body, resembling enamel in appearance, and usual¬
ly known by the name of white arsenic. It is in fact a
combination of arsenic and oxygen. When this matter is
C H E M I S T R Y.
383
I : ;amc
[lies.
Pi
•rties,
Ar lie
ad
mixed with black flvx,1 and heated in a glass tube or a
crucible, over the top of which another crucible is luted,
it is reduced to the metallic state, and sublimes into the
upper crucible, where it forms a crust.
Arsenic in this state has a bluish-white colour, and the
metallic lustre. It is soft, and so brittle that it is easily
reduced to a fine powder by trituration in a mortar. Its
specific gravity is 5-672. When kept for some time at a
red heat in a close vessel, it acquires much greater bril¬
liancy, and its specific gravity becomes as high as 5-959.
Its melting point has not been determined, but it is vola¬
tilized when heated to the temperature of 365°. When
sublimed slowly it crystallizes in tetrahedrons. When
exposed to the air, it soon loses its lustre, and becomes a
dirty black on the surface.
I. It combines with oxygen in two proportions, and
forms two compounds, both of which possess acid proper¬
ties ; they are distinguished by the names of arsetiious and
arsenic acids.
1. When arsenic is exposed to a moderate heat in con¬
tact with the air, it sublimes in the form of a white powder,
and at the same time emits a smell resembling garlic. If
the heat be increased, it burns with a pale blue flame.
The white matter thus formed is arsenious acid, seldom
made artificially by chemists, because it is in this state
that arsenic occurs in commerce, being sublimed chiefly
from certain ores of cobalt.
Arsenious acid is a white, brittle, compact substance. It
has a weak but acrid taste, which at last leaves an impres¬
sion of sweetness. It is one of the most virulent poisons
known. A thousand parts of cold water dissolve only two
and a half parts of this acid, but 1000 parts of boiling
water dissolve 77| parts of it. The solution has very lit¬
tle taste, but reddens vegetable blues. When slowly eva¬
porated, the acid crystallizes in regular octahedrons. It
has been ascertained by accurate experiments that this
acid is composed of
1 atom arsenic 4-75
atom oxygen T5
6-25
so that its atomic weight is 6-25, and the atom of arsenic
weighs 4-75. Thus arsenious acid and phosphorous acid
are precisely similar in their constitution.
2. Arsenic acid, the other compound of arsenic and
oxygen, was discovered by Seheele. It may be obtained
by dissolving metallic arsenic in nitric acid, and evaporat¬
ing the solution to dryness; or by mixing in a retort two
parts of muriatic acid of the specific gravity T2, eight
parts of arsenious acid, and twenty-four parts of nitric acid
ol the specific gravity T25. The arsenious acid, by the
assistance of heat, dissolves with effervescence. Evapo¬
rate the solution to dryness; what remains is arsenic acid.
Arsenic acid thus prepared is a white matter, having
a weak but acid taste. After exposure to a red heat, it
dissolves very slowly in water. However, by long diges¬
tion, a very concentrated solution may be obtained, which
has an intensely acid taste, and which remains liquid even
when evaporated to the consistence of a jelly. The con¬
stituents of this acid are,
1 atom arsenic 4-75
2|- atoms oxygen 2-5
7-25
so that its atomic weight is 7-25. It is quite similar in its
constitution to phosphoric acid.
II. Arsenic combines with chlorine, and forms a com¬
pound, to which the name of chloride of arsenic has been Inorganic
given. It was formerly called butter of arsenic. It is Bodies,
formed when arsenic is introduced into dry chlorine gas.
The metal takes fire spontaneously, and is converted into Chlor.i(*e
chloride. But the easiest mode of obtaining it is to mixarseniC'
together six parts of corrosive sublimate and one part of
arsenic, and distil, with a gentle heat, in a retort. A li¬
quid passes over into the receiver, which is chloride of
arsenic. The following is also a very easy process for form¬
ing this chloride. Put into a tubulated retort a quantity
of arsenious acid, with ten times its weight of concentrated
sulphuric acid. Then throw in by the tubular mouth frag¬
ments of common salt which have been recently fused to
expel all moisture. Chloride of arsenic passes slowly into
the receiver. The heat must be kept up, and additional
portions of common salt gradually added. Little or no
muriatic acid is disengaged ; but some hydrous chloride
of arsenic at last passes over, and swims on the surface of
the anhydrous chloride.
Chloride of arsenic is a transparent liquid, of the con¬
sistence of oil. It is very volatile. It boils at 270°. Its
specific gravity is greater than that of water. When hot,
it dissolves phosphorus or sulphur, but lets them fall again
on cooling. It likewise dissolves rosin, and combines with
olive oil and oil of turpentine. When mixed with water
it is decomposed, arsenious acid precipitating. It is a
compound of
1J atom chlorine 6-75
1 atom arsenic 4-75
11-5
It is therefore a sesquichloride, and its atomic weight is 11-5.
The specific gravity of the vapour of this chloride is 6-4888.
No doubt a perchloride of arsenic exists, containing
two and a half atoms chlorine, analogous to arsenic acid ;
but it has not yet been subjected to examination. It is
solid and white.
III. Bromide of arsenic may be formed by putting a Bromide,
quantity of bromine into a tubulated retort, and throwing
into it pulverized arsenic till the metal ceases to burn,
gently agitating the retort after every addition. When
the compound is formed, it may be distilled over into the
receiver to get rid of any excess of arsenic that may have
been added.
This bromide becomes solid at 68°, and is liquefied when
raised a few degrees higher. It boils, and may be distil¬
led over, at 428°. It has a very light yellow colour. On
solidifying it crystallizes in prisms. When mixed with
water it is immediately decomposed into hydrobromic acid
and arsenious acid. Hence its constituents are obviously
1^ atom bromine 15
1 atom arsenic ..4-75
19-75
It is therefore a sesquibromide, analogous to arsenious
acid; and its atomic weight is 19-75.
IV. The best way of forming iodide of arsenic is to mix iodide,
three parts of arsenic in fine powder, ten parts of iodine,
and a hundred parts of water, and to digest the mixture till
all smell of iodine disappears. The clear liquid is to be
poured off, and subjected to evaporation. At a certain de¬
gree of concentration, red crystals of iodide of arsenic are
deposited. To obtain the iodide pure, we must evaporate
the liquid to dryness, and heat the dry residue till it melts.
On cooling it has a brick-red colour, and a crystalline tex¬
ture. It has no smell. Jt may be sublimed. It dissolves
in a large quantity of water; but when mixed with a small
1 Black flux is cream of tartar exposed to a red heat in a covered crucible till it ceases to smoke.
3S4
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
quantity it undergoes decomposition, being converted into
hydriodic acid and arsenious acid.
Hence it is a compound of
11 atom iodine 23‘G25
l^atom arsenic  4*7.j
Fluoride.
Arsen iet-
ted hydro'
sjen.
Sulphu-
ret.
28*375
It is therefore a sesquiodide. .
V. When a mixture of fluor spar, arsenious acid, and
sulphuric acid, is heated in a platinum or leaden retort, a
fuming colourless liquid passes over, which is a fiuoric*e
of arsenic. It smokes, and has a specific gravity ot 2*73.
When it comes in contact with water it is converted into
fluoric acid and arsenious acid. Hence it must be a com¬
pound of #
11 atom fluorine 
l~atom arsenic 
8*125
It is therefore a sesquifluoride, analogous to the other
compounds of arsenic, with the simple supporters.
VI. Arsenic combines with hydrogen, and forms a com¬
pound which has been called arsenietted hydrogen gas. It
may be obtained by dissolving in muriatic acid an alloy of
arsenic and tin, or an alloy of arsenic and zinc, or by heat¬
ing arsenic in an alkaline ley. By whatever process it is
obtained it is always impure, being, mixed with a large
proportion of hydrogen gas. Its purity may be determin¬
ed by exposing it to the action of a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper. The arsenietted hydrogen is absorbed,
while the pure hydrogen gas remains. Dumas found that
a hundred volumes of the purest gas which he could procure
was a mixture of from thirty to twenty-eight arsenietted
hydrogen, and from seventy to seventy-two hydrogen gas.
Arsenietted hydrogen gas is colourless, has a nauseous
smell, is not sensibly absorbed by water, extinguishes
flame, and destroys life. It burns with a blue flame, and
if the neck of the vessel containing it be narrow, the ar¬
senic is deposited. It explodes with oxygen gas, water
and arsenious acid being formed. Sulphuretted hydrogen
occasions no change in it; but if chlorine gas be added to
the mixture, the bulk diminishes, and yellow-coloured
flakes are deposited. Thus these two gases furnish a de¬
licate test of the presence of arsenietted hydrogen gas.
Concentrated nitric acid, when suddenly mixed with this
gas, causes an evolution of red fumes, and an explosion ac¬
companied with flame.
When tin is melted in this gas the arsenic is absorbed
and the hydrogen set at liberty. A volume of the gas,
after this treatment, leaves one and a half volume of hy¬
drogen gas. For complete combustion, one volume of the
gas requires one and a half volume of oxygen gas.. Of
this 0*75 volume went to the formation of water, there
remains 0*75 (equivalent to one and a half atom) to.com¬
bine with the arsenic, indicating a volume of arsenic va¬
pour, equivalent to one atom of arsenic. Hence the gas
is a compound of
atom hydrogen 0*1875
1 atom arsenic 4*75
4*9375
Hence the atomic weight must be 4*9375. The weight
of a volume of arsenic vapour deduced from the atomic
weight of arsenic is 2*6888. Consequently the specific
gravity of the gas must be 2*79305.
Nothing is known respecting the combinations of arse-
nic with azote, carbon, boron, or silicon.
VII. Sulphur and arsenic combine in various propor¬
tions. Four of these compounds are known, and have been
subjected to analysis.
1. Sulphuret, or realgar. When a mixture of sulphur InorS:
and arsenic is melted in a covered crucible, a red vitreous Boil;
mass is obtained, which is sulphuret of arsenic. It may 1
be obtained also by heating arsenious acid and sulphur. eafe
It is found native, and is then usually distinguished by the
name of realgar. It has a scarlet colour, and is frequently
crystallized in prisms. Its specific gravity is 3*3384. It
is tasteless, and slightly poisonous. It is sometimes used
as a paint. It is composed of
1 atom sulphur 2
I atom arsenic 4<*75
6*75
and its atomic weight is 6*75.
2. Sesquisulphuret, or orpiment. If arsenious acid beOrpira
dissolved in muriatic acid, and a solution of sulphuretted
hydrogen in water be poured into the liquid, a fine yellow-
coloured powder falls to the bottom. This powder is
usually called orpiment. It may be formed by subliming
arsenic and sulphur by a heat not sufficient to melt them.
This substance is found native. It is composed of thin
plates, which have a considerable degree of flexibility.
Its specific gravity is 3*4522. It is composed of
II atom sulphur 3
1 atom arsenic 4*75
7*75
Its atomic weight is 7*75.
3. Sulphide. When a current of sulphuretted hydro-Sulph
gen gas is passed through a moderately concentrated solu¬
tion of arsenic acid in water, a yellow-coloured precipitate
falls, very much resembling orpiment in its appearance.
It is much less fusible than sulphur, and when fused its
colour becomes reddish. It sublimes unaltered, and forms
a reddish-brown mass, not the least crystalline. When it
is boiled in alcohol, a little sulphur dissolves and crystal¬
lizes as the alcohol cools. The alkaline hydrates and con¬
centrated ammonia dissolve it. It decomposes the sul-
phohydrates and the carbonates. Its constituents are
2^ atoms sulphur 5
1 atom arsenic 4*75
9*75
It is therefore analogous to arsenic acid in its constitution.
4. Per sulphuret of arsenic. It may be obtained by pre-Persi
cipitating a neutral solution of sulpharseniate of potash, or
soda, by* means of alcohol, filtering the solution, and dis¬
tilling off the half or two thirds of the alcohol. When the
residual liquid is allowed to cool, it deposits groups of
yellow brilliant crystals, very bulky and light. These
crystals are composed of
9 atoms sulphur 18
1 atom arsenic  4*75
22*75 I
VIII. Arsenic combines readily with phosphorus. The PM
phosphuret may be formed by distilling equal parts °^ar're
senic and phosphorus over a moderate fire. It is black
and brilliant, and should be kept under water.
IX. Selenium, when in fusion, dissolves arsenic by de-Selen
grees. The excess of either body sublimes if the heat
be continued, and we obtain a seleniet in the form of a
black and very fusible mass. It has a vitreous fractuie.
Sect. XI.— Of Antimony.
Antimony exists in the earth most commonly in the
state of sulphuret. The metal, as it occurs in commerce,
is never quite pure; but it may be purified thus. ^
duce it to a fine powder, and mix it with its own weign
of antimonic acid, and fuse it in a crucible. The impun-
CHEMISTRY.
385
j ranic ties are all oxydized by the oxygen of the acid, and the
1 lies, metal remains pure.
^ure antimony has a silver-white colour. Its texture
T .'rties.js fibrous, but it does not present the broad plates of the
antimony of commerce. It crystallizes in octahedrons.
It is easily reduced to a fine powder by pounding in a
mortar. Its specific gravity is 6*4366. It melts at 810°,
or just at incipient redness. When heated to whiteness
before the blowpipe, and thrown on the table, it burns
with great splendour, giving out a white smoke, and rol¬
ling on the table. It undergoes no change by exposure
to the air, except a diminution of its lustre. At a red
heat it decomposes water, and is oxydized.
q ,3_ I. Antimony combines with oxygen in three propor¬
tions, and forms three compounds, two of which possess
acid properties. The other is an oxide, which constitutes
the base of all the active medicinal preparations of this
metal.
p jxide. 1. Oxide of antimony may be obtained thus :—Dis¬
solve antimony in muriatic acid, and dilute the solution
with water. A white curdy precipitate falls. Wash it
with water, and boil it for some time in a solution of car¬
bonate of potash. Then wash it well, and dry it on a
filter.
It has usually a dirty-white colour. When obtained
by sublimation, when it is known by the name of argen¬
tine flowers of antimony, it has a white colour and a silky
lustre. When heated it assumes a yellow colour. When
heated to redness in the open air it glows like tinder,
and is converted into arsenious acid. In a retort it may
be fused and distilled over at a red heat, if air be ex¬
cluded.
Glass of antimony is this oxide combined with some
sulphuret of antimony. Liver of antimony is the same
compound with a greater proportion of sulphuret, which
renders it opaque, and of a liver colour.
This oxide is a compound of
1 atom antimony 8
atom oxygen   T5
9*5
on the supposition that the atomic weight of antimony is
eight. So that oxide of antimony is analogous in its com¬
position to phosphorous and arsenious acids.
A moni. 2. Antimonious acid is easily obtained by oxydizing an-
01 c‘d. timony by means of nitric acid, evaporating to dryness,
and exposing the residual matter to a red heat. It has a
snow-white colour, but becomes yellow when heated. It
cannot be fused nor sublimed at a red heat; nor is it so
easily reduced to the metallic state when heated with
charcoal, as protoxide of antimony. When heated with a
mixture of charcoal and potash, it may be obtained in the
metallic state. It combines with bases, and forms salts,
to which the name of antimonites has been given. Anti¬
monious acid is a compound of
1 atom antimony 8
2 atoms oxygen 2
10
so that its atomic weight is 10.
A inonic 3. Antimonic acid may be obtained by dissolving anti¬
mony in aqua regia, evaporating the solution to dryness,
adding nitric acid to the residue, and heating it till that
acid is expelled. - We must beware of raising the tempe¬
rature to redness, otherwise the antimonic acid will lose
oxygen, and be converted into antimonious acid.
It is a straw-coloured powder, tasteless, and insoluble
m water. When heated with alkaline carbonates in a
crucible, the carbonic acid is driven off, and antimoniates
formed. It dissolves in boiling caustic potash. The acids
VOL. vi.
precipitate from this solution hydrated antimonic acid in Inorganic
the state of a white powder. Antimonic acid is composed Bodies.
of
1 atom antimony 8
2J atoms oxygen 2*5
10*5
so that it is analogous to phosphoric and arsenic acids.
II. So far as we know at present, chlorine and anti-Chlorides,
mony combine only in two proportions, and form two
chlorides analogous to oxide of antimony and antimonic
acid.
1. When two parts of corrosive sublimate and one part Sesqui-
of antimony are mixed together and distilled, a fatty masschl°ride.
of a grayish-white colour comes over, often crystallized in
four-sided prisms. It was formerly called butter of anti¬
mony. It melts at a moderate heat, is very volatile, and
is decomposed when mixed with water into muriatic acid
and protoxide of antimony, without any trace of antimo¬
nious or antimonic acid. It is therefore a sesquichloride
composed of
1^ atom chlorine 6*75
1 atom antimony 8
14*75
2. Perchloride of antimony may be formed by passing Perchlo-
a current of chlorine gas over heated metallic antimony, ride.
The metal burns vividly, emitting sparks, while at the same
time a volatile liquid is formed, which is the perchloride.
It is white, or has only a light-yellowish tinge. It has a
strong and disagreeable smell, and fumes in the atmosphere.
Exposed to the air it attracts moisture, and is converted
into a white mass, in which crystals form: these crystals
afterwards dissolve without rendering the solution milky.
When mixed with water it is decomposed and converted
into antimonic acid and muriatic acid. Hence it must be
a compound of
2^ atoms chlorine   11*25
1 atom antimony 8
19*25
Thus it is analogous in its composition to antimonic acid.
III. Sesquibromide of antimony may be obtained by Sesquibro-
putting some bromine into a tubulated retort, and throw-mule,
ing on it antimony in powder as long as that metal con¬
tinues to take fire. It is then to be distilled over into the
receiver. It is much less fusible and volatile than the ses¬
quibromide of arsenic. It melts at about the temperature
of 200°, and boils at 518°. It is colourless, and crystallizes
in needles. It attracts moisture from the atmosphere.
When mixed with water it is decomposed into oxide of
antimony and hydrobromic acid. Hence its constituents
must be
1^ atom bromine 15
1 atom antimony    8
23
IV. Sesquiodide of antimony is easily formed by heat-Sesquio-
ing the two constituents together. Any excess of iodine dide.
is easily driven off by heat. It is a dark-red solid, which
melts readily when heated, and which, when put into wa¬
ter, is converted into oxide of antimony and hydriodic
acid. Hence its constituents must be
1J atom iodine   23*625
1 atom antimony  8
31*625
V. Fluoride of antimony is a snow-white solid, more vo- Fluoride,
latile than sulphuric acid, but less so than water. It is
composed of
3 c
380
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
11 atom fluorine S-S15
1 atom antimony 8
11-375
It is therefore a sesquifluoride.
No compound of antimony with hydrogen, azote, cai-
bon, boron, or silicon, is known.
Sulphu- YI. Sulphur and antimony combine in three proportions,
rels- and form three sulphurets, analogous in constitution to the
oxides of antimony. _ .
Sesquisul- 1. Sesquisulphuret of antimony is found native, and is
phuret. rnct with in commerce in the shape of cones, under the
name of crude antimony. It has a bluish-gray colour,
and the metallic lustre; a foliated texture, and a specific
gravity of 4-62. It is more fusible than antimony, boils
in a high temperature, and may be distilled over without
decomposition if air be excluded. It dissolves in muriatic
acid when assisted by beat, and is converted into oxide
of antimony and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Hence it is
obviously a compound of
1£ atom sulphur 3
1 atom antimony 8
11
Its powder, when pure, has a reddish-brown colour. It
possesses acid properties, and is therefore a sulphide.
What is called kermes mineral is merely this sesquisulphide
in a hydrous state, and mixed with a very small quantity
of antimonite of potash.
Bisulphide. 2. Bisulphide of antimony is formed when a current of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through a solution of
antimonious acid or antimonite of potash. Its colour is
orange red. When heated, it gives off sulphur, and is con¬
verted into sesquisulphide. It is composed of
2 atoms sulphur 4
1 atom antimony 8
12
Persul- 3. Persulphide of antimony may be obtained by passing
phide. a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through perchlo-
ride of antimony, to which tartaric acid has been added
to prevent the antimony from precipitating when tlm li¬
quid is diluted with water, as it must be before the sulphu¬
retted hydrogen gas can be passed through it. It may be
easily obtained by fusing together four parts of carbonate
of potash, five parts of crude antimony, and one part of sul¬
phur. The fused mass is to be dissolved in boiling water,
and precipitated by dilute sulphuric acid. It has a paler
colour than bisulphide of antimony, and the colour does
not change on drying. It is composed of
2£ atoms sulphur 5
1 atom antimony 8
13
Bed anti- 4. Sesquisulphide of antimony has the property of com*
mony. bining with oxide of antimony, and of forming a compound
which occurs native, and is usually called red antimony by
mineralogists. Its colour is cherry red. It crystallizes
in right square prisms, and has a specific gravity of 4*5.
It is feebly translucent, and sometimes has an adamantine
lustre. Its constituents are,
1 atom oxide of antimony  9-5
2 atoms sesquisulphide 22
3L-5
The sesquisulphide of antimony combines also with iodine.
VII. Selenium and antimony combine readily with the
production of heat and light. The compound melts and
forms a metallic button, which has a crystalline texture.
VIII. When equal parts of antimony and phosphoric
glass are mixed together with a little charcoal powder, Inorg ,
and melted in a crucible, pbosphuret of antimony is form- Bod>'
ed. It is white, brittle, and laminated in its texture.''•’Yp
When melted, it emits a green flame, and oxide of anti¬
mony sublimes.
IX. Antimony forms with arsenic an alloy, which is
brittle, hard, and very fusible. The affinity between these
two metals is very weak.
Sect. XII.— Of Chromium.
The most common mineral from which this metal is
obtained is chromiron ore, imported abundantly into this
country from the bare hills near Baltimore, and employed
in the manufacture of bichromate of potash, which is em¬
ployed by the calico-printers as a yellow dye. When oxa¬
lic acid is mixed with a solution of this salt in water, and
the mixture is digested on the sand bath, an effervescence
takes place, and" the whole assumes a green colour, the
chromic acid being converted into oxide of chromium.
The addition of ammonia throws down the green oxide,
which being washed and dried, and exposed to a violent
heat in a charcoal crucible, is converted into metallic chro¬
mium.
It is white, intermediate between the colour of tin andPropail,
steel. Its specific gravity, as determined by Richter, is
5-9. It is very brittle, and easily reduced to powder. It
is not acted on by the magnet. It requires a heat to melt
it, so high that we can obtain it only in small grains. It
conducts electricity. No acid dissolves it readily except
the fluoric. When heated with potash, soda, or their car¬
bonates or nitrates, it is easily converted into chromic acid.
I. Chromium combines with two proportions of oxygen,'
and forms two compounds, which have received the names
of green oxide and chromic acid.
1. Green oxide is easily obtained by digesting a mix-Greer..
ture of chromate of potash and oxalic acid till it becomes1'!6-
green, and then throwing down the oxide by means of
ammonia. If it be dried without the application of heat,
it is a light-coloured greenish-blue powder, tasteless, very
light, and easily soluble in acids. When dried on a filter
at a temperature not so high as 212°, it is much darker, but
still retains nearly half its weight of water. A moderate
heat expels the water, and leaves the oxide in the state of
a beautiful green powder. When heated nearly to red¬
ness, it suddenly glows, or becomes red hot like burning
tinder. After this it is no longer soluble in acids; yet
we may obtain a solution by digesting it for a long time
in sulphuric acid. The atomic weight of this oxide is a.
It is a compound of
1 atom chromium ^
1 atom oxygen 1
5
It combines with acids, and forms salts, which have a
sweet taste, and a green or blue colour, and none of them
seems capable of crystallizing. , . .
2. It is only lately that a method of obtaining
chromic acid has been discovered. It is at follows: Mix
together four parts of chromate of lead, three parts of puie
floor spar (previously ignited and pounded), and five parts
of sulphuric acid as concentrated as possible. Put this
mixture into a leaden or platinum retort, and apply a gen¬
tle heat by means of a lamp. A red gas is formed, which
appears in the air under the form of red or yellow vapours.
When this gas comes in contact with water, it is absorb¬
ed and converted into fluoric and chromic acids. By eva¬
porating the solution in a platinum basin, the fluoric aci
is driven off, and pure chromic acid remains. It may he
obtained in regular four-sided prisms by a very cautiou
evaporation of its solution in water.
C H E M I S T R Y.
387
rranic Chromic acid, when dry, is almost black while hot, and
dies, of a deep red while cold. It has no smell. Its taste is in-
tensely sour, leaving a styptic impression behind. It stains
the skin yellow. It is soluble in alcohol, and the solu¬
tion is partially decomposed by heat, ether being evolved,
and green oxide precipitated. The atomic weight of this
acid is 6'5, and it is composed of
1 atom chromium   4
2^ atoms oxygen 2*5
6-5
It is therefore analogous to phosphoric, arsenic, and anti-
nionic acids in its composition.
II. Chlorine and chromium probably unite in various
proportions, few of which, however, have been accurately
examined.
dlride. • 1. Muriatic acid readily dissolves green oxide. The
solution has a deep-green colour, a sweet taste, and always
contains an excess of acid. When evaporated to dryness
it assumes the form of red-coloured scales, which consti¬
tute a chloride of chromium. They readily dissolve in wa¬
ter, with a deep-green colour and a sweet taste. When
the heat is raised sufficiently high to drive off all excess
of acid, the chloride becomes tasteless, and refuses to dis¬
solve in water or acids.
Qiro- 2. There is another compound of chlorine and chromic
clpiic acid, discovered by Dr Thomson in 1824, and called by
a‘ him chlorochromic acid. It may be thus obtained. Tri¬
turate together in a mortar 190 grains of dry bichromate
of potash and 225 grains of decrepitated common salt, and
pour upon the mixture 500 grains of concentrated sulphu¬
ric acid, and take care to mix it with the powder into a
magma. Apply the heat of a lamp to this mixture, pre¬
viously put into a small retort. An effervescence takes
place, and beautiful red fumes make their appearance.
These condense in the beak of the retort, and drop into
the receiver in the form of a red-coloured liquid, which
has a sweetish, astringent, and acid taste. It has an ex¬
ceedingly intense smell of chlorine. It reddens vegetable
blues. Its specific gravity is T9134. When dropt into
water it falls to the bottom, and exhibits the appearance
of a drop of oil; globules of chlorine gas are given out co¬
piously till the globule disappears, while at the same time
the liquid becomes yellow. When the red liquid is dropt
into oil of turpentine or alcohol, it sets these combustible
bodies on fire ; and they burn quietly, with a flame having
a good deal of blue mixed with white. Sulphur is also
set on fire by the liquid. It burns with a fine red flame.
It acts very feebly on the metals. This liquid would ap¬
pear, from the analysis of Dr Thomson, to be a compound of
1 atom chlorine 4-5
1 atom chromic acid 6‘5
n
The bromides and iodides of chromium are still unknown.
III. The red-coloured gas mentioned in this section is
probably a fluoride of chromium. It is permanent at the
usual temperature of the atmosphere. When mixed with
ammoniacal gas it burns with explosion. It gradually cor¬
rodes and dissolves resin.
Nothing is known respecting the compounds which chro¬
mium may be capable of forming with hydrogen, azote,
carbon, boron, and silicon.
‘1 mret;* IV- Sulphuret of chromium may be obtained by various
processes; as by passing a current of sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas over green oxide of chromium, heated to red¬
ness in a porcelain tube, or by heating a mixture of equal
weights of chloride of chromium and sulphur in a glass
tube to as high a degree as the glass will bear. It is a
blackish-gray solid body, unctuous to the touch, and fri¬
able. When heated in the open air it burns like pyroplio- Inorganic
rus, leaving green oxide of chromium. By digestion in Bodies,
nitric acid, it may be converted into sulphate of chromi-
um. It is clear from this that its constituents are,
1 atom sulphur 2
1 atom chromium 4
G
V. When phosphorus is made to pass through green pi10Sp[JU,
oxide of chromium, heated to redness in a glass tube, a ret.
brilliant combustion takes place, and phosphuret of chro¬
mium is formed. It is brown, tasteless, and insoluble in
water, and still retains a pulverulent form. Its constituents
are,
1 atom phosphorus 2
1 atom chromium 4
6
The compounds of chromium with selenium, tellurium,
arsenic, and antimony, are unknown.
Sect. XIII.— Of Vanadium.
Vanadium was discovered during the year 1830, by M.
Sefstrom, in a Swedish iron remarkable for its ductility.
It is the produce of the iron mine of Taberg, not far from
Jbnkoping. It exists also in an ore of lead, which occurs
at Zimapan, in Mexico, which was analysed in 1801 by
Del Rio, who stated that it contained a new metal, to
which he gave the name of erythronium. But Descotils
repeated the analysis, and announced that the supposed
new metal was chromium. The same ore of lead (vana-
diate of lead) occurs in an abandoned lead mine in the
county of Wicklow. It has a dirty orange-yellow colour,
and is crystallized in tubes.
Sefstrbm extracted vanadium from the scoriae of the Prepara-
iron of Taberg, which he found richer in that metal thantion.
the iron itself. His method was as follows : The scoriae arc
reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with their own weight
of nitre, and twice their weight of carbonate of soda. This
mixture is strongly heated for an hour. When cold, the
mass is pounded and digested in water till every thing
soluble is taken up ; the solution is neutralized with nitric
acid, and mixed with acetate of lead. A yellow precipi¬
tate falls, which is vanadiate of lead, but not quite pure.
While this precipitate is still moist, it is decomposed by
concentrated sulphuric acid. The liquid assumes a dark-
red colour. After half an hour’s digestion alcohol is add¬
ed, and the digestion continued. Ether is formed, and
the vanadic acid being reduced to the state of oxide, be¬
comes blue. The blue solution is concentrated to a syrup,
and then mixed in a platinum crucible with a little fluoric
acid, and heated to get rid of a quantity of silica, which
could not be otherwise separated. Then evaporate to dry¬
ness, and ignite to drive off the excess of sulphuric acid.
What remains is an impure vanadic acid. Fuse it with
nitre, added in small quantities at a time, till a small quan¬
tity of the mass taken out, and allowed to cool, ceases
to become red. Then dissolve the mass in water, and
filter. Into the filtered liquor put a piece of sal ammo¬
niac, so large that the whole will not dissolve. A white
powder falls, which is vanadiate of ammonia. Let it be
washed first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in
alcohol of the specific gravity 086. Then dissolve it in
boiling water, and allow it to crystallize. From this salt,
by heating it in an open vessel, we obtain vanadic acid,
and by heating it in a close vessel, oxide of vanadium.
To obtain metallic vanadium from vanadic acid, pass a
current of chlorine gas through an intimate mixture of
vanadic acid and dry charcoal. A liquid and volatile
chloride of vanadium is obtained. Put this chloride into
388
Inorganic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
Properties,
Black ox,
ide.
Blue ox¬
ide.
V anadic
acid.
a hollow ball blown in a barometer tube, and pass a current
of ammoniacal gas through it till the chloride be completely
saturated, which takes place speedily, and with the disen¬
gagement of heat. Then apply a spirit-lamp to the hollow
ball, while the current of ammoniacal gas still continues to
flow. Sal ammoniac is disengaged, and the reduced vana¬
dium remains in the ball.
It is white, and resembles silver, or rather molybdenum,
to the appearance of which last metal it comes very near.
It is not malleable, and is easily reduced to powder in a
mortar. It is a good conductor of electricity, and strong¬
ly negative when compared to zinc. Its specific gravity
is still unknown. It dissolves easily in nitiic acid and
aqUa regia, dhe solution has a fine blue colour. Sulphu¬
ric, muriatic, and fluoric acids, do not act upon it even at
a boiling heat; nor is it oxydized when heated with the
alkaline carbonates. When heated rather under redness it
takes fire, and burns with a dull flame, and is converted
into a black-coloured oxide.
I. Vanadium combines with three different proportions
of oxygen, and forms three compounds.
1. Black oxide, or protoxide. This oxide may be ob¬
tained by passing a current of hydrogen gas through va-
nadic acid in a state of ignition, or by fusing vanadic acid
in a charcoal crucible. Ibis oxide is coherent, has a black
colour, and is a conductor of electricity. It does not seem
capable of combining either with acids or bases. When
heated in the open air it takes fire and burns, leaving a
black matter, which has not been fused. Chlorine gas con¬
verts it into chloride and vanadic acid. Its constituents,
according to the analysis of Berzelius, are,
1 atom vanadium B’5
1 atom oxygen 1
9-5
2. Binoxide, or blue oxide. To obtain this oxide, the
easiest process is to mix 9 k parts of protoxide and 11^ of
vanadic acid together, and to heat the mixture to white¬
ness in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas. This oxide is
infusible at the temperature at which glass softens. It is
insoluble in water. When in the state of a hydrate it ab¬
sorbs oxygen rapidly from the air, becoming first brown,
and then green. It dissolves slowly but completely in
acids. The solution is blue, and the oxide acts the part
of a base ; but it combines also with bases, and forms a
genus of salts, to which the name of vanadites may be
given. This oxide is composed of
1 atom vanadium 8*5
2 atoms oxygen 2
. 19-5
3. Vanadic acid may be obtained by exposing vanadiate
of ammonia in an open platinum crucible to a temperature
approaching to redness, stirring the mass from time to
time. The vanadiate is decomposed, and the residue is at
first black, but in proportion as it absorbs oxygen from the
atmosphere it assumes a reddish-brown colour, which, when
the matter is cold, becomes similar to rust of iron. It
is destitute of taste and smell. It strongly reddens moist
litmus paper. It melts at a red heat, and may be heated
to whiteness without losing oxygen. When fused it crys¬
tallizes on cooling; and though the temperature, before
congealing, was below' redness, it becomes incandescent,
and continues so during the whole time that the crystal¬
lization is going on. The acid contracts much in becoming
solid, and is easily detached from the crucible. The acid,
after fusion, is translucent at the edge, and has a yellow¬
ish colour. It is very little soluble in water, but remains
long suspended. It is easily reduced to the state of bin-
oxide by the action of tartaric, oxalic acids, &e. assisted
by a moderate heat. Muriatic acid dissolves it, assuming Inorg;,
an orange colour. This acid is a compound of Bodie
1 atom vanadium 8‘5
3 atoms oxygen 3
11-5
II. Chloride of vanadium is easily formed by the pro* Chloriu
cess mentioned at the beginning of this section. It is a
volatile liquid, which has not been subjected to analysis.
Nothing is known respecting the bromides, iodides, and
fluorides of vanadium. Neither have any attempts been
made to combine it with hydrogen, azote, carbon, boron,
or silicon.
III. Two combinations of vanadium and sulphur have Sulph*,
been ascertained to exist analogous to binoxide and vana-rets.
die acid in their constitution.
1. Bisulphide of vanadium. This compound may be form¬
ed by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas over
protoxide of vanadium at the temperature ot ignition. It
is black, becomes compact by pressure, and when burnish¬
ed does not assume the metallic lustre. Heated on pla¬
tinum foil it burns with a blue flame, leaving a pellicle,
which is blue at the circumference and purple internally.
It is insoluble both in acids and alkalies. Nitric acid con¬
verts it into sulphate of vanadium. It is composed of
1 atom vanadium 8'5
2 atoms sulphur 4
12-5
2. Tersidphide of vanadium. This compound may be
obtained by dissolving vanadic acid in an alkaline sulpho-
hydrate. Its colour is brown, not nearly so deep as that
of the preceding sulphide. It may be dried and preserved
without alteration. When heated it gives out sulphur, and
is converted into bisulphide. Sulphuric and muriatic acids
do not decompose it. Its constituents are,
1 atom vanadium 8*5
3 atoms sulphur 6
14-5
IV. When phosphate of vanadium is exposed to a white
heat in a charcoal crucible, a porous mass is obtained, hav¬
ing a gray colour, somewhat like plumbago. It has not
undergone fusion.
The other combinations of vanadium are still unknown.
Sect. XIV.— Of Uranium.
This metal is obtained chiefly from pitchblende, a black
heavy mineral, which occurs at Johan Georganstadt, in
Saxony, and in some other places, brom this ore it may
be procured in the following manner : Reduces the mine¬
ral to powder, and digest it in nitric acid till every thing
soluble be taken up. Render the liquid as neutral as
possible by evaporation, and pass a current of sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen gas through it till all precipitation ceases.
Heat the liquid after filtration, to drive off aH traces ol
sulphuretted hydrogen. Precipitate by caustic ammo¬
nia. Wash the precipitate, and digest it in. carbonate ot
ammonia. A yellow liquid is obtained, which gradually
deposits fine crystals of ammonia-carbonate of uranium.
When this salt is ignited, the ammonia and carbonic acid
are driven off, and the uranium reduced to the state ot
protoxide. When a current of hydrogen gas is passec
over this oxide, heated by a spirit-lamp in a glass tube, i
is gradually reduced to the metallic state; but it canno
be fused. It may, however, by exposure to a white heat,
be obtained in the state of grains. . 'cPronei
It has an iron-gray colour of considerable lustre, and i
soft enough to yield to the file. Its specific gravity is
CHEMISTRY.
389
game
lies.
txide.
■side.
nine. When heated to redness it takes fire, swells, and
is converted into green oxide. It is insoluble in sulphuric
and muriatic acids, but dissolves readily in nitric acid-
The solution has a lemon-yellow colour.
I. Uranium combines with two proportions of oxygen,
and forms two oxides, the green and the yelloiv.
1. The green or protoxide is obtained by the process
described at the beginning of this section, or by exposing
metallic uranium to a red heat. While in grains the co¬
lour is black, but in powder it is green. It dissolves slowly
in sulphuric and muriatic acids. The solution is green.
In nitric acid it dissolves, but is converted into peroxide,
so that the solution has a yellow colour. The protoxide
is a compound of
1 atom uranium.. 26
1 atom oxygen  1
27
2. The peroxide is formed when uranium or its oxide
is dissolved in nitric acid. When ammonia is dropt into
the solution, a beautiful yellow powder falls, which is a
uraniate of ammonia. The peroxide has never yet been
obtained in a separate state; but as all the compounds
into which it enters are yellow, we may presume from
analogy that it has the same colour. It possesses at once
the characters of an acid and a base. It is composed of
1 atom uranium 26
2 atoms oxygen  2
28
The chlorides, bromides, and iodides of uranium are still
unknown ; nor has any thing been ascertained respecting
the compounds which it may be capable of forming with
hydrogen, azote, carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, sele¬
nium, tellurium, arsenic, antimony, or chromium,
huret. II. Sulphuret of uranium may be obtained by passing
a current of bisulphide of carbon vapour very slowly over
protoxide of uranium, heated to redness in a porcelain
tube. The sulphuret thus formed is black, and when rub¬
bed assumes the metallic lustre. When heated the sul¬
phur burns, and protoxide of uranium remains. Muriatic
acid scarcely acts upon it, but nitric acid readily dissolves
out the uranium, leaving the sulphur.
Sect. XV.— Of Molybdenum.
Molybdenum is procured from molybdena, a soft fo¬
liated mineral, having the metallic lustre, and similar in
appearance to black lead, which occurs in isolated pieces
in the primary rocks. It may be obtained from this mi¬
neral by the following process : Roast the molybdena
in a moderate heat till it is reduced to a fine powder.
Dissolve this powder in ammonia, filter the solution, and
evaporate to dryness. Heat the dry salt to drive off the
ammonia. A white powder remains, which is oxide of
molybdenum. Mix this powder with a little oil, and ex¬
pose it to a violent heat in a charcoal crucible. The me¬
tal is reduced, but not fused. It may be obtained still
more readily by passing a current of dry hydrogen gas
over molybdic acid while in a state of incandescence in a
porcelain tube.
Molybdenum has a silvery white colour. Its specific
gravity is 8-636. It is brittle. It is not altered though
kept under water, nor is it liable to alteration from expo¬
sure to tire air. Neither dilute sulphuric, nor muriatic,
nor fluoric acid dissolve it; but concentrated sulphuric
acid attacks it. Nitric acid dissolves it, forming either a
nitrate of molybdenum or molybdic acid, according to the
proportion of acid employed. It dissolves readily in aqua
regia.
I. Molybdenum combines with three different propor-
pertiei
tions of oxygen, and forms three compounds, two of which Inorganic
are bases, and the third an acid. Bodies.
1. The protoxide may be obtained in the following way :
Dissolve a molybdate in water, and add muriatic acid to ^ro*'ox^e'
the solution till the molybdic acid at first thrown down is
again dissolved. Then digest the solution with distilled
zinc. It becomes first blue, then reddish brown, and at
last black. After the digestion has been continued for
some time, add a portion of ammonia (taking care not to
add enough to throw down the zinc), and a black precipi¬
tate falls, which is the hydrated protoxide of molybdenum.
It dissolves with difficulty in acids. The solution is black
and opaque, but when very dilute it has a grayish-brown
colour. The taste of these solutions is astringent. When
heated in vacuo it parts with its water slowly. After be¬
coming anhydrous, if we raise the temperature to inci¬
pient redness, it glows and scintillates. It is now inso¬
luble in acids. In the open air it burns faintly at a red
heat, and is converted into molybdic acid. This oxide is
probably a compound of
1 atom molybdenum * 6
1 atom oxygen 1
2. Deutoxide of molybdenum may be obtained thus: Put Deutoxide
dry molybdate of ammonia into a charcoal crucible, and
expose it to a white heat. The deutoxide will be found
at the bottom of the crucible. It has a crystallized ap¬
pearance, a deep copper colour, and a specific gravity of
5-666. If we mix dry molybdate of soda with sal ammo¬
niac, and heat it rapidly in a covered platinum crucible
till it ceases to exhale fumes of sal ammoniac, and after
the crucible cools we wash what it contains with water,
the deutoxide of molybdenum will remain in the state of
a very dark-brown powder. Thus prepared, it is insoluble
in acids ; but it dissolves in them readily while in the state
of a hydrate. In this state it is obtained by precipitating
chloride of molybdenum by ammonia. It has exactly the
appearance of peroxide of iron. It dissolves with a yellow
colour in water. It is a compound of
1 atom molybdenum 6
2 atoms oxygen 2
8
3. Molybdic acid is easily obtained by exposing molyb- Molybdic
date of ammonia to a gentle heat in an open crucible. It acid.
is a white, light, porous matter. At a red heat it melts
into a deep-yellow liquid, which becomes straw-yellow on
cooling. Its specific gravity is 3*46. In close vessels it
is fixed in a red heat, but in an open vessel it begins to
smoke, and to be volatilized, as soon as it enters into fu¬
sion. It dissolves very sparingly in w^ater. This acid is
a compound of
1 atom molybdenum..... 6
3 atoms oxygen 3
9
II. Chlorine and molybdenum unite in three propor¬
tions analogous to the oxides.
1. When metallic molybdenum is heated in the vapour Chloride,
of bichloride of molybdenum, it absorbs that vapour, and
is converted into a conglutinated dark-red matter, which
is the protochloride. W hen heated to redness in vacuo,
it sublimes into a dark-green matter, soluble in water and
muriatic acid. The chloride is a compound of
1 atom molybdenum  6
1 atom chlorine  4-5
10-5
2. When molybdenum is heated in chlorine gas, it takes Bichlorid<
390
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic fire and burns, forming a dark-red vapour, which con-
Bodies. denses in the cold part of the apparatus in dark-gray
crystals, quite similar to iodine in appearance. I hese
crystals melt when slightly heated; they sublime readily,
and on cooling crystallize. In the air the matter soon
deliquesces. The aqueous solution is black, but when di¬
luted it becomes deep red, and at last yellow. This chlo¬
ride is composed of
1 atom molybdenum 6
2 atoms chlorine 9
15
Perchlo- 3. When anhydrous deutoxide of molybdenum is heat-
ride. ec\ in dry chlorine gas, a yellowish-white sublimate rises,
which is a perchloride composed of
1 atom molybdenum  6
3 atoms chlorine 13‘5
19*5
The bromides of molybdenum are still unknown.
Iodides. III. Two iodides are known analogous to the two oxides.
1. Hydrated protoxide of molybdenum dissolves in hy-
driodic acid, and forms a salt quite similar to the chloride.
2. In like manner hydrated deutoxide of molybdenum
dissolves in hydriodic acid, and by evaporation red crys¬
tals are obtained, constituting deutoxide of molybdenum.
Sulphides. IV. There are three sulphides of molybdenum, all of
which possess acid properties.
1. Bisulphide of molybdenum occurs native, and is well
known to mineralogists under the name of molybdena. It
is soft, has a leaden colour, the metallic lustre, leaves a
dark-green streak on porcelain, and has a specific gravity
of 4*591. It is composed of
1 atom molybdenum 6
2 atoms sulphur 4
10
2. Tersulphide of molybdenum may be obtained by pass¬
ing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through a con¬
centrated aqueous solution of a molybdate. On adding
an acid, the tersulphide precipitates. It has a dark-brown
colour while moist, but becomes black when dry. It is
composed of
1 atom molybdenum 6
3 atoms sulphur 6
12
3. Quatersulphide of molybdenum may be obtained in
the followingway: Mix sulpho-molybdate of potassium with
an excess of bisulphide of molybdenum, and boil the mix¬
ture for a long time in a sufficient quantity of water. At
a certain period the liquid becomes muddy, and a black
powder falls. This powder is to be collected on a filter,
and washed with cold water. It is then washed with boil¬
ing water as long as any thing dissolves. Muriatic acid
being poured into the liquid, a dark-red, translucent, bulky
precipitate falls, which is to be washed on a filter. When
dry it is gray, and has the metallic lustre. Its constitu¬
ents are,
1 atom molybdenum 6
4 atoms sulphur 8
14
The salts of molybdenum have slightly poisonous qua¬
lities.
Sect. XVI.— Of Tungsten.
This metal is usually obtained fi*om wo/fram, ablack heavy
mineral, which occurs occasionally in tin mines. The fol¬
lowing process is the easiest. Fuse together a mixture of
wolfram and carbonate of potash in a crucible. Then di- Inorgg
gest the fused mass in water, which will dissolve the tung- Bodi
state of potash formed. To the solution add sal ammo- 'WV
niac, and evaporate the whole to dryness. Heat the saline
mass in a Hessian crucible till the sal ammoniac is en¬
tirely dissipated. The residual matter being now digest¬
ed in water, a heavy black powder remains, which is oxide
of tungsten. Boil it first in weak potash, and then in wa¬
ter. When this powder is heated in an open crucible it
takes fire, and is converted into tungstic acid. Heat the
tungstic acid to redness in a glass tube, and pass a cur¬
rent of dry hydrogen gas over it. T-he acid is reduced to
metallic tungsten.
Its colour is grayish-white, and it is very hard and heavy,
its specific gravity being 17*4. The heat for melting it is
so great that it can be obtained only in grains. i
I. It combines with two different proportions of oxygen,
and forms an oxide and an acid.
1. The oxide has a brown colour, and may be obtained Oxide j
by passing a current of hydrogen gas over tungstic acid,
heated in a glass tube to insipient ignitiom The oxide
formed has a flea-brown colour. When heated in the open
air it takes fire, and burns like tinder, being converted into
tungstic acid. This oxide is composed of
1 atom tungsten 12*5
2 atoms oxygen  2
14*5
2. Tungstic acid is obtained wdien the preceding oxide Tungsi
is exposed to a red heat. It has a pale-yellow colour.acid. J
When strongly heated it becomes green, as it does also
when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Its specific
gravity is 6*12. It is tasteless, insoluble in water, but very
soluble in caustic alkalies. It has the property of combin¬
ing with other acids. \V hen partially reduced it becomes
blue like molybdic acid. The component parts of tung¬
stic acid are,
1 atom tungsten 12*5
3 atoms oxygen 3
15*5
II. The chlorides of tungsten, as determined by Wohler,
are tveo in number.
1. Bichloride of tungsten is obtained when metallic Chloric
tungsten is heated in a current of chlorine gas. It takes
fire, and forms a chloride of a deep-red colour, which su¬
blimes, and is deposited in the form of fine needles inter¬
laced together. This chloride melts at a low heat, and is
converted into a red vapour of a much deeper colour than
the fumes of nitrous acid. Its constituents are,
1 atom tungsten 12*5
2 atoms chlorine 9
21*5
2. Terchloride of tungsten may be obtained by heating
oxide of tungsten in a current of chlorine gas. The oxide
takes fire, leaves a residue of tungstic acid, and the chlo¬
ride sublimes in yellowish-white plates, resembling native
boracic acid. It has a suffocating smell, is volatile, and
when exposed to the air absorbs moisture, and is convert¬
ed into muriatic and tungstic acids. Hence it is compos-
ed of
1 atom tungsten 12*5
3 atoms chlorine 13‘^
26
III. Tungsten combines with two proportions of sulphur, SuM
forming compounds analogous to the oxide and aci o
tungsten. .
1. When tungstic acid is mixed with four tunes
:ramc
ies.
„
C H E M I
weight of sulphuret of mercury, and exposed to a violent
heat in a crucible covered with charcoal powder, bisul-
phuret of tungsten is formed. It is a grayish-black pow¬
der, composed of
1 atom tungsten 12-5
2 atoms sulphur  4
16-5
2. To obtain tersulphuret of tungsten, dissolve tungstic
acid in a hydrosulphuret, and precipitate the liquid by add¬
ing an acid in excess. The precipitate, when washed and
dried, is tersulphuret of tungsten. It is liver-brown while
moist, but becomes black on drying. It is soluble in wa¬
ter. By heat it is converted into bisulphuret. It dissolves
slowly in ammonia and the caustic fixed alkalies. Its
constituents are,
1 atom tungsten 12‘5
3 atoms sulphur  G
STRY. , 391
converted into muriatic and columbic acids. Hence it is Inorganic
a compound of Bodies.
1 atom columbium 22-75
3 atoms chlorine 13*5
36*25
III. Sulphuret of columbium may be obtained by pass- Sulphuret.
ing a current of bisulphide of carbon over columbic acid
heated to whiteness. It is gray, and in powder has the
metallic lustre, and some resemblance to plumbago. It
feels soft, and is a conductor of electricity. When heated
to incipient redness it takes fire, the sulphur burns with a
blue flame, and columbic acid remains behind. It is not
acted on by nitric, sulphuric, muriatic, or fluoric acid.
Aqua regia decomposes it at a boiling heat. When fused
with caustic potash, an orange-coloured mass is obtained,
which dissolves in water, leaving sulphuret of columbium
in the state of a black powder.
18*5
Sect. XVII.— Of Cohimbium.
This metal, called tantalum by the Swedes, was disco¬
vered by Mr Hatchett in a black mineral from America,
now distinguished by the names of tantalite and columbite.
It may be obtained from this mineral, which is very scarce,
in the following way : Mix together one part of tantalite
in powder, five parts of carbonate of potash, and two parts
of borax, and fuse the mixture in a platinum crucible.
Soften the fused mass with water, and then digest it in
muriatic acid. The columbic acid only remains undis¬
solved in the state of a white powder. Dissolve columbic
acid in fluoric acid, and saturate the compound acid thus
formed with potash, and evaporate the solution to dryness.
When this dry salt is treated with potassium, the colum¬
bium is reduced to the metallic state.
I’1' rt‘e3* Thus obtained, it is a black powder, which cannot be
fused by the highest heat that can be raised in a wind fur¬
nace. Under the burnisher it assumes the metallic lustre,
and has a yellowish-white colour. It is not altered by ex¬
posure to the air. It catches fire considerably under a red
heat, glows vividly, and is converted into columbic acid.
When fused with caustic potash, the metal is oxydized.
I. It combines with two proportions of oxygen, forming
an oxide and an acid.
0s • 1. Columbic acid, when heated for an hour in a forge in
a charcoal crucible, is converted into oxide. It is now a
brownish matter, having considerable lustre, and a specific
gravity of 5*61. It is not acted on by any acid; but when
fused with caustic potash it is converted into columbic
acid. Its constituents are,
1 atom columbium 22*75
2 atoms oxygen   2
abic
24*75
. ^* Columbic acid may be obtained by the process given
m the beginning of this section. It is a white, tasteless
powder, which reddens litmus paper. When heated it
gives out water, and when anhydrous it no longer acts on
htmus paper. Its specific gravity is 6-5. Its constituents
1 atom columbium 22*75
3 atoms oxygen  3
II. When columbium is heated in chlorine gas, it takes
ie and burns brilliantly, and is converted into a vapour
lesembling chlorine. It condenses into a yellowish-white
matter, resembling meal in appearance. When moistened
wit i water, a hissing noise is produced, and the chloride is
Sect. XVIII.— Of Titanium.
This metal, which was first discovered by Gregor, ex¬
ists in the state of titanic acid in titanite or red schorl, a
mineral which occurs occasionally in quartz rock. It has
been found crystallized in small cubes in the slag of the
hearth of various iron-works, particularly Merthyr-Tydvil
in Wales.
It has a copper-red colour, and a great deal of brilli-pr0perties.
ancy. It is crystallized in cubes, is hard enough to scratch
rock-crystal, and has a specific gravity of 5*3. These
cubes are not acted on by acids. When heated with nitre
they are rapidly oxydized. They are oxydized also rapid¬
ly when heated in caustic potash.
I. Titanium combines with two doses of oxygen, and
forms an oxide which appears neutral, and an acid which
unites with bases.
1. Oxide of titanium may be obtained by inclosing tita-Q^j^
nic acid in a charcoal crucible, and exposing it to a very
high temperature. The external coating is metallic tita¬
nium ; within is the oxide in the state of a black powder.
It is insoluble in acids. When heated along with nitre it
is with great difficulty converted into titanic acid. Pro¬
bably7 the mineral called anatase is oxide of titanium.
This oxide has not been analysed. Probably it is a
compound of
1 atom of titanium 3*25
I atom oxygen 1
4*25
2. Titanic acid occurs native crystallized in right four- Titanic
sided prisms, and is known by the names of titanite and acid.
rutile. It contains a little iron and manganese, from which
it may be freed in the following manner: Reduce it to
powder, and pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas
over it while heated to redness in a porcelain tube. Di¬
gest the matter thus treated in muriatic acid, and expose
the residue to a red heat. It is now titanic acM nearly
pure. Should it become red when calcined, the process
must be again repeated.
It is a white, tasteless powder. When heated it be¬
comes yellow, but resumes its white colour again when
cold. It reddens litmus paper, and cannot be fused even
in a white heat; but by this exposure it is rendered inso¬
luble in acids. Its solubility may* be restored by fusing it
with thrice its weight of carbonate of soda, or by digest¬
ing it in concentrated sulphuric acid, in a temperature suf¬
ficiently high to drive off by degrees the excess of sul¬
phuric acid ; or we may mix it with charcoal powder, and
pass a current of chlorine gas through it while heated to
redness. Chloride of titanium is formed, which may be
dissolved in water, and titanic acid thrown down by means
C H E M I s T R Y.
Chloride.
392
Simple of ammonia. This acid is isomorphous with peroxide of
Alkalifi- tin. When in the state of hydrate it is soluble in acids,
able Bases, but quite insoluble in the anhydrous state. Its constitu-
v—tion is probably
1 atom titanium 3-2u>
2 atoms oxygen 2
5-25
II. Chloride of titanium may be formed by mixing tita¬
nic acid and charcoal, heating the mixture to redness, and
passing a current of dry chlorine gas over it. In the re¬
ceiver attached to the glass tube a liquid gradually con¬
denses, which is chloride of titanium. When freed from
all excess of chlorine by distilling it oft mercuiy, it is
transparent and colourless, does not act on mercury, nnd
when dissolved in water is converted into muriatic acid
and titanic acid. It boils at 2?5°. The specific giavity
of its vapour, as determined by Dumas, is 6‘8055. I his
vapour seems to be a compound of
2 volumes chlorine 5
1 volume titanium vapour T80551
6-8055
condensed into one volume. It is obviously a compound of
1 atom titanium 3-25
2 atoms chlorine 9
12-25
Sulphuret. III. Sulphuret of titanium may be formed by passing
vapours of bisulphide of carbon over titanic acid heated
to whiteness in a porcelain tube. It has a yellow colour
and the metallic lustre. It is soft and in grains, which
easily spread on the skin like talc. It dissolves with dif¬
ficulty in acids. When it is digested in muriatic acid,
sulphuretted hydrogen gas is evolved. It is composed of
1 atom titanium 3-25
2 atoms sulphur 4
7-25
Phosphu- IV. When phosphate of titanium, mixed with charcoal
ret. and a little borax, is strongly heated in a well-luted cru¬
cible, it is converted into phosphuret. It is a pale-white
button, brittle and granular, and does not melt before the
blow-pipe.
CHAP. III.
OF SIMPLE ALKALIFI ABLE BASES.
The simple alkalifiable bases at present known are thir¬
ty-one in number. They may be arranged under the five
following families.
First Family.—Alkaline Bases.
Division. This family comprehends the seven following bodies:
1. Potassium. 5. Strontium.
2. Sodium. 6. Calcium.
3. Lithium. 7. Magnesium.
4. Barium.
The oxides of these bodies are soluble in water, and
constitute the substances usually called alkalies.
Second Family.—Earthy Bases.
This family comprehends the six following substances:
1. Aluminum. 4. Cerium.
2. Glucinum. 5. Zirconium.
3. Yttrium. 6. Thorium.
The oxides of these bodies are white, tasteless powders, Sinj
formerly distinguished by the name of earths. Alts.
able I ,s,
Third Family.—Difficultly fused Bases.
This family comprehends the four following substances:
1. Iron. 3* Nickel.
2. Manganese. 4. Cobalt.
The oxides of these bases cannot be reduced to the
metallic state by heat alone; but they readily dissolve in
acids, and from this solution they cannot be precipitated
in the metallic state by the introduction of zinc.
Fourth Family.—Easily fusible Bases.
This family comprehends the eight following metals:
1. Zinc. 5- Bismuth.
2. Cadmium. 6. Copper.
3. Lead. 7. Mercury.
4. Tin. 8. Silver.
They are all malleable metals, except bismuth, which is
not very brittle. They melt at a comparatively low heat;
zinc and silver require a red heat, and copper a white
heat, to melt them. The rest are fused at temperatures
below ignition. A rod of zinc throws down these metals
from their acid solutions in the metallic state.
Fifth Family.—Noble Metals.
This family comprehends the following six metals:
1. Gold. 4. Rhodium.
2. Platinum. 5. Iridium.
3. Palladium. 6. Osmium.
They all require a violent heat to fuse them. They are
insoluble in nitric acid, and their oxides are reducible to
the metallic state by the application of heat alone. We
shall treat of these different families successively in this
chapter.
FIRST FAMILY. ALKALINE BASES.
Sect. I.— Of Potassium.
Potassium is the basis of the alkali which has been so
long familiarly known under the name of potash. It is
obtained by lixiviating the ashes of vegetables which grow
at a distance from the sea. The common fern contains a
good deal. The salt called cream of tartar, which is depo¬
sited at the bottom of wine casks, when burnt in a crucible,
leaves a black matter, which, when lixiviated with water,
and the solution evaporated to dryness, constitutes carbo¬
nate of potash in a state of purity. When this carbonate
is dissolved in ten times its weight of water, and boiled
with its own weight of quicklime, it is rendered caustic.
When cream of tartar, after being ignited in a covered
crucible, is mixed with about one thirteenth of its weight
of charcoal, and the mixture is exposed to a strong heat
in an iron bottle, with a very wide tube fixed into it, and
plunged into a receiver containing naphtha, the potash is
decomposed, and potassium comes over into the receiver
in the metallic state. To obtain it pure, it ”e .1S,
tilled over from a green glass retort, previously filled witn
naphtha, into a receiver, also containing naphtha, ine
properties of potassium were first determined by 'J
Davy, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of the
composition of the alkaline bodies. „
It is a white metal, like silver. At the temperature ot Pro
50° it is a soft and malleable solid. It melts at 13b2 , an
at 32° it is hard and brittle, and when broken m frag¬
ments exhibits a crystalline structure. Nearly a red he
is required to convert it into vapour. Its specific Sia '
at 60° is 0-86507. It is an excellent conductor ot eiet-
1 The specific gravity of titanium vapour = 3-25 (the atomic weight) x 0*5555 _ 1-8055.
C H E M I S T R Y.
393
mple tricity and of heat. When exposed to the air, it rapidly
kalifi- absorbs oxygen, and is converted into potash. When
Bases. tjirown 0n the surface of water, it decomposes that fluid
rr-' with such rapidity that the metal takes fire, and burns
with a red flame. When heated in oxygen gas, it burns
with a brilliant white light, producing intense heat.
I. Potassium combines with two proportions of oxygen,
and forms two compounds, the first of which is an alkali,
the second neutral.
jsh. 1. Potassium is converted into potash when put into
water. It is formed also by burning potassium in oxygen
gas, and continuing the heat to drive off any surplus oxy¬
gen with which it may have combined. Its colour is
grayish-white, it melts at a red heat, and sublimes when
the heat is raised a little higher. The fused mass is hard,
breaks with a conchoidal fracture, and has a higher speci¬
fic gravity than hydrate of potash. It combines with wa¬
ter with such violence, that if only the requisite quantity
has been employed, the potash becomes red hot. After
being combined with water, we cannot deprive it of that
liquid by heat; it always continues a hydrate composed of
1 atom potash 6
1 atom water 1T25
The aqueous solution of potash may be crystallized.
The crystals are usually octahedrons, and are composed of
1 atom potash 6
4 atoms water 4‘5
10-5
Potash has been shown to be a compound of
1 atom potassium 5
1 atom oxygen   1
are obtained, which constitute bromide of potassium. Its Simple
taste is sharp and rather disagreeable, but its appearance AlkaKfi-
is very much that of common salt. It fuses at a red heatableBases-
without decomposition. It is decomposed by sulphuric
acid, and even by acetic acid, by the assistance of heat.
It is composed of
1 atom potassium 5
1 atom bromine 10
15
IV. When potassium comes in contact with iodine, it Iodide,
burns with a violet-coloured flame, and is converted into
iodide. The compound is white, and similar to common
salt. It melts and is volatilized at a temperature below
redness. On cooling it crystallizes and assumes a pearly
lustre. It is composed of
1 atom potassium 5
1 atom iodine 15‘75
20*75
V. When potassium is heated in hydrogen gas, there Hydret.
is a certain temperature at which the metal absorbs the
gas and becomes a hydret. In this state it has a gray
colour, and is destitute of the metallic lustre. It is infu¬
sible, and does not burn spontaneously either in air or oxy¬
gen gas. In water it is converted into potash, the hydro¬
gen which it contains being disengaged along with what
proceeds from the water decomposed. From the expe»
riments of Gay-Lussac and Thenard, it appears that this
hydret is a compound of
4 atoms potassium 5
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
6
It is an exceedingly corrosive substance, destroying the
texture both of animal and vegetable bodies. It is used
to a considerable extent in medicine, and constitutes one
of the most important of chemical re-agents,
oxide. 2. The peroxide of potassium may be formed by heat¬
ing potassium in a glass jar filled with oxygen gas. A
vivid combustion takes place, and a great deal of oxygen
is absorbed. It is a solid body of a yellow colour. It fuses
in a high temperature, and on cooling crystallizes in plates.
When put into water it elfervesces, and is reduced to the
state of potash. When surrounded by hydrogen and heat¬
ed, the gas is absorbed without the appearance of light,
and much water is formed. When hydrate of potash is
fused in an open silver crucible, the peroxide of potassium
is frequently formed, the oxygen of the atmosphere being
absorbed, and taking the place of the water. The consti¬
tuents of peroxide of potassium are,
1 atom potassium 5
3 atoms oxygen.. 3
8
II. When potassium is introduced into chlorine gas, it
burns with a brilliant red flame, and is converted into a
white salt. If potash be heated in chlorine gas, the oxy¬
gen is driven off, and the chlorine takes its place. The chlo¬
ride thus formed has the taste of common salt. It dis¬
solves readily in water, and crystallizes in right four-sided
prisms with square bases. It is not altered by exposure
to the air. Its constituents are,
1 atom potassium 5
1 atom chlorine 4*5
9*5
™ide. III. When potassium is exposed to the vapour of bro¬
mine, a combination takes place. When ether impregna¬
ted with bromine is saturated with potash, cubic crystals
VOL. VI.
loride.
5*125
VI. When potassium is prepared from cream of tartar, Carburet,
a black matter remains in the retort after the distilla¬
tion is over, which seems to be a compound of potassium
and carbon. WTien moistened with a little water it takes
fire and burns. When thrown into water it is decomposed
with effervescence.
VII. Silicet of potassium is obtained when silica is de¬
composed by means of potassium. It is a brown substance,
without the metallic lustre. When put into water, hydro¬
gen gas is evolved and silica formed.
VIII. The sulphurets of potassium are no fewer than five. Sulphurets.
1. When sulphate of potash is mixed with charcoal
powder, and exposed to a white heat in a covered cru¬
cible, it is converted into sulphuret of potassium. We
may obtain the same compound by passing a current of
hydrogen gas over sulphate of potash heated to redness in
a porcelain tube. This sulphuret has a dark-red colour
like cinnabar, and is crystalline in its texture. When
heated before the blowpipe it burns for an instant, but is
speedily covered by a crust of sulphate of potash, which
protects the interior portion from the air. This sulphuret
is composed of
1 atom potassium 5
1 atom sulphur .....2
7
2. Bisulphuret of potassium may be obtained by dis¬
solving sulphohydrate of potassium in alcohol, leaving the
solution exposed to the air till it begins to become muddy
on the surface, and then evaporating it to dryness in va¬
cuo. It has an orange colour, and enters easily into fu¬
sion. It is a compound of
1 atom potassium 5
2 atoms sulphur 4
9
3 n
394
CHEMISTRY.
Simyile 3. Tersulphuret of potassium is obtained by passing a
Alkalifi- current of bisulphide of carbon vapour over carbonate of
able Bases, heated to redness, as long as a permanent gas is
'‘““’’''i **' disengaged; or we may mix tbirty-five parts of carbonate
of potash with twenty parts of sulphur in a glass vessel,
and keeping the mixture in a state of fusion at an inci¬
pient red heat, till the ebullition produced by the escape
of carbonic acid gas is at an end. This is the sulphuiet
usually formed when sulphur and an alkaline caibonate
are fused together. It is black and opaque while in a
state of fusion, but when cold it has an hepatic coloiu
like common liver of sulphur. It is composed of
1 atom potassium 5
3 atoms sulphur G
11
4. Quatcrsulphuret of potassium may be obtained by
passing the vapours of bisulphide of carbon over sulphate
of potash, heated to redness till all disengagement of car¬
bonic acid gas is at an end; or we may fuse carbonate of
potash with an excess of sulphur, and, after driving off
that excess by heat, pass a current of sulphuretted hydro¬
gen over it at a red heat, till the sulphate of potash con¬
tained in it be completely decomposed. This sulphuret re¬
sembles the preceding in appearance. Its constituents are,
1 atom potassium 5
4 atoms sulphur 8
13
5. Persulphuret of potassium may be obtained by the
following process. Mix together thirty-five parts of car¬
bonate of potash and thirty-two parts of sulphur, and fuse
the mixture in a glass vessel. The combination takes
place at the temperature at which the sulphur fuses. This
persulphuret constitutes the common liver of sulphur of
chemists. To obtain it pure, we have only to take one of
the preceding sulphurets, formed by means of sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen, and fuse it with an excess of sulphur, till
all except what enters into combination is expelled. It
has a deep liver colour, absorbs moisture from the atmo¬
sphere, and at the same time gives out the smell of sulphu¬
retted hydrogen. When kept in badly corked phials, it be¬
comes white on the surface, inconsequence of the absorp¬
tion of oxygen. When heated with metals, it converts them
all without exception into sulphurets. It is composed of
1 atom potassium  5
5 atoms sulphur 10
15
Seleniet. IX. Selenium, when heated with potassium, combines
with the evolution of a red heat. The seleniet has the
metallic lustre and the colour of iron. Its fracture is crys¬
talline and radiated. Its solution in water has a deep red
colour. Acids precipitate selenium from it.
Phosphu- X. When potassium and phosphorus are heated toge-
iet. " ther in vacuo, they unite with the evolution of a red heat.
The phosphuret has a chocolate colour. It takes fire in
the open air, and when thrown into water. When the ex¬
cess of phosphorus which it contains is removed by pass¬
ing a current of hydrogen gas through it while heated in
a glass tube, it crystallizes on cooling, has the metallic
lustre, and the colour of copper.
Arseniet. XL Arseniet of potassium is obtained when the two
metals are heated together. Light is evolved during the
combination. The arseniet has a brown colour, and little
of the metallic lustre.
Antimo- XII. When equal weights of bi tartrate of potash and an-
niet. timony are intimately mixed and exposed to a strong heat,
antimoniet of potassium is formed. It has a grayish-black
colour, and is more porous, softer, and less brittle than
antimony. When pounded it gives out sparks. When Simp],
left exposed to the air it becomes hot, and burns the pa- Alkalit
per in which it has been wrapt. ^ Baj
Sect. II.— Of Sodium.
Sodium is the basis of soda, an alkali known to the an¬
cients in the state of carbonate, and called by them nitre.
It is found native in great quantities in Egypt, and in
some other parts of Africa. But the great source of it is
common salt, from which all the soda manufactured in
Great Britain is made. It may be purified and rendered
caustic by the same processes as potash; and it may be
decomposed in the same way, and the basis of it, or sodi¬
um, may be obtained in a separate state.
Sodium is a white metal, having a colour intermediate Proper:
between that of silver and lead. At the common tempe¬
rature of the air it is solid and very malleable, and so soft
that pieces of it may be welded together by strong pres¬
sure. It continues soft and malleable at 32°. It is an
excellent conductor of electricity. Its specific gravity is
0-97223. It melts when heated to the temperature of
194°, and requires a much higher temperature to volati¬
lize it than potassium does. When exposed to the air it
rapidly absorbs oxygen, and is converted into soda, but
not so rapidly as potassium. It decomposes water and
evolves hydrogen gas, but it does not take fire as potas¬
sium does. It burns with a yellowish flame, while that of
potassium is reddish.
I. Like potassium, it combines with two proportions of
oxygen, forming soda peroxide of sodium.
1. Soda is formed when the metal is brought in contact Soda,
with water, or when it is heated in oxygen, and the resi¬
due exposed to the requisite heat to drive off all excess
of oxygen. Soda has a gray colour, is a non-conductor of
electricity, has a vitreous fracture, and requires a good
red heat to fuse it. Its properties are so similar to those of
potash that a minute description is unnecessary. It does
not deliquesce in the air like potash. Its composition is
1 atom sodium 8
1 atom oxygen 1
4
It combines with water, and forms a hydrate, which can¬
not again be decomposed by heat. I his hydrate is com¬
posed of
1 atom soda 4
1 atom water 1*125
5*125
2. The peroxide of sodium is easily formed by heating Peroxii
sodium in oxygen gas. It has a dirty green colour, is fu¬
sible when heated, but requires a much higher tempera¬
ture than peroxide of potassium for fusion. When intio-
duced into water, it is reduced to soda, giving out the ex¬
cess of oxygen which it contains. It is composed of
1 atom sodium 8
I t atom oxygen 1*5
4*5
II. When sodium is introduced into chlorine gas, itChloriu
takes fire spontaneously, and burns vividly, emitting bright
red sparks. By this combustion it is converted into chlo¬
ride of sodium, a substance universally known under the
name of common salt. It has the well-known saline taste,
and crystallizes in cubes. It is composed of
1 atom sodium 3
1 atom chlorine   4*5
7*5
The other combinations of sodium resemble those of
CHEMISTRY.
395
nple potassium so closely, that a detailed description of them
alifi- would be superfluous.
,i Bases.
\ Sect. III.— Of Lithium.
Lithia, the alkali of which lithium is the base, is found
in small quantities in the minerals called •petalite and spo-
dumene. From these minerals it may be extracted by the
following process: ' Mix the mineral in fine powder with
a quantity of fluor spar equal to two and a half times the
weight of the silica which the mineral contains. Put this
mixture into a silver crucible, and make it up into a paste
with sulphuric acid. Heat it at first gently, and when the
greatest part of the fiuosilicic acid has made its escape,
the heat has to be raised to redness to drive off the ex¬
cess of sulphuric acid, and to decompose the sulphate of
alumina. The dry mass being now lixiviated with water,
a solution of sulphate of lithia is obtained, mixed with a
little sulphate of lime, which may be separated by careful
evaporation and crystallization, or by the addition of a lit¬
tle oxalate of ammonia. The lithia may be thrown down
from this sulphate in the state of carbonate, by means of
carbonate of ammonia or carbonate of soda; or we may
separate the sulphuric acid by adding barytes water, tak¬
ing care to avoid all excess. The liquid being filtered
and evaporated to dryness, we obtain the lithia in the
state of hydrate.
f orties. Lithia thus obtained has a white colour, renders vege¬
table blues green, and has a taste fully as caustic as that
of potash itself. At a red heat it melts and becomes a
transparent liquid. When exposed to the air it does not
deliquesce like potash, but remains dry ; but it gradually
absorbs carbonic acid, and is converted into a carbonate.
It is but little soluble in water, compared with potash and
soda, though the exact degree of solubility has not been
ascertained. It is scarcely soluble in alcohol. When
heated in a platinum crucible, it acts with considerable
energy upon that metal.
Davy, by means of the galvanic battery, decomposed it,
and obtained the metallic base lithium. It possesses near¬
ly the characters of sodium. Lithia is a compound of
1 atom lithium 0*75
1 atom oxygen 1
Its atomic weight is 1*75, so that it is by far the lightest
of alkaline bodies.
Lithium combines with chlorine, and forms a compound
which may be called chloride of lithium. It has not been
formed directly, but is obtained when lithia is saturated
by muriatic acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, and
dry salt heated in a close vessel. This chloride does not
crystallize, and when exposed to the air it deliquesces ra¬
pidly. When heated it melts at a comparatively low tem¬
perature.
The other combinations of lithium have not yet been
examined.
Sect. IX.— Of Barium.
Barytes, of which barium is the base, was discovered
by Scheele. It exists most commonly in the state of car¬
bonate or sulphate. It may be extracted from the sul¬
phate by the following process: Reduce the mineral to a
fine powder, mix it with the eighth part of its weight of
charcoal powder, and keep it for some time red hot in a
crucible, to convert it into sulphuret of barium. Dissolve
the sulphuret in water, and add nitric acid to the solution.
Filter and evaporate. Nitrate of barytes is obtained in
octahedral crystals. Expose these crystals to a red heat
in a covered platinum crucible : the nitric acid is driven
off, and the barytes remains in a state of purity.
It is a grayish-white porous body, having a harsh and Simple
more caustic taste than lime, and when taken into the Alkalifi-
stomach it proves a violent poison. When heated it be-able Bases,
comes harder, and acquires internally a bluish-green co-
lour. Before the blowpipe on charcoal it fuses, bubbles
up, and runs into globules, which penetrate the charcoal.
This only happens when the barytes is in the state of hy¬
drate. If it be anhydrous, it cannot be fused by means of
the blowpipe.
When a globule of mercury in contact with moistened Properties
barytes is connected with the negative end of a galvanic
battery, and the circle completed, the barytes is decom¬
posed, and an amalgam of its base obtained. By heating
this amalgam in a glass tube, the mercury is driven ofif,
and barium obtained in a separate state. It is a white
metal, of the colour of silver. It melts at a temperature
below redness, and is not volatilized at a heat capable of
melting plate glass. When exposed to the air it rapidly
absorbs oxygen, and is converted into barytes. It decom¬
poses water with great rapidity.
I. Barium combines with two proportions of oxygen, and Barytes,
forms the compounds called barytes and peroxide of ba-
1. The properties of barytes have been described at the
beginning of this section. When exposed to the air it
attracts moisture. It may be slaked like lime, and du¬
ring the slaking is converted into a hydrate composed
of
I atom barytes  9*5
1 atom water  1T25
10-625
It dissolves in water; indeed boiling water dissolves
more than half its weight of it; but when the solution
cools, the greater part is deposited in crystals. These
crystals are usually six-sided prisms. They are compos¬
ed of
1 atom barytes  9-5
20 atoms water 22-5
32
Barytes is a compound of
1 atom barium 8-5
1 atom oxygen 1-0
9-5
2. When dry barytes obtained from nitrate of barytes Peroxide,
is heated in oxygen gas, it absorbs the gas rapidly. The
peroxide thus formed is gray. It gives out its excess of
oxygen when put into an acid liquid. We may form this
peroxide by passing a current of oxygen gas over barytes
heated to redness in a green glass tube, as long as it con¬
tinues to absorb the gas. It is not decomposed by a red
heat; but it is decomposed when put into boiling water.
Its constituents are,
1 atom barium 8-5
2 atoms oxygen 2
10-5
Chloride, bromide, and iodide of barium, are salts, which
will come into view in a subsequent part of this article.
II. Barium, like potassium, combines in various propor- Sulphurets.
tions with sulphur; but the subject has not yet been suf¬
ficiently investigated.
1. When sulphate of barytes in powder is mixed with
charcoal, and strongly heated in a well-luted crucible, it
is converted into sulphuret of barium. This sulphuret dis¬
solves in boiling water, and the solution gives fine, trans¬
parent, and colourless crystals. This sulphuret is com¬
posed of
396
Simple
A Ikalifi-
able Eases.
CHEMISTRY.
1 atom barium'  8*5
1 atom sulphur  2
10-5
2. If we mix caustic barytes and sulphur, and heat the
mixture to redness in a covered crucible, we obtain a sul-
phuret of barium mixed with a little sulphate. AVe may
obtain the sulphuret pure by passing a current of sulphu¬
retted hydrogen gas over barytes ignited in a glass tube
till all formation of water is at an end. The sulphuret
formed has a brown colour.
3. When the solution of sulphuret of barium is boiled
with sulphur, we obtain a compound of
1 atom barium  8 5
5 atoms sulphur 10
18*5
III. When vapour of phosphorus is made to pass over
barytes in a glass or porcelain tube, five sevenths of the
barytes are reduced to the metallic state, and combine
with phosphorus, while two sevenths remain unaltered,
and combine with phosphoric acid formed during the pro¬
cess. The colour of the phosphuret is dark brown, and
its lustre almost metallic.
Sect. V.—Of Strontium.
Strontian, like barytes, occurs usually in the state of
carbonate or phosphate. It may be obtained in a separate
state by the same processes as those which were describ-
ed in the last section for procuring barytes. It may be
decomposed in the same way as barytes, and its metallic
basis, called strontium, obtained in a separate state.
Properties. Strontium is a white solid metal, much heavier than
water, which bears a close resemblance to barium in its
properties. By exposure to the air, or by coming in con¬
tact with water, it is immediately converted into strontian.
I. Strontium, like barium, combines with two propor¬
tions of oxygen, and forms strontian and peroxide of stron¬
tium.
Strontian. 1. Strontian obtained from the nitrate by heat is a po¬
rous mass of a grayish-white colour, which converts ve¬
getable blues into green, has an acrid taste, and is soluble
in water. It may be slaked like lime, falling into a white
powder composed of
1 atom strontian 6*5
1 atom water 1T25
gen. Its properties are similar to those of peroxide of Sin:
barium, but it is more easily dried. It is composed of Aik:;.
1 atom strontium 5*5 able A
7-625
It dissolves abundantly in hot water, and, as the solution
cools, is deposited in large crystals, which are right square
prisms. They are composed of
1 atom strontian  6-5
12 atoms water 13-5
20
*' Strontian has the property of tinging flame of a beautiful
red colour. The colour is very well seen when a solution
of chloride of strontian in alcohol is allowed to burn in a
platinum cup while we stir the liquid with a spatula.
Barytes and soda give a yellow tinge to flame. Lime gives
a red tinge, but lighter than the colour communicated by
strontian.
Strontian is a compound of
1 atom strontium 5-5
1 atom oxygen 1
6-5
Strontian is not poisonous, as is the case with barytes.
Peroxide. 2. Peroxide of strontium is obtained in bright scales
when strontian water is mixed with deutoxide of hydro-
- 2 atoms oxygen 2
7-5
The chloride, bromide, and iodide of strontian, are salts
which will be described afterwards. The sulphuret and
phosphuret of strontium resemble those of barium so close¬
ly that a detailed description of them appears unneces¬
sary.
Sect. YI.— Of Calcium.
Lime occurs in such quantities, and is of so much im¬
portance, that it has been known and employed from the
remotest ages. It occurs always in combination with an
acid, most commonly with the carbonic, constituting lime¬
stone, marble, calcareous spar, chalk, frequently with sul¬
phuric acid, constituting gypsum, selenite, sulphate of lime.
It is found also combined with phosphoric acid, fluoric
acid, arsenic acid, tungstic acid, and silicic acid.
It may be obtained pure by exposing calcareous spar or
pure white marble to a white heat in a covered crucible.
Indeed the common process of burning lime yields pure
lime, provided the limestone employed be free from im¬
purities. Pure lime is of a white colour, moderately hard,
but easily reduced to powder. It has a caustic taste, cor¬
rodes animal and vegetable bodies, and has a specific gra¬
vity of 3-08. By a process similar to that described when
treating of the decomposition of barytes, in the fourth sec¬
tion of this chapter, it may be decomposed, and its metal¬
lic basis, to which the name of calcium has been given,
obtained in a separate state.
Calcium is white like silver, solid, and much heavier prope f
than water. When heated in the open air it burns bril¬
liantly, and quicklime is produced.
I. Calcium, like the other alkaline bases belonging to this
family, combines in two proportions with oxygen, and forms
the two substances called lime and peroxide of calcium.
1. Lime cannot be fused by the greatest heat of our fur-Lime
naces; but before the oxygen and hydrogen blowpipe it
maybe fused in small particles into a brilliant limpid glass,
and during the fusion a beautiful lambent flame of an ame¬
thystine hue makes its appearance. When water is sprink¬
led on newdy burnt lime it swells, great heat is produced,
the water disappears, and the lime is resolved into a very
fine powder. This process is called slaking lime. The
lime combines with and solidifies the water; hence the
heat evolved, and the reduction of the lime to a fine pow¬
der. Slaked lime is a compound of
1 atom lime 3-5
1 atom water... 1-125
4-625
Water dissolves a little lime, and the solution has been
long known by the name of lime water. Cold water dis¬
solves more lime than hot water. At the tempeiature o
60°, 758 grains of water dissolve one grain of lime. When
this solution is concentrated in vacuo oyer sulphuric acid,
the lime crystallizes, and is deposited in small six-si e
prisms. These crystals, doubtless, consist of lime united
to a greater proportion of water than in slaked lime, but
they have not yet been subjected to analysis.
The atomic weight of lime is 3-5, and it is a compound
1 atom calcium 2-o
1 atom oxygen 1
3-5
CHEMISTR Y.
397
Pe
le 2. Peroxide of calcium may be formed by letting fall,
Lift- drop by drop, lime water into deutoxide of hydrogen.
,ises. Small brilliant scales fall, which constitute the peroxide
j of calcium. It undergoes spontaneous decomposition when
(e' kept under water, and cannot be dried in vacuo without
losing its excess of oxygen. Its constituents are,
1 atom calcium 2'5
2 atoms oxygen   2
same way as phosphuret of barium. It has a deep-brown Simple
colour. It is insoluble in water, but decomposes that li- Alkalifi-
quid, and phosphuretted hydrogen gas is disengaged abun~able Bases,
dantly. It falls to pieces in the air, and is soon destroy-
ed by the action of the atmosphere.
Sect. VII.— Of Magnesium.
II. The chloride, bromide, and iodide of calcium are
salts which will be described in a subsequent part of this
article.
(Mule of Lime has the property of combining wdth chlorine, and
[ iioj of forming an important compound, to which the name of
chloride of lime has been given. It was first made by
Messrs Tennant and MTntosh of Glasgow, and has now
become an important article of commerce under the name
of bleaching powder. It is made by leaving slaked lime
in a chamber kept full of chlorine gas till it refuses to ab¬
sorb any more. It is a white powder, having a hot taste,
and readily soluble in water. It has the property of de¬
stroying vegetable colours, and is in consequence employ¬
ed extensively in bleaching. When exposed to the air it
is gradually converted into chloride of calcium.
Suffirets. HI. Three different compounds of sulphur and calcium
have been examined by chemists.
1. When sulphate of lime in powder is mixed with about
one fifth of its weight of charcoal powder, and exposed for
a couple of hours to a white heat in a covered crucible, it
is converted into sulphuret of calcium. Its colour is red¬
dish. It dissolves imperfectly in water, but with great
ease in muriatic acid, while a great quantity of sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen gas is evolved. It is a compound of
1 atom calcium 2,5 -
1 atom sulphur 2
4-5
This sulphuret is obtained (but mixed with sulphate of
lime) when a mixture of sulphur and lime is cautiously
heated to redness in a covered crucible. In this state it
is known by the name of Canton’s phosphorus.
2. Bisulphuret of calcium may be obtained by boiling a
mixture of slaked lime, sulphur, and water, and allowing
the liquid to cool slowly before it be perfectly saturated
with sulphur. Yellow-coloured crystals separate, which
constitute the bisulphuret. They require 400 times their
weight of water at 60° to dissolve them, but they are
more soluble in boiling water. The bisulphuret is a com¬
pound of
1 atom calcium 2*5
2 atoms sulphur 4
6-5
The crystals consist of
1 atom bisulphuret 6-5
41 atoms water 5-0625
11-5625
3. When sulphuret of calcium is boiled in water with
sulphur till it refuses to take up any more, we obtain a
persulphuret of calcium, composed of
1 atom calcium  2-5
5 atoms sulphur 10
12-5
Ihis sulphuret was proposed many years ago as a sub¬
stitute for potash ley in bleaching ; but the proposal was
P phu. Successful.
IV. Phosphuret of calcium may be prepared in the
Magnesia, like lime, is found native in considerable
quantity, sometimes united to water, sometimes to carbo¬
nic acid; and it exists in sea-water in combination with
sulphuric and muriatic acids. From the carbonate it is
easily obtained pure by simple exposure to a red heat.
From sea-water, after the common salt and lime are sepa¬
rated, it is easily thrown down (at a boiling temperature)
by carbonate of soda. The white precipitate, after being
washed, dx-ied, and ignited, is pure magnesia.
Magnesia may be decomposed by the same process as Properties,
the other alkaline earths, and its basis magnesium obtained
in a sepax-ate state. M. Bussey has lately ascertained,
that when the vapour of potassium is passed over chloride
of magnesium heated to redness in a porcelain tube, the
magnesium is disengaged, and may be collected on a fil¬
ter. In this state it is in brown flocks, which, when x-ub-
bed in an agate mortar, assume the metallic lustre, and x-e-
semble lead in appearance. It is not attacked by dilute
nitric acid, but is dissolved in muriatic acid. When heat¬
ed before the blowpipe, it takes fire, and is converted into
magnesia. It has not the property of decomposing water,
like the bases of the other alkaline earths.
I. We know at present only one compound of magne--
sium and oxygen, namely, magnesia.
Magnesia is a white, soft, elastic, tasteless powder, not Magnesia,
sensibly soluble in watei’, and slowly changing vegetable
blues to green. It cannot be melted by the strongest
heat which we can apply. Dr Clarke, by means of the
oxygen and hydrogen blowpipe, fused it with great diffi¬
culty into a white enamel.
It does not combine with water, like the other alkaline
earths, hence it cannot be slaked like lime; nor does it
become hot when water is poured on it. Yet it is found
native in the state of a hydrate, composed of
1 atom magnesia   2-5
1 atom water 1-125
3-625
It has a strong affinity for silica. It does not absorb car¬
bonic acid from the atmosphere. Magnesia is a com¬
pound of
1 atom magnesium T5
1 atom oxygen 1
2-5
II. When heated in chlorine gas, magnesia parts with Chloride,
its oxygen, and is converted into chloride of magnesium,
a salt to be desci’ibed in a subsequent part of this article.
The bromide and iodide of magnesium are likewise salts.
III. No accurate experiments have hitherto been made
upon the formation of sulphuret of magnesium.
The oxides of the seven metals described in the pre¬
ceding sections constitute the most powerful alkaline bo¬
dies. They all combine readily with acids, and fox-m salts.
The chlorides, bromides, and iodides of these bodies are
also salts. The order of the affinity of these bodies for
acids is as follows :—Bai-ytes, sti-ontian, potash, soda, lime,
lithia ? and magnesia. But to this order there are some
exceptions. For example, lime unites to oxalic acid in
preference to the other bases when they are all in solu¬
tion together.
398
CHEMISTRY.
Simple
Alkalifi-
able Bases.
FAMILY SECOND. EARTHY BASES.
Sect. I.— Of Aluminum.
1 atom aluminum..., 1'25
1 atom oxygen 1
Prenara- Alumina, which is in fact an oxide of aluminum, is an
lion! essential constituent of clay, and constitutes the basis of
alum, from which it may be obtained m the following
manner. To a solution of alum in water add carbonate
of soda, and digest for some time. Then filter, to sepa¬
rate the precipitate that has fallen. _ Wash it well on a
filter, and dissolve it in muriatic acid. 1 recipitate the
alumina from this solution by carbonate of ammonia, and
digest the precipitate in a solution of carbonate of am¬
monia, to remove the muriatic acid as completely as pos¬
sible. Then wash it and dry it. Alumina may be obtain¬
ed from ammoniacal alum by simple exposure to a stiong
Wrhen dry alumina is intimately mixed with charcoal
powder, and a current of dry chlorine gas is passed over
the mixture while heated to redness in a porcelain tube,
chloride of aluminum is gradually formed, which sublimes,
and at last obstructs the farther extremity of the porce¬
lain tube. When this chloride, which is a solid body, is
mixed with about equal parts of potassium in a platinum
crucible, and after the lid is tied down with a wire, the
heat of a spirit-lamp is applied, the mixture becomes sud¬
denly intensely hot, and the potassium unites with the
chlorine, leaving the aluminum in a state of purity. When
the crucible is cold it is to be plunged into cold water, to
dissolve out the potash, and prevent it from acting on the
aluminum. Then collect the aluminum on a filter; wash
it and dry it. .
Properties. Aluminum obtained by this process has a considerable
resemblance to platinum. When burnished it assumes
the metallic lustre, and splendour of tin. The scales ad¬
mit of compression, so that alumina seems to be a mal¬
leable metal. It is not fusible at the temperature at
which cast iron melts. When exposed to a strong heat,
surrounded by charcoal powder, it undergoes no alteia-
tion. While in powder it is a non-conductor of electricity ;
but this is the case with iron also when in the same state.
At a red heat it burns with great splendour, and is con¬
verted into alumina. The heat produced by the combus¬
tion is so intense that the alumina is fused into a button
hard enough to cut glass, almost as hard, indeed, as sap¬
phire. Aluminum is not altered by water at common
temperatures, but when the water is boding hot it is very
slowly decomposed. It is not attacked by sulphuric or
nitric acid while cold; but when heated it dissolves ra¬
pidly in sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid being evolved.
In dilute sulphuric acid, and in muriatic acid, it dissolves
with the evolution of hydrogen gas. It dissolves also with
the. same evolution in very dilute solutions of potash, and
even of ammonia. When heated in chlorine gas it burns,
and is converted into chloride of aluminum.
I. So far as is known at present, aluminum unites with
only one proportion of oxygen, and forms the well-known
base named alumina.
Alumina. Alumina is a fine white powder, destitute of taste and
Sim]:
Alka'
able B;
2-25 W
Though alumina be insoluble in water, yet its affinity for
that liquid is considerable. When dry alumina is expos¬
ed to a moist atmosphere, it increases in weight about 15
per cent, by absorbing moisture. Hydrate of alumina oc¬
curs native. It is a white stalactitical-looking substance,
distinguished among mineralogists by the name of gibsite.
It is composed of
1 atom alumina 2*25
1 atom water 1T25
3-375
When we precipitate alumina from its solution in potash,
and, after washing it, allow it to dry spontaneously in the
open air, the white powder obtained is a compound of
1 atom alumina 2-25
2 atoms water 2-25
4-50
When we dry this bihydrate at a temperature of 100°, it
is converted into a simple hydrate. The mineral called
diaspore is a dihydrate, or a compound of
2 atoms alumina 4*5
1 atom water T125
smell, but adhering strongly to the tongue. It is inso¬
luble in water and alcohol. It dissolves readily in caustic
potash or soda while in the state of a hydrate. Even li¬
quid ammonia dissolves a small quantity of it in that state.
Even after ignition, it dissolves slowly in sulphuric and
muriatic acids when assisted by heat. If to the sulphu¬
ric acid solution of it we add some sulphate of potash, oc¬
tahedral crystals of alum are speedily deposited. At the
violent heat produced by the oxygen-hydrogen blowpipe,
it may be fused into a white semitransparent enamel.
Its specific gravity is 4-200. Alumina is a compound of
5-625
Alumina is one of the weakest of the bases. It even
seems to perform the part of an acid in cei tain combina¬
tions which occur in the mineral kingdom. Thus spinell is
a compound of one atom magnesia and six atoms alumina.
The magnesia undoubtedly acts the part of the base in
this mineral, so that alumina is the acid, ihe affinity be¬
tween alumina and magnesia is very great. Hence in che¬
mical analyses we sometimes get a compound of the two.
It is easily distinguished from pure alumina by the property
which it has of becoming hot when moistened with water.
II. The mode of obtaining the chloride of aluminumChlori
has been stated at the beginning of this section. It is a
solid crystalline body, having a pale-yellow colour, semi¬
transparent, and in plates. In the air it smokes feebly, and
soon deliquesces. In water it dissolves with the evolution
of great heat. It is volatilized at a temperature not much
higher than that of boiling water. Though this chloride
has not been analysed, there can be little doubt that its
constituents are,
1 atom aluminum 1’25
1 atom chlorine 4-5
5-75
The bromide and iodide of aluminum are still unknown.
IV. Sulphur may be distilled off aluminum without any
combination taking place ; but if the vapour of sulphur be
passed over aluminum in a good red heat, the combina¬
tion takes place with a very vivid combustion. Sulpnuret
of aluminum is black, semimetallic, and. acquires lustre
when burnished. When left in the air it emits a strong
smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, and falls at last into a
grayish-white powder. When it is thrown into water, sul-
phuret of hydrogen is given out rapidly, and alumina pre¬
cipitates. Hence its constituents are evidently
1 atom aluminum T25
1 atom sulphur 2
3-25
V. Seleniet of aluminum may be formed in the same Seler
way as the sulphuret. Its properties are very similar to
those of the sulphuret.
Era
CHEMISTRY.
VI. When aluminum is ignited in an atmosphere of
■ phosphorus, it burns brilliantly. The phosphuret formed
S>is a powder of a grayish-black colour, which acquires the
J metallic lustre when burnished, and emits the smell of
phosphuretted hydrogen gas.
et< VII. When arsenic and aluminum are heated together,
they combine with a feeble evolution of heat. The arse-
niet is a black powder, which assumes the metallic lustre
when burnished, and emits the smell of arsenietted hydro¬
gen gas.
Sect. II.—Of Glucinum.
Glucina, which is the oxide of glucinum, exists to the
amount of about fourteen per cent, in the beryl or emerald,
from which it may be extracted by the following process :
Fuse pounded beryl with thrice its weight of carbonate
of soda for an hour in a platinum crucible. Dissolve the
399
Simple
Alkalifi-
able Bases.
1 atom glucinum  2*25
1 atom oxygen \
__ ^ . 3-25
Hydrate of glucina is obtained when we precipitate glu¬
cina from muriatic acid by ammonia added in excess.° It
ifi a bulky, white powder, similar to hydrate of alumina.
The quantity of water which it contains has not yet been
determined.
II. Chloride of glucinum may be formed by passing a Chloride,
current of chlorine gas over an intimate mixture of glu¬
cina and charcoal, heated to redness in a porcelain or
glass tube. The chloride sublimes in the form of white
needles. It is very volatile, and deliquesces speedily when
exposed to the air. Grlucinum, when heated in chlorine
gas, burns with splendour, and is converted into the same
chloride.
III. When glucinum is heated in the vapour of bro-Bromide.
fused mass in muriatic acid, evaporate to dryness, digest mine, it takes fire, and is converted into bromide. It is
the residue in muriatic acid, which will dissolve every
thing but the silica. Collect the silica on a filter, wash it
well, and set it aside. The liquid which passes through is
to be reduced by evaporation to a small quantity. It con¬
tains alumina and glucina in solution in muriatic acid.
Precipitate these two bodies by carbonate of ammonia.
in long white needles, is very volatile and fusible, and
dissolves in water with the evolution of much heat.
IV. Iodide of glucinum may be formed by a similar Iodide,
piocess. It is also in long white needles, and resembles
the two preceding compounds.
V. When glucinum is heated in the vapour of sulphur, Sulphuret.
Put the precipitate into a phial with a ground stopper, it burns with almost as much splendour as in oxygen gas’,
and fill up tne phial with solution of carbonate of ammo- The sulphuret is a gray mass, which has not undergone
",0 „Put 111 the stopper, and agitate the contents of the fusion. It dissolves in water with difficulty, and without
phial frequently for the space of twenty-four hours. The
glucina will be dissolved by the carbonate of ammonia,
but the alumina remains in the state of a white matter.
Separate it by the filter, and boil the liquid containing the
glucina till the carbonate of ammonia is driven off. A
white powder falls down, which, when washed and dried,
is glucina.
Glucina may be converted into chloride of glucinum,
Prt ’ties,
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; but when an
acid is added, that gas is given out abundantly.
VI. Seleniet of glucinum may be made by a similar pro- Seleniet.
cess as the preceding. The seleniet fuses into a gray
mass having a crystalline texture. It dissolves with diffi¬
culty in water, and the solution is red, from the selenium
disengaged.
, ^ Glucinum burns when heated in the vapour of'Phosphu-
and the glucinum obtained an a separate state, by exactly phosphorus. The phosphuret is gray, and when put into ret.
the same method which was given in the last section for water phosphuretted hydrogen gas is evolved.
obtaining aluminum. . VIII. When glucinum is heated along with arsenic, light Arseniet.
ylucmum obtained in tms way is a dark-gray powder, is evolved. The arseniet formed is a gray powder, which
which when burnished acquires the metallic lustre. It is has not undergone fusion, and which, when put into wa-
very difficult of fusion. It does not absorb oxygen at the ter, disengages arsenietted hydrogqn gas.
Telluret of glucinum is similar in appearance to arse¬
niet.
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, and it may be
kept even in boiling water without alteration. When
heated in air or oxygen gas it burns with much splen¬
dour, and is converted into glucina. It dissolves in con¬
centrated sulphuric acid when assisted by heat, and sul¬
phurous acid is exhaled. In dilute sulphuric and muria
Sect. III.— Of Yttrium.
Yttria, which constitutes the oxide of yttrium, is ob¬
tained from a scarce mineral called yadolinite, of a black
tic acids it dissolves readily with the evolution of hydro- colour, a glassy lustre, and a specific gravity of 4*237,
Glil ia.
which has hitherto been found only in Sweden. The pro¬
cess is as follows : Digest the pounded mineral in nitro-
muriatic acid till it is completely decomposed. When the
solution is filtered, the silica contained in the mineral is
left behind. The solution contains yttria, glucina, cerium,
and oxide of iron. Evaporate it to dryness, to get rid of
gen gas, and in nitric acid with the evolution of deutoxide
of azote. It dissolves also in potash ley, but not in am¬
monia.
I. So far as we know at present, glucinum combines with
only one dose of oxygen, and forms the well-known base
called glucina.
Glucina is a soft, light, white powder, without either all excess of acid, and dissolve it by digestion in distilled
taste or smell, which has the property of adhering strong- water. To this solution add oxalic acid as long as any
ytothe tongue. Its specific gravity is 2*976. It is in- precipitate continues to fall, and until the precipitate be-
so uble in water, but with a small quantity of that liquid comes of a perfectly white colour. The yttria and oxide
it orms a paste which has some ductility. It is soluble of cerium are precipitated, while the glucina and oxide of
m potash and caustic ley, in this respect resembling alu- iron remain in solution. The precipitate is a beautiful
mina. .It is insoluble in liquid ammonia, but dissolves white light powder. Let it be ignited to decompose the
leadily in carbonate of ammonia. By this property it can oxalic acid; then dissolve the residual mass in muriatic
e easdy separated from alumina. It combines with acids acid, and put a quantity of sulphate of potash into the
and forms sweet-tasted salts; hence the reason why it solution, considerably greater than can be dissolved. In
was called glucina1 by Vauquelin, the discoverer of it. Its twenty-four hours the cerium is precipitated in the state of
a onuc weight is 3*25, and it is composed of a white powder, while the yttria remains in solution. The
1 From y\u»t>s, meet.
CHEMISTRY.
400
Simple yttria may now be precipitated by pure
Alkalifi- washed and dried. Gadobmte yields about U5 per cen -
V-' ^ttria may be decomposed, aad yttrium extracted f™m
it, by precisely the same process which furnishes alu
nU¥ttidum1thufi obtained is in small scales, having the
metallic lustre and the colour of iron. It is brittle, and
does not oxydize at the ordinary temperature in the an
or in water.* When heated to redness, it burns, and is
converted into yttria. When the combustion takes place
in oxygen gas, its splendour can scarcely be surpassed.
The j^ttria obtained is white, and exhibits evident mar s
of having been fused. Yttrium dissolves readily in dilute
sulphuric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen gas. !t dis-
solves with more difficulty in potash ley, and not at all in
Properties.
Yttria. I. So far as we know at present, yttrium combines with
only one dose of oxygen, and forms yttria, which is a fine
white powder, destitute of taste and smell. Its specific
gravity is 4-842. It is insoluble in water, but, like alumina,
it retains a large quantity of that liquid. It is insoluble
in potash and soda leys, which distinguishes it from alu-
mina and glucina; but it dissolves in carbonate of ammo¬
nia and in the other alkaline carbonates; but glucina is
much more soluble in carbonate of ammonia than yttria.
Its atomic weight appears to be 5-5, and it is a compound
• A r
1 atom yttrium /t'*J
1 atom oxygen 1
5-5
riilnrifle II. Chloride of yttrium is easily obtained by passing a
current of dry chlorine gas over a mixture of yttria and
charcoal exposed to a red heat in a porcelain or glass tube.
It has a strong resemblance to chloride of glucinum, being
in white brilliant needles, which easily melt into a white
crystalline mass. It is volatile, dissolves in water with
the evolution of much heat, and speedily deliquesces in
The bromide and iodide of yttrium still remain to be
examined. „ „ . .
Sulphuret. III. When yttria is heated in the vapour of sulphur, it
takes fire, and forms a gray powder, which is insoluble in
water, and does not undergo spontaneous decomposition.
It dissolves in acids with the evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas. ,
Seleniet IV. When yttrium is heated with selenium till that sub¬
stance fuses, a feeble incandescence takes place. The
seleniet formed is black, and does not decompose watei ;
but when put into dilute acids, selenietted hydrogen gas is
given out. , . .
Phosphu- V. In the vapour of phosphorus yttrium combines with
ret. a lively combustion. The phosphuret is a grayish-black
powder, which gives out phosphuretted hydrogen when
put into water.
Sect. IV.—Of Cerium.
This metal, or at least its oxide, exists in a reddish-co¬
loured mineral found in Sweden, and distinguished by the
name of cerite. It may be obtained by digesting the pound¬
ed mineral in nitric acid, neutralizing the solution, and
adding oxalate of ammonia. A white precipitate falls,
which is oxalate of cerium. When heated the oxalic acid
is destroyed, and oxide of cerium remains. When this
oxide is converted into chloride by a process similar to
that described in the first section of this family, while
treating of chloride of aluminum, and afterwards decom¬
posing this chloride by potassium, cerium is obtained in
the metallic state.
Thus obtained, cerium is a gray powder, having the me- Sir
tallic lustre ; but its peculiar properties have not yet been Alb..
determined. aWe %
I. Cerium combines with two proportions of oxygen,^ -'
and forms two oxides, both of which possess the charac- X1 ’
ters of bases. The protoxide, when in the state of a car¬
bonate, is white ; the peroxide is yellow or brownish-red.
1. The peroxide is obtained when the oxalate of ce¬
rium is heated to redness in an open vessel. Thus ob¬
tained, it has a reddish-brown colour, is tasteless, and
may be exposed to a strong heat without undergoing any
alteration. When we digest it in muriatic acid, chlorine
is disengaged, and the solution becomes less and less
coloured, till at last it has only a slight fiesh-ied colour.
The reason of this is, that the peroxide, by the action of
the muriatic acid, is gradually converted into protoxide.
The protoxide may be thrown down from the muriatic so¬
lution, by carbonate of ammonia, in the state of a carbo¬
nate. It is then a white, soft, tasteless powder, which dis¬
solves readily in acids, ihe salts which it forms have a
sweet taste, like those of yttria. Indeed they resemble 1
the salts of yttria so closely in all their properties, that it
is exceedingly difficult to distinguish the one fiom the
other. From the recent experiments of Dr Steel, it would
appear that the atomic weights of cerium and its oxides
are as follows:
Atomic weights.
Cerium   5-5
Protoxide of cerium * 6‘5
Peroxide of cerium 7
II. There are two chlorides of cerium, but they have not Chit >.
yet been carefully examined. The protochloride is ob¬
tained when oxide of cerium is digested in muriatic acid
till the solution becomes almost colourless. It crystallizes
with difficulty in four-sided prisms. It deliquesces in the
air, is very soluble in water, and also in alcohol, and the
alcoholic solution burns with a yellow-coloured flame.
The perchloride is a reddish-yellow solution, which ge¬
latinises by cautious evaporation. It does not crystallize,
and when heated is gradually converted into protochlonde.
The bromides and iodides of cerium are still unknown.
III. It would appear, from Laugier’s experiments, that Carl t.
cerium combines with carbon. The carburet is obtaine
when protocarbonate of cerium is made into a paste with
oil, and heated in a retort surrounded by charcoal. It is
a black matter, which takes fire spontaneously when ex-
* IV. Sulphuret of cerium may be formed by passing the Sul; ^
vapour of bisulphide of carbon over oxide of cerium heat¬
ed to redness in a porcelain tube. It is light and porous,
and similar to red lead in colour. . •
When oxide of cerium is mixed with alkaline hepar in
great excess, and exposed to a white heat in a covered
crucible, and the hepar afterwards washed off with water,
a sulphuret of cerium remains in brilliant scales, like m -
saic gold in appearance. _ . . ^pujL
V. When a stick of phosphorus is put into a solution of^
cerium in muriatic acid, and kept for some days on a stove,
the bottom and sides of the vessel are covered with a
white precipitate. The phosphorus itself becomes coat
with a hard brown crust, which was tenacious, and shon
in the dark. When heated it took fire, and left a smai
quantity of oxide of cerium.
Sect. V.— Of Zirconium.
Zirconia, which constitutes an oxide of zircomum, exists
as a constituent of the zircon or hyacinth, a daJ»;16 '
loured hard mineral, having a specific gravity ot * •
obtain zirconia from this mineral, reduce it to a h P
der, mix it with thrice its weight of potash, and fuse
CHEMISTRY.
.rganic a platinum crucible. Digest the fused mass in water till
dies, all the potash is abstracted ; then dissolve it as far as pos-
'i^ sible in muriatic acid. Boil the solution, to precipitate any
silica that may have been dissolved; then filter, and add a
quantity of potash. The zirconia precipitates in the state
of a white powder.
Zirconia thus obtained may be dissolved in fluoric acid,
and by the addition of the requisite quantity of potash or
fluoride of potassium, andevaporation, we may obtain the salt
called potash fluate of zirconia. Reduce this salt to pow¬
der, and render it anhydrous by exposure to heat. Then
mix it in an iron tube with potassium, the two substances
being introduced in alternate layers. Heat the tube till the
potassium melts, and then mix the two substances by means
of an iron wire. Shut the mouth of the tube, and" heat it
over a spirit-lamp till it begins to get red hot. The zirconia
is reduced in the tube, and converted into zirconium, which
remains mixed with a quantity of fluate of potash. Allow
the tube to cool, and then wash out its contents with water.
The fluate of potash dissolves, and the zirconium falls to
the bottom of the vessel in the state of a black powder.
Thus obtained, it has a close resemblance to charcoal
powder. Though rubbed by a burnisher, it does not ac¬
quire the metallic lustre. To free it from some hydrate
of zirconia with which it is mixed, it may be kept for five
or six hours in dilute muriatic acid at the temperature of
100°. Then wash the zirconium first in a solution of sal
ammoniac, and afterwards in alcohol.
P erties. Thus purified, zirconium has some resemblance to plum¬
bago, being composed of brilliant scales. It is a non-con¬
ductor of electricity. When heated in hydrogen gas, or in
vacuo, it is not altered. It does not fuse even in a strong
heat. When heated in the open air it takes fire long be¬
fore it is red hot, burns quietly, and is converted into zir¬
conia, which is perfectly white. When it contains hydrate
of zirconia it burns with a kind of explosion, which throws
every thing out of the tube. When mixed with chlorate
of potash it takes fire when violently struck, but burns
without detonating. In fused nitre it does not burn at a
heat below redness. When mixed with carbonate of pot¬
ash it burns at the expense of the carbonic acid with a
feeble disengagement of light. It burns also in melted
borax, in consequence of the water which the salt retains.
For the same reason it burns in the alkaline hydrates. At
the ordinary temperature it is not acted on by sulphuric
or muriatic acid. Even when long boiled in these acids
the action is very small. Neither nitric acid nor aqua
regia is capable of dissolving it; but it dissolves readily in
fluoric acid, with the disengagement of hydrogen gas. A
mixture of nitric and fluoric acid dissolves it with great ra¬
pidity. It does not dissolve in caustic alkaline leys.
F We know only one compound which it is capable of
forming with oxygen, namely, zirconia.
Zirconia is a white powder, which feels somewhat harsh
when rubbed between the fingers. It has neither taste
nor smell. It is infusible before the blowpipe, but when
heated violently in a charcoal crucible it undergoes a kind
of imperfect fusion, acquires a gray colour, and something
of the appearance of porcelain. In this state it is very hard,
ias a specific gravity of T'S, and is no longer soluble in
acids. Zirconia, though insoluble in water, has a consider¬
able affinity for that liquid. When dried in the open air,
a ter precipitation, it retains about one third of its weight
o water, and assumes a grayish-yellow colour, and a certain
(egree of transparency, which gives it some resemblance
to common glue. This hydrate is probably composed of
1 atom zirconia 3-75
1 atom water   IT25
401
0:
Zi
4*875
After ignition zirconia is insoluble in acids, except con- Inorganic
centrated sulphuric acid by digestion, in which it may be Bodies,
dissolved. It recovers its solubility likewise when ignited
with potash. The hydrate of zirconia is a white bulky
semigelatinous matter, which dissolves readily in acids
while moist, but after being dried it dissolves but slowly.
It contracts much in drying. It begins to glow like a live
coal when heated nearly to redness. It dissolves in small
quantity, and very slowly, in carbonate of ammonia. It is
insoluble in the fixed alkaline carbonates ; but if we pre¬
cipitate a salt of zirconia with carbonate of potash, and
add an excess of the carbonate, the precipitate redissolves.
The experiment succeeds still better with bicarbonate of
potash. Zirconia is insoluble in potash or soda ley.
We are not in possession of accurate experiments to
determine the atomic weight of zirconia. From Berze¬
lius’s analysis of the sulphate of zirconia, it follows that
the atomic weight of zirconia is 3*75. Hence we may
conclude that it is a compound of
1 atom zirconium 2-75
I atom oxygen 1
3-75
II. When zirconium is heated in chlorine gas it takes Chloride,
fire, and is converted into a white fixed matter, which is
chloride of zirconium.
The bromide and iodide of zirconium are still unknown.
III. When zirconium is obtained by means of potassium Carburet,
containing carbon, it seems to be in the state of a carburet;
for when digested in muriatic acid it gives out a smell si¬
milar to that of cast iron when so treated. When calcin¬
ed the zirconia obtained is gray, and it is extremely diffi¬
cult to burn out the carbon.
IV. Sulphuret of zirconium is formed when the two con- Sulphuret.
stituents are mixed and heated in vacuo, or surrounded
with hydrogen gas. At the instant of combination a fee¬
ble light is evolved. This sulphuret is a powder of a deep-
brown colour, which does not acquire lustre under the
burnisher. It is insoluble in sulphuric, nitric, and muria¬
tic acids. Aqua regia dissolves it slowly at a boiling heat.
Fluoric acid dissolves it rapidly, while sulphuretted hy¬
drogen is given out. It is not dissolved by caustic pot¬
ash. When fused with hydrate of potash we obtain sul¬
phuret of potassium and zirconia.
Sect. VI.—Of Thorium.
Thorina, which constitutes an oxide of thorium, has
been hitherto found only in a black mineral from the
neighbourhood of Christiania, in Norway, to which the
name of thorite has been given. It resembles obsidian,
but has a specific gravity of 4-63. From this mineral it
may be obtained by the following process:
Reduce the mineral to powder, and digest it in muriatic Prepara-
acid till it is dissolved. Evaporate the solution to dryness,
and digest the residue in muriatic acid, and filter to get
rid of the silica. Caustic ammonia added to the liquid
rather in excess precipitates the thorina still contaminat¬
ed with various foreign bodies. Dissolve the precipitate
while still moist in muriatic acid, and pass a current of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the liquid to throw
down a little tin and lead which it contains. Evaporate
gently to dryness, redissolve in water, and precipitate
again by caustic potash added in excess to retain in solu¬
tion a little alumina which is present. Dissolve the new
precipitate in muriatic acid, neutralize with caustic am¬
monia, and then add as much sulphate of potash as the
liquid is capable of dissolving. A fine white powder falls.
Collect it on a filter, and wash, it with a saturated solu¬
tion of sulphate of potash. Dissolve this powder in boil¬
ing water, and add potash to the solution, thorina falls
3 E
VOL. VI.
402
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic in the state of a white powder, which may be washed and
Bodies, dried. i i .
When thorina is mixed with charcoal powder and heat-
properties. ed t0 redness in a porcelain tube, while a current of chlo¬
rine gas passes over it, chloride of thorium is obtained.
When this chloride is mixed with potassium and heated
in a platinum crucible, a slight detonation takes place, icat,
hut no light, being evolved. The thorium is reduced, by
washing it with water the chloride of potassium is sepa¬
rated, and thorium remains in the state of an iron-gray
coloured powder having the metallic lustre. Like alu¬
minum, it appears to be malleable. It is not oxj^dized by
water, even when assisted by heat. When gently heated
in the open air it burns with much splendour, and is con¬
verted into thorina. Sulphuric acid acts upon it very fee¬
bly, and nitric acid exhibits still less energy; but muriatic
acid dissolves it rapidly with the evolution of hydrogen gas,
if we assist the action by heat. It is not acted on by caus¬
tic alkalies.
Thorina. I. The only known compound of thorium and oxygen is
thorina, which may be obtained in the state of a hydrate
by adding caustic potash to the solution of thorina in an
acid. . ,
Hydrate of thorina is gelatinous, falls rapidly, and con¬
tracts much while drying. While moist it dissolves rapid¬
ly in acids, but much more slowly when dry. Hie salts
which it forms have a styptic taste. The hydrate is in¬
soluble in the caustic alkalies; but it dissolves in the car¬
bonates, and the solubility increases with the concentra¬
tion of these liquids. It is more soluble in cold than in
hot carbonate of ammonia. Ammonia does not precipi¬
tate thorina from a saturated solution in carbonate of am¬
monia, as it does zirconia. When this hydrate is strong¬
ly heated, it gives out its water, and becomes very hard,
and difficult to pulverize. In this state it is soluble in no
acid but the sulphuric. It is not rendered soluble in acids
by calcining it with a caustic or carbonated alkali. When
the alkali is extracted after such a calcination, the thorina
cannot be washed with pure water, but forms with it a
milky liquid, which passes through the filter. The atomic
weight of thorina seems to be 8-5, and we may conclude
from analogy that it is a compound of
1 atom thorina 
1 atom oxygen 1
8-5
Characters Thorina is distinguished from the other earths by the
of. following properties :
]. Its sulphate is precipitated from its solution by rais¬
ing it to the boiling temperature, and dissolves again,
though slowly, in cold water. This property is peculiar
to thorina. .
2. It is insoluble in caustic alkaline leys, which distin¬
guishes it from alumina and glucina.
3. It forms with potash a double sulphate, which is so¬
luble in water, but insoluble in a saturated solution of sul¬
phate of potash. This distinguishes it from yttria.
4. Zirconia forms a similar double sulphate with potash,
but it is almost wholly insoluble in cold water. This dis¬
tinguishes it from thorina. Besides, the salts of thorina
are precipitated by prussiate of potash, which is not the
case with the salts of zirconia.
5. From the protoxide of cerium it is distinguished by
not becoming reddish brown, but continuing white, when
it is calcined ; and by not forming a coloured bead before
the blowpipe, either with borax or with biphosphate of
soda.
II. Chloride of thorium is formed by the process describ- Inorg,,
ed at the beginning of this section. W’e are still ignorant Bod
of its properties. .
III. Sulphuret of thorium is formed when a mixture of^1101-1
the two constituents is heated in a close vessel, and bril-Sulph’.;,
liant combustion accompanies the combination. . I he sul¬
phuret is brown, acquires brilliancy when burnished, but
never assumes the metallic lustre. When heated in hy¬
drogen gas it undergoes no alteration. In the open air
the sulphur may be sublimed by heat, and the thorium is
converted into thorina. It is scarcely acted on by sul¬
phuric, nitric, or muriatic acids, even when the action is
assisted by heat. Aqua regia dissolves it completely by
the assistance of heat, and converts it into sulphate of
thorina. .
IV. Phosphuret is formed when thorium is heated mPhospj
the vapour of phosphorus. The combination is accom-ret.
panied by the evolution of light. I he phosphuret has a
.rray colour, and the metallic lustre; and has some ic-
semblance to plumbago. It is not alteied by water; but
when heated it takes fire, and is converted into phosphate.
THIRD FAMILY.—DIFFICULTLY FUSIBLE BASES.
This family includes some of the most useful bodies in
existence.
Sect. I.—Of Iron.
Iron is one of the seven metals with which the ancients
were acquainted.1 2 Its ores are abundant, but the piocess
of smelting requires considerable skill. The ore from which
iron is obtained in Great Britain is a carbonate of iron,
which accompanies the coal formation, and is usually call¬
ed clay ironstone.
The ore broken into small pieces is roasted, or exposed How
to a red heat, to drive off the carbonic acid gas, by whichsmelt
process it loses from one third to one fourth of its weight,
according to the goodness of the ore. In general three and
a fourth tons of raw ore are reduced by roasting to two
and a fourth tons. From this quantity of ore about one
ton of cast iron is usually obtained.
The roasted ore is mixed with limestone and coke, and
smelted in a blast furnace. The furnace is a kind of cone,
from thirty-six to sixty feet in height. It is built of good
fire brick, and is double to keep in the heat. Limestone
is used as a flux, to separate the clay with which the ore
is always contaminated. In general two and a fourth tons
of roasted ore require nineteen hundredweight of lime¬
stone ; or, in round numbers, three tons of raw ore require
one ton of limestone. About six tons of coal are required
to make one ton of iron. But the coal loses nearly halt its
weight in coking, so that uncoked coal must go a good
deal farther. . t
The furnace is always kept full, and after being lighted
is never extinguished till it requires to be repaiied. e
air is driven into the furnace from large cylinders by means
of a steam engine. The furnace is tapped every twen y
four hours, and the melted iron is allowed to run into sand
moulds, and cast into ingots usually called pigs. Ihe sco¬
ria; flow out after the iron, and are thrown away. By t*115
process the iron is obtained in the state of cast iron. Ut
this there are three qualities, distinguished by the names
of No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. Of this No. 1 is the most, and
No. 3 the least valuable, while in the state of cast iron.
These three qualities are easily distinguished by the scoriae.
The scoriae of No. 1 are uniform in colour and appeai-
ance, glassy, and feebly translucent.
1 These were gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, and mercury. . , .  P ... ;mnrnvement raw coal is
2 Of late years the air, before it enters the furnace, is heated almost to ignition. In consequence of this p
now used in various furnaces instead of coke.
CHEMISTRY.
403
■ranic The scoriae of No. 2 are opaque, heavy, of a yellowish-
dies. green colour, exhibiting bands of bluish enamel.
- Y'-'1 The scoriae of No. 3 are black, vitreous, blebby, and give
out the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
When the cast iron is intended to be used in the state
in which it is first obtained, the object of the smelter is to
form No. 1, though this is not always in his power. But
when the iron is to be converted into bar-iron, the cast
iron is always obtained in the state of No. 2. The com¬
position of the scoriae in that case is most commonly two
atoms silicate of lime and one atom silicate of alumina;
but there is usually present also some silicate of iron and
silicate of magnesia.
To convert cast iron into bar-iron three successive pro¬
cesses are requisite. The first of these is called refining.
By this process it is converted into No. 3, or white cast iron.
Six pigs of cast iron are put at once into the furnace, and
covered with coke above and below. They are fused, and
kept in that state for twenty-four hours. Much carbonic
oxide gas is given out during this process, and burns with
a blue flame. It is drawn, cast into a cake, and cooled
by water. It is now white and very hard. Its fracture is
fibrous, and it is often filled with spherical cavities.
The scoriae from this process are obviously derived from
impurities in the cast iron, and from the ashes of the
coke. They are black, metallic, often fibrous, and crys¬
tallized. A specimen of these scoriae was found compos¬
ed of one atom phosphate of alumina, and eight and a
half atoms silicate of iron. The loss sustained during the
process varies from tw'elve to seventeen per cent. For
every ton of cast iron refined, from two to two and a half
tons of coke are employed.
The second process, called 'puddling, was contrived by
Mr Cort of Gosport in 1785. It lasts about two hours and
a half. The fine metal of the last process is put into a
reverberatory furnace, in which it is arranged round the
edges. Heat is applied by the flame of pit-coal, which is
made to play upon it. The metal softens; it is stirred,
and gradually falls to pieces. The fire is then lowered,
and the stirring continued till the metal is reduced to the
consistence of sand. In this state much carbonic oxide is
given out; and when the evolution of the gas is over, the
fire is raised, and the stirring continued. The particles
begin gradually to cohere, or to work heavy as the work¬
men term it. The operator now collects the iron into
balls, and raises the heat to a welding temperature. It is
then taken out of the furnace, and either hammered or
rolled into bars. During this process the scoriae are
squeezed out, and the iron left in a state of purity.
The loss of weight sustained by the iron in this process
varies from eight to ten per cent. The scoriae formed are
black, very heavy, and sometimes crystallized in the form
of pyroxene. Most commonly they consist of sesquisili-
cate of iron.
The bars of iron thus formed are called mill bars. The
quality is so bad that this iron is scarcely fit for any pur¬
pose. To improve it the bars are made to go through
another process, called welding. The bars are heated red
hot, and cut in pieces by scissors. Four of these bars are
placed one above another in a reheating furnace. In half
an hour they begin to adhere. They are then drawn out
into bars by means of a cylinder. When very good iron
's required, as for anchors, this welding process is repeated.
Scoriae appear during this process. They are lamellar
and steel gray. In their cavities they contain crystals of
Pyroxene. They consist of sesquisilicate of iron, with a
Pi s .• sesc[uisilicate of alumina.
'r Ies' Irori has a grayish colour and the metallic lustre, and
when polished has a good deal of brilliancy. Its hardness
exceeds that of most metals, and when in the state of
steel it may be rendered harder than most bodies. Its Inorganic
specific gravity is 7-843 after hammering. It is attracted Bodies,
by the magnet, and may be itself converted into a perma-
nent magnet. It is malleable at every temperature, and
the malleability increases as the temperature augments.
It is very ductile, and may be drawn out into wires finer
than a human hair. When drawn out into wire, its strength
is one and a halftimes that of hammered iron. It begins to
be elongated, or to lose its shape, when subjected to a force
amounting to two thirds of that which is capable of break¬
ing or bursting it. An iron wire 0-078 inch in diameter
is capable of supporting 449-34 lbs. avoirdupois without
breaking.
When iron is exposed to the air, especially to moist air,
it soon tarnishes, and becomes covered with a brownish-
red matter, well known by the name of rust. It is occa¬
sioned by the gradual combination of the iron with oxygen.
At a red heat it decomposes water rapidly, hydrogen gas
being given out, and the iron converted into an oxide.
I. Iron combines with two doses of oxygen, and forms Oxides,
two oxides. The protoxide is blackish blue, the peroxide
red.
1. The protoxide of iron is formed whenever iron is dis- Protoxide,
solved in dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid. The solution is
light green, and when an alkali is dropt into the liquid,
the protoxide of iron falls in the state of light-green flocks,
which gradually collect at the bottom of the vessel, and
assume a black colour. Its tendency to absorb oxygen is
so great that we cannot collect it so as to allow it to re¬
tain its colour. When a current of hydrogen gas is pass¬
ed through peroxide of iron heated in a glass tube con¬
siderably under redness, it is gradually converted into
protoxide. In this state it has a blackish-blue colour, ap¬
pearing by reflected light almost black. In the open air
it burns with great splendour, and is converted into per¬
oxide. It is composed of
1 atom iron  3-5
1 atom oxygen 1
4-5
so that the atomic weight of iron is 3-5, and that of prot¬
oxide of iron 4*5.
2. Peroxide of iron is usually obtained by dissolving Peroxide,
iron in nitric acid, evaporating the solution to dryness,
and exposing the dry residue to a heat gradually raised
to redness. It is a fine red powder, destitute of taste and
smell, insoluble in water, but soluble in acids, especially
the muriatic. After exposure to a red heat, it loses much
of its easy solubility in acids. It is composed of
I atom iron 3-5
II atom oxygen 
so that its atomic weight is 5. p sj
Two hydrates of peroxide of ironjwgcur native. 1. Di¬
hydrate, a red-coloured fibrous midpral,*found in nodules
in the rocks in the neighbourhood or Gourock, near Green¬
ock, in Scotland. It is composed of *
2 atoms peroxide   10
1 atom water JR  1-125
f
11-125
ally called hematite is a com-
The red fibrous mineral u
pound of^ •• - i
3 >atom peroxidie 5
I atom water 1-125
6-125
It is therefore a simple hydrate of the peroxide of iron.
Rust consists chiefly of hydrated peroxide of iron, but
CHEMISTRY.
404
Inorganic it is mixed not unfrequently with a quantity of carbonate
Bodies, of iron. . .
3. These two oxides have the property of mixing or
Compounds combirung in various proportions, and forming substances
of- which have been considered as constituting peculiar oxides
of iron.
When bars of iron are heated to whiteness and hammci-
ed, scales are driven off, known in this country by the name
of smithy ashes. These scales are composed of two atoms
protoxide and one atom peroxide of iron.
When bars of iron are heated and allowed to cool in
the open air, the outermost scales contain more peroxide
than the innermost; the inner layer is a compound of
three atoms protoxide and one atom peroxide, while the
outermost is a compound of one atom protoxide and one
atom peroxide. ... . •
By the combustion of iron wire in oxygen gas, there is
sometimes formed a compound of one atom protoxide and
two atoms peroxide. To this compound Berzelius has
given the name of oxidum ferrosoferricum.
Chlorides. " II. Chlorine, like oxygen, unites to iron in two propor¬
tions. ....
Protochlo- 1. Chloride of iron may be formed by dissolving iron in
ride. muriatic acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, and ex¬
posing the dry mass to a red heat in such a way as to ex¬
clude the action of air on it. It has a gray but variegat¬
ed colour, and a metallic splendour. Its texture is lamel-
lated. When heated to redness it melts, but is not vola¬
tilized. It is imperfectly soluble in water, and the solu¬
tion yields green crystals. It is a compound of
1 atom iron 3*o
YI. Iron combines with carbon, and forms the important Inorr c
compounds known by the names of cast iron and steel. Bot ,
There are three varieties of cast iron commonly distin- ^ J
guished in commerce ; namely, black cast iron, usually call-s.
ed No. 1 ; mottled cast iron, or No. 2 ; and white cast iron.
1. Black cast iron is the softest of the three. Its spe-cast
cific gravity varies from 6*90102 to 6*836. It is imperfect¬
ly malleable, and admits of being easily turned on the
lathe and filed down. It melts at a comparatively low
heat. Its texture is granular. It is much used in this
country for the numerous purposes to which cast iron is
applied.
2. Gray or mottled iron is so called from the inequality
of the colour. Its specific gravity is 7*0683. It is harder
than the black variety, but soft enough to be cut, bored,
and turned on the lathe. It is much used. For many
purposes it is found expedient to mix No. 1 and No. 2,
and fuse them together. Artillery is usually made of
mottled cast iron.
3. White cast iron has a white colour like silver. Its
texture is fibrous or crystalline, and its specific gravity
7*6849. It is too hard to be filed, bored, or bent, and it
is very apt to break when suddenly heated or cooled.
Black cast iron seems to be a compound of
3 atoms iron 10*5
1 atom carbon  0*75
11*25
While white cast iron is composed of
4 atoms iron 14
1 atom cai’bon  0*75
Sesqui-
chloride.
Bromide.
Iodide.
1 atom chlorine 4*5
8
2. The sesquichloride of iron may be obtained by burn¬
ing iron wire in chlorine gas, or by evaporating a solution
of red oxide of iron in muriatic acid to dryness, and heat-
ino- it in a tube with a narrow orifice. It is a substance of
a bright-brown colour, with a lustre approaching that or
ore from Elba. It may be volatilized by a moderate heat,
and forms minute brilliant crystals. It is completely so¬
luble in water. It is composed of
1 atom iron 3*5^
1^ atom chlorine 6*i5
10*25
III. When iron wire is heated to redness in a glass tube,
and dry bromine vapour passed over it, the wire becomes
incandescent, and fuses without the evolution of any gas.
The bromide thus formed has a yellow colour and a la¬
mellar structure. It dissolves readily in water without
communicating colour to that liquid, and the solution is
precipitated light yellow by nitrate of silver. Ibis bro¬
mide is composed of
1 atom iron 3*5
1 atom bromine   10
13*5
IV. When iron is heated in contact with the vapour of
iodine, an iodide is formed, which has a brown colour, and
fuses when exposed to a red heat. It dissolves in water,
communicating a light-green colour. It is doubtless a
compound of
1 atom iron  3*5
1 atom iodine 15*75
19*25
V. It is probable that iron and hydrogen are capable of
combining at a certain temperature, but nothing is known
respecting the properties of this compound.
14*75
including in the carbon a little silicon, which is variable
in quantity. Mottled cast iron is intermediate between
the white and black. It has not yet been subjected to
analysis.
Steel is a compound of iron of the utmost consequence,Steel
because it is from it that all the cutting instruments and
files are made. The iron which answers best for being
converted into steel is that made at Dannemora, in Sweden.
The Russian iron, knowm by the name of old sable, is
also capable of being converted into good steel.
The furnace in which iron is converted into steel has
the form of a large oven or arch, terminating in a vent at
the top. The floor of this oven is flat and level. Imme¬
diately under it there is a large arched fire-place with
grates, which runs quite across from one side to the other,
so as to have two doors for putting in the fuel from the
outside of the building. In the oven there are two large
and long cases or boxes built of good fire-stone, and- in
these boxes the bars of iron are regularly stratified with
charcoal powder, ten or twelve tons of iron being put m
at once, and the box is covered at the top with a bed ot
sand. The heat is kept up, so that the boxes and all their
contents are kept red hot for eight or ten days. A bar is
then drawn out and examined, and if it be found sum-
cientlv converted into steel, the fire is drawn and the oven
allowed to cool. This process is called cementation.
The bars of steel formed in this way are raised in many
places into small blisters, by a gas evolved in the inside
of the bar. On this account the steel made in this way
is usually called blistered steel. Its texture is not quite
equable, but it is rendered so by fusing it in a crucible,
and then casting it into bars. Thus treated, it is called
cast steel. When steel is to be cast it is made by cemen¬
tation in the usual way, only the process is carried some¬
what farther, so as to give the steel a whiter colour,
is then broken into small pieces, and put into a cruci
of good fire-clay, after wihich the mouth of the crucible
CHEMISTRY.
rganic filled up with vitrifiable sand, to prevent the steel from
allies, being oxydized by the action of the air. The crucible is
exposed for five or six hours to the most intense heat that
can be raised, by which the steel is brought into a state
effusion. It is then cast into parallelepipeds about a foot
and a half in length. To fuse a ton of steel about twenty
tons of coals are expended.
The specific gravity of good blistered steel is 7-823 ;
but by heating it to redness, and then plunging it into
cold water, the specific gravity is reduced to 7-747. The
colour of steel is whiter than that of iron. Its texture is
granular, its fracture is whitish gray, and much smoother
than the fracture of iron. It is much harder and more rigid
than iron, nor can it be so much softened by heat w ithout
losing its tenacity, and flying to pieces under the ham¬
mer. It requires more attention to forge it than to forge
iron; yet it is by its toughness, and capability of being
drawn out into bars, that good steel is distinguished from
bad. Steel is more readily broken by bending it than
iron. If it be heated to redness, and then suddenly plunged
into cold water, it becomes exceedingly hard, so as to be
able to cut or make an impression on most other bodies;
but when iron is treated in the same way, its hardness is
not in the least increased. When a drop of nitric acid is
let fall upon a smooth surface of steel, and allowed to re¬
main on it for a few minutes, and then washed off with
water, it leaves a black spot; whereas the spot left by ni¬
tric acid on iron is greenish white. Steel is not so easily
converted into a magnet as iron; but when once converted
it retains its magnetic virtue, whereas iron loses it imme¬
diately when the exciting cause is withdrawn. Steel pos¬
sesses great elasticity, and the elasticity appears to be the
same in all states of temper.
Steel, like cast iron, is a compound of iron and carbon,
but it contains much less carbon than even white cast
iron. Cast steel w ould appear to be a compound of
20 atoms iron 70
1 atom carbon  0-75
70-75
The constitution of blistered steel does not differ much
from this.
I iret. VII. When iron filings and boracic acid are fused in a
covered crucible, a ductile mass of a silver colour is ob¬
tained, wTiich is probably a boruret of iron. A silicet of
iron may be obtained by a similar process, substituting
silica for boracic acid. The properties of this silicet ap¬
proach very nearly those of the boruret.
S hu- VIII. There exists a strong affinity between iron and
sulphur. Five sulphurets of iron are known, and others
may be discovered hereafter.
!• Sulphuret of iron may be formed by passing hydro¬
gen gas over pyrites in powder, and heated to redness in
a glass tube. One half of the sulphur is disengaged, and
there remains a compound of
1 atom iron 3-5
1 atom sulphur 2
5-5
The same sulphuret is obtained when iron is heated to
whiteness, surrounded by sulphur vapour. The union is
accompanied by the fusion of the sulphuret, and a good
deal of heat is evolved. Its colour is that of bronze or
blactc when in powder, and it dissolves in sulphuric or
muriatic acid with the evolution of much sulphuretted
hydrogen gas. It may be obtained also when iron pyrites
is distilled at a red heat; one half of the sulphur flies off
and leaves the sulphuret.
2. Sesquisulphuret of iron may be formed by passing a
current of dry sulphuretted hydrogen gas over peroxide
405
of iron in a glass or porcelain tube heated to the tempe- Inorganic
rature of 212°. The gas must be continued till all evolu- Bodies,
tion of water is at an end. The sesquisulphuret formed
has the same form as the peroxide had. It has a gray
colour, with a slight shade of yellow, and acquires lustre
under the burnisher. It is not altered by exposure to
the air. When distilled, sulphur is given out and common
sulphuret remains. When treated with acids, sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen gas is evolved, iron is dissolved, and a quan¬
tity of bisulphuret of iron remains undissolved. Its con¬
stituents are,
1 atom iron 3-5
1^ atom sulphur 3
. - • ^ ' 6*5
3. Bisulphuret of iron is found native in abundance, and
is well known by the name of pyrites or iron pyrites. It
has a yellow colour, and the metallic lustre. It is brittle,
and sufficiently hard to strike fire with steel. Its specific
gravity is about 4-5. It usually crystallizes in striated
cubes. When heated it is decomposed. In the open air
the sulphur takes fire. In close vessels filled with char¬
coal, part of the sulphur is volatilized, and a black matter
remains, which is common sulphupet. It is a compound of
1 atom iron 3-5
2 atoms sulphur... 4
7-5
4. Disulphuret of iron may be obtained by passing a cur¬
rent of dry hydrogen gas over anhydrous sulphate of iron
heated in a glass tube. Sulphurous acid and water pass
over first, and at last sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The di¬
sulphuret is a dark-gray agglutinated powder, strongly at¬
tracted by the magnet. It dissolves in muriatic acid with
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Its consti¬
tuents are,
2 atoms iron   7
1 atom sulphur 2
9
5. Tetrasulphuret of iron may be obtained by exposing
anhydrous disulphated peroxide of iron to a current of dry
hydrogen gas while heated in a glass tube. Sulphurous
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen gas ai-e evolved. The
sulphuret obtained resembles metallic iron. It is power¬
fully acted on by the magnet, and is semiductile; but it
dissolves in muriatic acid with the evolution of sulphu¬
retted hydrogen gas. It is composed of
4 atoms iron 14
1 atom sulphur  2
16
IX. When a mixture of selenium and iron filings is heat- Seleniet.
ed, a combination takes place without any appearance of
combustion. But if the selenium be put into the bottom
of a glass tube, and iron filings above it, and a sufficient
heat be applied to volatilize the selenium, the iron filings
absorb this vapour and become red hot, and this ignition
continues as long as any selenium is absorbed. The se¬
leniet thus formed has the metallic appearance, and a gray
colour, with a shade of yellow. It does not melt, but be¬
comes agglutinated together into a coherent mass. It dis¬
solves readily in muriatic acid, while selenietted hydrogen
gas is disengaged.
X. Iron combines with phosphorus in various proper- Phosphu-
tions. ret.
1. A phosphuret of iron may be formed by fusing toge¬
ther sixteen parts of phosphoric glass, sixteen parts of
iron, and half a part of charcoal powder. It is magnetic,
very brittle, and appears white when broken. When ex-
406
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic nosed to a strong heat it melts, and the phosphorus is dis-
Bodies, sipated. It is probably a diphospburet, composed ot
2 atoms iron  ^
1 atom phosphorus 2
9
What is called cold short iron, owes its brittleness to the
presence of a quantity of phosphuret of iron.
2. When a current of dry hydrogen gas is passed over
phosphate of iron heated to redness in a glass tube, both
constituents are deprived of their oxygen, and a phosphu¬
ret remains, composed of
1 atom iron ;5'a
1 atom phosphorus.... 2
absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, and decomposes Inorp;
water ; but when alloyed with iron it loses that property, Bodi«
and may be kept without alteration. _ 'W‘YT
I. Manganese has a strong affinity for oxygen. It is ca-Oxidesi
pable of forming at least four oxides, and the existence oi
a fifth, containing less oxygen than any of the rest, is far
from improbable.
1. The protoxide constitutes the base of almost all the protox;
salts of manganese. It may be obtained by passing a cui-
rent of dry hydrogen gas over any of the other oxides of
manganese, heated in a glass tube, but not to redness. It
is a, light-green powder, which becomes yellow, and then
brown, when exposed to the air. It is composed of
1 atom manganese 3*5
1 atom oxygen 1
5*5
3. When phosphuretted hydrogen gas is passed very
slowly over iron pyrites at a high temperature, a phophu-
ret is obtained, composed of
3 atoms iron lb*0
4 atoms phosphorus 8
4*5
18-5
Arseniet.
XL When a hundred parts of iron filings and two hun¬
dred parts of arsenic are heated to redness, an arseniet is
obtained, which is white, very brittle, and easily pulverized.
It is composed of
1 atom iron 3’5
1 atom arsenic 4-75
so that its composition and atomic weight exactly agree
with those of protoxide of iron. #
2. The easiest way of forming sesquioxide of manganese Sesqu
is to dissolve carbonate of manganese in nitric acid, eva-oxide,
porate the solution to dryness, and raise the dry mass by
degrees to an incipient red heat. It is a black powder,
having considerable lustre. It is tasteless and insoluble in
water, but dissolves in sulphuric and muriatic acids, and
the solution is red. It occurs native both in the hydrous
and anhydrous state. Its constituents are,
I atom manganese 3-5
II atom oxygen 1,5
8-25
Antimo-
niet.
XII. Iron combines with antimony by fusion, and forms
a brittle, hard, white-coloured alloy, the specific gravity of
which is less than intermediate. The magnetic quality of
iron is much more diminished by being alloyed with anti¬
mony than with most other metals. _ .
Chromet. XIII. When oxides of iron and of chromium are mixed
together, and strongly heated in a covered crucible lined
with charcoal, they are reduced, and melt together into
an alloy. Its texture is crystalline, and it is whiter than
platinum.
so that it corresponds in its constitution with peroxide of
iron
Sect. II.—Of Manganese.
Manganese is found usually in the state of a gray 01
black oxide, having often considerable lustre, and giving
out the eleventh of its weight of oxygen gas when expos¬
ed to a red heat. It is seldom pure, being almost always
contaminated with oxide of iron, lo purify it, the easiest
process is to roast the impure manganese ore, previously re¬
duced to a fine powder, with a quantity of charcoal powder.
This brings the manganese to the state of protoxide. It
is now treated with a sufficient quantity of dilute sulphuiic
acid, to dissolve almost, but not the whole of the manga¬
nese, and this acid is mixed with muriatic acid. The so¬
lution takes place with the evolution of much heat. The
iron is peroxydized and thrown down by the excess of prot¬
oxide of manganese present. The liquid, on standing, be¬
comes transparent and colourless. When sufficiently con¬
centrated, abundance of crystals of sulphate of manganese
are obtained, contaminated merely with a little chloride
or bichloride of manganese. Dissolve these crystals in
water, and add to the solution carbonate of soda. A co¬
pious white precipitate falls, which is pure carbonate of
manganese. When this carbonate is mixed with charcoal
and exposed to an intense heat in a covered crucible, it is
3. Binoxide of manganese exists native; its colour isBinoxl
iron black, its lustre metallic, and its texture fibrous. It
is soft, rather sectile, and has a specific gravity varying
from 4-94 to 4-819. It constitutes the most important of
all the ores of manganese, from the property which it has
of giving out oxygen when heated. _ W hen a current of
chlorine gas is passed through water in which carbonate 0
manganese is suspended, this oxide is forme . ar
acid is disengaged, part of the manganese is dissolved, and
part is converted into hydrated binoxide. By digesting
the brown residue in dilute nitric or acetic acid, any un¬
altered carbonate is dissolved, and the binoxide remains
pure. It is a very bulky and light-brown powder, whid
retains its bulk when dried on the water bath, and adheres
strongly to those bodies with which it comes m contact.
In this state it is a compound of
1 atom binoxide ^-5
1 atom water  
6-625
The binoxide itself is a compound of
1 atom manganese 
2 atoms oxygen 
.3-5
.2
4. Scheele first discovered that when binoxide of man-
ganese is strongly heated with potash
reduced to the state of metallic manganese.
Properties.
Manganese thus obtained is rather whiter than cast
iron. Its texture is granular, and it may be reduced to
powder by pounding in a mortar. Its specific gravity is
8-013. It is not attracted by the magnet. It gradually
mixture dissolved in water, a fine red solution is gained,
which, having the property of changing its colour, he ca^
ed chameleon mineral. From this liquid a sa y
tained, composed of an acid having manganese “s b“s;
and of potash. To the acid the name ot mariganesic h
been given, and the salt is called manganate fp
The acid may be obtained in the following way :MX
parts of nitrate of barytes and one part <>f “"a
ganese, and expose the mixture in a crucible to a sti 0 g
heat. By this process a light-green mass is obtained,
C H E M
organic is considered as a submanganatc of barytes. Reduce this
iolies. matter to a very fine powder, and mix it with thirty times
its weight of water. Through this mixture pass a current
of carbonic acid gas till the liquid assumes a violet colour,
and till the sediment at the bottom has changed from green
to brown. Then boil the liquid for a quarter of an hour,
and add a drop or two of sulphuric acid to throw down
any barytes that may still remain in solution, taking care
not to add any excess. The liquid now consists of a solu¬
tion of manganesic acid in water. By evaporation to dry¬
ness in a gentle heat the acid may be obtained in a solid
state.
Manganesic acid thus obtained is in very small needles.
It is a hydrate, composed of two atoms manganesic acid
and one atom water. This water is essential to the exist¬
ence of the acid. When we attempt to drive it off, the
acid is decomposed. Manganesic acid has a dark car¬
mine-red colour, and is destitute of smell. It has a dis¬
agreeable taste, being a kind of mixture of bitter and as¬
tringent. It is heavier than water. It is capable of being
converted into vapour by heat, and may be again con¬
densed without decomposition. When it is mixed with
sulphuric acid the temperature rises to at least 226°, and
a violet vapour appears, which is said to be a compound
of manganesic and sulphuric acids. Manganesic acid is
but little soluble in water. It is gradually decomposed by
exposure to light, and likewise by heat. The aqueous so¬
lution soon loses its colour when kept boiling hot. Oxy¬
gen, chlorine, and azote, have no action on it whatever.
Iodine decomposes it in consequence of its conversion into
hydriodic acid. Hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and char¬
coal, decompose it. Most of the metals have the same
effect. It is decomposed by zinc, iron, bismuth, copper,
antimony, lead, mercury, and silver, in a longer or shorter
time. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, arsenic
acid, chromic acid, boracic acid, and carbonic acid, have
no action on it. Sulphurous acid and smoking nitric acid
destroy it immediately without throwing down any man¬
ganese. It is decomposed also by the hydracids. This
acid, from the best analysis of it hitherto made, is a com¬
pound of
1 atom manganese 3*5
2| atoms oxygen 2'5
6
Its atomic weight is six, and it agrees in its constitution
with phosphoric, arsenic, antimonic, and chromic acids.
1 oxide. 5. When sesquioxide or binoxide of manganese is ex¬
posed to a strong red beat, it gives out oxygen, and varies
in colour according to the state of the oxide subjected to
heat. The usual colour is a brownish red or a brownish
black. The oxide formed by this process is usually called
nd oxide of manganese by chemists. It is a compound of
1 atom protoxide  4-5
2 atoms sesquioxide 10
14-5
or we may represent its constitution as follows, which is
more convenient for chemical analysis :
Manganese 3-5
Oxygen 1*333
4*833
This oxide occurs native, and it is formed whenever any
oxide of manganese is strongly heated in an open vessel.
Arfvedson, who first investigated the nature of this com¬
pound oxide, gave it the name of oxydum manganoso-
^ tnanganicum.
Mte. 6. There is an ore of manganese found in Warwickshire,
to which Mr Phillips, who first examined it, has given the
I S T R Y. 407
name of varvicite. It is black, has the metallic lustre, a Inorganic
foliated texture, and is very soft. Ihis last property readily Bodies,
distinguishes it from sesquioxide or bromide, with which, v—'"V"'-''
in other respects, it might be confounded. It is a com¬
pound of
1 atom sesquioxide  5
1 atom binoxide  5*5
10*5
or (which is more convenient) we may represent it as
consisting of
1 atom manganese 3*5
If atom oxygen 1*75
5-25
Like red oxide, it is rather a compound of two oxides
than a peculiar oxide.
II. Two combinations only of chlorine and manganese Chlorides,
are at present known.
1. The protochloride may be obtained by dissolving car¬
bonate of manganese in muriatic acid, evaporating the so¬
lution to dryness, and exposing the residual salt to a red
heat in a glass tube with a narrow orifice. It is a sub¬
stance having a delicate light-pink colour and a lamellar
texture. It melts at a red heat without alteration in close
vessels; but in the open air it is decomposed, muriatic
acid being given out, and oxide of manganese remaining.
In the open air it speedily deliquesces. It is a com¬
pound of
1 atom manganese 3*5
1 atom chlorine 4*5
8
2. Perchloride of manganese may be formed in the fol¬
lowing manner: Form common green chameleon mine¬
ral, and change it to red chameleon by adding sulphuric
acid. When the solution is evaporated, a mixture of sul¬
phate and manganate of potash is obtained. Mix this
matter with concentrated sulphuric acid, and project into
it common salt by small fragments at a time as long as co¬
loured vapours continue to arise. The perchloride of man¬
ganese is given out in the form of a green vapour, which
being made to pass through a glass tube surrounded by a
mixture of snow and salt, condenses into a greenish-brown
liquid. It retains its elastic form at the ordinary temper¬
ature of the atmosphere, and is so heavy that it may be
poured from one vessel to another. When it comes in
contact with water it is immediately decomposed into mu¬
riatic acid and manganesic acid. Hence its constituents
are obviously
1 atom manganese  3*5
2^ atoms chlorine 11*25
14*75
The bromides and iodides of manganese are still unknown.
III. When two parts of chameleon mineral, one part ofFluorides.
fluor spar in powder, and a sufficient quantity of concen¬
trated sulphuric acid to convert the whole into a paste, are
mixed in a platinum retort, and the beak of the retort is
plunged into a platinum crucible containing water, a green¬
ish-yellow gas comes over, which is rapidly absorbed by
the water, and tinges it of a beautiful purple. The solu¬
tion consists of a mixture of fluoric acid and manganesic
acid. Hence it is probable that the gas is a perfluoride,
composed of
1 atom manganese 3*5
2^ atoms fluorine 5*625
9*125
IV. Manganese is capable of combining with carbon. Carburet.
408
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic This carburet is formed occasionally during the melting
Bodies. 0f cast ir011j an(J in Staffordshire is known by the name of
keesh. It occurs in small cavities in the cast iron, and
-;eems to be the result of crystallizing during the cooling
of the mass. It is in thin scales, having the lustre and ap¬
pearance of steel, but very soft and brittle. Its specific
gravity, when purified from iron, is 2,982.
Sufphuret V. Only one sulphuret of manganese has been hitherto
" discovered. It exists native at Nagyag, in Transylvania,
and is a black opaque substance with a dark-green streak.
Its specific gravity is about four, and it is said to occur crys¬
tallized in cubes. It may be formed artificially by mixing
anhydrous sulphate of manganese with ygth of its weight
of charcoal powder, and exposing it to an incipient white
heat in a covered crucible, or by passing a current of sul¬
phuretted hydrogen gas over protoxide of manganese heat¬
ed to redness in a porcelain or glass tube. When dissolv¬
ed in acids, sulphuretted hydrogen gas is evolved, and a
salt of protoxide of manganese formed. Hence it is ob¬
viously a compound of
1 atom manganese 
1 atom sulphur 2
5-5
The native sulphuret is a compound of seventeen atoms
manganese and eighteen atoms sulphur. I he piobability
is that a bisulphuret of manganese exists, and that the na¬
tive sulphuret is a compound of sixteen atoms sulphuret
and one atom bisulphuret.
When a current of hydrogen gas is passed through an¬
hydrous sulphate of manganese heated to redness in a
glass tube, one half of the sulphur is carried off, and one
half of the manganese reduced to the metallic state ; so
that the light-green powder formed is a compound or mix¬
ture of one atom sulphuret of manganese, and one atom
protoxide of manganese.
When carbonate of manganese is heated with sulphur,
the manganese is converted chiefly into sulphuiet; but
there is formed at the same time a little sulphate, which
renders the sulphuret impure.
Sect. III.—Of Nickel.
Nickel is obtained chiefly from an impure metallic al¬
loy prepared in Germany, and known by the name of
speiss. Besides nickel, it contains arsenic, iron, copper,
cobalt, bismuth, and probably other substances. If we re¬
duce this speiss to a coarse powder, and digest it in di¬
lute sulphuric acid, mixed with as much nitric acid as oc¬
casions a brisk effervescence, we obtain a fine green-co¬
loured liquid, which yields, when concentrated, abundance
of fine crystals of sulphate of nickel. Dissolve these in
water, pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through
the solution, and then crystallize a second time. Iledissolve
in water, and throw down the oxide of nickel by an alkali
or alkaline carbonate. Convert the oxide of nickel thus
obtained, and which is still contaminated with a little co¬
balt, into oxalate, and dissolve the oxalate in dilute am¬
monia. Leave the solution exposed to the air, and the
nickel will be deposited in the state of ammonia-oxalate,
while the cobalt remains in solution, giving it a red colour.
When this ammonia-oxalate of nickel is strongly heated in
a covered crucible, it is reduced to the metallic state.
Properties. Nickel, when pure, has a white colour, like silver, and it
leaves a white trace when rubbed upon the polished sur¬
face of a hard stone. It is rather softer than iron. Its
specific gravity, after being strongly hammered, is 8-932.
After fusion it is 8-380. It is malleable, both hot and cold,
and may be easily hammered out into thin plates. It is
attracted by the magnet, and, like steel, may be converted
into a permanent magnet. Its magnetic energy is to that
of iron nearly as three to five. The preparations of this Inorga
metal possess poisonous qualities. Bodi(
I. Nickel combines readily with oxygen. It forms two
oxides ; the protoxide is ash-gray, and the peroxide &/acLUxides
1. Nickel cannot be converted into protoxide by expo¬
sure to heat, however long continued; but we obtain it
easily by dissolving nickel in nitric acid, and throwing the
oxide down by potash, and, after washing the precipitate,
drying it, and heating it to redness. Its colour is ash-
gray; it is not magnetic, and dissolves very readily in
acids, but is insoluble in the caustic fixed alkalies. Caus¬
tic ammonia dissolves it, and the solution has a fine sky-
blue colour, and is precipitated by caustic potash, soda,
barytes, strontian, or lime. It is a compound of
1 atom nickel 3'25
1 atom oxygen   1
4-25
2. The peroxide of nickel may be obtained by passing
a current of chlorine gas through water holding protoxide
of nickel suspended in it. A portion is dissolved, and the
rest assumes a black colour. Peroxide of nickel is soluble
in ammonia, but the solution is accompanied with effer¬
vescence, owing to the decomposition of part of the am¬
monia, from the combination of its hydrogen with part
of the oxygen of the peroxide. This oxide is composed-ot
1 atom nickel 3‘25
1| atom oxygen 1*5
4-75
When protohydrate of nickel is treated with deutoxide
of hydrogen, a dark-green matter is formed, which The-
nard considers as containing more oxygen than the black
0XIL *When nickel is left in contact with chlorine gas, anChlori.,
olive-coloured compound is obtained, which is a chloride of
nickel. The same chloride may be formed by dissolving
protoxide of nickel in muriatic acid, evaporating the solu¬
tion to dryness, and subliming the residual salt.
III. When nickel and iodine are heated in a glass tube,
a brown fusible mass is obtained, composed of
li atom nickel 
1 atom iodine 15-7o
20-625
IV. Nickel combines with carbon, and forms a carburet. Carbu
Indeed, as usually prepared, it is never destitute of car¬
bon. It is always obtained when oxide of nickel and char¬
coal powder are heated together in a covered crucible.
The quantity of carbon present is not great, but it has not
been determined by analysis. . e . , ,. ilnJ
V. We are acquainted with two combinations of nickel buipr
and sulphur. . .. . ,
1. Sulphuret of nickel exists native, and is known by the
name of haarkies. It is brittle, and before the blowpipe
easily melts. It dissolves in nitromuriatic acid, without
any other residue than a little sulphur. It is compose o
1 atom sulphur 2
5-25
This sulphuret may be formed artificially by passing a cur¬
rent of sulphuretted hydrogen gas over oxide of nicRe
heated to redness in a glass tube. When thus formed it has
a dark-gray colour, and is not attracted by the magnet.
2. When a current of dry hydrogen gas is passed o
anhydrous sulphate of nickel heated in a glass tu e
cipient redness, one half of the sulphur passes o , an
whole of the nickel is reduced to the metallic state,
disulphuret formed has a pale-yellow colour, and wi
CHEMISTRY.
norganic burnished assumes the metallic lustre. It is brittle, and
Bodies- js attracted rather strongly by the magnet. It is a com-
pound of
2 atoms nickel 6’5
1 atom sulphur 2
8*5
nosphu- VI. Phosphuret of nickel is white, and when broken
;t. exhibits the appearance of very slender prisms collected
together. When heated, the phosphorus burns, and the
nickel is oxydized. It seems to be a compound of three
atoms nickel and one atom phosphorus,
iseniet. VII. Arseniet of nickel occurs native, and is known by
the name of copper-nickel, from its colour. Its colour is
copper-red, it is brittle, not magnetic, and has a specific
gravity of 7*29. It is composed of
1 atom nickel 3-25
1 atom arsenic  4-75
8
and carbonated ammonia, and the solution has a brownish-
red colour, and is not precipitated by caustic potash. It
dissolves in caustic potash, and the solution has a blue
colour. It is thrown down unaltered- by dilution with
water. It is composed of
1 atom cobalt 3-25
1 atom oxygen 1
2. \\ hen the protoxide of cobalt, newly precipitated from
an acid, is dried in the open air, it assumes a flea-brown
colour, which gradually deepens, till at last it becomes
black. In this state it constitutes peroxide of cobalt. It
may be formed also by passing a current of chlorine gas
through water in which the protoxide is suspended, or by
agitating the protoxide in a saturated solution of chloride
of lime. It dissolves in none of the acids except the mu¬
riatic, and during its solution in that acid much chlorine
gas is evolved. Its specific gravity is 5*322. It is a com¬
pound of
409
Inorganic
Bodies.
Sect. IV—Of Cobalt.
Cobalt is obtained chiefly from a white metallic ore usu¬
ally crystallized in cubes or dodecahedrons, very heavy,
and known by the name of cobalt-glance. It is chiefly a
compound of cobalt, arsenic, and sulphur. The cobalt
may be separated from it by the following process : Re¬
duce the ore to powder, and roast it in a moderate heat to
drive off a portion of the arsenic and sulphur. Then dissolve
it in nitric acid, and evaporate the solution to dryness, and
digest the dry mass in water. A quantity of arseniate of
iron remains undissolved. Should the ore contain no iron,
a little of that metal should be added to the nitric acid
solution. Filter off the aqueous solution, and pour into it
a quantity of binoxalate of potash previously dissolved in
water. In a few hours the whole cobalt precipitates in
the state of oxalate. Digest this oxalate in ammonia,
which will dissolve it, and set the solution aside in an open
vessel till the excess of ammonia has had time to be dis¬
sipated. The oxalate of nickel, should any be present,
will precipitate, and the oxalate of cobalt ina state of pu¬
rity will remain in solution. Evaporate to dryness, and ex¬
pose the oxalate of cobalt to a red heat in a covered ves¬
sel. The cobalt is reduced to the metallic state, and by
exposure to a violent beat, while covered with a little bo¬
rax, it may be fused into a mass,
operties. Cobalt has a gray colour, with a shade of red, and is by
no means brilliant. Its texture is usually granular. It is
rather soft. Its specific gravity is 8*7. It is brittle, and
easily reduced to pow der. Like iron, it is attracted by the
magnet, and it may be converted into a magnet, wdiich is
not quite so powerful as a magnet of iron. It dissolves
very slowly in dilute sulphuric and muriatic acids, with
the evolution of hydrogen gas; but nitric acid dissolves it
readily. It may be kept either in the open air or under
ivater without undergoing any sensible alteration,
odes. I. Cobalt, when kept red hot in the open air, is gradually
oxydized. In a violent heat it takes fire and burns with a
red flame. Like iron and nickel, it combines with two pro¬
portions of oxygen, and constitutes two distinct oxides.
1. Protoxide of cobalt may be obtained by dissolving
the metal in nitric acid, and precipitating by potash. The
precipitate has a blue colour, but when dried in the open
air gradually becomes greenish. When heated to a cherry
red, however, it again recovers its original blue colour. It
dissolves in acids without effervescence. The solution in
muriatic acid, when concentrated, is green, but when di¬
luted red. The sulphuric and nitric acid solutions are al¬
ways red. It gives a fine blue colour to glass, and is used
for painting blue on stoneware. It is soluble in caustic
VOL. VI.
1 atom cobalt 3-25
1^ atom oxygen 1-5
II. Cobalt burns when gently heated in chlorine gas. Chlorides.
When protoxide of cobalt is dissolved in muriatic acid,
and the solution evaporated to dryness, a red mass re¬
mains. When this matter is heated in a retort, chloride
of cobalt sublimes in the form of a blue-coloured volumi¬
nous snow. It gradually absorbs moisture from the at¬
mosphere. It is composed of
1 atom cobalt 3*25
1 atom chlorine ...4*5
7*75
It is the solution of this chloride which constitutes the
sympathetic ink of Hellot. Letters made with it on paper
have a red colour while moist, but become blue when the
paper is dried.
Bromide and iodide of cobalt are still unknown.
III. Sulphur combines with cobalt in three proportions, Sulphu-
forming sulphuret, sesquisulpharet, and bisulphuret, of co-rets.
bait.
1. When sulphate of cobalt is heated to whiteness in a
charcoal crucible, it is converted into sulphuret. It is
formed also when a salt of cobalt is mixed with a solution
of a sidphohydrate. It is a yellowish-white substance, hav¬
ing the metallic lustre, and is attracted by the magnet. It
is a compound of
1 atom cobalt 3*25
I atom sulphur 2
5*25
2. When a current of dry hydrogen gas is passed over
anhydrous sulphate of cobalt heated to redness in a glass
tube, half the oxide is reduced to the metallic state, and
half the sulphur expelled. The residue is a dark-gray
mass. When heated, a little sulphuretted hydrogen gas
is disengaged. When it is heated to redness in a glass
tube, and a current of dry sulphuretted hydrogen gas pass¬
ed over it, water is given off, and a sesquisulphuret re¬
mains. It is a dark-gray matter, composed of
1 atom cobalt 3*25
1^ atom sulphur   3
8*25
3. When sesquisulphuret of cobalt is digested in muri¬
atic acid, one fourth of the cobalt is dissolved, and a bi¬
sulphuret remains. It is a black powder, destitute of
lustre. It is not acted on by alkalies, nor by acids, with
3 F
CHEMISTRY.
410
Inorganic the exception of the nitric and aqua regia. At a l ed heat
Bodies, it gives out sulphur, and is converted into sesquisulphuie .
It is a compound of
1 atom cobalt  
2 atoms sulphur 41
7-25
Seleniet. IV. Cobalt readily absorbs selenium when assisted by
heat When the compound is heated to redness it melts,
gives out its excess of selenium, and forms a gray-colour¬
ed mass, having the metallic lustre and a foliated fiacture.
Phosnhu- V. Phosphuret of cobalt is white and brittle, and when
ret. exposed to the air soon loses its metallic lustre. 1 he phos¬
phorus is separated by heat, and the cobalt at the same
time oxydized. This phosphuret is much more fusible than
PUVIC Arsenic and cobalt have a strong affinity for each
other. Almost all the ores of cobalt contain arsenic. It
is found native, combined with arsenic in three propor¬
tions, forming a sesquiarseniet, binarsemet, and terarse-
niet of cobalt.
FOURTH FAMILY. EASILY FUSIBLE BASES.
Of the eight metals belonging to this family, five were
known to the ancients in the metallic state. Zinc in the
metallic state was unknown to them; but they were ac¬
quainted with its oxide, and with the alloy which it foims
with copper. Bismuth was unknown in Germany before
the year 1500, while cadmium was discovered by btrome-
yer about the year 1817.
Sect. I.—Of Zinc.
Zinc is found in the earth either in the state of an oxide
combined with carbonic acid or silica, when it is called
calamine, or in the metallic state united with sulphur, when
it is distinguished by the name of blende. Metallic zinc
is usually obtained by heating a mixture of calamine and
charcoal in earthen vessels shut above, and having a pipe
issuing from their bottom, and terminating in a bucket of
water. The zinc is reduced and volatilized. It enters
the tube, and drops in small pieces into the water. It is
then cast into ingots. , , „ , . , .
Pronprties Zinc has a white colour, with a shade of blue, and is
iioperties. ^ d of lates adhering together. It is rather soft.
Its specific gravity after fusion is G-896. By hammeting
it may be made as high as 7-1908. At the common tempe¬
rature of the air it is scarcely malleable, yet it is too tough
to be reduced to powder by pounding in a mortar. When
heated a little above 212° it is very malleable, and may
be rolled out into thin plates, which retain their flexibi.ity
when cold. At the temperature of 400° it is so brittle
that it may easily be pounded in a mortar. It melts at
about 680°, or before it is quite red hot. It is very little
altered by exposure to the air. When kept under water
it is said to become black, and to occasion the evolution
of hydrogen gas. _ , .
Oxid-. I. So far as is known at present, zinc unites with only
one proportion of oxygen. The oxide is easily formed by
heating zinc to redness in the open air. It takes fire and
burns with a brilliant white flame, and emits a vast quan¬
tity of white flakes somewhat like cobwebs. These con¬
stitute oxide of zinc. This oxide may be obtained also by
dissolving zinc in sulphuric acid, and filtering and crystal¬
lizing the solution. The crystals are to be dissolved in
boiling water, and the solution mixed with carbonate of
soda. A white precipitate falls, which, when washed,
dried, and fignited, constitutes pure oxide of zinc.
Oxide of zinc is snow-white. When heated it assumes
a yellow colour, but becomes again white when allowed
to cool. It is tasteless, and insoluble in water; but it dis¬
solves readily in acids, and the solution is colourless. It Inorgaiiic
dissolves also in concentrated caustic ammonia, but is Bodies,
partly precipitated again when the solution is diluted with
water. Barytes or lime water also occasions a precipitate
when poured into the same solution. The affinity between
oxide of zinc and alumina is considerable. When a solu¬
tion of oxide of zinc in ammonia, and of alumina in caus¬
tic potash, are mixed together, the alumina and oxide of
zinc are precipitated in combination. I he precipitate is
again dissolved by an excess of either of the alkalies. This
oxide is composed of
1 atom zinc 4-25
1 atom oxygen 1
5-25
II. Zinc takes fire in chlorine gas, and forms a chloride. Chloride.
When zinc is dissolved in muriatic acid, the solution eva¬
porated to dryness, and the dry mass heated to redness
in a narrow glass tube shut at one end, chloiide of zinc is
obtained. It is a white solid, which melts at a red heat
without subliming. When exposed to the air it soon de¬
liquesces. Its constituents are,
1 atom zinc 4*25
1 atom chlorine  4‘5
8-75
Bromide of zinc has not been examined.
III. Zinc readily combines with iodine by heat. The iodide,
iodide is white ; it is volatile, and crystallizes in foui-sided
prisms. It deliquesces in the air, and is very soluble in
water. The solution is colourless, and does not crystal¬
lize. Iodide of zinc is a compound of
1 atom zinc  4-25
1 atom iodine ,15-/5
20
IV Sulphuret of zinc exists native, and is distinguish-Sulphuret
ed by the name of blende. When free from iron it has a
lio'ht-yellow colour, is translucent, and has the diamond
lustre. Its specific gravity is about four. It dissolves with
difficulty in muriatic acid, giving out sulphuretted hydro-
p-en gas. Aqua regia dissolves it easily. It melts when
exposed to a high temperature. It is composed of
1 atom sulphur.... 2
6-25
V. When red-hot zinc is brought in contact with theSelemet.
vapour of selenium, an explosion takes place, and a ye ow
powder is formed, which is a seleniet of zinc. I Ins pow¬
der dissolves in nitric acid with the evolution of nitrous
eras. The zinc is oxydized and dissolved, while the sele¬
nium separates in the form of a red powder.
VI. Phosphuret of zinc is of a white colour, with the
metallic lustre, but resembles lead more than zinc.
VII. Arseniet of zinc may be formed by fusing the tw
metals together. It is very brittle, and is usually a com¬
pound Of . r orve
11 atom zinc  b
1 atom arsenic  4-75
11-125
Sect. II.— Of Cadmium.
This metal exists pretty commonly asspeiated vvith the
ores of zinc. The brownish powder which cpjlects qn t e
roofs of the chambers in which zinc is smelted conta
about ten per cent, of cadmium From this i niay ^
extracted by the following simple process. Bigts
matter in dilute sulphuric acid till every thing soluble
CHE M I
] ganic taken up. Into the filtered solution put a polished bar of
dies. zinc. The cadmium is thrown down in the metallic state.
v v'*' It may be washed, dried, and fused.
I erties. Cadmium has a white colour, with a shade of bluish
gray, and approaches nearest to tin in its appearance. It
is very malleable, and may be rolled out into thin flexible
plates, which have no elasticity, but retain any form given
them. Its specific gravity after fusion is 8-6040. By
hammering it may be made as high as 8*6944. It is very
fusible, melting before it becomes red hot. It is also vo¬
latile, being converted into vapour by a temperature not
much higher than that of boiling mercury. It is not al¬
tered by exposure to the air.
Ojljie. I. Cadmium, like zinc, unites with only one proportion of
oxygen. When heated to redness in the open air it burns,
and is converted into a brownish-yellow powder, which is
the oxide. The easiest mode of obtaining this oxide is to
dissolve cadmium in dilute sulphuric, muriatic, or even
nitric acid, and precipitating the solution, which is co¬
lourless, with an alkali. The precipitate, when washed,
dried, and ignited, is pure oxide of cadmium. This oxide
has a yellow colour, is fixed in the fire, and does not melt
in a white heat. It is insoluble in the fixed caustic alka¬
lies, but dissolves readily in ammonia. It is insoluble in
carbonate of ammonia, which distinguishes it from oxide
of zinc. When sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed
through its solution a fine yellow precipitate falls, which
was at first taken for orpiment. The specific gravity of
oxide of cadmium is 8*183. It is a compound of
1 atom cadmium 7
1 atom oxygen, 1
8
This oxide saturates the different acids, and forms with
them neutral salts.
C ride. II. When cadmium is dissolved in muriatic acid, and
the solution evaporated, small transparent rectangular
crystals are obtained. When these crystals are heated,
water is driven off, and a transparent, foliated, crystallized
mass, having a pearly lustre, remains, which is chloride of
cadmium. When exposed to the air it falls down in the
state of a white powder. When strongly heated it su¬
blimes in micaceous plates, which are not altered by expo¬
sure to the air. It is a compound of
1 atom cadmium  7
1 atom chlorine  4*5
III. Cadmium combines with iodine when the two sub¬
stances are heated together; or when they are boiled to¬
gether in water a solution is obtained. The solution crys¬
tallizes in six-sided tables, having nearly the properties
of the iodide formed by heating the two bodies in contact.
These crystals have a white colour, and are transparent;
their lustre is pearly, inclining to metallic, and they are not
altered by exposure to the air. When they are strongly
heated the iodine is driven off. They dissolve readily in
alcohol and water. This iodide is composed of
1 atom cadmium  7
1 atom iodine 15*75
Si T (d
luret* Sulphur and cadmium, so far as is known, unite in
only one proportion, and the sulphuret, when acted on by
nitric acid, is converted into neutral sulphate of cadmium.
It is therefore composed of
1 atom cadmium 7
1 atom sulphur 2
9
STRY. 4i\
It has a yellow colour, inclining to orange. When heated Inorganic
to redness, it becomes, first brown, and then carmine red, Bodies,
but on cooling assumes its original colour. It bears a
strong heat without undergoing any change ; but in an
intense white heat it melts, and crystallizes in transparent
micaceous plates of a fine yellow colour. It dissolves
readily in concentrated muriatic acid, while sulphuretted
hydrogen gas is given out, and no sulphur whatever depo¬
sited ; but dilute muriatic acid hardly acts upon it even
when assisted by heat.
V. Phosphuret of cadmium is gray, and has a weak me- Phosphu-
tallic lustre. It is very brittle, and melts with great facility ret.
on burning coals. It burns brilliantly with a strong smell of
phosphorus, and is converted into phosphate of cadmium.
Cadmium is precipitated in the metallic state by a plate
of zinc, but it throws down lead and all the other metals
belonging to the family in which it is placed.
Sect. III.—Of Lead.
Lead is one of the most abundant of all the metals. By
far the most common ore of it is galena, or sulphuret of
lead; a heavy mineral, having the metallic lustre, a great
deal of brilliancy, a bluish-white colour, and a specific gra-
vity of 7*568. It is soft and brittle, and crystallizes in
cubes, and sometimes in octahedrons. This galena is
roasted, and then heated on a hearth along with coal and
a small quantity of limestone. The lead is reduced and
cast into large ingots or pigs. It usually contains silver.
When the quantity of that metal present is sufficient to
defray the expense, it is put upon a cupel made of bone
ashes and a little potash, and exposed in a reverberatory
furnace to a blast of air from a bellows placed convenient¬
ly. I he lead is oxydized, and fused, and blown off in yel¬
low-coloured flakes called litharge, while the silver remains
behind upon the vessel. The litharge is again reduced to
the state of lead by simply heating it on a hearth along
with coal.
Lead has a bluish-white colour, and a good deal of Properties,
lustre; but it soon tarnishes. It is very soft, and when
drawn upon paper leaves a bluish metallic stain behind it.
Its specific gravity after fusion is 11*351. Muschenbroeck
affirms that, when drawn out into wire, its specific gravity is
diminished. Guyton Morveau assures us, that by hammer¬
ing lead into a mould, he could increase the specific gravity.
But Mr Crichton of Glasgow tried this repeatedly with¬
out being able to succeed. Lead is very malleable; it is
also ductile, but the wire has but little tenacity. It melts
when heated to 606°. By exposure to a very strong heat
it may be volatilized.
L Lead combines with three different proportions of Oxides,
oxygen, and forms three oxides, distinguished by their co¬
lour : the protoxide is yellow, the sesquioxide red, and the
peroxide brown.
1. Protoxide of lead is easily obtained by dissolving
lead in nitric acid, precipitating the solution by carbonate
of soda, washing and drying the white precipitate, and
then exposing it to incipient ignition. We may form it also
by simply exposing good white lead to incipient ignition.
It is a light-yellow powder, which is destitute of taste,
and insoluble in water, but soluble in nitric and acetic
acids, and likewise in potash or soda ley. It melts in a
strong red heat, and forms a semitransparent, brittle, hard,
glass. This oxide is a compound of
1 atom lead  13
1 atom oxygen  1
14
Litharge, when pure, is nothing else than protoxide of
lead. The same oxide is obtained when lead is kept melt¬
ed in an open vessel, skimming off the surface as it is
412
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
converted into ashes, till the whole undergo this change.
When these ashes are heated and agitated for a short
time in an open vessel, they assume the form of a green¬
ish powder. By continuing to expose this powder to heat
it assumes a yellow colour, and is then known in commerce
by the name of massicot. This massicot is nothing else
than protoxide of lead.
2. When massicot is ground to a fine powder, put into
a furnace, and kept constantly stirred while the flame o
burning coals plays on its surface, it is giadua y convei
ed into a beautiful red powder known by the name ot
minium or red lead.
Red lead is a tasteless powder, of a beautnul scarlet co¬
lour, and having a specific gravity of 9-096. It loses no
sensible weight at a heat of 400°, but when heated to red¬
ness it gives out oxygen gas, and is converted into prot¬
oxide of lead. It does not combine with acids ; but se¬
veral acids dissolve it by reducing it to the state of prot¬
oxide. This happens also when it is dissolved m potash ley.
If we pour vinegar on red lead, and digest it for some
time, a portion of protoxide of lead is dissolved, the red
lead loses its orange colour, and acquires a dark brownish
red hue. It is evident from this that red lead is a mix¬
ture of protoxide of lead, which dissolves in the vinegai,
and of sesquioxide, which remains undissolved.
The sesquioxide of lead is a brownish-red povyder, des¬
titute of taste, and insoluble in water. When digested in
nitric acid, one half of it is converted into protoxide and
dissolved, while the remaining half is converted into per¬
oxide and remains undissolved. It is obvious from this
that sesquioxide is a compound of
1 atom lead 13
1|- atom oxygen 1‘5
What is called Turner’s yellow is probably a mixture of Inorgan
this dichloride and of oxide of lead. Bodies,
III. When a solution of a hydrobromate is dropt into ni-
trate of lead, a white precipitate falls, having the crystalline15romide:
appearance of chloride of lead. When strongly heated this
matter fuses into a red liquid, which gives out white fumes,
and which on cooling concretes into a beautiful yellow
substance. This bromide, while a powder, is decomposed
by nitric and sulphuric acids, bromine being disengaged;
but after fusion it is not attacked by nitric acid, though
it may be still decomposed by boiling sulphuric acid, d his
bromide is doubtless a compound of
1 atom lead 13
1 atom bromine * 10
23
IV. Lead combines readily with iodine when the two Iodide,
substances are heated together. The iodide of lead has
a fine yellow colour. It is precipitated whenever a hydrio-
date is dropt into a solution of lead. It is insoluble in
water, but dissolves in potash ley and undistilled vinegar
at a boiling temperature, and when the solution cools it
falls down in yellow plates. It is a compound of
1 atom lead   13
1 atom iodine 15-75
28-75
V. There seem to be three combinations of sulphur and Sulphu
rets.
lead.
14-5
3. The peroxide of lead remaining when the sesqui¬
oxide is treated with nitric acid, has a flea-brown colour,
is tasteless, and has a specific gravity of 8-902. It is not
acted on by sulphuric or nitric acid. When digested in
muriatic acid, chlorine is disengaged, and chloride of lead
formed. When heated it gives out half its oxygen, and
is converted into protoxide. When triturated with sul¬
phur it sets it on fire. It is a compound of
1 atom lead 13
2 atoms oxygen  2
1. Sulphuret of lead may be formed by dropping sul¬
phur into melted lead as long as it continues to be ab¬
sorbed. It exists abundantly native, and constitutes com¬
mon galena. It has the metallic lustre, and is much less
fusible than lead. It is composed of
1 atom lead 13
1 atom sulphur  2
15
15
Chloride.
II. When lead is placed in contact with chlorine g~as it
does not take fire, as is the case with many other metals ;
but it absorbs the gas, and is converted into a chloride.
This chloride is easily obtained by mixing together a so¬
lution of 20-75 parts of nitrate of lead and 7-5 parts of
common salt. A precipitate falls, consisting ot small,
white, silky crystals. When heated to redness they melt
without losing weight, and are converted into a translu¬
cent gray matter formerly called plumbum corneum, or horn
silver. When heated in the open air it is partly volatile;
but when the air is excluded it is fixed at a red heat. It
is a compound of
1 atom lead 13
1 atom chlorine     4)-5
When exposed to a red heat in the open air it partly su¬
blimes in the state of sulphate of lead. When mixed with
iron and heated, the lead is disengaged, and the iron
unites to the sulphur; but by this process it is not eas)
to obtain the whole lead. A portion is apt to remain
mixed with the sulphuret of iron.
2. When a current of dry hydrogen gas is passed over
sulphate of lead heated to redness in a glass tube, the
lead is reduced to the metallic state, while all the oxygen
and half the sulphur of the acid are disengaged. Ihus a
disulphuret is formed, composed of
2 atoms lead 
1 atom sulphur  2
28
17-5
When this chloride is digested in a solution of potash,
one half of the chlorine is abstracted, and a white powder
remains, which is a dichloride, composed of
2 atoms lead 26
1 atom chlorine..     4-5
30-5
3. Besides the common sulphuret of lead, there occurs
another, occasionally, lighter in colour and less brilliant,
which burns in the flame of a candle with a blue fiame.
It is a compound of twelve atoms lead and thirteen atoms
sulphur. The simplest view of this galena is to consider
it as a compound of eleven atoms sulphuret of lead and
one atom bisulphuret of lead. If this view be admitted,
it is plain that a bisulphuret must exist, though it has not
vet been formed artificially. . , • „vni. Releniei
VI. Lead and selenium readily unite, and heat is
ved during the combination. The lead swells, and forms
a porous mass of a gray colour, which does not , •
red heat, but is soft, easily polished, and has the w
ness of silver. . , , „pui1]P
VII. Phosphuret of lead is white, with a shade of b >
but soon tarnishes when exposed to the an. t ma) e
with a knife, but separates into plates when hammered.
C H E M I S T R Y.
,mic VIII. Arsen iet of lead is brittle, dark coloured, and com
413
Pro ties
Oxi
es. posed of plates.
IX. Lead is hardened by antimony, and the alloy (mixed
with a little tin) constitutes printers’ types.
Sect. IV.— Of Tin.
Almost the only ore of tin which occurs native is a
dark-coloured, brilliant mineral, very hard and heavy, and
known by the name of tinstone. It consists of peroxide
of tin, usually contaminated with a little peroxide of iron.
This ore, reduced to a fine powder, is mixed with coal and
some limestone, and heated strongly in a reverberatory
furnace, so as to bring the whole into a state of fusion,
which is kept up for about eight hours. The tin is re¬
duced, and falls by its weight to the bottom, where it
accumulates, and at the end of about eight hours is let
out by tapping a hole in the furnace, which had been filled
with clay.
To purify the tin thus obtained, it is put back into the
furnace, and exposed to a heat just sufficient to melt it. The
pure tin flows out into a kettle, while a quantity of impu¬
rities remains behind unmelted. The tin in the kettle is
kept in fusion and agitated, by which a quantity of impu¬
rity accumulates on the surface. It is skimmed off, and
the tin, now refined, is cast into blocks.
. Tin has a fine white colour, with a slight shade of blue,
and has a good deal of brilliancy. Its hardness is between
that of gold and lead. Its specific gravity after fusion is
7-285;* by hammering it may be made as high as 7*299.
It is very malleable: tin-leaf, or tinfoil as it is called, is
about yoVofh of an inch thick, and it might be made much
thinner if requisite. It is ductile, but its tenacity is small
compared to iron, or even copper or silver. Tin is very
flexible, and produces a remarkable crackling noise when
bended. It melts when heated to 442°; but a very vio¬
lent heat is necessary to cause it to evaporate. It soon
tarnishes in the air, but undergoes no farther change.
I. Tin combines with two different proportions of oxy¬
gen, and forms two oxides, distinguished by their colours,
the protoxide being black, and the peroxide yellow.
1. The protoxide of tin may be obtained by the follow¬
ing process: Digest tin in muriatic acid till a saturated
solution is obtained. Precipitate the liquid by means of
carbonate of soda; collect the precipitate on a filter, w-ash
it, and press it between folds of blotting paper, and dry
it in a temperature not exceeding 180°. ‘ By this process
a hydrated protoxide is obtained in the state of a white
powder. Put it into a small retort, which must (as well
as the receiver) be filled with hydrogen or carbonic acid
gas; then raise the retort gradually to an incipient red
heat. The water will be driven off, and the protoxide re-
mains in an anhydrous state. It is a black powder, with¬
out lustre, tasteless, and insoluble in water. When kept
dry it is not liable to alter by keeping, but in a moist
place it gradually absorbs oxygen, and is converted into
peroxide. When heated in the open air it burns bril¬
liantly, and is converted into peroxide. It dissolves in
acids without effervescence, and the hydrate more easily
than the anhydrous oxide. It dissolves in the fixed alka-
ine leys, but is insoluble in caustic ammonia and in car-
mnate of potash, in both which the peroxide dissolves.
It is a compound of
1 atom of tin...., 7*25
1 atom of oxygen 1
8-25
2' ^lie peroxide of tin exists abundantly native, though
scarcely ever free from an admixture of iron. It has a
ye ow colour, and is translucent, or almost transparent,
and is   , r .
oi in modifications of that form. Its specific gravity is Inorganic
about 6*6, and it is as hard as felspar. It is insoluble in Bodies,
acids till it has been fused with an alkali.
It may be obtained artificially by-raising tin to a white
heat in the open air. The metal takes fire, and is con¬
verted into peroxide. It maybe obtained also by treating
tin with moderately concentrated nitric acid. A violent
effervescence ensues, and the tin is converted into a pow¬
der, usually gray; but when heated till the acid is all
driven off it becomes yellow. When tin filings and red
oxide of mercury are heated together, the peroxide of tin
is obtained of a white colour. Peroxide of tin is not so-
ublc in mm iatic acid, but it forms with it a combination
which is soluble in water. It combines also with sulphu-
nc acid, but the compound does not dissolve. After ex¬
posure to a red heat it loses the property of combining
with acids. It is a compound of
1 atom tin 7-25
2 atoms oxygen 2
9*25
1 ei oxide of tin (when in the state of a hydrate) is so¬
luble in caustic alkalies, and likewise in the alkaline car¬
bonates, which enables us to separate it from the pro¬
toxide. r
II. I in combines with chlorine in two proportions, form- Chlorides,
ing two chlorides, one of which has been long known un¬
der the name offuming liquid of Libavius.
1. Protochloride of tin may be formed by heating to-
gethei an amalgam of tin and calomel, or by evaporating
to dryness a saturated solution of tin in muriatic acid, and
fusing the residue in a close vessel. It has a gray colour,
a resinous lustre and fracture, and takes fire when heated
in chlorine gas, and is converted into perchloride. It
melts (if air be excluded) rather below a red heat, and
does not undergo decomposition. It is soluble in water.
It is a compound of
1 atom tin 7*25
1 atom chlorine..... 4*5
11*75
When the solution of this chloride is mixed with a little
alkali, a white powder falls, which is a dichloride, being
composed of
2 atoms tin 14*5
1 atom chlorine 4-5
19
2. Perchloride of tin was discovered by Libavius in the
sixteenth century, and was on that account caWed fuming
liquor of Libavius. It is formed when six parts of tin,
one part of mercury, and thirty-three parts of corrosive
sublimate are mixed together, and distilled by a moderate
heat. It is a colourless liquid, like water. When exposed
to the air it smokes violently, in consequence of its great
avidity for moisture. One part of water and three of the
liquid, when mixed, constitute a solid mass. Hence the
reason why crystals appear round the cork when fuming
liquid is kept in a phial shut with a common cork. It acts
with great violence on oil of turpentine. It usually con¬
tains an excess of chlorine. When pure, it should be a
compound of
1 atom tin 7*25
2 atoms chlorine 9
16*25
anrl ,'0 . . ir i • ul amidol, naiiopdicm, iiyuiurnomic acici, ar
s crystallized in octahedrons having a square base, It is a compound of
III. Tin and bromine unite in two proportions.
1. Protobromide of tin is obtained by dissolving tin in
hydrobromic acid, and evaporating the solution to dryness.
Bromides.
41-1
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
Bodies.
Iodide.
Sulphu-
rets.
1 atom tin  
1 atom bromine  10
17-25
2. When tin is brought in contact with bromine, it
catches fire, and is converted into a white solid body of a
crystalline texture, which is a bibromide. It is easily
fusible, and volatile. It dissolves in water without the
evolution of heat. When put into concentrated sulphuric
acid it liquefies, and remains at the bottom hke oil. Nitric
acid disengages bromine from it instantly. It is a com¬
pound of . 7.9K
1 atom   ' 143
2 atoms bromine 20
27-25
IV. Iodine combines readily with tin when the melted
metal is brought in contact with its vapour The iodide
has a dirty-orange colour, and is very fusible. Vatei de¬
composes it, converting it into hydriodic acid and oxide
of tin. When tin and iodine are heated together under
water, they act on each other and on the water, and are
converted respectively into hydriodic acid and oxide o
tin. This iodide is a compound of
1 atom tin ^’25
1 atom iodine 15-75
23
V. Tin combines in three proportions with sulphur.
1. Sulphuret of tin may be formed by fusing tin and
sulphur together, reducing the matter to powder, mixing
it again with sulphur, and fusing it a second time, keeping
the temperature sufficiently high to volatilize the super¬
fluous sulphur. It has the colour of lead, the metallic
lustre, and is capable of crystallizing. When dissolved in
muriatic acid, it is totally converted into sulphuretted hy¬
drogen and protoxide of tin. Hence it is. a compound ot
1 atom sulphur 2
9-25
2. When sulphuret of tin reduced to powder is mixed
with the third part of its weight of sulphur, and exposed
in a retort to a dull-red heat, it is converted into a ses-
quisulphuret, composed of
1 atom tin 7‘~5
fi atom sulphur 2-5
9-75
This sesquisulphuret has a dark yellowish-gray coloui,
and the metallic lustre; and when rubbed acquires^consi¬
derable brilliancy. When it is digested in muriatic acid
sulphuretted hydrogen gas is evolved, and a yellow mat¬
ter remains behind, which is persulphuret of tin.
3. Persulphuret of tin has been long known, and was
distinguished by the older chemists by the name of aurum
mosaicum or musivum, mosaic gold. It may be made by
exposing a mixture of twelve parts tin, seven parts sul¬
phur, three parts mercury, and three parts sal ammoniac,
to a strong heat in a black-lead crucible. Mosaic gold
sublimes. It is in light scales, which readily adhere to
other bodies, and which have the colour of gold. When
heated it gives out sulphur, and is converted into common
sulphuret. It is insoluble in water and alcohol, and is not
acted on by nitric or muriatic acid; but when nitromuria-
tic acid is boiled on it, we gradually decompose and dis¬
solve it. Potash ley dissolves it when assisted by heat,
and the solution has a green colour. When an acid is
dropt into the solution, a yellow powder is precipitated.
This sulphuret is a compound of
1 atom tin 
2 atoms sulphur 4
11-25
Inorgar;
Bodieit
's*'Y'v
VI. Selenium and tin unite with the disengagement ofSeleniet
heat. The tin swells, but does not become liquid. The
mass is gray, and has a strong metallic lustre when polish¬
ed. By heat the selenium is driven off, and the tin re¬
mains in the state of an oxide.. ,
VII. Phosphuret of tin is white, and so soft that it may
be cut with a knife.
Sect. V.— Of Copper.
Many ores of copper exist; but by far the most common
is what is called copper pyrites, which has a fine yellow colour,
and the metallic lustre. It is a compound of copper, iron,
and sulphur. This ore is roasted to drive off the sulphur.
It is then brought into fusion, which occasions a combina¬
tion of the oxide of iron in the ore, with a quantity of si¬
lica, which is almost always present, or if not, it must be
added artificially. This compound separates under the
form of slag. What remains after the separation of the
slarr is called coarse metal. This coarse metal is again
roasted for twenty-four hours, which oxydizes the iron, and
dissipates the sulphur still remaining. It is novy fused
again, being mixed partly with slag and partly with fur¬
nace bottoms, &c. By this second smelting it is reduced
to a matter containing about sixty per cent, of copper. It
is now calledmetal. _ , i u- j
The fine metal is roasted again, and then smelted a third
time. It now contains ninety per cent, of copper, and is
called coarse copper. It is exposed to the action of the air,
which passes through a furnace at a high temperature.
The heat is gradually raised to the melting point, and
after from twelve to twenty-four hours it is cast into pigs,
known by the name of blistered copper. This copper is
again roasted, then melted, the surface covered with char¬
coal, and a birch pole is plunged into the melted mass.
This is repeated till the metal becomes ductile, and ac¬
quires the requisite toughness and closeness of gram.
1 Copper has a rose-red colour, and a great deal of brilh-Proper
ancy. Its specific gravity, after being rolled out into plates,
is 8-953. When granulated by pouring it into water while
in fusion, the specific gravity is 8-895. Its malleability
is great, and its ductility very considerable. A bar ot
cast copper a quarter of an inch thick requires 1192 lbs.
to break it; while a bar of hammered copper of the same
diameter requires 2112 lbs. to break it. So that ham¬
mering almost doubles the tenacity of this metal. It
, melts when heated to 2548° of Fahrenheit s thermometer ;
and if the heat be increased it evaporates in visible fumes.
While in fusion its surface is bluish green. _ It is not muc
altered by exposure to the weather, and it may be kep
under water without alteration. _ .,
I. Copper has the property of combining with oxygen Oxide
in three proportibns, and forms three oxides, two of wh
occur native; the third is not a permanent compound.
1. Oxide of copper is easily obtained by keeping plates
of copper red hot in the open air. Scales grauua y
and fall off. When these are collected, reduced to p
der, and kept for some time red hot in an open vesse ,
they are converted into a black powder, which is ox
copper. We obtain the same oxide by dissolving sulphate
of copper in water, and throwing down the copper by
bonate of soda. When the green e !S w0^es
ed and dried, and then exposed to a red heat, it be
pure oxide of copper. Oxide of copper is a tasteless black
powder, destitute of lustre. It has no taste, and. t™
luble in water; but dissolves readily in acids. I ^
tion is blue or green according to the acid emp y
CHEMISTRY.
Ino jaic specific gravity is 6*401. Wlien exposed to a very high
Be ■> temperature it melts, and assumes h crystalline texture.
^ When the solution of it is dropt into an alkaline ley, a blue
precipitate falls, which is a sesquihydrate of the oxide. It
is insoluble in the fixed alkaline leys ; but when fused with
fixed alkalies, or alkaline earths, a combination takes place,
which is either blue or green according to circumstances.
It even displaces carbonic acid at a red heat, but the
combination is destroyed by digesting it in water. Caus¬
tic ammonia dissolves this oxide, or at least its salts ; and
the solution has a fine blue colour. Black oxide of cop¬
per is a compound of
1 atom copper 4
1 atom oxygen  1
2. There is another oxide of copper, which exists na¬
tive. It has a brownish-red colour, and is crystallized in
octahedrons. Its specific gravity is 5*992. This oxide
may be formed artificially by mixing together 57*5 parts
of black oxide and fifty parts of copper in very fine pow¬
der. The mixture is put with muriatic acid into a stop¬
pered phial, after having been rubbed in a mortar. Heat
is disengaged, and a dark, opaque, brown solution is obtain¬
ed, from which potash precipitates the oxide in the state of
a yellow powder. This oxide is a compound of eight parts,
by weight, of copper, and one part of oxygen. It is of
course a compound of
2 atoms copper 8
1 atom oxygen 1
9
We may therefore distinguish it by the name of suboxide
of copper.
3. When hydrated black oxide of copper is mixed with
a dilute deutoxide of hydrogen at the temperature of 32°,
the hydrate assumes first a greenish colour, and becomes
at last yellowish brown, which is the colour of peroxide of
copper. As soon as this oxide is formed, it begins to
give out oxygen. It must be separated as quickly as pos¬
sible from the liquid, pressed between folds of paper, and
dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid. When heated to 212°
it is decomposed. On a red-hot coal it detonates, and the
copper is reduced. It is insoluble in water, and does not
alter the colour of litmus paper. It is a compound of
1 atom copper 4
2 atoms oxygen 2
415
dissolves in nitric acid with effervescence. In muriatic acid Inorganic
it dissolves without effervescence, and is again precipitated Bodies,
when water is added to the solution. Potash throws
down suboxide of copper. It may be heated to redness
in close vessels without alteration, but in the open air it
is dissipated. It is a compound of
2 atoms copper 8
1 atom chlorine 4-5
12'2 * * 5
III. Copper unites with iodine when the two bodies are Iodides,
placed in contact and heated. When hydriodate of pot¬
ash is dropt into a solution of copper in an acid, a brown
precipitate falls, which is insoluble in water, and which
seems to be a compound of
1 atom copper 4
1 atom iodine 15*75
19*75
IV. Copper and sulphur appear to combine in three Sulphu-
proportions. rets.
1. Disulphuret of copper occurs native, and is known
to mineralogists by the name of glance copper. It has
a blackish-leaden colour, the metallic lustre is very soft
and ductile, and its specific gravity is 5*792. It is usual¬
ly crystallized in six-sided prisms, but its primary form
seems to be a rhomboid, deviating but a few degrees from
a cube. This disulphuret is formed whenever sulphur
and copper are heated together. During the combination
ignition takes place. It is a compound of
2 atoms copper 8
1 atom sulphur 2
1°
2. When a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is pass¬
ed through sulphuret of copper, a precipitate falls, which
is at first brown, but becomes gradually black. When
dried it has a slight shade of green, and slightly reddens
litmus paper. When heated it gives out a little moisture,
then sulphurous acid and sulphur, and a disulphuret re¬
mains. It is insoluble in caustic alkaline leys, and like¬
wise in hydrosulphuret of ammonia. It exists as a con¬
stituent of copper pyrites, and is a compound of
I atom copper 4
1 atom sulphur 2
Chloi s.
II. Chlorine, so far as we know at present, combines
with copper in two proportions only.
, 1* Chloride is obtained when the oxide of copper is
dissolved in muriatic acid, the green solution evaporated
to dryness, and the residual matter exposed to a heat not
exceeding 400°. It is a brownish-yellow powder. When
exposed to the air it absorbs moisture, and becomes first
white and then green. It is composed of
1 atom copper 4
1 atom chlorine 4-5
2. When a mixture of two parts of corrosive sublimate
and one part of copper is heated, a resinous-looking matter is
0 tamed, which is a dichloride of copper. When the so-
ution of suboxide of copper in muriatic acid is sufficient-
y concentrated, a white salt is obtained, which, when
cautiously heated in close vessels, is converted into the
same substance. Dichloride of copper has an amber
co 0111, and a certain degree of translucency. It melts
a a aeat just below redness. It is insoluble in water, but
3. When persulphuret of potassium is mixed with sul¬
phate of copper, a liver-brown precipitate falls, which may
be washed without alteration in hot water, and which when
dry assumes a black colour. It is considered as a com¬
pound of
1 atom copper 4
5 atoms sulphur 10
14
but has not yet been subjected to analysis.
V. When a current of selenietted hydrogen gas is pass¬
ed through a solution of sulphate of copper, a precipitate
falls in black flocks, which becomes gray^ when dry, and
assumes a polish when rubbed with a hematite. This
matter is doubtless seleniet of copper. WTien it is heat¬
ed half the selenium is disengaged, and a melted mass
remains, probably a diseleniet of copper. The seleniet is
formed also by heating copper and selenium together. It
has a steel-gray colour, and melts long before it is heated
to redness. When strongly heated it gives out a part of
its selenium, but not the whole.
VI. When phosphuretted hydrogen gas is passed overPhosphu-
chloride of copper a phosphuret is formed, composed of rets.
416
Inorganic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
1 atom copper 
1 atom phosphorus
A diphosphuret of copper is easily formed by projecting
phosphorus into red-hot copper. It is white, brittle, and
harder than iron, and is composed of
2 atoms copper ®
1 atom phosphorus  
10
When phosphuretted hydrogen gas is passed over hot di¬
chloride of copper, a trisphosphuret is obtained, composed of
3 atoms copper 
1 atom phosphorus 2
14
Arseniet. VII. Arsenic has a strong affinity for copper, and unites
with it when the two metals are mixed and heated, the
alloy is white and brittle, and is known by the names
of white copper and white tombac. The usual alloy is a di-
arseniet, composed of
2 atoms copper.. ^
1 atom arsenic 
12-75
VIII. There is an alloy of copper and nickel manufac¬
tured at Suhl, in Thuringia, which has a white colour like
silver, and is used for a variety of ornamental purposes. It
is obtained by smelting an ore composed chiefly of copper
and nickel, in the proportion of
8 atoms copper 
1 atom nickel  3-25
35-25
Brass
IX. The most important of all the alloys of copper is
brass, which is a combination of that metal and zinc. Ihe
metals are capable of uniting in various proportions, and
according to them the colour and other qualities of the
brass vary also. Brass is made by mixing granulated cop¬
per, calamine, and charcoal in a crucible. Ihe heat is
kept up for five or six hours, and then raised sufficiently
high to melt the compound. It is afterwards poured into
a mould of granite, edged round with iron, and cast into
plates. The most intimate and complete alloy consists of
two atoms of copper and one atom of zinc. What is call¬
ed old Dutch brass is a compound of four atoms copper
and one atom zinc.
Brass is much more fusible than copper. It is malle¬
able while cold, unless the proportion of zinc be excessive,
but when heated it becomes brittle. It is ductile, may be
drawn into fine wire, and is much tougher than copper.
The specific gravity varies very much, according to the
proportion of zinc which it contains.
X. Tin unites very readily with copper, and forms va¬
rious useful alloys, differing in name and in properties,
according to the proportions of the two metals united.
r ^ Bronze and the metal of cannons are composed of from
J 1 >lize eight to twelve parts of tin combined with a hundred parts
of copper. This alloy is brittle, yellow, heavier than cop¬
per, and has much more tenacity. It is much more fusi¬
ble, and less liable to be altered by exposure to the air.
The term brass is often applied to this alloy, though in a
strict sense it means a compound of copper and zinc.
Bell-metal. Bell-metal is usually composed of three parts of copper
and one part of tin. Its colour is grayish white ; it is very
hard, sonorous, and elastic. The greater part of the tin
may be separated by melting the alloy, and then pouring
a little water on it. The tin decomposes the water, is
oxydized, and thrown on the surface.
Tin
The alloy used for the mirrors of telescopes was em- inor&.
ployed by the ancients for the composition of their mir- Bod
rors. It consists of about two parts of copper united to^—y
one part of tin. Mr Mudge ascertained that the best™
proportions are thirty-two parts of coppei to 14 5 of tin, or
4 atoms copper Id
1 atom tin 
23-25
Vessels of copper, especially when used as kitchen uten¬
sils, are usually covered with a thin coat of tin, to prevent
the copper from being oxydized, and to prevent the food
which is prepared in them from being mixed with any of
that poisonous metal. Such vessels are said to be tinned.
Their inner surface is scraped very clean with an iron in¬
strument, and rubbed over with sal ammoniac. The ves¬
sel is then heated, and a little pitch thrown into it, and
allowed to spread over the surface. Then a bit of tin is
applied all over the hot copper, which instantly assumes a
silvery whiteness. The coat of tin thus applied is exceed¬
ingly thin.
Sect. VI.— Of Bismuth.
The most common ore of bismuth is what is called na¬
tive bismuth, in which the metal exists in an uncombined
state. The most abundant ores occur in Germany, where
the metal seems to have been first discovered^ liat of
that metal exists in commerce is procured by simply melt¬
ing the metal out of its gangue, by exposing it to a mode¬
rate heat in contact with burning fuel. The metal ob¬
tained in this way is never quite pure, but it may be
rendered so by the following process: Dissolve it in ni¬
tric acid, taking care to render the solution as neutral as
possible, and then dilute it with a good deal of water. A
white curdy matter falls down, which must be well wash¬
ed and dried in the open air. When this matter is mixed
with black flux, and heated in a crucible, it is reduced to
pure bismuth. ,
Bismuth has a reddish-white colour, and is composed Prop as.
of broad plates adhering to each other. It is rather softer
than copper. Its specific gravity is 9-833. By cautious
hammering it may be increased to 9-8827. It is not ver\
brittle, yet it breaks when struck smartly with a ham¬
mer. It is therefore not malleable, neither ca« d be
drawn out into wire. It melts at the temperature of 497 .
When exposed to the air it becomes slightly tarnished,
but not sensibly oxydized. But it is oxydized more ra¬
pidly when it is exposed to the air in a state of fusion.
When raised to a strong red heat it takes fire,, and bums
with a faint blue flame, and emits a yellowish smoke,
which is an oxide of the metal. _ . ,
I. So far as is known at present, it combines with onlyOxit
one proportion of oxygen, and forms a yellow-coloured
oxide. This oxide is best obtained by dissolving bismuth
in nitric acid, and mixing the solution with water,
white matter falls, known formerly by the name of magis-
try of bismuth. When this white matter is exposed to a
incipient red heat, all the water and nitiic uca " 11C1
retains are dissipated, and the pure oxide remains,
a straw-yellow colour, is destitute of taste, mso u
water, but soluble in nitric acid. In a strong rec
it melts into a dark-yellow, opaque glass, which on c
ing assumes its original colour. It is soluble in
fixed alkaline leys, and even somewhat soluble in cam
ammonia. It is composed of
1 atom bismuth "
1 atom oxygen   1
10
Its specific gravity is 8*211.
CHEMISTRY.
rganic II. Bismuth takes fire when placed in contact with
dies, chlorine gas, and forms a chloride. This chloride has
been long known bry the name of butter of bismuth. It
»ri(le‘ may be obtained by heating a mixture of bismuth and
corrosive sublimate. By keeping it in fusion for an hour
or two below the boiling point of mercury, that metal
gradually subsides, and leaves the chloride of bismuth
pure. It has a grayish-white colour, is opaque, and has
a granular texture. It does not sublime when heated to
redness in a glass tube with a narrow orifice. It is a com¬
pound of
1 atom bismuth 9
1 atom chlorine 4*5
417
13-
I) inkle
Idle.
Se
III. When bismuth in powder is heated in a glass tube
with a great excess of bromine, yellow vapours appear
and condense on the sides of the tube, while a solid bro¬
mide remains at the bottom of the tube. It has a steel-
gray colour, having the aspect of iodine, fused into a solid
mass. It melts when heated to 392°, and assumes a hya¬
cinth colour; but on cooling recovers its original colour.
When exposed to the air it absorbs moisture rapidly, and
assumes a fine sulphur-yellow colour. Water decomposes
it into hydrobromic acid and oxide of bromine, still re¬
taining bromine.
IV. Iodine readily combines with bismuth when assist¬
ed by heat. 1 he iodide has an orange colour, and is in¬
soluble in water; but it may be dissolved in a solution of
caustic potash without occasioning any precipitation.
juret. V. Sulphur combines readily with bismuth by fusion.
The sulphuret has a bluish-gray colour, and crystallizes
in beautiful tetrahedral needles, which cross one another.
It is very brittle and fusible, and bears a strong resem¬
blance to sulphuret of antimony, but is rather lighter
coloured. It occurs native, and is a compound of
1 atom bismuth 9
1 atom sulphur 2
11
Its specific gravity is 7*591.
iet. VI. Selenium and bismuth combine with the evolution
of heat. The seleniet melts at a red heat, and on cooling
has the metallic lustre, a silver-white colour, and a very
crystalline texture.
VII. The affinity between phosphorus and bismuth is
very feeble. Chemists have not yet succeeded in com¬
bining them together, at least in definite proportions,
b le VIII. Few of the alloys of bismuth are of much import¬
ance. What is called the fusible metal of Rose is com¬
posed of two parts by weight of bismuth, one part of lead,
and one part of tin. It melts when heated to 200°*75.
What is called Newton’s fusible metal is a compound of
eight parts by weight of bismuth, five of lead, and three
of tin. It melts at 212°.
Sect. VII.— Of Mercury.
By far the most abundant ore of mercury is cinnabar,
in which the metal is combined with sulphur. The cin¬
nabar is mixed with half its weight of lime, or of scales of
Ron, and distilled in an iron retort, or a kind of oven con-
sti acted for the purpose. It comes over for sale in large
non bottles; and while in its original package, the metal
pj he considered as quite pure.
tties. Mercury has a white colour, similar to that of silver. It
possesses great brilliancy. Its specific gravity is 13*56846
nt the temperature of 60°. WTien in a solid state the spe-
c' c gravity is 14*465. At the common temperature of
ie atmosphere it is always in a state of fluidity, but it
ecomes solid when cooled down to — 38°*66. Solid mer-
vol. vi.
cury may be subjected to the blows of a hammer, and Inorganic
may be extended without breaking. It boils when heat- Bodies,
ed to 656° on the common thermometer, but the true
boiling point is 660°. The specific gravity of its vapour
is 6*9747. Mercury is not altered by exposure to the air,
nor by being kept under water ; but when kept heated
in the open air, or when agitated for a long time in air, it
is oxydized.
I. Mercury, so far as we know at present, unites with Oxides,
two proportions of oxygen, and forms two oxides. The
suboxide is black, the oxide red.
1. The suboxide was formed by Boerhaave, by putting
a little mercury into a bottle, and tying it to the spoke o'f
a mill-wheel. It is a black powder, without any lustre,
has a coppery taste, and is insoluble in water. When ca¬
lomel is digested in an alkaline ley the same suboxide is
obtained, but it is very apt to be mixed with globules of
running mercury. The best way is to throw a little calo¬
mel in fine powder into a considerable quantity of potash
ley. It has the property of combining with acids, and
forming salts. Its specific gravity is 10*69. It is very
easily reduced to the metallic state. Indeed it almost al¬
ways contains globules of mercury, which may be render¬
ed visible under a magnifying glass. It is a compound of
2 atoms mercury 25
1 atom oxygen  1
26
2. When mercury or its suboxide is exposed to a heat
of about 600°, it combines with an additional dose of oxy¬
gen, assumes a red colour, and is converted into oxide of
mercury. The easiest mode of obtaining this oxide is to
dissolve mercury in nitric acid, to evaporate the solution
to dryness, and to expose the dry residue to heat in a cru¬
cible till all fumes of nitric acid cease to exhale. When
thus formed it is usually distinguished by the name of red
precipitate.
It has an acrid and disagreeable taste, possesses poison¬
ous properties, and acts as an escharotic when applied to
any part of the skin. Its specific gravity is 1 T29. When
triturated with mercury it gives out part of its oxygen,
and the mixture assumes various colours, according to the
proportions of the ingredients. When heated along with
zinc or tin filings it sets these metals on fire. When heat¬
ed to redness it becomes black. It is a compound of
1 atom mercury 12*5
1 atom oxygen 1
13*5
II. Mercury is said to take fire when it is heated in Chlorides,
chlorine gas. It combines with chlorine in two propor¬
tions, and forms two important compounds known by the
names of corrosive sublimate and calomel.
1. Corrosive sublimate may be formed by dissolving red
oxide of mercury in muriatic acid, and evaporating the so¬
lution to dryness. The common method of forming it is
to mix together nitrate of mercury, decrepitated common
salt, and anhydrous sulphate of iron. One third of a ma¬
trass is filled with this mixture. The vessel is gradually
heated to redness, when cold corrosive sublimate is found
sublimed in the upper part of the matrass. It is a beau¬
tiful white translucent mass, composed of small prismatic
needles. It is soluble in cold water to the extent of ra¬
ther more than five per cent, and the solubility increases
with the temperature. By evaporation it yields small crys¬
tals, the primary form of which is a right rhombic prism,
with angles of 93° 44' and 86° 16'. Its specific gravity is
5*1398. Its taste is acrid and caustic, and it leaves for a
long time a disagreeable styptic metallic impression on the
tongue. When taken internally, it acts as a virulent poi-
3 G
CHEMISTRY.
418
Inorganic son, producing violent pain, nausea, and vomiting, and cor-
Bodies. roding the stomach and intestines. Alcohol ol U-Hlb spe-
cific gravity dissolves about half its weight of this chloi ule,
sulphuric ether dissolves the third of its weight. It is so¬
luble in muriatic acid, but insoluble in sulphuric and nitric
acids. The fixed alkalies decompose it, throwing down
the oxide of mercury in the state^ of a yellow powder,
which soon becomes brick red. It is composed ol
] atom mercury 
1 atom chlorine  4-5
17
2. When four parts of corrosive sublimate are triturated
with three parts of running mercury till the mercury is
hilled, as the apothecaries term it, that is to say, till no
globules of the metal can be perceived, and the whole is
exposed to a strong heat in a matrass, calomel is sublimed,
usually mixed with a little corrosive sublimate, from which
it may be freed by washing. _ ,
Calomel, or subchloride of mercury, is usually in the state
of a dull white mass, but when slowly sublimed it crystal¬
lizes in four-sided prisms terminated by pyramids. The
primary form seems to be a square prism. It is tasteless,
does not act as a poison, but possesses the properties oi
a purp-ative. It is by far the most useful and important
of all the medicinal preparations of mercury. Its specific
gravity is 7*1758. It is not sensibly soluble in cold water.
When exposed to the air it becomes deeper coloured.
When rubbed in the dark it phosphoresces. It requires a
stronger heat for sublimation than corrosive sublimate.
Wien mixed with one part of common salt and two parts
of anhydrous sulphate of iron, and sublimed, it is convert¬
ed into chloride. It is a compound of
2 atoms mercury 25
1 atom chlorine 
29*5
Bromides.
Iodides.
III. Bromine and mercury unite in two proportions
forming compounds analogous to the chlorides.
1. When an alkaline hydrobromate is mixed with a so¬
lution of nitrated suboxide of mercury, a white precipitate
Mis, analogous to calomel. It is a compound of
2 atoms mercury 25
1 atom bromine •••10
35
2. When bromine and mercury are placed in contact,
they readily combine, heat being evolved, but no light.
A white matter is obtained, which may be sublimed by
heat, and which is soluble in water and in alcohol, and
very soluble in ether. Alkalies throw down a red or yel¬
low precipitate from its aqueous solution. When heated
with nitric or sulphuric acid it gives out vapours of bro¬
mine. It is composed of
r/ a. bo i atom mercury 12*5
1 atom bromine   10
-Tim a shfil <laciUh<f si noahue eli noimA nr
IV. Iodine combines readily with mercury, nothing more
being necessary than to bring the two bodies in contact.
An iodide is formed also when a hydriodate is dr opt into
a solution of mercury in an acid. There are two iodides
of mercury. The subiodiue (analogous to calomel) has a
yellow colour, while the iodide is red. They are both in¬
soluble in water, and decomposed by nitric acid. The
subiodide is composed of ^ .oliad B dfrw Juo
2 atoms mercury   .25
1 atom iodine   15*75
TIT. 40*75
the iodide of ^Prgar;
1 atom mercury 12*5 Bodies.
1 atom iodine   15*75
28*25
V. Sulphur also unites in two proportions with mercury. Sulphur
The sulphuret is red, the disulphuret black.
1. When two parts of sulphur and one of mercury are
triturated together in a mortar, the mercury gradually dis¬
appears, and a black powder is formed, formerly called
ethiops mineral. It is scarcely possible to unite all the
mercury with the sulphur by tins process. Ve succeed
better by heat. When mercury is added slowly to its own
weight of melted sulphur, constantly stirring the mixture
till the excess of sulphur is driven off, we form a more in¬
timate compound. When a current of sulphuretted hydro¬
gen is passed through a solution ot mercury in an acid,'
the same black subsulphuret falls. It is a black, tasteless
powder, insoluble in water, and very easily decomposed.
It is a compound of
2 atoms mercury 2o
1 atom sulphur 2
27
2. When ethiops mineral (containing an excess of sul¬
phur) is heated red hot, it sublimes, and a cake is obtain¬
ed of a deep-red colour, composed of fibres or small prisms.
This cake is distinguished by the name of cinnabar, and
when in powder it is called vermilion. Sulphuiet of mer¬
cury thus formed has a specific gravity of 10. It is taste-
less, insoluble in water and in muriatic acid, and not alter¬
ed by exposure to the air. Vvlien heated it takes fire,
and burns with a blue flame. When mixed with iron
filings, and heated in a stoneware retort, it is decom¬
posed, sulphuret of iron is formed, and running mer¬
cury is distilled over. Cinnabar, when in powder, has a
scarlet colour, and is wrell known as a paint. It is a com¬
pound of lo hnuoqmoo g 8t il .la'dig io nollod
1 atom mercury ........J~*o
i atom sulphur   2
14*5
VI. Selenium and mercury, when heated together, com-Seieme
bine without the evolution of light. Seleniet of mercury
is a tin-white, coherent mass. It does not meit, out su¬
blimes, when heated in thin plates which have the metallic
lustre. It is scarcely attacked by nitric acid; but when
Ion a- boiled in that acid, it is at length converted into se-
lemate of mercury. In this state it is. decomposed by mu¬
riatic acid, selenium being left in the state ot a red pow¬
der. Kitromuriatic acid dissolves the selemet rapiUy,
even without the assistance of heat.
VII. Phosphuret of mercury is black, of a pretty solid
consistence, and capable of being cut with a kniie. • / ,
VIII. The compounds which mercury makes with VeAm -
metals are usually called amalgams. _ Mercury easily ms-S'*•
solves gold, silver, zinc, cadmium, bismuth, tm, and lead.
With rather more difficulty it may be united to copper
and platinum. With arsenic and antimony it may ue
united by trituration, assisted by beat. With iron it can¬
not be united directly; accordingly mercury is usuany
kept in iron vessels. - . ^ £1i eldnloani bnu
(ovilBri 8W300 Sect. VIII.— Of Silcer.
Silver exists in the earth very frequently in the metal¬
lic state in small threads or crystals, interspersedwiti
rocky .matter, from which it is collected by ag^ion J
mercury. That metal dissolves the silver, and the ain-^
gam being exposed to,the requisite neat, thtnnci d
driven off, and the silver remains m a state or punt}- *
CHEMISTRY.
organic Silver is a metal of a fine white colour, with a slight
)dies. shade of yellow. It lias a great deal of hrilhancy and
beauty when polished. It is softer than copper, but
raerties.harder than gold. When melted, and cooled slowly, its
specific gravity is 10-3946; when hammered and rolled,
it becomes as high as 10-4612. It is very malleable and
ductile, but its tenacity is inferior to that of copper. It
melts when exposed to a strong red heat, and while in fu¬
sion itsjbrilliancy is much increased. Its melting point, as
determined byPrinceps, is 1830°. It is not altered by ex¬
posure to the air, unless fumes of sulphur or sulphuretted
hydrogen gas happen to exist in the atmosphere. Wa¬
ter produces no alteration on it.
(Ides. I. Silver seems capable of combining with three doses
of oxygen, and of forming three oxides, two of which are
neutral bodies, while the third possesses the characters of
an alkaline body on base.
1. When silver is dissolved in nitric acid, and a fixed
alkali added to the solution, a brown-coloured powder falls,
which becomes darker when dried. It is tasteless and in¬
soluble in water, nor is it capable of forming a hydrate. Its
specific gravity is 7-143. When exposed to the direct rays
of the sun it gives out oxygen, and becomes black. Caus¬
tic ammonia, when digested on it, dissolves it partially,
leaving a black powder, which is fulminating silver. It 'is
a compound of
I atom silver 13-75
1 atom oxygen  1
419
Ch
tie.
14-75
2. When oxide of silver is dissolved in ammonia, and
the solution left exposed to the open air, it is soon cover¬
ed with a brilliant pellicle. If this be removed another
succeeds, and almost the whole of the dissolved oxide may
be made to undergo this change. This matter by reflect¬
ed light appears gray, by transmitted light brown. When
suddenly heated it melts, gives out oxygen, and leaves a
button of silver. It is a compound of
atom silver 20-625
1 atom oxygen  1
21-625
I his suooxide does not appear capable of combining
with acids. °
3. Superoxide of silver is formed when a platinum wire
from the positive extremity of a galvanic battery is plun-
ged into a weak solution of nitrate of silver. It constitutes
smaii brilliant crystals on the platinum wire, and has a
aciv colour. When held to the flame of a candle it de¬
tonates, and leaves metallic silver. WTen it is digested
in sulphuric or phosphoric acids, oxygen gas is given out,
and sulphate or phosphate of silver formed. It obviously
contains more oxygen than the brown oxide, but it has
not hitherto been subjected to analysis.
II. So far as is. known, silver combines with only one
proportion of chlorine, and forms the well-known compound
ormerly known by the name of horn silver, lima cornea,
and now by that of chloride of silver. When solutions of
nitrate of silver and common salt are mixed together, a
copious white curdy precipitate falls, which when washed
an. . ed constitutes chloride of silver. It is tasteless,
and insoluble in water; but dissolves readily in caustic
ammonia. Its specific gravity is 5-552. It occurs native,
unc is crystallized in octahedrons. Its colour is white,
i i when exposed to the air it gradually assumes a purple
colour. At the temperature of about 500° it melts, and
on cooling assumes the form of a light-brown, translucent
b ass, having some resemblance to horn in point of tough-
^ ess. Ina very high temperature it sublimes. When exposed
0 a current of nascent hydrogen gas, it is reduced to the
metallic state. It is converted into metallic silver also Inorganic
when heated to redness, surrounded with common potash Bodies,
of commerce in a crucible; or we may obtain reduced sil-
ver from it, by putting it into a vessel of zinc, or cast iron,
along with a little water. Copper, iron, lead, tin, zinc, anti¬
mony, and bismuth, when fused along with it, unite with
the chlorine, and leave the silver in the metallic state.
This chloride is a compound of
1 atom silver  13-75
1 atom chlorine    4*5
18-25
III. When nitrate of silver is dropt into a solution of a Bromide,
hydrobromate, a bromide of silver falls down in light-yel¬
low curds. When exposed to the light it blackens, but
not so readily as chloride of silver. It is insoluble in wa¬
ter and. in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. Boiling
sulphuric acid disengages some vapours of bromine from
it. When heated it melts into a reddish liquid, which on
cooling recovers its original colour, and assumes the ap¬
peal ance of horn. Nascent hydrogen decomposes it as it
does chloride. It is a compound of
1 atom silver 13-75
1 atom bromine 10
23-75
IV. The iodide of silver is easily obtained by mixing a Iodide,
hydriodate with a solution of nitrate of silver. A green¬
ish-yellow, curdy precipitate falls, having considerable re¬
semblance to chloride of silver. It is insoluble in water,
and easily decomposed when heated with potash. It is a
compound of
1 atom silver  13-75
1 atom iodine 15-75
29-5
V. Sulphur has a strong affinity for silver. When thin Sulphuret.
plates of silver and sulphur are laid alternately in a cru¬
cible, they melt readily at a low red heat, and constitute
a sulphuret. It is black, or at least of a very deep vio¬
let colour, capable of being cut with a knife ; often crystal¬
lized in small needles, and much more fusible than silver.
By heat .the sulphur may be slowly volatilized, and the
silver Jett pure. This compound frequently occurs native.
It has a dark-gray colour, the metallic lustre, and the soft¬
ness,, flexibility, and malleability of lead. Its specific gra¬
vity is about 7-2. It is a compound of
1 atom silver 13-75
1 atom sulphur  2
15-75
VI. Selenium and silver seem capable of combining in Seleniet.
two proportions. When the two substances are heated
together, they unite with the evolution of heat, and a very
fusible compound is formed, from which the excess of se¬
lenium may be separated by distillation. This seleniet is
gray, and while in fusion its surface is brilliant, like a mir¬
ror. It melts long before it is heated to redness. It pos¬
sesses some malleability, and may be a biseleniet.
When silver is precipitated by selenietted hydrogen, it
falls in the state of a black powder, which becomes dark
gray when dried. This seleniet requires a red heat to
fuse it, arid does not give out any selenium when distilled.
VII. Phosphuret of silver has a white colour and a gra-Phosphu-
nular texture. It breaks under the hammer, but may be ret.
cut with a knife. It seems to be a compound of
1 atom silver  ....13-75
2 atoms phosphorus  4
17-75
420
CHEMIST R Y.
Inorganic VIII. Arseniet of silver is steel-gray, brittle, and fine
Bodies, granular
Alloys.
anuiar.
IX. There are few of the alloys of silver or much con¬
sequence. It would appear from the experiments of Sto-
dart and Faraday, that the quality of steel is improved by
the addition of a little silver. Silver readily unites with
copper by fusion, and the colour of the silver is not sen¬
sibly altered, even when the copper amounts to halt the
weight of the silver. The standard sterling silver of Great
Britain is an alloy of 121 by weight of silver, and one of
copper. This is very nearly a compound ot three and a
half atoms silver and one atom copper. _ The specific gra¬
vity of this alloy, after simple fusion, is 10-200. When
stamped into coin its specific gravity is 10-3121. Ihe
weight of a shilling is 87*55 grains.
FIFTH FAMILY.—NOBLE METALS.
The name of this family has been given to it because it
contains gold and platinum, and because the other four
metals belonging to it are usually associated with native
platinum.
I atom gold 12*5
II atom oxygen  1'5
I n organ
Bofe
Sect. I.— Of Gold.
Gold always occurs in the metallic state, seldom pure,
but usually alloyed with silver or copper, or with botn,
and sometimes, ‘it is said, with platinum. From copper it
may be freed by cupellation, and from silver by solution
in aqua regia, and mixing the solution, which contains
only the gold, with a recent solution of sulphate of iron.
The pure gold is thrown down in the state of a fine pow¬
der, which has only to be washed and fused.
Properties. Gold has a beautiful yellow colour and considerable
1 * lustre, which it retains, not being liable to tarnish by ex¬
posure to the air. It is rather softer than silver. After
fusion it has a specific gravity of 19*2, but by hammering
it may be made as high as 19*361, or perhaps 19*4. It is
the most malleable of all metals, and may be beaten out
into leaves no thicker than ^asVoo an ^cb, and the
gold leaf with which silver wire is covered is only y^th of
this thickness. It may be drawn out into very fine wire,
and its tenacity is considerable, though inferior to that of
silver. It melts, according to Davies, when heated to
2590° Fahrenheit. It is not soluble in any acid; neither
sulphuric, nitric, nor muriatic have any action on it, but
it dissolves with great ease in aqua regia. The solution
has a yellow colour, an acrid taste, and is very poisonous.
Oxides, I. We are acquainted at present with only two oxides
of gold, which, however, are not easily obtained in a se¬
parate state.
1. The peroxide of gold may be obtained by the follow¬
ing process: Dissolve gold in an aqua regia composed of
a mixture of one part of nitric and four parts of muriatic
acid. Render the solution as neutral as possible by eva¬
poration ; then add potash, and heat the liquid. . A volu¬
minous precipitate gradually falls, which must be care¬
fully washed and dried. It is now peroxide of gold, but
not quite free from potash. If we add magnesia to the
solution of gold in aqua regia, a precipitate falls, consisting
of okide of gold united to magnesia. When this precipi¬
tate is washed and digested in nitric acid, the magnesia is
dissolved, together with part of the gold, and pure oxide
of gold remains undissolved. Peroxide of gold, when in
the state of hydrate, is a light-yellow povvder; but when
anhydrous it is brown or black. It dissolves readily in
muriatic acid, and the solution has a fine yellowish-red
colour. At an incipient red heat it is deprived of its oxy¬
gen, and the gold is reduced to the metallic state. This
oxide is a compound of W u ai Ton .bolBaii
fllqTo abnofnof&q m aavloaaio Jud m olduloani ai ii
U
2. W hen the solution of gold in muriatic acid is heated
till it ceases to give out chlorine gas, a straw-yellow mass
remains, which is insoluble in cold watei. When this
substance is treated with caustic potash, a green-colour¬
ed powder is separated, which is suboxide of gokh In a
short time it divides itself into two parts; one third de¬
prives the other two thirds of the whole of then oxygen,
and becomes peroxide, while the other two thuds are re¬
duced to the metallic state. From this it is obvious that
the suboxide is a compound of
2 atoms gold 25
1 atom oxygen 1
26
It does not seem capable of uniting either with acids or
bases*
1II. When gold-leaf is exposed to the action of chlorine Chlork
o-as, a combination takes place. When the solution of
gold in aqua regia is sufficiently concentiated, luby-red
crystals shoot, so deliquescent that they cannot be pre¬
served. These crystals (abstracting the water) are com¬
posed of _ !
I atom gold   12*.j^
atom chlorine   Q'lo
59
19*25
WTien a solution of gold in aqua regia is cautiously eva¬
porated till the colour becomes brown, it becomes a solid
mass on cooling, and a portion of the gold is disengaged
from its combination. The brown chloride is^ ajcompound oi
1 atom gold 12*5
1 atom chlorine  4*5
17
When the heat is continued longer and carried farther,
the sesquichloride may be converted into a dichloride,
composed of
2 atoms gold !*.• • •.
1 atom chlorine   4*5
29*5
The sesquichloride of gold possesses the characters of
an acid. . ., •
III. Bromine and its aqueous solution are capable of Bron
dissolving gold. A yellow bromide is thus obtained, which
stains animal bodies purple. Heat decomposes it into bro¬
mine and metallic gold. > _ T ■
IV. Iodide of gold may be obtained by mixing together i
chloride of gold and hydriodate of potash, taking care to
beat the liquid, in order to drive off the excess of iodine
which falls with the iodide of gold. Iodide of gold is in¬
soluble in cold water, and but little soluble in boiling wa¬
ter. Muriatic, nitric, and sulphuric acids, do not decom¬
pose it cold ; but when it is boiled in these acids in a con¬
centrated state the gold is reduced, and the iodine disen¬
gaged. Heat decomposes it at a temperature no higher
than 300°. Alkaline solutions decompose it immediately-
According to Pelletier, it is a trisiodide, composed ot
3 atoms gold 37*5
1 atom iodine 
.W-IS 3i .mbwoq To oJefa adi m alidw
Y. Sulphur, even w*hen assisted by heat, has no action
, gold ; nor is it ever found combined with sulphur, as i
- case with most other metals ; yet it may be made 0
[bine with it simply by mixing togetber sulphohydr
ott
th'e
ebrnbine
aold
CHEMISTRY.
421
I 7anic of potash and solution of sesquichloride of gold. A black
1 lies, powder falls, which is a sesquisulphuret of gold, compos-
M ed of
1 atom gold 12-5
]i atom sulphur...  3
A piet.
15-5
It is exceedingly difficult to dry this sulphuret without
acidifying the sulphur.
VI. Phosphuret of gold is brittle, whiter than gold, and
seems to be capable of crystallizing.
VII. Arsenic has a strong affinity for gold, and a very
minute quantity of it renders that ductile metal quite
brittle, like glass. Antimony has the same property. Gold
is also rendered brittle by being alloyed with nickel, co¬
balt, zinc, bismuth, lead, and tin. With iron, manganese,
copper, and silver, it forms ductile alloys. Copper gives
it a red colour, and considerably improves its beauty.
What is called sterling gold, which is the standard of the
gold coin of Great Britain, is an alloy of twelve parts of
gold with one part of copper or silver, or sometimes a mix¬
ture of the two.
Sect. II.— Of Platinum.
This metal occurs in small, white, metallic plates, in al¬
luvial soil, which consist of platinum alloyed with a con¬
siderable number of other metals. It was first brought to
the form of an ingot by Dr Wollaston. The process fol¬
lowed was the following: The crude platina must be di¬
gested in dilute aqua regia till the acid is as nearly satu¬
rated with platinum as possible. Then draw off the liquid,
and allow it to stand till a fine powder of ore of iridium
has subsided. Then mix it with sal ammoniac previously
dissolved in five times its weight of water. A yellow pre¬
cipitate falls, which must be thoroughly Washed, and ulti¬
mately pressed to remove the last remnant of the wash¬
ings. It is next to be heated with extreme caution in a
black-lead pot, just sufficiently high to drive off the sal
ammoniac, and to occasion the particles of platinum to ad¬
here together as little as possible. The gray product of
platinum is now to be rubbed between the hands to reduce
it to a powder fine enough to pass through a lawn sieve.
The coarse parts are then to be ground in a wooden bowl
with a wooden pestle, till the whole is reduced to powder.
They must not be touched with any thing hard enough to
burnish their surface, otherwise the process is spoilt. The
powder is now to be put into a brass mould filled with wa¬
ter, taking care that no vacuities are left. The top of the
powder is first covered with a circle of paper, and then
with one of cloth ; and it is then pressed, first by the hand
with a wooden instrument, and afterwards by means of a
powerful press. It is then placed in a charcoal fire, and
there heated to redness. It is now covered with a cru¬
cible, not touching it, and exposed for about twenty mi¬
nutes to the highest temperature that can be raised in a
wind furnace. Finally, it is placed on an anvil, and struck
when hot with a heavy hammer, always on the end, and
so as effectually to close the metal at one heat. It must
never be struck on the sides, which would cause it to
crack. >oo aaowgraa ruut,uaaj
h prties. Platinum has a white colour, like silver, but without the
shade of yellow which characterizes that metal. Its hard¬
ness is intermediate between that of copper and iron. Its
specific gravity, while in the state of powder, is 21*47.
by hammering it may be made as high as 2T5313. It
is very ductile and malleable, though much less so than
gold. Its tenacity is considerable. It resists the highest
temperature of air furnaces without melting, but it may
he fused by the action of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
Like gold, it resists the action of all the single acids; but Inorganic
it dissolves readily in aqua regia, and the solution has a Bodies,
yellowish-brown colour and an astringent taste.
I. It seems to be capable of combining with two doses Oxides,
of oxygen, and of forming two oxides, or perhaps three,
which, however, are not easily procured in a separate
state.
1. To obtain protoxide, the solution of platinum in aqua
regia is to be evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass ex¬
posed in a porcelain cup to the temperature at which tin
melts. Chlorine gas is given off, and a gray powder re¬
mains, which must be digested in a solution of potash. A
black powder remains, which, when well washed and dried,
is considered as protoxide of platinum. It is a hydrate.
When heated in a retort it gives out water and oxygen
gas. When heated to redness with combustible bodies it
detonates feebly. Acids reduce it to metallic platinum
and peroxide. It is a compound of
1 atom platinum 12
1 atom oxygen  1
13
2. To obtain peroxide of platinum is exceedingly diffi¬
cult. When a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is
passed through a neutral solution of chloride of platinum,
a black precipitate falls, which is sulphuret of platinum.
Wash it, and dissolve it in nitric acid; evaporate the solu¬
tion, and continue the heat till all the nitric acid is driven
off. Sulphate of platinum remains. Dissolve it in water,
and throw down the sulphuric acid by nitrate of barytes,
then filter, and pour caustic potash into the liquid. One
half of the platinum falls in the state of peroxide; the
remainder, constituting a double salt, remains in solution.
Peroxide of platinum thus obtained has a yellowish-brown
colour, and is bulky. When dried it becomes darker co¬
loured, and then has a considerable resemblance to rust of
iron. It is a hydrate. When heated it gives out water,
and becomes almost black. At an incipient red heat it
gives out oxygen, arid the platinum is reduced. It is a
compound of
1 atom platinum.... 12
2 atoms oxygen....  2
14
3. When a neutral solution of mercury is poured into a
dilute solution of chloride of platinum, a dense precipitate
falls, which is a mixture of calomel and suboxide of plati¬
num. Expose it to a heat just sufficient to drive off the
calomel. A deep-black powder remains, which, according
to Mr Cooper, is composed of
2 atoms platinum 24
1 atom oxygen      1
25
It is therefore a suboxide.
II. Platinum does not take fire When introduced into chlorides,
chlorine gas, but it imbibes the gas, and is converted hi to
a chloride. Two chlorides of platinum are at present
known. ( ^ ‘
1. Protochloride may be obtained by boiling platinum
in. strong muriatic acid, adding occasionally a little nitric.
Evaporate the solution to dryness, and digest it with a
little muriatic acid, which is likewise to be driven off.
The dry mass is to be cautiously heated nearly to redness,
and boiled with a considerable quantity of water. Being
now dried, it is pure chloride of platinum.
|ts colour is dull olive-green. It has a harsh feel, and
is destitute of taste and smell. It does not melt when
heated, nor is it altered by exposure to the atmosphere.
It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in perchloride of phi-
c H E M 1 S T R Y.
Inorganic tinuin. It is slightly soluble in boiling muriatic acid ; but
Bodies, it is soluble in nitric, sulphuric, phosphoric, and acetic
v—acids. It is a compound of
1 atom platinuni...i.. 12
1 atom chlorine    d’o
.. ! M ; I ! : ;  
1 atom platinum 12
2 atoms sulphur...., 4
Inoig£r
Bod*
. W
18*5
2. Perchloride of platinum is obtained by dissolving pla¬
tinum in nitromuriatic acid, and cautiously evaporating
the solution to dryness, to drive off all excess ot acid. A
reddish-brown matter remains, which dissolves m water,
forming the well-known reddish-brown solution employed
by chemists for separating potash from soda. It is a com¬
pound of
1 atom platinum I -
2 atoms chlorine   ^
21
Bromide.
Iodide.
Sulphurets
III. Platinum does not act upon bromine or its vapour
at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere ; but it dis¬
solves in bromonitric acid, and a yellow-coloured bromide
is formed, decomposable, and capable, like the perchloride
of platinum, of forming insoluble yellow precipitates in
salts of potash and ammonia. ^
IV. When iodic acid is dropt into a solution of bichlo¬
ride of platinum, a yellow-coloured iodide falls, somewlmt
soluble in water.
V. Platinum seems capable of uniting with a little sili¬
con when strongly heated surrounded with charcoal. ^ Its
specific gravity is diminished, it assumes a gray colour,
and loses much of its malleability. In the same way it
unites with a little boron, which has a similar effect upon it.
VI. Platinum combines with three proportions of sul¬
phur, and forms three sulphurets, which were first inves¬
tigated by Mr Edmund Davy. ...
1. Protosulphuret of platinum is formed by mixing equal
weights of sulphur and platinum in an exhausted glass
tube, and heating them together, raising the temperature
at last till all the superfluous sulphur is driven off. It has
a dull bluish-gray colour, and acquires the metallic lustre
when burnished. Its specific gravity is 6*2. It is a non¬
conductor of electricity, and is decomposed when heated
with zinc filings. It is probably a compound of
1 atom platinum ....12
i atom sulphur  2
1S naq
VII. Selenium combines with platinum in powder when
the mixture is heated. Much heat is evolved. The se-
leniet formed is gray, and has not undergone fusion. Heat
drives off the selenium, and leaves the platinum in the me¬
tallic state. .•>mr.o.uia ‘auis I - h
VIII. The affinity between platinum and phosphorus is
so o-reat that if we heat a phosphate mixed with charcoal
in a platinum crucible, we destroy the crucible by convert¬
ing it into a phosphuret. There seem to he three phos-
plnirets, but their constitution has not yet been determin¬
ed with accuracy.
IX. The alloys of platinum, so far as we know them at
present, are not of much importance. With antimony it
combines readily, and forms a brittle alloy. An alloy of
seven parts platinum, sixteen copper, and one zinc, has
much the appearance of pure gold. Platinum is not easily
amalgamated with mercury, but the combination may be
accomplished by triturating a little powder of platinum
with mercury in a mortar, adding each constituent by
small quantities at a time, as required.
Sect. III.— Of Palladium.
14
2. When platinum is precipitated from its solution in
aqua regia by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, a
black sulphuret is obtained, which must be dried in vacuo
over sulphuric acid, otherwise it absorbs oxygen, and is
converted into sulphate of platinum during the drying.
According to Mr E. Davy, it is a compound of
1 atom platinum 12
H atom sulphur    3
15
3. Persulphuret of platinum is obtained by heating a
mixture of three parts of ammonia-chloride of platinum,
and two parts of sulphur, in a glass retort. The heat must
be gradually raised to redness, and kept at that point till
every thing volatile is expelled. It has a dark, iron-gray
colour, approaching to black. When in lumps it has a
slight metallic lustre. It has a soft feel, and when rubbed
on paper leaves a stain similar to that of black lead.
When it is heated with zinc filings, combustion takes
place, and sulphuret of zinc is formed. When heated to
redness in the open air the sulphur is driven off, and the
platinum remains in the metallic state. It is a com¬
pound of
This metal was originally discovered by Dr Wollaston
in crude platinum ; hut it seems to exist in Brazil in com
siderable quantity, for large ingots of it were brought
some years ago from that country to London, to see whe¬
ther they could find a market. It may be thrown down
from the solution of crude platinum in aqua regia by prus-
siate of mercury. The precipitate has a pale-yellow co¬
lour. When washed, dried, and exposed to a red heat,
palladium remains in powder. It may be fused with sul¬
phur into an ingot, and by cautious roasting the sulphur is
driven off, and the palladium may be hammered into a
solid mass. Much patience and perseverance is necessary
before the cake can be made to bear hard biows.
Palladium is a white metal, which, when polished, bears prope
a very strong resemblance to platinum. It is rather harder
than wrought iron. Its specific gravity, after ignition, is
10*972, but by hammering it may be made as high as
12*148. It is very malleable and ductile, possesses but
little elasticity, and is not altered by exposure to the air
while cold. At a red heat it speedily acquires a blue co¬
lour on the surface, hut loses it when exposed to a still
higher temperature. The best solvent of it is aquaiegia.
The solution has a reddish-brown colour, somewhat simi¬
lar, but darker, than that of chloride of platinum.
I. It seems to be capable of uniting with two propovuon&Oxulcj
of oxygen, and of forming two oxides. r
1. The protoxide may be obtained by fusing palladium
in powder with potash and a little nitre, or by dissolving
palladium in fuming nitric acid, evaporating to dryness,
and exposing the residual salt to a heat approaching igm
tion, to drive off the nitric acid. It is a black, taste ess
powder, which is insoluble in water. It does not ica 1 y
dissolve in acids, and requires boiling before we can ob¬
tain a complete solution in muriatic acid. When precipi¬
tated from nitric acid by an alkali, we obtain it in the sta e
of a brownish-yellow hydrate. It seems to be soluble in
alkaline leys. It is a compound cf
1 atom palladium..... 6*'0
1 atom oxygen   ....<.1
7*75
The peroxide of palladium has not yet been obtained in
a separate state.
CHEMISTRY.
1 fame
Jies.
ides.
II. The chlorides of palladium, like the oxides, are two.
1. Protochloride may be formed by dissolving protoxide
of palladium in muriatic acid, and evaporating to dryness.
In this state it has not been examined, but it has the pro¬
perty of uniting like an acid with chloride of potassium
and sal ammoniac, and of forming salts which have been
analysed. From these analyses the chloride appears to be
a compound of
1 atom palladium ...6-75
1 atom chlorine 4-5
423
11-25
2. The perchloride of palladium has not yet been exa¬
mined in a separate state, but is obtained united to chlo¬
ride of potassium by dissolving chloropalladiate of potas¬
sium in aqua regia, and evaporating the solution to dry¬
ness. The salt is obtained in small red crystals. This
perchloride is a compound of
1 atom palladium.... 6-75
2 atoms chlorine 9
15-75
The bromide and iodide of palladium remain still un¬
known.
Su uret. HI. Palladium unites very readily to sulphur. When it
is strongly heated, the addition of a little sulphur causes
it to run into fusioa immediately, and the sulphuret con¬
tinues in a liquid state till it is only obscurely red hot.
Sulphuret of palladium is rather paler than the pure metal,
and is extremely brittle. By means of heat and air the
sulphur may be gradually driven off, and the metal obtain¬
ed in a state of purity. This sulphuret appears to be a
compound of
1 atom palladium.i.  .....G-75
1 atom sulphur   2
Sel ;et.
I’1'0 ties,
8-75
IV. Palladium and selenium unite with facility, and heat
is disengaged during the combination. The compound is
gray and coherent, but has not undergone fusion. Before
the blowpipe selenium is disengaged, and the alloy fuses
into a grayish-white metallic button, which is brittle, and
has a crystalline fracture.
V. Lead, tin, bismuth, and iron, when alloyed with pal¬
ladium, render it brittle. With gold, platinum, and silver,
it forms malleable alloys. The alloy with copner is rather
brittle.
Sect. IV.— Of Rhodium. i0 gwor
Rhodium, like palladium, exists in crude platinum, from
which it was first extricated by Dr Wollaston. It exists
only in minute quantity, and of consequence has been but
imperfectly examined.
After freeing the solution of crude platinum in aqua
regia, of its platinum, by means of sal ammoniac, a plate of
clean zinc was immersed in the liquid, which precipitated
a black powder. It was washed and digested in dilute
mtnc acid, to dissolve some copper and lead which it con¬
tained. It was then dissolved in nitromuriatic acid. Com¬
mon .salt being added to the solution, the whole was eva¬
porated to dryness, and the residual salt washed with al¬
cohol by small quantities at a time, till it came off nearly
colourless, fliere remained chloride of rhodium united
to common salt. When this salt is dtesolved in water, and
o piate of zinc immersed in the solution, d black powder
b k 5 W^'!C^ Rhodium. When strongly hcated vvith borax
i becomes white, and assumes the metallic lustfe.
Rhodium has a white colour, like that of platinum. Its
specific gravity is 10-649. It is brittle, and requires a
much higher temperature toifuaoiit than any other nietal,
' .efeJe eiGTfiqea’fi
unless indium be excepted. It has the remarkable pro- Inorganic
perty of being insoluble in all acids, even in aqua regia. Bodies.
It is exceedingly hard, being in this respect superior to
any other metal. Dr Wollaston employed those persons
who in London were accustomed to cut and polish dia¬
monds, to cut it into pieces fit for being applied to the
nibs of pens. They assured him that it spoiled their in¬
struments much more than the diamond itself.
1. Rhodium appears capable of combining with two pro- Oxides
portions of oxygen, and of forming two oxides.
L The peroxide may be obtained by precipitating chlo-
rorhodiate of sodium by caustic potash, taking care not to
add an excess of the alkali. Yellow flocks fall, which con¬
stitute the peroxide. When dried it assumes a brown co¬
lour, and is never free from the precipitating alkali. When
strongly heated it becomes black; but whether this change
is accompanied with the evolution of oxygen has not been
ascertained. There is reason to suspect that this oxide
(for it has not been analysed) is a compound of
1 atom rhodium .....6-75
atom oxygen 1*5
8-25
2. When sulphurous acid is added to chlororhodiate of
potassium, a pale-yellow powder gradually falls, which be¬
comes nearly white when dried. "When carbonate of soda
is mixed with a solution of this salt, a gelatinous oxide
precipitates, of a deep greenish-yellow colour. This pre¬
cipitate has been considered as a protoxide of rhodium,
but it has not yet been subjected to analysis.
II. There are two chlorides of rhodium, which, howeverrCjliorj(ies
have not yet been obtained in a separate state, but only
in combinations with chlorides of potassium and sodium.
The first seems to be a compound of
1 atom rhodium   6.75
1 atom chlorine 4-5
11-25
The perchloride seems to be a compound of
1 atom rhodium 6-75
Li atom chlorine   6-75
13-5
The other combinations of rhodium with simple bodies
remain still unexamined. It combines easily with sulphur,
and in that way is rendered fusible. It unites also easily
with arsenic. With gold and silver it forms malleable al¬
loys. With steel it may be united in almost any propor¬
tion. Faraday and Stodart formed an alloy of two atoms
steel and one atom rhodium, which formed an excellent
metallic mirror, exhibiting a surface of admirable beauty,
and not liable to tarnish.
Sect. V.— Of Iridium.
There is an ore of iridium, in small, flat, metallic plates,
having a specific gravity of 19-25, and mixed with the
plates of native platinum. When crude platinum is dis¬
solved in aqua regia, it leaves behind it a heavy black
powder, of rather a complicated nature, but containing,
among other constituents, a considerable proportion of iri¬
dium. It was from this powder that Mr Tennant, the dis¬
coverer of the metal, first extracted iridium. His process
was to heat the black powder in a silver crucible, with its
own weight of potash. Water dissolves off the potash of
a deep-orange-colour; the undissolved! portion being di¬
gested in muriatic acid* that acid becomes first blue,"then
olive-green, and lastly deep red. The undissoived portion
is again treated with potash and with muriatic acid alter¬
nately, till the whole is dissolved. By this process two
424
CHEMISTRY.
Properties.
Inorganic solutions are obtained; the alkaline, of a deep-orange co-
llodies. lour, containing the osmium; and the muriatic acid solu-
tion, of a deep-red, containing the iridium. This last so¬
lution, by concentration, yields octahedral crystals of chlo¬
ride of iridium. A plate of zinc throws down a black
powder from the solution of these crystals. When heat is
applied to the powder it becomes white, and assumes the
metallic lustre. In this state it is pure iridium.
Iridium has the appearance of platinum. It has only
been obtained in the state of powder, so that we do not
know whether it be malleable or brittle ; neither has its
specific gravity been determined, though there is reason
to believe that it is as high, if not higher, than that 01 p a-
tinum. It resists the action ot all acids, even the mtxo-
muriatic, almost completely, more than 300 parts of that
acid being necessary to dissolve one part of iridium.
Oxides. I. The affinity between iridium and oxygen seems to
be considerable. It has been conjectured by Berzelius
that it combines with four doses of oxygen, and forms four
oxides, though hitherto these four oxides have not been
obtained in a separate state.
1. The protoxide may be obtained by boiling the pro¬
tochloride with concentrated solution of caustic potash.
The protoxide separates in the form of a black powder,
which is scarcely acted on by acids, though it communi¬
cates to them a light-green colour. The hydrate of this
oxide, obtained by precipitating protochloride of iridium
with carbonate of potash, is a bulky greenish-gray matter,
which is re-dissolved by an excess of carbonate of potash.
The hydrate dissolves in acids when assisted by heat, and
forms salts of iridium. This oxide is probably a com-
\ pound of . _
-1 atom iridium  
1 atom oxygen  1
13-25
2. Sesquioxide of iridium may be obtained by mixing
bichloro-iridiate of potassium with its own weight of car¬
bonate of potash, and heating the mixture in a close ves¬
sel to incipient ignition, taking care not to elevate the
temperature too high, which would occasion the expulsion
of the carbonic acid, and the combination of the acid with
the alkali. When the saline mass is dissolved in boiling
water and filtered, it leaves on the filter a blackish-blue
powder, which is the sesquioxide. When washed with
pure water it passes through the filter. It should theie-
fore be washed with a solution of sal ammoniac, the last
traces of which may be driven off by heat. It is a dark-
brown powder, composed of
1 atom iridium 12-25
1-i atom oxygen  1*5
13- 75
3. The existence of binoxide of iridium is only inferred
from analogy. It wTould seem to possess acid characters,
as it combines with bases. Its constituents are no doubt
1 atom iridium 12-25
2 atoms oxygen  2
14- 25
4. Teroxide of iridium is obtained by adding carbonate
of potash or soda to red chloro-iridiate of potassium free
from ammonia. By digestion a gelatinous hydrate falls,
which when collected on the filter is brownish yellow or
greenish, and so similar to the hydrated oxide of rhodium
that it is impossible to distinguish them from each other
by their appearance. This oxide dissolves in muriatic
acid, and when the solution is concentrated it becomes
red. It has not been analysed, but from analogy it is
probably a compound of
1 atom iridium 12-25
3 atoms oxygen   3
15-25
Inorn
. Bodi:
II. Chlorine and iridium have a strong affinity for each Chi
other. They combine in different proportions, no fewer
than four chlorides having been examined.
1. When iridium in fine powder is mixed with chloride
of potassium, and the mixture heated to incipient redness
in a stream of chlorine gas, part of the iridium enters into
combination. The saline mass is separated by water from
the metallic iridium, and aqua regia being added to the
liquid, it is evaporated to dryness. The excess of chlo¬
ride of potassium may be washed out with a little water
The salt may then be dissolved in boiling water contain
ing a little aqua regia, and crystallized. Black octahe
drons are obtained, composed of one atom chloride of po
tassium and one atom bichloride of iridium. It is there
fore a bichloro-iridiate of potassium. The bichloride of
iridium has not been obtained in a separate state, but it
is obviously a compound of
1 atom iridium 12-25
2 atoms chlorine  9
Ion
21-25
2. Sesquichloride of iridium may be obtained by heat¬
ing iridium with a mixture of potash and nitre, and, after
having washed it with boiling water, digesting the remain¬
ing mass in muriatic acid, which dissolves a great deal of
the matter, and assumes a blackish-brown colour. Eva¬
porate the solution to dryness, and digest the tuy lesidue
in alcohol, which dissolves the sesquichloride. The salt
dissolved may be considered as a compound of one atom
sesquichloride of iridium, and one atom of chloiide of po¬
tassium. The sesquichloride is a compound of
1 atom iridium 12-25
l-i atom chlorine   6-75
19
3. When iridium, obtained by reducing the double chlo¬
rides by means of a stream of hydrogen gas, is exposed at
an incipient red heat to a stream of chlorine gas, it swells
up, and is converted into a light powder of an olive-green
colour. The additional weight corresponds with an atom
of chlorine. Hence the chloride is a compound of
1 atom iridium 12-25
1 atom chlorine  4-5
IffiTS
4. Terchloride of iridium has been obtained in com¬
bination with chloride of potassium. When ore of in¬
dium, after fusion with nitre, has been treated with aqua
regia, and then dried, small quantities of water, cautiously
added, dissolve out the excess of the chloride of potas¬
sium ; after this, water digested on it acquires a red co¬
lour. Dissolve off as much as can be done by repeated
additions of water as long as the colour continues red.
Eraporate the red-coloured solutions to dryness, and tne
dry mass being digested in alcohol of 0-84 to dissolve out
the excess of chloride of potassium, a saline brown pow¬
der remains, which is a terchloro-iridiate of potassium.
The terchloride which it contains is a compound of
1 atom iridium 12-25
3 atoms chlorine 13"5
25-75
The other compounds of iridium and the sinlPle s““'
stances are still unknown. With gold and silver it or
malleable alloys, and cannot be separated from the m
by cupellation. With lead, copper, and tin, it orms..
leable alloys. With arsenic it does not seem to conio
CHEMISTRY.
organic
lodies.
Sect. VI.— Of Osmium.
425
perties,
:des.
This metal is always found combined with iridium. The
method of separating it from the black powder which re¬
mains undissolved when the crude ore of platinum is di¬
gested in aqua regia, has been stated at the beginning of
the last section. When the alkaline solution of osmium
is mixed with muriatic or nitric acid and distilled, oxide
of osmium passes over into the receiver, dissolved in wa¬
ter. To obtain the osmium from this liquid, agitate a
quantity of mercury in it, after having added as much mu¬
riatic acid as is capable of converting the mercury into
chloride. Most of the osmium forms an amalgam with
the mercury, but a little still remains in solution. To ob¬
tain it, saturate the liquid with ammonia, evaporate the
whole, to dryness, and heat the dry mass in a retort. Me¬
tallic osmium remains, while the mercury and sal ammo¬
niac sublime. The chloride of mercury, amalgam of os¬
mium and running mercury from this process, is to be
heated in a glass tube, while a current of hydrogen gas is
made to pass over it. Mercury and chloride of mercury
sublime, and metallic osmium remains. It has the form
of a black powder, which acquires the metallic lustre when
burnished.
4 Osmium has a strong metallic lustre and a white colour,
similar to that of ore of iridium. Its specific gravity is
ten. It dissolves slowly in nitric acid. In aqua regia it
dissolves rapidly, and so does it in fuming nitric acid
when assisted by heat. When in a state of great division,
it takes fire, and burns at a red heat. The metal is not
altered by exposure to the air at common temperatures.
Having been obtained only in the state of powder, we do
not know whether it be a malleable or brittle metal.
I. It is capable of combining with various proportions
of oxygen, though the number of its oxides has not yet
been determined with accuracy.
1. The protoxide may be obtained by treating the
cliloro-osmiate of potassium with caustic potash. In a few
hours the hydrated protoxide is deposited, of a deep-green
colour, almost black. It dissolves slowly in acids, commu¬
nicating a blackish-green colour, like the salts of iridium.
Nitric acid dissolves it without the application of heat,
and when evaporated to dryness leaves a green-coloured
transparent varnish. The sulphate becomes almost black
when dried. Muriatic acid dissolves it, and assumes a
deep greenish-brown colour. It detonates with combus¬
tibles. It is a compound of
1 atom osmium 12-5
1 atom oxygen 1
13-5
2. The existence of a sesquioxide of osmium has been
conjectured, but it has not been obtained in a separate state.
3. Binoxide of osmium may be obtained by treating
bichloro-osmiate of potassium with carbonate of soda.
After some time the liquid becomes muddy and black, and
allows the hydrated binoxide of osmium to fall. When
collected on the filter it is black, and contains alkali, which
cannot be removed by washing. After exposure to a red
leat it ceases to be soluble in acids, though its composi¬
tion is not changed. It is a compound of
1 atom osmium 12’5
2 atoms oxygen  2
!4-5
• The volatile oxide which comes over dissolved in
water in the process described at the beginning of this
section, appears to be a quateroxide. It is obtained when
osmium is burnt, or when we treat oxide of osmium with
111 nc ac^* kvhen pure it is white, with a slight tint of
VOL. vi. b
yellow, and may be obtained in crystals. It dissolves Inorganic
slowly in water, and forms a colourless solution. It dis- Bodies.
solves also in alcohol and ether, but' is gradually reduced   
and deposited in the metallic state. This oxide has a
strong and peculiar smell. It is a compound of
1 atom osmium   12"5
4 atoms oxygen 4
16-5
When gallic acid is dropt into the aqueous solution of
quateroxide of osmium, the liquid gradually assumes a
deep-blue colour. This colour is owing to the formation
of a blue oxide of osmium, the constitution of which has
not yet been determined.
II. The number of chlorides of osmium is fully as great Chlorides,
as that of the oxides.
1. When chlorine gas is passed over osmium at the or¬
dinary temperature of the atmosphere, there is no appa¬
rent action ; but it wre heat the metal, there instantly rises
ii om it a dark-green sublimate, which is chloride of osmium.
If we continue the passage of chlorine gas and the heat, a
red pulverulent sublimate gradually makes its appearance,
which is the hicJdoride of osmium. If the chlorine gas be
moist the bichloride becomes yellow, and gradually crys¬
tallizes. When the bichloride is dissolved in water, it as¬
sumes a yellow colour; on adding a new portion of water
the colour changes to green, and the smell of the volatile
oxide becomes apparent.
2. 1 he sesquichloride and terchloride have not been
obtained in a separate state, but they have been formed
in combination with chloride of potassium.
III. Osmium has a strong affinity for sulphur, and forms
as many sulphurets as it does chlorides. -Sulphuretted
hydrogen throws it down from all its solutions, and the
nature of the sulphuret formed depends upon the state of
the osmium before its decomposition.
The remaining combinations into which osmium enters
have not yet been investigated.
DIVISION. II.— OF PRIMARY COMPOUNDS.
Having finished the history of the simple substances, we
now proceed to give an account of the compounds which
they form with each other. By primary compound is
meant a combination of two or more simple bodies with
each other. Thus potash is a primary compound, being
composed o£potassium and oxygen united together. Cy¬
anogen is another of these compounds, being composed of
carbon and azote united in definite proportions. Almost
all of these primary compounds have been noticed in the
last division of this article; but we must here treat of
the most important of them in greater detail than could
be done with propriety while treating of the simple sub¬
stances, and give an account of several important bodies
which were of necessity omitted. Now all the primary
compounds naturally divide themselves into three classes;
namely, acids, alkalies or bases, and neutrals. These three
classes will be treated in succession in the three following
chapters.
CHAP, I.—OF ACIDS.
By acid is understood, in the present language of che- Meaning
mists, a substance which has the property of combining of the
with and neutralizing alkalies or bases. Formerly it wasW0rd-
considered as requisite that bodies, in order to belong to
the class of acids, should have a sour taste, should be so¬
luble in water, and should have the property of reddening
vegetable blues; and these properties do indeed belong to
some of the most common and powerful acids. But there
3 H
c H E M I S T R Y.
426
Inorganic are various acids that have no taste, and which are not
Bodies, sensibly soluble in water, and some which are not capable
of altering the colour of the most delicate vegetable blues.
All the acids with which we are acquainted are com¬
pounds. Lavoisier was of opinion that oxygen constituted
an essential constituent of them all; and this opinion holds
cood with the greater number of acids hitherto examined
by chemists. But it is now known that not only oxygen,
but all the other simple supporters, namely, chlorine, bro¬
mine, iodine, and fluorine, are capable of forming acids by
uniting with several of the acidifiable bases, and indeed
also when they unite with several of the alkaline bases,
especially those described under the name of noble metals.
Besides the supporters, cyanogen, sulphur, selenium, and
tellurium, have also the property of forming acids when
they unite with the acidifiable bases. Indeed it is not
improbable that this property will be ultimately found to
belong to the greater number, if not the whole of the
acidifiable bases. Thus the acids at present known may
be divided into nine classes, namely, ,
]. Oxygen acids. ' 6. Cyanogen acids.
2. Chlorine acids. Sulphur acids.
3. Bromine acids. 8- Selenium acids.
4. Iodine acids. 9. Tellurium acids.
5. Fluorine acids. .
Let us take a view of each of these nine classes in suc-
21. Subsulphurous.
22. Selenic.
23. Selenious.
24. Telluric.
25. Arsenic.
2G. Arsenious.
27. Antimonic.
28. Antimonious.
29. Chromic.
30. Uranic.
31. Molybdic.
32. Tungstic.
33. Columbic.
34. Titanic.
35. Manganesious.
36. Manganesic.
Inorgani,
Bodies.
Classes of
acids.
cession.
CLASS. I.—OXYGEN ACIDS.
The acids which contain oxygen as an essential consti¬
tuent have been longer known and more carefully studied
than those which belong to the other eight classes, ibis
is the reason why at present they are so much more nu¬
merous than all the other acids put together, ihe oxy¬
gen acids are of two kinds. Some consist of oxygen united
to a single base or a single supporter. Ihus sulphuric acid
is a compound of sulphur and oxygen, and carbonic acid ot
carbon and oxygen. But there are a considerable number
of oxygen acids, in which the oxygen is united at once
with two, and sometimes with three bases, thus acetic
acid is a compound of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, while
uric acid is a compound of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
azote. This second set of acids is very numerous. Ihey
either exist ready formed in the vegetable or animal king¬
dom, or they are formed from vegetable and animal bodies
by certain chemical processes. Thus the oxygen acids
require to be subdivided into two sets, namely,
1. Acids with a simple base.
2. Acids with a compound base.
The first of these divisions includes the most important
of those acids that are employed as instruments of chemi¬
cal investigation, yet there are several acids with a com¬
pound base that can scarcely be dispensed with in a che¬
mical laboratory.
i Set l. Acids with a Simple Base.
Table of The oxygen acids with a simple base, so far as we aie
acids with at present acquainted with them, amount to thnty-six.
a simple Their names are as follows :
base. L perchloric. 1L Boracic.
2. Chloric. 12. Silicic.
3. Chlorous? 13. Phosphoric. _
4. Bromic. 14. Pyrophosphoric.
5. Iodic. 15. Phosphorous.
6’. Nitric. 16. Hypophosphorous.
7. Nitrous. 17. Sulphuric.
8. Hyponitrous. 18. Sulphurous.
9. Carbonic. 19. Hyposulphurous.
10. Oxalic. 20. Hyposulphuric.
An account of the nature and properties of all these
acids has been given in the preceding part of this article,
while treating of the simple substances which constitute
the bases of these acids. We therefore refer the reader
for information to that part of the article.
Set 2. Oxygen Acids with a Compound Base.
The oxygen acids with a compound base are very nu¬
merous, and are daily augmenting as chemists extend their
researches into the animal and vegetable kingdoms of na¬
ture. The double base consists most frequently of carbon
and hydrogen, sometimes of carbon, hydrogen, and azote;
and there are a few of them into which sulphur enters
likew-ise as a constituent. , . .
Many of these acids exist ready formed in the vege¬
table kingdom ; some are formed by a species of fermen¬
tation, to which vegetable substances are liable; others
are formed during the distillation ot certain bodies; and
nitric acid, and even sulphuric acid, have the property of
converting various vegetable and animal bodies into acids.
We shall, in the first place, give a list of all the com¬
pound oxygen acids at present known, and then make a
few remarks upon the most remarkable and important ot
them. Those who wish to be acquainted with every thing
that is at present known respecting acids will find the sub-
iect treated of at considerable length in the second volume
of Dr Thomson’s System of Inorganic Chemistry (seventh
edition), just published.
A. Acids composed of Oxygen united to Carbon and Ily- Table
J‘ ^ 7 .   QGlfKH
drogen
1. Acetic.
2. Lactic.
3. Caseic.
4. Fibric.
5. Formic.
Mellitic.
Tartaric.
Racemic.
9. Citric.
10. Pyrocitric.
11. Malic.
12. Pyromalic.
13. Fungic.
14. Igasuric.
15. Laccic.
16. Solanic.
6
8
17. Mucic.
18. Pyromucic.
19. Succinic.
20. Benzoic.
21. Croconic.
22. Gallic.
23. Ellagic.
24. Ulnae.
25. Crameric.
26. Kinic.
27. Pyrokinic.
28. Meconic.
29. Boletic.
30. Camphoric.
31. Suberic.
32. Pectic.
acids wi
compouj
base.
B. Fatty Acids composed of the same ingredients.
I.—Solid.
1. Stearic
2. Margaric.
3. Capric
4. Ricinic.
5. Cevadic.
II.—Liquid.
6. Oleic.
7. Phocenic.
C. Resinous Acids composed of the same ingredients.
1. Pinic. Silvic.
8. Butyric.
9. Caproic.
10. Hircic.
11. Elaiodic.
12. Crotonic.
HI.—Not soapificible.
13. Ambreic.
14. Cholesteric.
rcanic
:idies.
i tic
a .
CHEMISTR Y.
427
D. Acids composed of Oxygen, Carbon, and Azote.
1. Carbazotic. 2. Indigotic. 3. Uric.
E. Acids composed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Azote.
1. Aspartic. 4. Pyruric.
2. Nitrosaccharic. 5. Purpuric.
3. Nitroleucic. 6. Allantoic.
F. Acids composed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and
Sulphur.
1. Hydro-carbo-sulphuric 4. Theio-naphthalic.
2. Theiovinic. 5. Vegeto-sulphuric.
3. Xanthic.
We see from the preceding list, that the compound oxy¬
gen acids at present known amount to sixty-two. Many
of these, however, have been but superficially examined,
and are so scarce that it has not been possible hitherto to
apply them to any useful purpose ; while others are abun¬
dant, and possess qualities that render them precious in
the arts, or indispensable in the laboratory of the practical
chemist. We shall satisfy ourselves here with a few obser¬
vations on the most important.
1. Acetic acid, or vinegar (as it is called in common
language), is a well-known liquid, formed during a pecu¬
liar fermentation, to which wine and beer are liable when
kept in a high temperature, while at the same time air
has access to them. They become sour, and all (or almost
all) the alcohol which they previously contained disappears.
For the full development of the acetic acid in these li¬
quids, a temperature of about 84° is requisite. The beer
to be converted into vinegar is put into stoves kept at that
temperature, placed in casks with their bungs out. When
the vinegar thus made is distilled at a low temperature,
a transparent colourless liquid passes over called distilled
vinegar or acetous acid. When this distilled vinegar is
saturated with soda or its carbonate, and the solution eva¬
porated to dryness, a white transparent salt is obtained
called acetate of soda. This salt may be rendered anhy¬
drous by exposure to a temperature of about 500°. If ten
parts and a quarter of this anhydrous salt be mixed in a
retort with six and an eighth parts of concentrated sulphu¬
ric acid of commerce, and heat applied, there passes into
the receiver a very strong acetic acid, having an exceed¬
ingly pungent smell, similar to that of vinegar, but so
strong as to be too powerful for the organs of smell. Its
action upon the skin is so strong that it is capable of in¬
flaming and even blistering any part of the body to which
it may be applied. The acid, when of this strength, is
liquid during summer, but whenever the temperature sinks
below 40°, it congeals or crystallizes. It is a compound of
I atom acetic acid 6*25
1 atom water 1T25
7-375
The acetic acid cannot be deprived of this proportion of
water unless by combining it with some other substance.
In an isolated state it is not capable of existing. Its spe¬
cific gravity at 60° is T06296. When diluted with water
it becomes heavier, arid its specific gravity is a maximum.
When the liquid is a compound of
1 atom acetic acid 6-25
4 atoms water 4-5
. . 10-75
it is then 1-07132.
When acetic acid is exposed to a strong red heat, as
y passing it through a narrow porcelain tube in a state
° ignition, it is decomposed ; but this does not happen un¬
less the temperature be very high. If we fill the tube Inorganic
with pieces ot charcoal, the decomposition is complete at Bodies,
a much lower temperature.
Acetic acid combines with all the bases, and forms a
set of salts, to which the name of acetates has been given.
All the acetates, without exception, so far as w-e know at
present, are soluble in water. One of the most insoluble
of them all is the acetated suboxide of mercury. It crys¬
tallizes in silvery plates, and requires about 600 times its
weight of water to dissolve it. The acetate of silver is also
very little soluble, requiring about 100 times its weight of
water to dissolve it. Several of the acetates are deliques¬
cent. This is the case with the acetate of potash. The
acetate of ammonia is very deliquescent, and so volatile
that it cannot, without particular contrivances, be obtain¬
ed in crystals. Some acetates lose a portion of their acid
by keeping. This is the case with the acetate of zinc.
Acetic acid has been analysed by mixing a quantity
of an anhydrous acetate with black oxide of copper, and
heating it to incipient ignition. The acetic acid is decom¬
posed, and, combining with the oxygen of the black oxide,
is converted into water and carbonic acid. The water is
collected in a tube filled with chloride of calcium, the
weight of which has been previously determined; while
the carbonic acid is collected in a glass jar standing in¬
verted over mercury in a mercurial trough. Iky determin¬
ing the w-eight of water formed, and the quantity of car¬
bonic acid evolved, the proportion of hydrogen and car¬
bon in the acetic acid employed is ascertained. What is
wanting to complete the weight of the acetic acid is con¬
sidered as oxygen. In this way the constituents of acetic
acid have been found
4 atoms carbon 3
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
3 atoms oxygen 3
6-25
Thus making the atomic weight of the acid 6-25. And
this, in fact, agrees with the weight of acid necessary to
saturate an atomic proportion of the bases.
2. Lactic acid is the acid formed when milk is allowed Lactic
to become sour. It is formed also during a kind of fermen-acid.
tation which starch (especially oatmeal) undergoes when
kept dissolved, or mixed with water. The characters of
this acid approach those of acetic acid so nearly, that
many chemists have been induced to consider them as the
same. However, there are several remarkable differences
between them. Lactic acid is not nearly so volatile as
acetic, and its smell is quite different, and not nearly so
agreeable. The salts of lactic acid, like the acetates, are
all soluble ; but hitherto they have been but superficially
examined.
3. Caseic acid is a name which has been given to thecaseic
acid formed when the curd of milk is exposed to the pu-acid.
trefactive fermentation. It is a yellow, syrupy liquid, which
seems to owe its acid properties to a quantity of acetic
acid which it contains, and which had been formed dur¬
ing the putrefaction of the curd
4. Fibric acid was extracted in crystals from theFibric
fresh muscle of an animal, by digesting it in cold water, acid,
evaporating the liquid to the consistence of a syrup, and
mixing the syrup with strong alcohol After some days
standing in a close vessel, the alcohol deposits needle-
formed crystals, which have acid properties ; but their
nature has not been accurately ascertained.
5. Formic acid may be obtained by digesting the Formic
formica rufa, or red ant, in hot water. Dobereiner dis- acid,
covered that if we mix together in a large retort one part
of crystals of tartaric acid, two and a half parts of deut-
oxide of manganese, and two and a half parts of concen-
428
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic trated sulphuric acid, previously diluted with twice its
Bodies, weight of water, and apply heat, much carbonic acid is
disengaged, and the matter in the retort swells and has a
o-reat tendency to run over. After the disengagement or
gas is at an end, if we distil over the liquid, we obtain di¬
lute formic acid. This process succeeds equally well n we
substitute starch for tartaric acid.
This acid has a strong resemblance to the acetic; but
the differences are also decided. It cannot be made to
crystallize, its specific gravity is higher, and the salts
which it forms have different properties. \\ hen mixed
with concentrated sulphuric acid, it is converted into wa-
ter and carbonic oxide. Its constituents are,
2 atoms carbon T5
1 atom hydrogen 0T25
3 atoms oxygen 3
T625
So that it differs from acetic acid by containing only half
the quantity of carbon and hydrogen that exist in that
acid. Were we to suppose the carbon and hydrogen in
these acids to be combined together, and to constitute a
base, to which the oxygen afterwards united in order to
convert it into an acid, the base of acetic acid would be a
compound of
4 atoms carbon 3
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
3-25
while the base of formic acid would be
2 atoms carbon I'5
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
1-625
The ratio of the carbon is the same in both, but the abso¬
lute quantity is double in acetic acid to what it is in for¬
mic acid. . c
TVfpllitic 6. Mellitic acid exists as one of the constituents of
acid. a honey-yellow mineral, crystallized in octahedrons, found
among the layers of wood-coal in Ihuringia, and called
from its colour mellite. This mineral is a compound of
mellitic acid and alumina. Mellitic acid has a very strong
resemblance to oxalic acid, and, like it, is not liable to de¬
composition when kept in solution in water. Its atomic
weight is 6-5, but it has not yet been subjected to an ana¬
lysis to determine its constituents.
Tartaric 7. Tartaric acid is one of the constituents of cream
acid. of tartar, a salt which encrusts the sides and bottoms of
wine casks, being gradually deposited from the wine. This
salt is now called bitartrate of potash, being a compound of
2 atoms tartaric acid 16-5
1 atom potash  6
22-5
This salt is decomposed by lime, which separates the
tartaric acid from potash, forming with it an insoluble and
tasteless white powder. Sulphuric acid, when digested
over this powder, gradually combines with the lime, and
sets the tartaric acid at liberty. It dissolves in the water,
and may be obtained in crystals by concentrating the li-
quid. This acid is prepared in large quantities for the ca¬
lico-printers, who employ it to discharge the turkey-red
dye by means of bleaching powder. It has a very sour
taste, and is very soluble in water. The aqueous somtion,
when kept, becomes full of mucus, and the acid is gia-
dually destroyed. It has the property of combining in
^ two proportions with most bases, forming tartrates and bi¬
tartrates. Tile bitartrate of potash is very little soluble in
water. Hence if we drop carbonate of potash by degrees^
into a solution of tartaric acid, a copious precipitate of
small acidulous crystals gradually falls down.^ This pre- Inorgai:
cipitation is characteristic of tartaric acid. Carbonate of hodie
soda cannot be substituted for potash, because the bitar- v'-~v'v
trate of soda is much more soluble in water than bitartrate
of potash. When tartaric acid is added to a solution of a
metal in an acid, it in general prevents the metallic oxide
from being thrown down by an alkali. ibis it does by
forming with the metallic oxide a soluble double salt.
The atomic weight of tartaric acid is 8-25, and the crys¬
tals are composed of
1 atom tartaric acid 8-25
1 atom water... 1-125
9-375
The acid itself has been analysed by means of oxide of
copper, and found composed of
4 atoms carbon 3
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
5 atoms oxygen 5
8-25
The absolute quantity of carbon and hydrogen is the
same as in acetic acid; but the oxygen, instead of three
atoms, as in acetic acid, is five atoms. The properties of
the two acids are exceedingly different.
8. Racemic acid is an acid that has been recently foundRacem
in cream of tartar. It therefore exists as a constituent ofad
the juice of grapes, and appears in the fruit to be in a
state of biracemate of potash. It may be separated and
purified precisely in the same way as tartaric acid, fhe
Germans (for it was first noticed in Germany) have given
it the name of traubensaure (grape acid). Ihis appellation
not being suitable to the idiom of the English language,
the French chemists who first described it gave it the
name of racemic acid. It crystallizes in doubly oblique
prisms, the lateral faces of which are inclined to each
other at angles of 68° and 112°, and the inclination of the
base to the lateral faces is about 75°. It resembles tar¬
taric acid in many of its properties; but it precipitates
lime from a solution of chloride of calcium, which is not
the case with tartaric acid. Ihe salts also which it forms
differ from those of tartaric acid. Its constitution and ato¬
mic w-eight, according to Berzelius, are precisely the same
as those of tartaric acid. The crystals are composed of
1 atom acid 8'25
2 atoms water ^‘25
10-50
It is a stronger acid than tartaric. When heated with
sulphuric acid and deutoxide of manganese, it gives out
much carbonic acid and some acetic acid, but no formic
acid, as is the case when tartaric acid is treated in tne
9. Pyrotartaric acid is an acidulous liquor, obtainedPyrotaJ
by distilling bitartrate of potash in a retort. It is exceea-
ingly sour tasted, and may be crystallized. _ It neither
precipitates lead nor silver, which readily distinguishes it
from tartaric acid. , . . rv orJ Citric £i
10. Citric acid is extracted from the juice of limes and Citn
lemons, by saturating the filtered juice with lime, and e-
composing the insoluble citrate of lime obtained by means
of dilute sulphuric acid. It is readily obtained in crystals,
which have the form of right rhombic prisms, and aie
composed of
2 atoms water .....2-^o
9-5
The salts which it forms are called citrates. It is a weakei
acid than tartaric, and is easily decomposed by ica .
CHEMISTRY. ,oq
£' Slfth °f itS C°nStitUe"tS . **• Succinic acid is chained by dUliHing ambe, It In “l
. , forms larp-p. tranenm-onf   , • , .
4 atoms carbon  
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
4 atoms oxygen  
f-25
W 4 atoms carbon  3 f? ™ Ia,rSe,’ ^ansparent, colourless crystals, which are but Bodies.
  llttle so!uble m water. The salts which it forms are call-
ed succinates. This acid, when heated, sublimes withoutSuccinic
decomposition. Succinate of ammonia, or of soda, hasacid*
Jhe Pr°perty of precipitating peroxide of iron from neu-
The absolute quantity of carbon and hydrogen is the same rote IJence these salts are employed to sepa-
as in acetic and tartaric acids; but the ofylen amoTtl nic ^ !»«. and ato-
nniv tn fnnr ntnm0 >*f i, a™un™ mic weight of this acid are the same as those of acetic
acid, namely,
4 atoms carbon  
2 atoms hydrogen 0*25
3 atoms oxygen 3
pj xdtric
at
only to four atoms, while it is five in tartaric acid and
three in acetic.
11* Pvrocitric acid is obtained by distilling crystal¬
lized citric acid in a retort. It has an acid and bitterish
taste, and crystallizes, though not regularly. It forms the
salts called pyrocitrates. The atomic weight of this acid
is 10'/5, and it is said to be a compound of
atoms carbon 5-625
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
5 atoms oxygen 5
10-75
6-25
~1. Benzoic acid sublimes when the resinous sub-Benzoic
stance called benzoin is heated. It constitutes beautiful acid
snow-white elastic needles, exceedingly light, and conse¬
quently very bulky.. It is but little soluble in water. It
combines readily with bases, and constitutes the salts
differ very much film those of
citric acid. ^ 'fon from manganese, because it precipitates
without difficulty, and it is a much weaker acid than even
the citric. ^ Most of the salts which it forms are soluble
in water. Phey are called malcites. The atomic webdit
of this acid appears to be 9'0625, and it is a compound of
31 atoms carbon 2-625
3-| atoms hydrogen 0-4375
6 atoms oxygen 6
weight is 15, and its constitu-
15 atoms carbon 11-25
6 atoms hydrogen  0-75
3 atoms oxygen  3
li
Fu
aci<
Jga
acic
Lac
ack
Soli
acic
I’yr
acid
Muc
Pyre
acid,
iC
alic
icid,
« , , 9-0625
But the characters of the acid have not been well defined,
and at least two different acids seem to have been con¬
founded under the same name.
13. Fungic acid exists in the juice of the peziza nigra,
and various other fungi.
14. Igasuric acid exists in St Ignatius’ bean, the fruit
of the strych?ios ignatia.
15. Laccic acid was obtained from stick lac.
. Koranic acid from the berries of the solanum
nigrum.
17. Pyromalic acid is formed when malic acid is dis¬
tilled in a retort. It is volatilized under the form of white
needles.
18. Mucic acid
2-. Croconic acid is a yellow-coloured acid, solid, Croconic
but not in crystals, which is formed when cream of tar-acid,
tar previously charred in a crucible is exposed to a white
lent. . 1 otassium comes over, and among other products
there is a quantity of croconate of potash. According to
-L. Gmelin, the discoverer of this acid, it is a compound
of
5 atoms carbon 3-75
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
4 atoms oxygen 4
7-875
. Gallic acid is obtained from nut-galls by digest-Gallic acid,
ing them in water, and allowing the infusion to remain for
some months covered with paper. The acid is deposited
in yellow crystals, which may be rendered colourless by
in ivirrrrn ~ „ ^sso^ving tbem in boiling water, mixing the solution with
gum'or smrnr of mill L E ^CID’,.ls fo™ed when ivory black, filtering, and then crystallising. Its taste is
lowing the houid to mol |feSt^ Inmtnc acid. _ On al- bitter, leaving an impression of sweetness. It dissolves
the nfucir a.dd i! d t ^ 16 effei7escencf 18 over> 1» about tvvelve times its weight of water. Its characteris-
tuting a white powder81 \t ha^ZRo^r C7^alf’ ^0]nst11" tIC ProPerty the deep-blue colour which it strikes when
soluble in watei, and constitutes - ““ -1 k1)' lnt0 a soI,u.t,on containing peroxide of iron. Its con-
. , . . -  a set of salts called mu~
cates when it is combined with bases. Its atomic weight
is Id, and it is a compound of
6 atoms carbon 4.5
4 atoms hydrogen 0-5
8 atoms oxygen 8
13
“ AZ Pyeomucic acid is obtained by distilling mucic
i Z ln aretort. It is in crystals, which are more soluble
Cabo tban water, and which are not altered by expo-
wiih n° !le atm9sPbc:re- Bs atomic weight is the same
lat of mucic acid, but its constituents are,
9 atoms carbon 6-75
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
6 atoms oxygen 6
13
stituents would appear to be
6 atoms carbon 4-5
4 atoms hydrogen 0-5
3 atoms oxygen 3
8
24. Ellagic acid is a name given by Braconnot to aEllagic
white substance which remains on the filter when the im-acid.
pure first crystals of gallic acid are dissolved in water and
filtered.
. 25. Ulmic acid exists in the bark of most trees, andUlmicacid.
in combination with potash it constitutes the principal part
of a black exudation from ulcers which are apt to form in
the elm and some other trees. By dissolving this matter
in water, and adding an acid to the solution, the ulmic
acid falls down in tasteless brown flocks. It combines
with the different bases, and forms a class of salts called
ulmates, very few of which have hitherto been examined.
430
Inorganic Its atomic weight is 42, and it appears by Boullay s ana-
Bodies, lysis to be composed of
32 atoms carbon  ^
16 atoms hydrogen  ~
16 atoms oxygen ^
42
26. Crameric acid has been extracted from the loot
of the crameria triandra. . ^ i- ~
27 Kinic acid exists in small quantity, united to lime,
in the yellow Peruvian bark. Its atomic weight seems to
be 23, and it is probably a compound ot
9 atoms carbon  , ^
10 atoms hydrogen 
15 atoms oxygen 
Crameric
acid.
Kinic acid.
CHEMISTRY.
abies, and Sievic acid the resin which exudes from the Inorgat
pinus silvestris. , Bodies
35. Carr azotic acid is obtained by digesting good
indigo in about ten times its weight of nitric acid, till all^™
effervescence is at an end. It is deposited^ in yellow se¬
mitransparent crystals, which may be purified by lepeat-
ed crystallizations. It is crystallized in fine plates, having
a silky lustre and a yellow colour.* When heated it melts,
and may be volatilized without decomposition. It is little
soluble in cold, but very soluble in hot water. It is sola-
ble also in alcohol and ether. It is a strong acid, and the
salts which it forms detonate when heated. It is said to
be a compound of
16 atoms carbon  7‘5
4 atoms azote  ^
10 atoms oxygen 
1-25
,15
Pyrokinic
acid.
Meconic
acid.
Boletic
acid.
Camphoric
acid.
Suberic
acid.
23
28. Pyrokinic acid is formed when kinic acid is dis-
*^29. Meconic acid exists in opium, and is characterized
hv striking a red with peroxide of iron solutions.
30. Boeetic acid was extracted by Braconnot from
the boletus pseudo-igniarius.
31. Camphoric acid is formed when nitric acid \
great quantity is distilled off camphor It may be su-
blimeff unaltered. It is but little soluble m water, but
very soluble in alcohol. Its atomic weight is 14, and
it is composed of
12 atoms carbon ^
8 atoms hydrogen 1
4 atoms oxygen  ^
!4
32. Suberic acid is formed when common cork is di¬
gested in a great deal of nitric acid. It is white, does not
crystallize, is but little soluble in cold water, but very
soluble in boiling water. It is also very soluble in alco¬
hol. Its atomic weight seems to be 12-5, and its con
stituents . k
6 atoms carbon 
16 atoms hydrogen 2
6 atoms oxygen 6
,10
24-5
36 Indigotic acid is obtained by adding powderedIndigc
indio-o by little and little to a boiling hot but very weakacid.
nitric acid, continuing to add the indigo as long as any
effervescence lasts. I he liquid thus foimed is to be sepa¬
rated while hot from the resinous matter deposited. On
cooling, it lets fall indigotic acid in very small crystals.
These crystals when purified are white, very bulky while
moist, but they diminish much and lose their crystalline
form when dried. They have a silky lustre. The acid is
very little soluble in water. It melts when heated, and
sublimes without decomposition. _ It gives a blood-red. co¬
lour to solutions of peroxide of iron. Its atomic weight
seems to be 35, and its constituents to be
22 atoms carbon I6‘5
2 atoms azote   
15 atoms oxygen - ^
35
37. Uric acid exists in small quantities in healthy Uric ^
human urine, and constitutes the principal constituent ot
the most common kind of urinary calculi. The excre¬
ments of the boa constrictor consist almost entirely ot this
acid. It is white, tasteless, and'may be obtained in very
small prisms, having somewhat of a silky lustre. It dis-
, • ...he effervescence, and wl
12-5
Pectic acid.
Stearic
acid.
33. Pectic acid exists in most vegetable bodies, and
is characterized by the property which it has of forming
a ielly. Currant-jelly, apple-jelly, and all the numerous
tribe of vegetable jellies, owe their form to the presence
of this substance. Its atomic weight appears to be about
33.
34. Stearic acid is extracted from mutton suet soap,
and Margaric acid from a soap made ot olive oil and
potash by simple decomposition. Oleic acid is extract¬
ed from the soap of linseed oil and potash; Phocenic
acid from a soap made of porpoise oil and potash ; Buty¬
ric acid from a soap of butter and potash. The same
soap contains also Caproic and Capric acids, while
Hircic acid is extracted from a soap made of mutton
tallow and potash. IticiNic and Elaiodic acids are form¬
ed during the distillation of castor oil.
Cevadic acid exists in the seeds of the veratrum sa~
badilla, and Crotonic acid in the fruit of the croton tig-
lium. It is to the presence of this acid that croton oil
owes its cathartic properties. . .
Ambreic acid is formed when ambergris is digested
with a sufficient quantity of nitric acid. 'I he same pro¬
cess enables us to form Cholesteric acid from choles-
terine, a crystallized substance that constitutes the most
common kind of biliary calculi.
Pinic acid is the resin which exudes from the pinus
solves in nitric acid with effervescence, and when the
solution is evaporated to dryness a most beautiful pink-
coloured sediment remains behind. It combines with the
different bases, and forms the salts called urates, most ot
which are white, tasteless, insoluble powders. I he crys¬
tals of uric acid are composed of
J atom acid 
2 atoms water 
.9
.2*25
11*25
Uric acid itself is composed of
6 atoms carbon 
2 atoms azote 
1 atom oxygen 
.4*5
.3*5
.1
38
rises
Pyruric acid is the yellow-white subl ma acid.
when uric acid is subjected to distdlation.
pure it is in white small needles, which feel somewh
Sitty between the teeth. It is slightly soluble in water.
Concentrated nitric acid dissolves it, buJ.byJV PIts at().
the pyruric acid may be again obtain unaltered,
mic weight is probably 11, and its constituents
4 atoms carbon ^
10 atoms hydrogen 
1 atom azote * '
5 atoms oxygen °
11
ranic
lies.
CHEMIST R Y.
::sac-
acid
Pu
39. Aspartic acid was obtained from the juice of the
young shoots of asparagus. All the aspartates have a
flavour analogous to that of beef tea. When the acid is
decomposed by heat, it gives out ammonia and cyanogen.
It is obvious from this that carbon, hydrogen, and azote
exist in it as constituents, doubtless combined with oxy¬
gen; but no satisfactory analysis of it has been hitherto
made.
40. Nitrosaccharic acid wras obtained by Braconnot
by the following process : Strong glue was boiled with its
own weight of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with wa¬
ter for five hours ; and the acid being saturated with lime,
and the whole filtered, the liquid in about a month depo¬
sited sugar of glue. This sugar dissolves in hot nitric acid
without effervescence. By cautious evaporation a white
crystalline mass is obtained, which is nitrosaccharic acid.
It is very soluble in waiter, and crystallizes in flat, striated,
transparent prisms. Its taste is acid, and slightly sweet.
It combines with bases, and forms salts called nitrosaccha-
rates. It would seem to be a combination of nitric acid
and sugar of glue.
Ni Jen- 41. Nitroleucic acid wras obtained by nearly a simi-
cicid. Jar process. Muscle of beef was boiled for five hours
with its weight of sulphuric acid previously diluted with
water. The acid being separated by lime, a white sub¬
stance was obtained, not in the least sweet, but having
the flavour of boiled meat. To this substance Braconnot,
who formed it, has given the name of leucine. It dissolves
readily in nitric acid without effervescence, and by cau¬
tious evaporation nitroleucic acid is obtained in a crystal¬
line mass. It forms peculiar salts when combined with
the different bases, and seems to be a compound of nitric
acid and leucine.
42. Purpuric acid was formed by Dr Prout by dis¬
solving uric acid in nitric acid, saturating the solution
with ammonia, and evaporating cautiously, lied crystals
speedily fell; They were dissolved in a solution of caus¬
tic potash, and this solution being poured into sulphuric
acid, the purpuric acid precipitated in the state of a cream-
coloured powder. It has no smell or taste, and is but very
little soluble in water. In alcohol and ether it is quite
insoluble. It combines with bases, and forms salts, the
greater number of which have a red colour. Its consti¬
tuents are,
2 atoms hydrogen 025
2 atoms carbon !..1*50
1 atom azote 1-75
2 atoms oxygen 2
5-5
so that its atomic weight is 5-5, or a multiple of that num¬
ber.
43. Allantoic acid is the name of the acid which
^auquelin and Buniva called amniotic, because it is found
in the liquor of the allantois, and not in that of the am¬
nios. It crystallizes in square prisms, has a white colour
and pearly lustre, is insipid, and not altered by exposure
to the air. It is very little soluble in water, more soluble
in alcohol, but a portion of it is deposited in crystals as the
solution cools. The allantates are all soluble in water,
and crystallizable. The atomic weight of this acid is
about 62, and its constituents seem to be
23 atoms carbon 17*25
72 atoms hydrogen  9
9 atoms azote 15*75
20 atoms oxygen 20
62
44. Hydro-carbo-sulphuric acid was obtained by
icid. mixing bisulphuret of carbon with an alcoholic solution of
431
ammonia. Feather-shaped crystals are deposited. These Inorganic
being cleaned by means of bloating paper dissolved in wa- Bodies,
ter, and the solution mixed with dilute muriatic acid, an
oily liquid separates, which is hydro-carbo-sulphuric acid.
Zeise, the discoverer of this acid, considers it a combina¬
tion of one atom hydrogen with an atom of a compound of
sulphur and carbon, which he calls xanthine, and which he
is of opinion is a compound of
3 atoms sulphur 6
1 atom carbon 0*75
6*75
so that the atomic weight of the acid is 6*875 ; or we may
consider the acid as a compound of
1 atom bisulphide of carbon 4*75
1 atom sulphuretted hydrogen...2*125
6*875
45. Theiovinic acid is formed when sulphuric acid Theiovinic
and alcohol are digested together for some time. The li-acid.
quid is then saturated with carbonate of lead, filtered, and
a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas passed through the
liquid to throw down the lead. The liquid, thus contain¬
ing sulphovinic acid, may be concentrated by being expos¬
ed in a vacuum over sulphuric acid till its specific gravity
amount to 1*319. When raised to the boiling point, or
when concentrated beyond 1*319, it is decomposed, sul¬
phurous acid escaping, and sulphuric acid remaining mix¬
ed with an ethereal oil. It has been shown by Mr Hen-
nell to be a compound of
2 atoms sulphuric acid 10
4 atoms carbon 3
4 atoms hydrogen 0*5
13*5
46. Xanthic acid is formed when bisulphide of car-Xanthic
bon is left in contact with an alcoholic solution of potash, acid.
Needle-shaped crystals are deposited. When these ciys-
tals are mixed with dilute muriatic acid, xanthic acid se¬
parates under the form of a liquid like oil. Zeise, the dis¬
coverer of this acid, is of opinion that it is a compound of
2 atoms bisulphuret of carbon ....9*5
1 atom alcohol 2*875
12*375
47. Theionaphthalic acid is formed by leaving con-Theionaph-
centrated sulphuric acid in contact with naphthaline. It tlnlic acid,
seems to be a compound of
2 atoms sulphuric acid 10
1 atom naphthaline 14*625
Hyi ,
carb up
Pk
24*625
48. Vegeto-sulpiiuric acid was formed by Bracon-Vegetu-
not in the following way: Pieces of linen or hemp cloth sulphuric
were left in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid. acid.
They were converted into a pulp. This pulp being dilut¬
ed with water, a great deal of it dissolves, leaving a black
matter. Filter, saturate the solution with carbonate of
lead, filter again, and precipitate the lead from the solu¬
tion by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. The liquid,
thus freed from lead, when cautiously concentrated, leaves
a transparent substance like gum arabic. This gum being
boiled for some time in very dilute sulphuric acid, is part¬
ly converted into a crystallizable sugar, and partly into
the acid called vegeto-sulphuric. It may be separated
from the sugar by digestion in rectified spirits, evaporat¬
ing to the consistence of a syrup, and digesting the syrup
in ether. The pure acid only is dissolved, and may be ob¬
tained in a separate state by evaporating off the ether. It
is a strong, colourless acid, decomposed by boiling, and
432
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic then exhibits the presence of sulphuric acid. It forms
Bodies, soluble salts with all the bases. It is probably a compound
of sulphuric acid and the sugar of linen.
CLASS II.—CHLORINE ACIDS.
Chlorine. No doubt the acids formed by the combination of chlo¬
rine with bases will one day rival in number the oxygen
acids themselves ; but the investigation of them is hard¬
ly yet begun. The consequence is, that scarcely any ot
them except muriatic acid, which is a combination of hy¬
drogen and chlorine, has been hitherto investigated with
care. The nature and properties of this acid have been
given in this article while treating of hydrogen^ to which
we refer the reader. ,
The chlorides of sulphur and of phosphorus do not
seem to possess acid properties ; but corrosive sublimate
possesses acid properties, and is capable of combining with
and forming salts with a great number of alkaline chlo¬
rides. The chlorides of gold, platinum, palladium, rho¬
dium, iridium, and osmium, possess also acid properties,
and combine into crystallizable salts with various alkaline
chlorides.
CLASS III.—BROMINE ACIDS.
Bromine. Bromine has been known for so short a time, and is stih
so scarce, that we need not be surprised that this class of
salts is still almost unknown. Except hydrobromic acid,
composed of
1 atom bromine 10
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
2 atoms fluorine 4*5
2 atoms silicon 2
6-5
‘E"
Iodine.
10-125
we are acquainted with none of the acids belonging to
this class. The properties of this acid have been already
given under the head of hydrogen, in a former part of this
article.
CLASS IV. IODINE ACIDS.
The analogy between oxygen, chlorine, bromine, and
iodine, is so great that we cannot avoid admitting that io¬
dine, like the other supporters, has the property of forming
acids when it combines with the acidifiable bases. But,
excepting hydriodic acid, very few of the iodine acids have
been examined. The periodide of mercury and iodide of
arsenic are acids, but the salts which they form are but
imperfectly known.
CLASS V.—FLUORINE ACIDS.
Fluorine. We are at present acquainted with eight acids, which
are considered as combinations of fluorine and a base.
These are,
1. Hydrofluoric acid. 5. Fluotungstic.
2. Fluoboric. 6. Fluochromic. •
3. Fluosilicic. 7. Fluocolumbic.
4. Fluomolybdic. 8. Fluotitanic.
1. Hydrofluoric acid was originally called fluoric
acid, and under that name has been described in a former
part of this article, when treating of fluorine.
2. Fluoboric acid is obtained most easily by dissolv¬
ing anhydrous boracic acid in fluoric acid. A colourless
gas is extricated, which may be received over mercury.
An account of this acid has been given already, while
treating of boron, in a preceding part of this article.
3. Fluosilicic acid is the colourless gas which is ob¬
tained when a mixture of sulphuric acid and fluor spar is
heated in a glass retort. This gas has the smell of muri¬
atic acid, and, like that acid, gas is absorbed abundantly
by water, while at the same time it deposits silica in the
state of a jelly. Its atomic weight appears to be 6-5, and
it seems to be a compound of
4. Fluomolybdic acid is obtained by dissol ving molyb-Fluot
die acid in hydrofluoric acid. It has an acid, metallic, hMi
and disagreeable taste. It does not crystallize, but mayacId-
be evaporated to the consistency of a syrup. It combines
with bases, and forms a set of salts called fluomolybdates.
There is reason to believe that this acid is a compound of
1 atom fluoric acid 2-375
1 atom molybdic acid 9
11-375
and that its atomic weight is 11-375.
5. Fluotungstic acid is formed by dissolving tung-F]U0]
Stic acid in hydrofluoric, and it seems to be a compound ofstic
1 atom fluoric acid  2-375
1 atom tungstic acid 15-5
17-875
6. Fluochromic acid is obtained by putting equalFluot
weights of fluor spar and chromate of lead, mixed with“ks
thrice their weight of smoking sulphuric acid, into a lead¬
en retort, and applying a gentle heat.. A red-coloured
gas comes over, which may be collected in a platinum ves¬
sel over mercury. It is condensed into a liquid by expo¬
sure to a temperature of 32°. Glass instantly decomposes
it. Water absorbs it and converts it into fluoric acid and
chromic acid. Ihe probability is that this gas is a com¬
pound of
1 atom fluoric acid 2-375
1 atom chromic acid 6-5
8-875
We do not know whether this compound oe really en¬
titled to the name of acid. The effect which glass and
water have on it makes it difficult to subject it to the re¬
quisite trials. . i n, Ji
7. Fluocolumbic acid is formed by dissolving colum-Flue jum.
bic acid in hydrofluoric. It combines with bases, amlbica
forms salts, and seems to be a compound of
1 atom fluoric acid 
1 atom columbic acid 23-75
26-125
8. Fluotitanic acid is formed by dissolving titanic Flue, i
acid in hydrofluoric. The salts which it forms are called me p
fluotitaniates. It seems to be a compound of
1-L atom fluoric acid 3-5625
1 atomic titanic acid 5-25
8-8125
Hydrofluo
ric acid.
Fluoboric
acid.
Fluosilicic
acid.
CLASS VI. CYANOGEN ACIDS.
Cyanogen is a gas which is obtained by heating prus €>
siate of mercury, or cyanodide of mercury as it is now ca
ed, in a glass retort. It must be received over mercury.
It is colourless, has a peculiar smell and a strong taste, a
burns with a violet-coloured flame. It is a compound ot
2 atoms carbon l-^
1 atom azote 
3-25
This substance has the property of combining with various
simple bases, precisely in the way that the sopporte ;
With some of these it forms bodies analogous to t >
with others, bodies possessing the properties of acick.
of its combinations hitherto observed aie a
pounds, though it is not impossible that sue i may
■a pen.
CHEMISTRY.
433
$
■ocy-
acid.
•ganic covered hereafter. The combinations of cyanogen at pre¬
lies. sent known amount to fifteen. -I hey have been distin-
\ guished by the following names :
1. Hydrocyanic acid. 9. Hydrosulphocyanic acid.
2. Cyanic acid. 10. Hydrosulphuretted hydro-
3. Cyanuric acid. sulphocyanic acid.
4. Fulminic. 11-Hydrobisulphocyanic acid.
5. Chlorocyanic. 12. Disulphuret of cyanogen.
6. Perchloride of cyanogen. 13. Seleniocyanogen.
7. Bromide of cyanogen. 14. Hydroferrocyanic acid.
8. Iodide of cyanogen. 15. Azulmic acid.
We shall give as brief an account of these important bodies
(all of which are not acids) as is consistent with perspicuity.
1. Hydrocyanic acid, long known by the name of
prussic acid, may be obtained by the following process :
Fuse the yellow-coloured salt usually known by the name
oiprussiate of potash, or ferruginous prussiate of potash, in
a vessel to which atmospherical air has not access. By
this process the cyanodide of iron which it contains is de¬
composed, and an inflammable gas comes over. The iron
is converted into a carburet, which may be separated by
dissolving the fused salt in ivater. If we evaporate the
filtered solution, we obtain a white salt, distinguished by
the name of cyanodide of potassium. Put this cyanodide
into a retort or flask slightly moistened with water, and
add muriatic acid by a little at a time. The hydrocyanic
acid is disengaged. Cause it to pass through a tube
filled with fragments of dry chloride of calcium, and re¬
ceive it into a small flask, kept as cool as possible by being
surrounded with a mixture of snow and salt. Flere the
hydrocyanic acid condenses into a liquid.
It is a colourless liquid, having a strong smell similar to
that of peach blossoms. Its taste is sharp, at first it ap¬
pears cooling, but it soon excites a burning sensation in
the mouth. It is very asthenic, indeed a virulent poison.
At 64° its specific gravity is 0-6969. It boils ivhen heated
to 79°-7, and congeals when cooled down to 5°. At 80°
it assumes the gaseous form. Its specific gravity is 0-9375,
and it is a compound of one volume cyanogen gas and
one volume hydrogen gas united together, without any
condensation whatever: hence its specific gravity is the
mean of that of its two constituents.
This acid cannot be kept. It speedily undergoes spon¬
taneous decomposition, even Avhen kept in the dark and
in a cool place. I his seems to be owing to its containing
muriatic acid. It is one of the most virulent poisons known.
A single drop of it applied to the eye of a middle-sized
dog occasions violent convulsions, terminated speedily by
death. Ammonia in some measure counteracts its poison¬
ous effects; but from the experiments of Simeon it ap¬
pears that chlorine constitutes a much more certain and
complete antidote. Being put into the throat of the poi¬
soned animal it speedily relieves the symptoms ; and the
animal, after the interval of some hours, again recovers its
health. It is used in medicine, and possesses considerable
efficacy as a remedy in dyspepsia. The strength of the
acid usually sold by apothecaries is from one to two parts
of hydrocyanic acid in ninety-nine or ninety-eight of wa¬
ter. Of this, eight drops in a glass of water are adminis¬
tered thrice a-day. When given in large doses it dimi¬
nishes the frequency of the pulse, and even throws the
patient into a state of lethargy, from which, however, he
gradually recovers.
2. Cyanic acid may be formed by the following pro-
cess: Mix anhydrous prussiate of potash with about its
own weight of black oxide of manganese, and heat this
mixture in a silver crucible to incipient ignition ; then boil
jt m alcohol of the specific gravity 0-832. As the alco-
o ic solution cools, it deposits crystals of cyanate of pot-
as 1 ln small scales. Dissolve these ciTstals in water, and
VOL. VI.
Cy
add nitrate of silver to the solution. Cyanate of silver pre- Inorganic
cipitates in a white powder, which is nearly insoluble in Bodies.
Avater. Mix it with water, and pass through the solu-
tion a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The silver
is thrown down, and the cyanic acid remains in solution.
The liquid noAv contains only cyanic acid. It has a sour
taste. Its smell has some resemblance to that of acetic
acid. In a few hours it undergoes spontaneous decompo¬
sition, being converted into carbonate of ammonia. It
combines Avith bases and forms salts, and its atomic weight
is 4-25. It is a compound of
1 atom cyanogen 3-25
1 atom oxygen 1
4-25
3. Cyanuric acid was discovered by Serullas, but its Cyanuric
true nature was first ascertained by Wohler and Liebig, acid.
It may be formed by dissolving perchloride of cyanogen
in hot water, and boiling the solution for some time. By
evaporating the liquid muriatic acid is driven off, and cy¬
anuric acid is deposited in crystals. It is a white solid,
Avhich crystallizes in brilliant transparent rhombs. When
heated it sublimes, and is then deposited in fine needles.
It has but little taste, yet it reddens “vegetable blues.
Cold water dissolves little, but hot water is a better sol¬
vent of it. Its specific gravity is rather less than that of
concentrated sulphuric acid. For volatilization it requires
a heat rather superior to that at which mercury boils. It
combines with bases, and forms a class of salts which have
been called cyanurates. From the analyses of Wohler and
Liebig, its constituents appear to be
1 atom cyanogen 3-25
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
2 atoms oxygen 2
5-375
4. Fulminic acid is formed when one hundred grains Fulminic
of mercury are dissolved by means of heat in a measured acid,
ounce and half of nitric acid of the specific gravity 1-3,
and the solution is poured into tAvo measured ounces of
alcohol. Heat being applied to the mixture, an efferves¬
cence takes place, and a white matter in small crystals is
precipitated, which is to be collected and washed on a fil¬
ter. It constitutes fulminating mercury, or a compound
of fulminic acid and oxide of mercury. From this pow¬
der fulminic acid may be obtained by the following pro¬
cess : Put fulminating mercury into a phial Avith a ground
stopper, together with twice its weight of clean zinc
filings, and about three quarters of a fluid ounce of water
for every twenty grains of fulminating mercury employed.
If the bottle be kept in the temperature of 80°, and occa¬
sionally agitated, the fulminating mercury is soon decom¬
posed, and a solution of fulminate of zinc obtained. Filter
this liquid into another phial, and add to it one third of
its bulk of a saturated solution of barytes in w-ater. The
oxide of zinc is precipitated, and fulminate of barytes
formed. To this fulminate add just the quantity of dilute
sulphuric acid that is necessary to saturate the barytes.
Sulphate of barytes falls, and there remains a solution of
fulminic acid in water.
It is colourless and transparent. Its taste is at first
SAveet, which is folloAved by a peculiar astringency. Its
smell is pungent and disagreeable. It is very poisonous;
even exposure to its fumes excites headach. It is vola¬
tile. It combines Avith the different bases, and forms a
set of salts, all of which have the curious property of ful¬
minating when heated, or when struck with a hammer up¬
on an anvil. We have two different analyses of this acid.
Liebig and Gay-Lussac found its atomic weight 4-25 ; and
it is, according to them, a compound of
3 i
434
Inorganic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
1 atom cyanogen.
I atom oxygen...
.3-25
.1
4-25
that is, the very same with cyanic acid, though its pro¬
perties are quite difFerent from those of that acid. Mr
Edmund Davy found its atomic weight 5-25, and, on ana¬
lysing it, obtained as its constituents
2 atoms carbon ho
]i atom azote 2*62o
1 atom hydrogen 012o
1 atom oxygen 1
5-25
break the white matter with a glass rod, to allow it to be Inoig;
washed. Wash it and dry it. Put it into a small retort, Bod ‘
and heat it till it fuses ; then distil it over into the receiver. ''■*>}/
It passes over in the state of a transparent colourless liquid,
which crystallizes.
It is a very white substance, which crystallizes in needles.
It has a strong and disagreeable odour, exciting tears. Its
taste is sharp, but not strong. Its specific gravity is about
1-320. It melts at 284°, and boils at 374°. It is very little
soluble in cold water, but dissolves readily in alcohol and
ether. It is a very virulent poison. It is a compound of
1 atom cyanogen 3-25
2 atoms chlorine 9
According to this determination, it differs from cyanic
acid by containing half an atom of azote and one atom of
hydrogen, which are wanting in cyanic acid ; while from
cyanuric acid it differs by containing half an atom of azote,
which is wanting in that acid. .
Chloride. 5. Chloride of cyanogen may be obtained by t le
following process: Fill a bottle capable of holding sixty
cubic inches with chlorine gas, and then put into it ninety
grains of cyanodide of mercury. Introduce as much water
as will reduce Hie cyanodide to a magma, but not dis¬
solve it. Put the bottle into a dark place. In ten hours
a double decomposition takes place. Corrosive sublimate
is formed, and the cyanogen, combined with chlorine, wi l
fill the vessel in the state of a gas. Surround the flask
with a mixture of snow and salt. The gas is convert¬
ed into solid crystals, which attach themselves to the in¬
side of the flask. Absorb all the water by introducing
chloride of calcium, while the flask is in the freezing mix¬
ture, and letting it remain in the flask for two or three
days ; then exposing it again to the freezing mixture to
congeal the chloride of cyanogen, withdraw the chloride
of calcium, and fill the flask with mercury previously
cooled down to zero. Introduce a bent tube into the
mouth of the flask, plunge the end of this tube into a mer¬
curial trough, then heat the flask gently. The chloride of
cyanogen melts and effervesces, and passes over m the
state of a gas. ...
At zero, chloride of cyanogen is a transparent solid,
which crystallizes in long needles. It liquefies when heat¬
ed to 16°. At the ordinary temperature of the air it is
gaseous, but the gas liquefies at 68° when subjected to the
pressure of four atmospheres. Its smell is extremely of¬
fensive and deleterious. At 68° water absorbs twenty-five
times its bulk of this gas, sulphuric ether about fifty times
its bulk, and alcohol about a hundred times its bulk.
These solutions may be kept for any length of time with¬
out undergoing decomposition. It has not been pioved
that it combines with bases, so that we have no evidence
that it possesses the characters of an acid. It is a com¬
pound of one volume cyanogen gas and one volume chlo¬
rine gas united together without any alteration of volume.
Hence the specific gravity of chloride of cyanogen in the
gaseous state is 2-1527.
Perchlo- 6. Perchloride of cyanogen may be obtained in the
ride. following manner: Fill a bottle capable of containing
sixty-five cubic inches with dry chlorine gas, and after
putting into it about fifteen grains of pure liquid hycuo-
cyanic acid, shut up the mouth of the phial with a ground
stopper, and expose it to the direct rays of the sun.
solid matter gradually attaches itself to the inside of the
bottle, while the colour of the chlorine disappears. Blow
out the muriatic acid formed with a pair of bellows, then
introduce a little water and a few fragments of glass, in
order, by agitation, to detach the solid matter from the
inside of the vessel. Agitate well, then throw the whole
contents into a dish. Pick out the pieces of glass, and
12-25
Whether it be capable of combining with bases, has not yet
been determined.
7. Bromide of cyanogen may be formed in the follow-Bromi
ing manner: Put into the bottom of a long glass tube,
shut at one end, two parts of cyanodide of mercury, and,
surrounding the bottom of the tube with a freezing mix- 1
ture, pour on the cyanodide one part of bromine. A vio¬
lent action takes place, and much heat is evolved. Bro¬
mide of mercury and bromide of cyanogen are formed,
which last substance crystallizes in long needles in the
upper part of the tube. Adapt a small receiver to the
tube, and by a gentle heat drive the bromide of cyanogen
into it, where it crystallizes. The crystals are either small
transparent cubes or long needles. The smell is strong
and disagreeable. It is very volatile, and at GO assumes
the form of a gas. It is soluble both in water and alco¬
hol. When mixed with a solution of caustic potash it un¬
dergoes decomposition, being converted into hydrocyanate
and hydrobromate of potash. It is exceedingly poisonous,
and is composed of
1 atom cyanogen 3-2d
1 atom bromine 19
13-25
8. Iodide of cyanogen is obtained by triturating to-iodic
gether in a glass mortar two parts of cyanodide of mer-
cury and one part of iodine. I he mixture is introduced into
a wide-mouthed phial, and exposed to a heat gradually in¬
creased till the cyanodide of mercury begins to undergo
decomposition ; then the phial is to be taken up in a pair
of pincers and placed under a glass jar standing inverted
on a glass plate. White vapours issue rapidly from the
mixture, and condense on the glass disc like flocks of cot¬
ton. When they cease the phial is to be again heated,
which causes them to appear again. This is to be repeat¬
ed as long as flocks appear. These white flocks constitute
iodide of cyanogen. Put them into a long glass tube shut
at one end and bent a little at the upper end, and plunge
the bottom of the tube in boiling water. Iodide of cya¬
nogen is sublimed pure, and deposited in the bent part ot
th IMswhite, and crystallized in long slender needles. Its
smell is strong and irritating. Its taste is excessive y
caustic, and its specific gravity is greater than that o sul¬
phuric acid, through which it falls rapidly. It ^ soluble
in water and alcohol. When caustic potash is added to
the solution, hydriodate and hydrocyanate of potash are
formed. Nitric acid has no action on it. Sulphuric aci
slowly disengages iodine. Muriatic acid imniediateiy de¬
composes it. Dry sulphurous acid and dry chlorine ha
no action on it. It is a compound of
1 atom cyanogen 3-*o
1 atom iodine    
19
C H E M
anic It is much less deleterious than either the bromide or
dies, chloride of cyanogen.
,i9. Hydrosulphocyanic acid was discovered by Po-
jItosuI- re^f and called by him sulphw'etted chyazic acid. It may
P >,anic be obtained in the following manner: Mix together by
ai trituration equal weights of flowers of sulphur and ferro-
prussiate of potash previously deprived of its water, and
fuse the mixture over a spirit-lamp at a temperature ap¬
proaching a red heat. When the fused mass has become
cold, dissolve it in water, and drop into the solution caustic
potash till the oxide of iron has been all thrown down ; fil¬
ter, evaporate the colourless liquid to dryness, and dis¬
solve the dry residue in as little water as possible. Mix
this solution in a glass retort with a quantity of concen¬
trated phosphoric acid, and distil. Hydrosulphocyanic
acid passes over into the receiver.
Hydrosulphocyanic acid thus obtained has a very sour
taste. It is transparent and colourless, and has a strong
smell, resembling that of acetic acid. It crystallizes at 14°
and boils at 2161°. When the acid is thrown into a red hot
platinum crucible, sulphur is disengaged, and burns at last
with a blue flame. It possesses poisonous qualities, but is
much less energetic than hydrocyanic acid. It combines
with bases and forms salts. Its most striking property is
the blood-red colour which it produces when mixed with
solutions of peroxide of iron. This colour is so intense that
we can by means of it detect a very minute quantity of per¬
oxide of iron in solution. The constituents of this acid are,
1 atom cyanogen 3'25
1 atom hydrogen 0T25
2 atoms sulphur 4
7-375
There is reason to believe that the radical of this acid,
called sulphocyanogen acid, and composed of
1 atom cyanogen 3-25
2 atoms sulphur 4
7-25
is capable of existing in a separate state. When the acid
is decomposed by galvanism, a yellow-coloured matter
makes its appearance, which seems to be this radical.
£ rosul- 10. Hydrosulphuretted hydrosulphocyanic acid
h was discovered by Zeise during his researches on the al-
pi yanic t^rat*ons t0 which bisulphuret of carbon is subjected un-
a( der peculiar circumstances. He obtained it by the fol¬
lowing process : Saturate alcohol with ammoniacal gas at
50°, mix it with 0-4 of its original volume of alcohol, and
with 0-16 of that volume of bisulphuret of carbon. The
mixture should be made in a phial which should be com¬
pletely filled with it. Let the phial be well stopped, and
kept at the temperature of 60°. In an hour and a half a
salt falls in crystals. It is a combination of sulphuret of
ammonia and bibarburet of sulphur. Filter the liquid as
rapidly as possible into another phial, which must be her¬
metically sealed. Keep it for six hours at the tempera¬
ture of 60°, then cool it to 46°, and finally plunge it into
a freezing mixture of snow and salt. By this treatment
another salt is obtained, which is a combination of sulphu¬
ret of ammonia with hydrosulphocyanic acid. Separate
this salt, wash it with a little alcohol cooled down to 32°,
and then press it between folds of blotting paper. Dis¬
solve it in three times its weight of water, and add to the
solution dilute muriatic or sulphuric acid. After sufficient
mixture pour it at once into a great quantity of water. An
oily-looking matter is collected at the bottom of the ves¬
sel, which is hydrosulphuretted hydrosulphocyanic acid. It
is colourless, but water decomposes it so rapidly that it
has been impossible to examine its properties. It is a
compound of
S T It Y. 435
1 atom sulphuretted hydrogen 2-125 Inorganic
1 atom hydrosulphocyanic acid 7*375 Bodies.
9-5
For, when placed in contact with a metallic oxide, the
oxide is immediately reduced to a sulphuret, which com¬
bines with hydrosulphocyanic acid.
11. Hydrobisulphocyanic acid is formed in this way. Hydrobi-
When sulphocyanodide of mercury is gently heated insulphocya-
sulphuretted hydrogen gas or in muriatic acid gas, it un-nic add-
dergoes decomposition, and sulphuret or chloride of mer¬
cury is formed, together with a liquid which is deposited
in the coldest part of the vessel in drops. They are at
first colourless, but soon become yellow, and form small
transparent crystals grouped in stars. These crystals un¬
dergo spontaneous decomposition, hydrocyanic acid being
given out, and an orange-yellow opaque substance remains,
which is insoluble in water. Wohler considers this sub¬
stance as composed of
1 atom hydrogen  0-125
4 atoms sulphur  8
1 atom cyanogen  3-25
11-375
12. Disulphide of cyanogen may be obtained in the Disulphide,
following manner: Into a small globular glass vessel put
some cyanodide of mercuric in the state of a fine powder,
and pour over it about half its weight of bichloride of
sulphur. Shut the vessel, and expose it for a fortnight to
the action of light. A number of small crystals are gra¬
dually deposited on the upper part of the glass, while at
the bottom of the glass there remains corrosive sublimate
mixed with a yellow-coloured matter. The crystals may
be purified by mixing them with carbonate of lime, and
then subliming them.
These crystals, when thus purified, are rhomboidal plates,
like chloride of potash. When a minute portion is ap¬
plied to the tongue it occasions as much pain as if a sharp
instrument were thrust into the place. It has a strong
smell, similar to that of chloride of cyanogen. It sublimes
of its own accord in close vessels at the temperature of the
atmosphere. It dissolves readily in water, and is still
more soluble in alcohol. It combines with bases, and
therefore possesses the characters of an acid. By gal¬
vanism it is decomposed, sulphur being deposited at the
positive pole and hydrocyanic acid at the negative pole.
From the analysis of Lassaigne, it appears to be a com¬
pound of
2 atoms cyanogen 6-5
1 atom sulphur 2
8-5
13. Seleniocyanogen is formed by the same process Seleniocya-
as was given for forming hydrosulphocyanic acid, only nogen.
substituting selenium for sulphur. It has not yet been ob¬
tained in a separate state, but only in combination with
potash, and the salt possesses precisely the properties of
sulphocyanodide of potassium.
14. Hydroferrocyanic acid is the acid which exists Hydrofer-
in the salt usually called prussiale of potash or ferroprus- rocyanic
siate of potash, a yellow-coloured salt, which crystallizes inacid-
truncated octahedrons. It has a saline, cooling, and dis¬
agreeable taste, and has been long known from the pro¬
perty which it has of forming Prussian blue when mixed
with a solution of iron. To obtain hydroferrocyanic acid
from this salt, the following process may be followed:
Form ferroprussiate of barytes. Dissolve this salt in cold
water, and for every ten grains of it add 2-53 grains of
real sulphuric acid. Agitate the mixture, and set it aside
for some time. The sulphate of barytes falls down, and
436
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic the water holds in solution hydroferrocyanic acid. It has
Bodies, a pale lemon-yellow colour, and is destitute of smell. It
is decomposed by a gentle heat or by exposure to a strong
light. From the way in which this acid is obtained, it
must be a compound of
2 atoms hydrogen  0-25
3 atoms cyanogen  9-75
1 atom iron  3‘5
13-5
Azulmic
acid.
Or we may consider it as a solution of one atom of cyano-
dide of iron in two atoms of hydrocyanic acid.
15. Azulmic acid is the name given by Boullay to the
charry matter formed by the spontaneous decomposition
of cyanogen. It is insoluble in water and alcohol; but it
dissolves in concentrated nitric acid, to which it commu¬
nicates an aurora-red colour. The solution is rendered
muddy by water. It dissolves with great facility in alka¬
line leys and in liquid ammonia. The solutions are similar
to those of ulmate of potash, but a good deal more red.
Acids precipitate a very light brownish-red powder, which,
when dry, has no brilliancy, and resembles China-ink in
colour. Its constituents, according to Boullay, are,
2 atoms azote 3-5
5 atoms carbon 3*75
1 atom hydrogen 0T25
7-375
When potash is digested with glue, a quantity of azulmic
acid is said to be formed, just as ulmic acid is formed
when sugar of grapes is digested with the same base. It
was for this reason that Boullay gave it the name of azul¬
mic, meaning probably ulmic acid containing azote.
CLASS VII. SULPHUR ACIDS.
The greater number of the acidifiable bases have the pro¬
perty of combining with sulphur and constituting acids;
while the alkalifiable bases, when combined with sulphur,
are converted into alkaline bodies. In general, when a
sulphur acid is placed in contact with an oxygen base, de¬
composition takes place; for sulphur acids combine only
with sulphur bases. It is convenient to be able to distin¬
guish the sulphur acids from the sulphur bases. To attain
this object we shall call all the acid sulphur compounds
sulphides, while the old term sulphuret will be restricted
to the alkaline bodies formed by means of sulphur. Thus
sulphide of hydrogen is an acid, while sulphuret of potas¬
sium is a base.
Table of The names of the different sulphur acids at present
acids. known are as follows :—
All these sulphur acids have been described in a preced- Inorg-.
ing part of this article, when treating of their respective Bod;
bases. ’
CHAP. n. OF ALKALIES.
The alkalies consist of the simple bodies described in a
former part of this article under the name of simple alka¬
lifiable bases, united either to oxygen, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, fluorine, sulphur, selenium, &c. There are there¬
fore as many classes of alkalies as there are of acids. Be¬
sides these different classes of what may be called alka¬
lies with simple bases, there is an alkali composed of two
acidifiable bases joined together, namely, ammonia, v/\nch.
is a compound of azote and hydrogen. These two bodies
are both electropositive, as is the case with the alkaline
bases: we need not therefore be surprised at their consti¬
tuting an alkali when combined. There are about twenty
compound vegetable bodies which possess alkaline proper¬
ties, composed of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen,
united together. These may be called compound or com¬
plex alkaline bodies, in contradistinction to the alkalies
with simple bases. We shall reserve the account of these
bodies for the last part of this article, in which we shall
describe the nature and properties of animal and vege¬
table bodies. The following are the names of the alkaline
bodies with a simple base at present known.
New Names.
1. Sulphide of hydrogen.
2. Bisulphide of carbon.
3. Sulphide of phosphorus.
4. Sulphide of arsenic.
5. Sesquisulphide of arsenic.
6. Persulphide of arsenic.
7. Sulphide of tellurium.
8. Sesquisulphide of antimony
9. Bisulphide of antimony.
10. Persulphide of antimony.
11. Tersulphide of tungsten.
12. Tersulphide of molybdenum
1. Potash.
2. Soda.
3. Lithia.
4. Barytes.
5. Strontian.
6. Lime.
7. Magnesia.
8. Alumina.
9. Glueina.
10. Yttria.
11. Protoxide of cerium.
12. Peroxide of cerium.
13. Zirconia.
14. Thorina.
15. Protoxide of iron.
16. Peroxide of iron.
23. Protoxide of lead.
24. Protoxide of tin.
25. Peroxide of tin.
26. Oxide of bismuth.
27. Suboxide of copper.
28. Oxide of copper.
29. Suboxide of mercury.
30. Oxide of mercury.
31. Oxide of silver.
32. Oxide of arsenic?
33. Protoxide of antimony.
34. Oxide of tellurium.
35. Oxide of chromium.
36. Protoxide of uranium.
37. Peroxide of uranium.
38. Protoxide ofmolybdenum
List ct
kalies.
17. Protoxide of manganese. 39. Deutoxide of molybde-
18. Sesquioxide of manga- num.
40. Protoxide of tungsten,
41. Deutoxide of tungsten.
42. Oxide of titanium.
43. Oxide of columbium.
Old Names.
Sulphuretted hydrogen.
Bisulphuret of carbon.
Sulphuret of phosphorus.
Ilealgar.
Orpiment.
Persulphuret of arsenic.
Sulphuret of tellurium.
.Sulphuret of antimony.
Bisulphuret of antimony.
Persulphuret of antimony.
Tersulphuret of tungsten.
.Tersulphuret of molybde-
13. Quatersulphide of molybde- Quatersulphuret of molyb
num. denum.
14. Sulphide of chromium ? Sulphuret of chromium.
15. Sulphide of columbium. Sulphuret of columbium.
16. Bisulphide of tin. Mosaic gold.
nese.
19. Protoxide of nickel.
20. Protoxide of cobalt.
21. Oxide of zinc.
22. Oxide of cadmium.
The chlorine, bromine, &c. alkalies are the same as the
preceding, substituting the terms chlorides, bromides, &c.
respectively, instead ot oxides.
Ammonia may also be considered as an alkali with a
simple base, if we consider azote as that base, and hydro¬
gen as the electro-positive body with which it is in com¬
bination. It might, if a new name were wanted, be deno¬
minated terhydrate of azote.
CHAP. III. OF NEUTRAL COMPOUNDS.
Under this head a considerable proportion of vegetable
and animal bodies might be comprehended. But in con¬
sequence of the still imperfect state of vegetable and ani¬
mal chemistry, it will be better to reserve them to a sun-
sequent part of this article. Here we shall confine our¬
selves to those neutral bodies that are employed »s cn^"
mical re-agents, and which, therefore, it is of importanc
for the student to be acquainted with before he turns
attention to animal and vegetable chemistry. Ihesen
rganic tral substances naturally arrange themselves under the
.dies, seven following heads :
^ 1. Water. 5. Volatile oils.
2. Spirits. 6. Fixed oils.
3. Ethers. 7. Bitumens.
4. Ethal.
Sect. I.— Of Water.
The properties and composition of water have been al¬
ready explained in a preceding part of this article. A few
observations on it as a chemical body still remain to be
made.
It has the property of dissolving and combining with al¬
most all the acids, and with several of the alkaline bodies ;
and as it shows an equal disposition to combine with either'
and does not destroy nor conceal their acid and alkaline
qualities, it is obvious that it is a neutral body. It dis¬
solves also a considerable number of the salts, which are
compounds of an acid and base. The quantity of each of
these bodies which water can dissolve has a limit, and it
is very various with respect to different salts. When wa¬
ter has dissolved as much of a salt as it can take up, we
say that it is saturated with salt.
The power which thus limits the solvent property of
water is the attraction which exists between the particles
of the salt. When a salt is dissolved in water its parti¬
cles must be equally dispersed through every part of the
liquid. Ihey must of course be arranged in regular rank
and file; and the greater the quantity dissolved the small¬
er must the distance be between every two particles of
the salt. It would appear that the greater the number of
particles of salt which are dissolved by the water, the
smaller is the force by which the salt and water are united,
rates. Water not only dissolves many salts and other bodies,
but it has the property of entering into combination with
a great many bodies in a solid state, constituting com¬
pounds, to which the name of hydrates has been given.
There are few or none of the simple bodies that form hy¬
drates. The supporters of combustion are soluble in it to
a trifling extent; and the same remark applies to hydro¬
gen and azote; but none of the other bases, whether acid
or alkaline, are capable of uniting with it. Most of the
acids are capable of forming hydrates. Such hydrates are
usually called crystals of the acid. Sometimes they are
in the state of powders, and sometimes they constitute
jellies. Most of the alkaline bases, in like manner, con¬
stitute hydrates, some of them in crystals, but a much
greater number in the state of dry powders.
Sect. II.— Of Ardent Spirits.
The term ardent spirits in this country is usually ap¬
plied to the liquid obtained by distillation from different
fermented liquors. But of late years two distinct species
of liquid have been discovered, bearing a close resem¬
blance to the spirits from fermented liquors usually call¬
ed alcohol. These are obtained not by fermentation, but
y heat. They have been called pyroacetic and pyrolig-
nic spirits. We shall treat of all the three in this section.
1. Alcohol.
Fermented liquors are either the expressed juices of
nuts or the hot infusions of malt. The former are called
wmei, the latter heer or ale. The distillation of either of
ese liquors furnishes alcohol, and the alcohol is always
ie same, whatever the liquor be from which it was ob-
ined. When these spirits, distinguished by the names
0 randy, rum, whisky, gin, arrack, &c. according to the
iquid which yields them, are redistilled, the first portion
!at comes over is a fine, light, transparent liquid, known in
commerce by the name of rectified spirits, and usually sold
CHEMISTRY.
437
undei the name of spirit of ivine. When dry carbonate of Inorganic
potash or chloride of calcium is mixed with this liquor Bodies,
in a retort, m the requisite proportion, and heat applied,
there comes oyer a quantity of spirit as strong as it is pos¬
sible to make it. When in this state it is called alcohol.
Alcohol thus procured is a transparent liquid, colourless Comhim
as water, having a well-known smell, rather strong, but tion with
not unpleasant. Its taste is hot and biting, but generally water,
considered as agreeable ; and when taken internally in con¬
siderable quantities it produces intoxication. Its specific
gravity at 60° is 0-79460. When mixed with water a liquid
is obtained, whose specific gravity increases with the quan¬
tity of water; but as the two liquids undergo mutual con¬
densation, the specific gravity is always higher than the
mean. The condensation is greatest when one atom of
alcohol combines with three atoms of w-ater. The specific
gravity of such a combination, supposing no condensation to
take place, would be 0-89373; but its actual specific gra¬
vity is 0-92662, so that the increase amounts to 0-03289.
The following table exhibits the specific gravities of dif¬
ferent atomic mixtures of alcohol and water, the specific
gravity supposing no increase of density, and the amount
of the condensation. It was drawn up by Dr Steel from
his own experiments, which were made with great care.
Atoms of
Alcohol. Water.
2
3
4
5
6
*7
' 8
9
10
Specific Gravity
at 60°.
0-79460
0-81793
0-82598
0-83843
0-86726
0-90420
0-92662
0-94118
0-95090
0-95763
0-96243
0-96597
0-96871
0-97092
Mean Specific
Gravity.
0-80945
0-81392
0-82224
0-84334
0-87336
0-89373
0-90847
0-91961
0-92833
0-93555
0-94111
0-94593
0-95002
Condensa¬
tion.
0-00617
0-01206
0-01619
0-02392
0-03084
0-03289
0-03262
0-03130
0-02930
0-02708
0-02486
0-02278
0-02090
Alcohol boils when heated to 1734°. It has never yet
been frozen, though it has been exposed to a temperature
as low as — 90°. The boiling point, however, varies with
the strength of the liquid. If the alcohol be of the speci¬
fic gravity 0-818, it boils at 174°-2; when of the specific
gravity 0-903, it boils at 179°-96 ; and when of the specific
gravity 0-980, it boils at 195°-8. The specific gravity of
the vapour of alcohol is T6000, if we reckon the specific
gravity of air unity.
Alcohol burns readily with a blue flame, and gives butComposi-
little light, though it produces a great deal of beat. By tion.
combustion it is totally converted into water and carbonic
acid gas. When alcohol is passed through a red-hot por¬
celain tube, it is in a great measure resolved into water
and olefiant gas. By determining the quantity of water
and olefiant gas formed, when a given weight of alcohol
was decomposed in this way, Saussure concluded that al¬
cohol in the state of vapour is a compound of one volume
olefiant gas and one volume steam united together and
condensed into one volume.
Specific gravity of olefiant gas ..0-9722
Specific gravity of steam 0-625
1-5972
This would make the specific gravity of alcohol vapour
T5972, which is very near the truth.
As olefiant gas is a compound of two atoms carbon and
43S
CHEMISTRY.
f, otnm livflrno'en and from the empyreumatic oil which it contains. It dissolves Inorg;
Inorganic two atoms hydrogen, and water of one atom r § d of readi] in 0n of turpentine and in liquid potash. Cam- Bod,
Bodies, one atom oxygen, it is obvious that alcohol s a p di^snlves in it readily, but it does not dissolve olive
3 atoms hydrogen.
2 atoms hydrogen.
1 atom oxygen....
.0-375
.1-5
.1
phor dissolves in it readily, but it does not dissolve olive
oil. With sulphuric ether it unites inwall proportions.
According to the analysis of Marcet and ivlacaire, its con¬
stituents are, ^
6 atoms hydrogen u-75
5 atoms carbon 3-75
4 atoms oxygen 4)
8-5
Bodies dis
solved by
it.
But as the spirit is always contaminated with empyreumatic
oil, no conclusion can be drawn from this result. A por¬
tion of the hydrogen and carbon is undoubtedly owing to
the presence of that oil.
2-875
so that its atomic weight is 2-875. The analysis of Saus-
sure has been confirmed by the subsequent analyses of
Dumas and Boullay, who obtained 3-07 atoms hydrogen.
2-017 atoms carbon, and 1 atom oxygen, constituti g
very near approximation to the truth.
Alcohol dissolves bromine and iodine, and forms very
deep-coloured solutions. Chlorine is absorbed by it in
considerable quantity, but the alcohol undergoes an alter¬
ation. Phosphorus and sulphur are dissolved by it m Sect. III.— Of Sulphuric Ether.
small proportions. Alcohol dissolves a consi era e num applied indiscriminately to all the vo-
berof acids several but not many of the a k Imetodms, the action of o„ alcohol.
and a considerable number ot sal s. , hem- But these liquids are divisible into two sets, exceedingly
will be best noticed when treating of the substances them eac], other in their characters. One set is
selves which dissolve in this liquid. i- nn:tP A-ge from any portion of the acid employed in its
Mr Graham has shown that several salts, w en t iss nrenaration and consists of the very same constituents as
ed in alcohol, are capable of crystallizing, an o r | nlgohol though the proportions are different; the other
a quantity of alcohol essential to the crystalline form of the acid employed in the formation of the
salt.
set consists of the acid employed in the formation of the
ether, saturated with a peculiar volatile and combustible
substance, which appears to be the same in all. The first
of these shall occupy our attention in this section, and the
second set in the following section. J
Sulphuric ether is made in the following manner: AForrc;
mixture of equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid is put turn,
into a retort, to which a large receiver is luted; and the
Such crystals he calls alcoates
2. Fyro-acetic Spirit.
This liquid was discovered in 1807 by Derosne, during
the distillation of verdigris. When the acetates of lead,
zinc, or manganese, or still better of potash or soda, are
distilled in a retort with as low a heat as possible, there
comes over acetic acid and pyro-aceUc spint. y sa ura - g'pj’ad be'surrounded with ice, or at least with
ing the liquid in the receiver with an alkali, and disti ling Heat is Ued, and as soon as the mixture
again, the pyro-acetic acid is obtained in a sepai a • 1 ^ d runs in iarge strise down
It is a colourless, limpid liquid, haying an acrid and hot bods the ether comes^ ^ ^ ^ ^
taste, but leaving a cooling impression m the mou ^ ^ half of the alcohoi used, the process must be stop-
smell is peculiar, and has been compare % A j -po free it from alcohol and sulphurous acid, with
ture of oil of peppermint and bitter almonds. Its specific ped. j1.0.'Xavs conUminated, it is agitated in a close
gravity is 0-7864. It burns with a flame, w n e ex ei , . . . j water and slaked lime, till the smell of
; tbew decant off the e.bet
alcohol, and volatile oils, in any proportion. According to into a retort, and distil it over,
the analysis of Macaire and Marcet, it is composed ot
3 atoms hydrogen 0-375
4 atoms carbon 3
2 atoms oxygen 2
5-375
Thus it contains two atoms of carbon and one atom of oxy¬
gen more than alcohol.
3. Pyroxylic Spirit.
L/U cl ICLUiLj ciiivA vaiui/h k ^ , r, ,
Ether is a limpid, colourless liquid, having a fragrant Pro]
smell, and a hot, pungent taste. It is so volatile that it
can scarcely be poured from one vessel to another with¬
out losing a considerable portion by evaporation. When
poured out in the open air it disappears in an instant.
During its evaporation a considerable degree ot cold is
produced. It boils in metal vessels at the t.emPeratJre f
96°. The specific gravity of the vapour is 2-o6J4. It
does not freeze, according to Thenard, though cooled down
to — 58°. When admitted to a gas it increases its volume
This liquid is obtained when wood is distilled. The ^LtToo low ^When one volume of the vapour of ether
products of the distillation are water, acetic acid, pyroxy- be n.ot ° ’ • k of oxysen gas, and an electric
lie spirit, empyreumatic oil, and a black matter like tar. is m'xentX \lTouTnhe mixture, a violent detonation
When the watery portion, freed as well as possible flora spark pa , g , i tl is conVerted into carbo-
the other ingredients, is distilled at a low heat the first XTTr T^a^^ the combus-
portion that comes over is pyroxylic spnit. It may be me c g 0f four volumes of carbonic acid gas. From
freed from acetic acid by agitation with hme or magnesia, tion, co s_ that a volume of ether is a com-Con
and distillation at a low temperature. It is still contammat- this expenmen ’ ,   tv>„r volumestionl
It,
Icontaminat- this experiment n iunuw», tuav. «. fn,ir volumes tion
edwitii*oii,' from which, however, ^idenw^Into cm^olumef wd
by mixing it with its own weight of sulphur
distilling again. .
It is transparent and colourless, having a pungent anu
somewhat ethereal smell. Its taste is hot, pungent, and
very disagreeable from the empyreumatic oil which it
holds in solution. Its specific gravity is 0-8121. _ It boils
at 150°. It burns with a very pale yellow flame inclining
to blue, and leaves no residue. It dissolves in alcohol in
any proportion. With water it becomes milky, obviously
with a volum; of the vapour of water; so that its consti¬
tuents are,
5 atoms hydrogen  
4 atoms carbon.  ^
1 atom oxygen 1
4-625
Thus ether is a compound analogous to alcohol.
Alcobol
j fame
ies.
CHEMISTRY.
439
is a compound of a volume of olefiant gas and a volume of
vapour of water united together and condensed into a li¬
quid; while ether is a compound of one volume of tetar-
to-carbo-hydrogen and one volume of vapour of water united
together and condensed into a liquid.
By tetarto-carbo-hydrogen is meant a compound of such
a nature, that when in the gaseous state one volume of it
is composed of
4 volumes carbon vapour 1‘66G6
4 volumes hydrogen gas 02777
El rifica'
tiC :
Sk
1*9444
so that its specific gravity is 1*9444, or just double that
of olefiant gas.
Water dissolves about one tenth of its weight of ether.
Hence common ether, when agitated with water, is freed
of its alcohol; but a portion of the ether is lost, which
augments according to the proportion of water employed.
In alcohol it dissolves in any proportion whatever. Ether
dissolves phosphorus, sulphur, iodine, potash, and many
other bodies, especially the acids, a considerable number
of which are taken up by it.
- Much light has been thrown upon the theory of etheri¬
fication by the late experiments of Mr Hennell. When
equal weights of alcohol and sulphuric acid are mixed to¬
gether without the application of any heat, about one half
of the sulphuric acid is converted into theiovinic, which
is a compound of two atoms sulphuric acid and one atom
tetarto-carbo-hydrogen. When this mixture is distilled,
ether is formed, and passes over into the receiver, while
the theiovinic acid disappears. The ether seems to ori¬
ginate from the tetarto-carbo-hydrogen in the theiovinic
acid. That substance is induced by the action of heat to
quit the sulphuric acid with which it was previously com¬
bined, and to unite with an atom of water. The sulphu¬
ric acid thus set at liberty acts upon a new portion of the
alcohol, and converts it into theiovinic acid, which the
heat afterwards decomposes.
In preparing ether, if we change the receiver after the
ether ceases to come over, and continue the heat, sulphu¬
rous acid comes over in abundance, and a yellowish liquor
quite different from ether. If we purify this liquid by
means of a weak solution of carbonate of potash, it consti¬
tutes what is called sweet oil of wine. It has a yellow co«
lour, a fragrant smell, a bitterish and pungent taste, and a
specific gravity of 1*060. It does not mix with ether, but
combines with alcohol. Mr Hennell has shown that it is
a compound of two atoms sulphuric acid and two atoms
tetarto-carbo-hydrogen. When it is kept, one half of the
tetarto-carbo-hydrogen separates in a crystalline form, and
the sweet oil of wine becomes theiovinic acid. If we agi¬
tate this oil of wine with a sufficient quantity of water, it is
converted into theiovinic acid, and the excess of tetarto-
carbo-hydrogen is separated in the form of a bright amber-
coloured oil of the consistency of castor oil. Its specific
gravity is 0‘9. It is insoluble in water, very soluble in
ether, and somewhat less so in alcohol. It burns with a
brilliant flame, throwing off some carbon.
Sect. IV.— Of Acid Ethers.
These ethers are distinguished by the epithet acid, not
because they have acid properties, which is not the case, but
because they contain an acid as one of their constituents.
I hey are twelve in number, and naturally divide them¬
selves into two sets; namely, those that contain a hydra-
wd or cldorine as a constituent, and those which contain
an oxygen acid. The first set comprehends four ethers;
namely, muriatic ether, chloric ether, hydrobromic ether, and
hjdriodic ether. The second set contains eight ethers;
namely, nitric, oxalic, acetic, benzoic, formic, tartaric, ci¬
tric, and malic ethers. All these ethers are made by dis- Inorganic
tilling mixtures of alcohol and the acid which enters into Bodies,
each as a constituent. Scarcely any of them has been
applied to any use, if we except nitric ether and acetic
ether ; the former of which is frequently employed in
medicine, and the letter occasionally, though much more
rarely.
1. Muriatic ether.—Put equal bulks of alcohol and mu-Muriatic
riatic acid, both as strong as possible, into a retort of such ether,
a size as not to hold much more than the mixture. A few
grains of sand, or of platinum wire, should be put into the
retort, to prevent violent agitation in boiling. Let a tube
luted to the beak of the retort enter a Woulfe’s bottle
double the size of the retort, half filled with water, and
furnished with a tube of safety. From this bottle a tube
passes to collect the muriatic ether in the state of gas in
proper vessels. When heat is applied the muriatic ether
passes over as a gas.
This gas is colourless: it has a strong ethereal smell,
and a sweetish taste. Its specific gravity is 2*219, that
of air being one. At 64° water dissolves its own bulk of
this gas. When cooled down to 52° it is condensed into
a liquid. In its liquid form it is colourless and transpa¬
rent. At 41° its specific gravity is 0*874. It is much
more volatile than sulphuric ether, assuming the gaseous
form when heated a little above 52°. It would appear from
the analysis of Thenard that it is a compound of one vo¬
lume of tetarto-carbo-hydrogen and one volume muriatic
acid gas condensed into one and a third volume. Sup¬
posing this composition correct, the constituents are,
4 atoms hydrogen .....0*5
4 atoms carbon  3
1 atom muriatic acid 4*625
8*125
2. Chloric ether is obtained by passing a current of Chloric
chlorine gas through alcohol or sulphuric ether till these ether,
liquids refuse to absorb any more. When the process is
terminated, an oily matter is precipitated to the bottom,
the quantity of which is increased when the liquid swim¬
ming over this oil is saturated with potash. This oily-
looking substance is chloric ether.
It is a thin oily-looking fluid, having a specific gravity
of 1*134. It is more volatile than water, has a smell
somewhat similar to that of nitric ether, and an aromatic,
hot, and somewhat bitter taste. It is very little soluble
in water. It has not yet been analysed.
3. Hydrobromic ether was formed in this manner. Forty
parts of alcohol of the specific gravity of 0*827 were put
into a small tubulated retort. To this one part of phospho¬
rus was added, and finally eight parts of bromine w*ere
poured in by little at a time. Every time that bromine
came in contact with the phosphorus, a rapid combination
took place, and hydrobromic and phosphorous acids were
formed. The mixture was now distilled by a gentle heat,
and the product mixed with water. The ether separated
and sunk to the bottom. It is colourless and transparent,
heavier than water, has a strong ethereal smell, a sharp
taste, and is very volatile. It is soluble in alcohol.
4. Hydriodic ether may be formed by a similar process.
5. What is called sulphocyanic ether may be formed by
mixing one part of sulphocyanodide of potassium, two parts
of sulphuric acid, and three parts of alcohol of the speci¬
fic gravity 0*848, and distilling. The product of the dis¬
tillation being mixed with water, the ether separates in an
oleaginous state. This ether might probably be useful as
a medicine.
6. Nitric ether.—This ether, which, next to the sulphuric, Nitric
is the most important of all, may be prepared in the fol-ether,
lowing way; Put into a retort equal weights of alcohol
440
Inorganic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
Properties.
Composi¬
tion.
and nitric acid of the specific gravity 1-283. Lute a bent
tube to the beak of the retort, and plunge it to the bottom
of a Woulfe’s bottle half filled with a saturated solution of
salt in water. From this bottle a tube passes to the bot-
tom of a second Woulfe’s bottle half filled with the same h-
quid. Join in this way five Woulfe’s bottles, and surround
each with a mixture of snow and salt, to keep it as cool as
possible. Heat being applied to the retort, a violent efter-
vescence takes place, which must be moderated by with¬
drawing the fire and moistening the belly of the ictoit
with cold water applied by a sponge or a wet cloth. Ga¬
seous matter passes off with rapidity, carrying with it the
ether which is deposited on the surface of the liquids m
the Woulfe’s bottles, chiefly in the first bottle. To free
it from uncombined acid, put it into a well-stopped phial,
and agitate it with a quantity of chalk till it ceases to af¬
fect vegetable blues.
It has a slight-yellowish colour, and a strong ethereal
smell. Its taste is strong, and quite peculiar. It is hea¬
vier than alcohol, and much more volatile than sulphuric
ether. The specific gravity of its vapour is 2-627. When
liquid, it is lighter than water, and requires forty-eight
parts of that liquid to dissolve it; and it communicates to
it an odour similar to that of apples. In alcohol it dis¬
solves in every proportion. It burns brilliantly with a
white flame, like sulphuric acid. When kept for some
time, both nitric and acetic acids are evolved in it, though
neither of them can be detected at first. It was care¬
fully analysed by Dumas and Boullay, who found its con¬
stituents
5 atoms hydrogen 0-625
4 atoms carbon 3
1 atom azote 1*75
4 atoms oxygen 4
9-375
Now these atomic proportions are equivalent to
, . , f 4 atoms carbon.
1 atom tetarto-caibo-hydiogen ^ atoms hydrogen.
f 1 atom hydrogen.
1 atom water  -j j atom oxygen.
, . .. | 1 atom azote.
1 atom hypomtrous acid |3 atoms oxygen.
But sulphuric ether is a compound of one atom tetarto-
carbo-hydrogen and one atom water. We may therefore
consider nitric ether as a compound of one atom sulphuric
ether and one atom hyponitrous acid; and in the ga¬
seous state it is a compound of one volume sulphuric ether
and one volume hyponitrous vapour united together with¬
out any alteration of volume.
Specific gravity of sulphuric ether 2-5694
Specific gravity of hyponitrous vapour 2-6388
Oxalic
ether.
2 5-2083
2-60415 = specific
gravity of nitric ether vapour. Now the specific gravity,
as determined by Boullay, is 2-627, which is within one
per cent, of the calculated gravity.
7. Oxalic ether.—To prepare this ether, mix together in
a retort one part of alcohol, one part of binoxalate of pot¬
ash, and two parts of sulphuric acid, and distil. There
comes over, first alcohol, then sulphuric ether, and at last
an oleaginous liquid which collects at the bottom of the
receiver. The distillation may be continued till, all the
alcohol is driven out of the retort, the last portions being
richest in oxalic ether. Pour the oleaginous liquor into a
tall jar containing water. At first it floats, but in propor¬
tion as the sulphuric ether which it contains evaporates,
it falls in large drops to the bottom of the jar. It is now
to be poured on powdered litharge, and boiled till the boil- Inorgs;
ing point rises to 263°. This deprives it of sulphuric acid, hod
alcohol, and water, with which it was contaminated. Let it 1
be now poured into a dry retort and distilled over.
It is an oleaginous liquid, having a specific gravity of
1-0929. It boils at 263°. Its smell is aromatic, but has
something analogous to that of garlic or phosphorus. The
specific gravity of its vapour is 5*087, that of air being
reckoned 1. This ether, according to the analysis of Du¬
mas and Boullay, is composed of
6 atoms carbon 4*5
4 atoms oxygen 4
5 atoms hydrogen 0-625
9-125
Now an atom of oxalic acid is composed of
2 atoms carbon 1-5
3 atoms oxygen 3
4-5
If we subtract 4-5 from 9-125, the remainder will be 4-625,
which is just the weight of an integrant particle of sul¬
phuric ether, and consists also of the same atomic consti¬
tuent ; for sulphuric ether is a compound of
, f 1 hydrogen.
1 atom water  { 1 oxygen.
1 atom tetarto-carbo-hydrogen 
Thus we see that oxalic ether is a compound of
1 atom oxalic acid 4*5
1 atom sulphuric ether 4*625
9-125
When ammoniacal gas is passed through this ether, one
half of the tetarto-carbo-hydrogen combines with the oxalic
acid, and forms an acid which may be called oxalovinic
acid ; and this acid combines with the ammonia, forming
a binoxalovinate of ammonia.
8. Acetic ether.—When equal weights of concentratedAceti
acetic acid and alcohol are mixed in a retort and distilledether.
a great many times, pouring back the liquid each time from
the receiver to the retort, an acetic ether is obtained, mix¬
ed with alcohol, from which it is not an easy matter to se¬
parate it by repeated washings with water.
Acetic ether is limpid and colourless. It has an agree¬
able odour of ether and acetic acid. It has a peculiar
taste. Its specific gravity is 0-882. It boils at 165°. Die
specific gravity of its vapour is 3-067. It burns with a yel¬
lowish-white flame, and acetic acid is developed during its
combustion. It does not undergo any change by keeping.
At the temperature of 62° it requires more than seven
times its weight of water to dissolve it. It was analysed
by Dumas and Boullay, and found composed of
8 atoms carbon   6
7 atoms hydrogen 0-875
4 atoms oxygen 4
10-875
Acetic acid is a compound of two atoms hydrogen, four
atoms carbon, and three atoms oxygen, and its atomic
weight is 6-25. If we subtract this from 10-875 (the
weight of an atom of acetic ether), there will remain
4-625, which is the weight of an atom of sulphuric ether.
The atomic constitution is also the same. It is obvious,
therefore, that acetic ether, like oxalic and nitric, is a
compound of
1 atom acetic acid 6‘25
1 atom sulphuric ether 4-625
10-875
CHEMISTRY.
•iranic 9. Benzoic ether is prepared by distilling a mixture of four
lies, parts of alcohol, two parts of benzoic acid, and one part of
w muriatic acid, till half the liquid passes over. It is then
poured back, and the process repeated two or three times.
The greater part of the ether exists in the liquid remain¬
ing in the retort. It is separated by means of water. If
we boil it on powdered litharge till the boiling point be¬
comes fixed, and afterwards distil it over with caution, we
obtain it in a state of purity.
It is a colourless, oily-looking fluid. It has a weak smell,
a pungent taste, and a specific gravity of 1-0539. Its
boiling point is 409°. The specific gravity of its vapour is
5-409. It has been analysed by Dumas and Boullay, and
shown to be composed of
1 atom benzoic acid 15
1 atom sulphuric ether 4-625
441
19-625
The remaining ethers, the formic, tartaric, citric, and ma¬
lic, have been but superficially examined, and none of them
has been analysed. From analogy, however, we can have
little doubt that each is composed of an atom of sulphuric
ether united to an atom of the i*espective acids employed
in the formation of the ethers.
Sect. Y.—OfEthal
This substance was obtained by Chevreul from sperma¬
ceti, and named, from its supposed analogy to alcohol and
sulphuric ether, from the two first syllables of these two
names.
Spermaceti was purified by repeated solutions in alco¬
hol, which frees it from a yellow oil which it contains. So
purified, it has been called cetine. The cetine is converted
into a soap by mixing a hundred parts of it with a hundred
parts of potash dissolved in two hundred parts of water,
and keeping the solution in a temperature between 122°
and 194°, agitating it frequently. When the saponification
is complete, an excess of tartaric or phosphoric acid is
added, and the heat kept up till the whole fatty matter
collects on the surface. This fatty matter is a mixture of
ethal and margaric and oleic acids. When heated with
barytes water, the acids are removed, and the excess of
barytes is afterwards removed by boiling the ethal in dis¬
tilled water. Absolute alcohol now dissolves the pure ethal
from the purified fatty matter. Heat drives off the alco¬
hol, and leaves the ethal pure.
flies. Ethal is a solid, colourless body, having the translucencv
of wax. It melts at about 118°. When cooled slowly it
crystallizes in brilliant plates. It has no smell, and scarce¬
ly any taste. It may be volatilized. Alcohol of 0-812 dis¬
solves it in any proportion at the temperature of 129° ; but
it is deposited partly in crystals as the solution cools. It
is insoluble in water. It does not combine with potash nor
form soap when pure, but it forms a soap when mixed with
a small quantity of margaric or oleic acids. It burns like
wax. According to the analysis of Chevreul, which, how¬
ever, cannot be admitted to be more than an approxima¬
tion, ethal is a compound of
18 atoms hydrogen 2-25
9 atoms carbon   6-75
1 atom oxygen 1
. . 10
According to this analysis, 10, or a multiple of that num¬
ber, must represent the atomic weight of ethal.
Sect. VI.— Of Volatile Oils.
The term oil is applied to a number of unctuous fluids,
which, when dropt upon paper, sink into it, and make it
VOL. VI.
semitransparent, or give it what is called a greasy stain. Inorganic
These bodies are very numerous, and have been divided Bodies,
into volatile and fixed oils.
Volatile, called also essential oils, possess the following-
properties :
1. Liquid ; often as liquid as water; sometimes viscid or Charac-
solid. ters>
2. Very combustible.
3. An acrid taste, and a strong fragrant odour.
4. \ olatilized with water at a temperature not higher
than 212°
5. Soluble in alcohol and ether, and slightly so in water.
6. Evaporate without leaving any stain upon paper. By-
this last test we can easily discover whether they have
been fraudulently mixed with fixed oils. Let a drop of
the suspected oil fall on a leaf of writing paper, and then
apply a gentle heat. If the oil evaporate without leaving
a stain, it is pure; if it leaves a stain it has been mixed
with a fixed oil.
Volatile oils exist in great abundance in plants. All
the fragrance of the vegetable kingdom is owing to them.
They are usually obtained by putting the part of the ve¬
getable containing them into a still with water, and dis¬
tilling the liquid over. The oil passes over with the wa¬
ter, on which it usually swims.
The specific gravity of volatile oils is commonly less than
that of water. Oils of sassafras, of cinnamon, and of cloves,
are heavier than water. Oil of turpentine, the lightest of
the volatile oils, has a specific gravity of 0-792.
Volatile oils do not combine with alkalies and form soaps.
By the action of light many of them are converted into
resinous bodies, which combine readily enough with alka¬
lies.
Sulphuric acid acts upon them with considerable ener¬
gy, converting them first into a resinous substance, and
at last to the state of charcoal. Muriatic acid has but
little action on them. When nitric acid is thrown upon
them suddenly, it sets them on fire.
A variety of these oils have been analysed by burning
them in oxygen gas, and ascertaining the quantity of oxyr-
gen consumed, and the volume of carbonic acid formed.
What prevents the results of these experiments from being
depended on, is the difficulty of obtaining volatile oil free
from all admixture of foreign bodies. They are almost all
mixtures of various volatile oils, differing in their volatility,
&c., which it has been impossible hitherto to separate so
as to obtain each in an insulated state. They consist
chiefly of hydrogen and carbon, sometimes with a little
oxygen, and sometimes without any. The atoms of car¬
bon are always more numerous than those of hydrogen;
sometimes twice as numerous, as in solid anise oil; some¬
times as three to two, as in liquid anise oil and oil of rose¬
mary ; sometimes approaching equality, as in oil of roses.
Sect. VIL—Of Fixed Oils.
Fixed oils are distinguished by the following charac¬
ters :
1. Liquid; or, if solid, easily melt when exposed to aCharac-
gentle heat. ters.
2. An unctuous feel.
3. Very combustible.
4. A mild taste.
5. Little smell.
6. Boiling point not under 600°.
7. Insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol.
8. Leave a greasy stain on paper.
These oils, called also expressed oils, from the mode of
procuring them, are numerous, and are obtained partly
from vegetables, partly from animals, by simple expression.
They exist usually in the seeds of cruciform plants.
3 K
442
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic They are all lighter than water; palm-oil, the heaviest,
Bodies, having a specific gravity of 0968, while neats-foot oil has
''•’-'■"Y''-'' a specific gravity of 0‘8795.
They do not begin to evaporate till they have been
heated above the boiling point of water. As the heat in¬
creases, a pretty abundant vapour may be seen to rise
from them ; but they do not begin to boil till heated up to
about 600°. At that temperature, or a little above it,
they may be distilled over; but they are always some¬
what altered by the process. The distilled oil is darker
coloured, much more liquid, and much more volatile, than
before. , • t i .i
When they are exposed to the open air they have the
property of absorbing oxygen gas, and gradually become
solid. Now there are some oils which remain transpa¬
rent,’when thus solidified, and which no longer possess
the characters of oil, but are become quite hard, and in¬
capable of staining other bodies. There are others which
assume the appearance of tallow, easily melt when heated,
and, when thus melted, possess all the characters of oily
bodies, the same as before they underwent the change of
state. This has occasioned the division of the fixed oils
into drying oils and fat oils.
1. Drying Oils.
The principal dry oils are the following: .
1. Linseed oil, from the seeds of linum usitatissimum.
2. Walnut oil, from the fruit of juglans regia.
3. Hemp oil, from the seeds of cannabis sativa.
4. Poppy oil, from the seeds of papaver somniferum.
5. Castor oil, from the seeds of ricinus communis.
6. Croton oil, from the seeds of croton tiglium.
7. Grapeseed oil, from the seeds of vitis vinifera.
8. Nightshade oil, from the seeds of atropa belladonna.
9. Tobacco oil, from the seeds of nicotiana tabacum.
10*. Henbane oil, from the seeds of hyoscyamus niger.
11. Sunflower oil, from the seeds of helianthus annuus.
12. Cress oil, from the seeds of lepidium sativum.
These oils, in their natural state, possess the property
of drying oils but imperfectly. To prepare them for the
use of the painter and varnish-maker, they are boiled for
some time in an iron pot. By this process they aie partly
decomposed, abundance of watery vapour and of carbu-
retted hydrogen gas being separated from them. Ihey
become deeper coloured, and acquire gi eater consistency.
It is common for some purposes to set them on file, to
allow them to burn for some time, to extinguish them by
covering up the vessel in which they are contained, and
to continue the boiling till they acquire the proper de-
o-ree of viscidity. By this process they lose much of their
unctuous quality, so as not to leave a greasy stain upon
paper.
2. Fat Oils.
Inow!,
Bocf
The principal fat oils are the following :
1. Olive oil, from the fruit of olea Europea.
2. Almond oil, from the kernel of amygdalus communis.
3. Rape oil, from brassica rapa.
4. Mustard oil, from sinapis alba and nigra.
5. Plum oil, from prunus domestica.
6. Beech oil, from fagus sylvatica.
7. Hazel oil, from corylus avellana.
8. Oil of ants.
9. Oil of eggs.
10. Trane or whale oil.
11. Spermaceti oil.
These oils, when exposed to the air and light, absorb
oxygen, and are converted into a substance like tallow.
They are used, at least olive oil, for making soap, and also
for making plasters.
3. Solid Oils.
The principal solid oils are :
1. Cacao butter, from the theobroma cacao.
2. Palm oil, from cocos butyracea.
3. Muscat balsam, from myristica officinalis.
4. Laurel oil, from laurus nobilis.
5. Japan wax.
6. Myrtle wax, from myrica cerifera.
7. Bees wax.
8. Coco oil, from cocos nucifera.
9. Butter of galam.
10. Hog’s lard.
11. Common butter.
12. Tallow. .
The melting point of these solid oils is very different.
Palm oil melts at 84°, Japan wax at 98°.
We are indebted to Chevreul for a great deal of im¬
portant information respecting the fixed oils. They are
all compounds of two or three different substances, which
may be separated from each other, 'ihese substances
are stearine, elaine, cetine, phocenine, butyrine, hircine, anti
cholcstcTinc*
1. Stearine.—Tallow and animal fat are mixtures ofStea. I
stearine and elaine, the first of which is solid, and the
second liquid. Stearine maybe obtained by heating hog’s
lard in boiling alcohol. When the liquid cools it depo¬
sits white crystalline needles, which are stearine, or we
may obtain it from olive oil by freezing the oil, and while
in that state subjecting it to pressure between numerous
folds of blotting paper. The paper takes up the elaine
and leaves the stearine. It is white, brittle, and has some¬
what of the appearance of wax. It has little or no taste or
smell. When heated to about 109° it melts into a liquid
oil It is somewhat soluble in alcohol, but the solubility
varies in the stearine from different substances. When
digested with alkaline bodies it is converted into soap,
leaving a small portion in the state of the sweet principle
of oils. According to Chevreul, it is a compound of
11 atoms carbon 
10 atoms hydrogen 1’25
1 atom oxygen 1
10-5
2. Elaine.—When tallow is dissolved in hot alcohol, the Elai.
stearine is deposited when the alcohol cools. By distilling
the residual liquid, the alcohol is driven oyer, and the
elaine remains behind. When stearine is obtained by sub-
iecting frozen oils to pressure between folds of blotting pa¬
per, the elaine is absorbed by the paper; and if this paper
be soaked in water, and subjected to pressure, the elaine
is forced out, and may be obtained in a separate state.
Elaine has much the appearance of a vegetable fixed
oil, and is quite liquid at the’temperature of o9 . W hen
pure, it is colourless, and destitute of smell. It is iightei
than water, and is very soluble in alcohol, but insoluble m
water. When digested with potash ley it is converted
into a soap, leaving rather a greater proportion of the
sweet principle of oils than stearine does. Elaine, tiom
Chevreul’s analysis, is a compound of
10 atoms carbon 
9 atoms hydrogen 1T25
1 atom oxygen 1
9-625
But no great degree of confidence can be put in this ana-
ly 3!’ Cetine.—Spermaceti is a combination of cet'"e ^Cetl1
a yellow oil, from which it is separated by rePe^d
tions in alcohol and crystallizations. It tor™ ^ m.
liant plates. At 680° it may be volatilized without
CHEMISTRY.
JUnic position. It has a very slight smell, but is destitute of
>lies. taste. It is insoluble in water. One hundred parts of
alcohol of the specific gravity 0-821 dissolve 2-5 parts of
cetine, the greater part of which is deposited as the solu¬
tion cools. Potash converts it into ethal and margaric
acid. When heated sufficiently it takes fire and burns
like wax. Sulphuric acid gradually decomposes it by the
assistance of heat. The constituents, according to Chev-
reul’s analysis, are,
20 atoms carbon 15
19 atoms hydrogen  2-375
1 atom oxygen  1
443
The fixed oils, like the volatile, are compounds of car- Inorganic
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. A few of them yield small Bodies,
portions of azote, probably derived from some foreign sub-
stance contained in them. We must except the oil of
ants, which, according to the analysis of Gdbel, contains
19-5 per cent, of azote. I he proportion of oxygen seems
to be greater than in the volatile oils. Thus Saussure
found linseed oil a compound of
8 atoms carbon 6
7 atoms hydrogen 0-875
1 atom oxygen 1
PI enine
Bi rine.
Hii ie.
te.
18-375
. 4. Phocenine.—It may be obtained from the oil of the
common porpoise, by dissolving the oil in alcohol, and set¬
ting it aside for twenty-four hours. The alcohol swims
on the top. This alcoholic liquid being distilled, leaves
an acid oil of the specific gravity 0-931. Being deprived
of its acid, and treated with weak cold alcohol, phocenine
is obtained.
It is a very fluid oil, of the specific gravity 0-954. Its
odour is slight, but peculiar. It is very soluble in alcohol.
When treated with potash it is converted into phocenic
and oleic acids, while a quantity of sweet principle of oil
remains.
5. Butyrine.—Butter, besides stearine, contains two
distinct oily bodies, one of which is butyrine. To procure
it, free the butter of all traces of butter-milk. When kept
for some days at the temperature of 66°, it separates into
a granular substance, consisting of stearine, not quite free
from the oily bodies, and a liquid, consisting of the two
oils, still retaining stearine in solution. This liquid is yel¬
low, and has a taste like butter. Its specific gravity is
0-922. Digest it repeatedly in absolute alcohol till the
whole is dissolved. Set the solution aside; a portion of
oil gradually separates. Distil the alcoholic solution by a
moderate heat. What remains is butyrine.
Butyrine is very fluid at 66°, and has a specific gravity
of 0-908. It does not congeal at 32°. It has the flavour
of butter. It is insoluble in water, but boiling alcohol of
0-822 dissolves it in any proportion. A solution of twenty
butyrine in a hundred alcohol becomes opaque on cool¬
ing. It is readily converted into a soap when digested in
potash ley.
6. Hircine.—Hircine is a liquid oil which exists in the
tallow of the deer and sheep. With elaine it constitutes
the liquid portion of the tallow'. When saponified it is
converted into hircic acid.
7. Cholesterine.—This name has been given to a fatty
matter which constitutes the principal constituent of bi¬
liary calculi. It may be obtained pure by washing hu¬
man biliary calculi with water, and then dissolving them
in boiling alcohol. As the solution cools, the cholesterine
is deposited in crystalline plates.
It is solid, white, and possessed of considerable lustre.
It melts at 278°, and, when cooled, slowly crystallizes
in radiated plates. It has no taste and little smell. At
680° it may be volatilized. It is insoluble in water. A
hundred parts of alcohol of 0-816 dissolve eighteen parts
of cholesterine. Weaker alcohol dissolves less. It gives
out no water when heated with protoxide of lead. It can¬
not be converted into soap, nor does it undergo any alter¬
ation when digested with potash ley. Its constituents,
as determined by Chevreul, are,
36 atoms carbon 27
31 atoms hydrogen  3-875
1 atom oxygen  1
31-875
7-875
so that 7-875, or some multiple of it, is the atomic weight
of this oil. It is unnecessary to give the atomic constitu¬
tion of the other fixed oils which have been analysed, be¬
cause there is no doubt that they constitute always mix¬
tures of various oily bodies, which we have it not in our
power to separate, and because the mere ratios of the ato¬
mic constituents throw no light upon the way in which
these bodies are constituted. Linseed oil might be a
compound of one atom carbonic oxide and one atom hep-
ta-carbo-hydrogen, but we have no evidence that it is so.
Stearine from olive oil, according to the experiments of
Saussure, is composed of about
17^ atoms carbon 13
14J- atoms hydrogen  1-775
1 atom oxygen  1
15-775
Thus it contains much less oxygen than linseed oil.
When the fixed oils are saponified, they are converted
into the various fatty oils described in the first chapter of
this division of our article.
They are insoluble in water. They dissolve, though
sparingly, in alcohol, and they are somewhat more soluble
in sulphuric ether. They unite readily with one another,
with volatile oils, and with bitumens and resins. They
constitute soap when they combine with alkalies. With
potash they form soft soap, with soda hard soap, and with
other bases soaps which do not dissolve in water, and can¬
not therefore be employed as detergents.
Sect. VIII.— Of Bitumens.
The term bitumen has often been applied to all the in¬
flammable substances found in the earth; but the mean¬
ing of the word is now so far limited, that mellite and sul¬
phur are excluded. It would be proper to exclude am¬
ber likewise, and to apply the term bitumen to those bo¬
dies which have a certain analogy with fixed oils. They
may be divided into two classes, namely, bituminous oils,
and solid bitumens.
1. Bituminous Oils.
Only two species of bituminous oils are known. These
are petroleum and mineral tallow.
1. Petroleum is an oil of a brownish-yellow- colour. petro-
When pure it is as fluid as oil of turpentine", and very vo-leum.
latile. Its specific gravity varies from 0-730 to 0-878. It
has a peculiar smell. It may be distilled over without
alteration. When pure it is called naphtha. The oil ob¬
tained by distilling pit coal, when properly rectified, seems
to be identical with natural naphtha. It burns very bril¬
liantly, giving out at the same time much smoke. It is
insoluble in water, though it communicates its smell to
that liquid. Alcohol dissolves about one fifth of its weight
of it. Sulphuric ether, petroleum, fat oils, pitch, and vo¬
latile oils combine with naphtha in any proportion. It
dissolves wax when assisted by heat, and caoutchouc when
444
CHEMISTR Y.
Mineral
tallow.
Inorganic they are boiled together; at least the whole is converted
Bodies, into a transparent varnish.
2. Sea wax or mineral tallow is a solid substance, found
first on the banks of the Baikal Lake, in Siberia. It is
white, melts when heated, and on cooling assumes the
consistence of a white cerate* almost as hard as wax. It
dissolves readily in alcohol, and in other respects resem¬
bles the characters of the volatile oils. It burns with a
bluish-white flame, and gives out much smoke. _ This sub¬
stance has been found repeatedly in the Highlands of
Scotland. What is called halchettine, found in Wales, is
merely a variety of mineral tallow.
Charac¬
ters.
Kilkenny
coal.
Caking
coal.
2. Proper Bitumens.
The true bituminous substances may be distinguished
by the following properties :
1. They are either solid or of the consistence of tar.
2. Their colour is usually brown or black.
3. They have a peculiar smell, or at least acquire it
when rubbed. Ibis smell is known by the name of bitu¬
minous odour.
4. They become electric by friction, though not insu¬
lated.
5. They melt when heated, and burn with a strong
smell, a bright flame, and much smoke.
6. They are insoluble in water and alcohol, but are com¬
monly soluble in ether and the fixed and volatile oils.
7. They do not combine with alkaline leys, nor form
soaps. , i i i •
8. Acids have little action on them; the sulphuric
scarcely any ; the nitric, by long and repeated digestions,
dissolves them, and converts them into a yellow substance,
soluble both in water and alcohol, and similar to the pro¬
duct formed by the action of nitric acid on resins.
There are three bitumens, namely, asphaltum, mineral
tar, and mineral caoutchouc.
Asphaltum is solid, and is found abundantly in a lake in
Trinidad, in Albania, and on the shores of the Dead Sea.
It was one of the principal ingredients in the celebrated
Greek fire so much employed in the middle ages.
Mineral tar is nothing else than asphaltum softened by
petroleum. _ ...
Mineral caoutchouc is found in Derbyshire, and. is
named from the great resemblance which it has to Indian
rubber or common caoutchouc. It is soft and elastic, but
in other respects possesses the characters of asphaltum.
Pit coal, so abundant in this country, and constituting
so valuable a portion of our mineral riches, is intimately
connected with bitumen. Hardly any doubt can be enter¬
tained that it is of vegetable origin, though it must have
been deposited before^the present race of inhabitants ex¬
isted on the earth. • There are five different kinds of pit
coal which exist in Great Britain. They have been dis¬
tinguished by the following names :
1. Kilkenny coal.
2. Caking coal.
3. Splint coal.
4. Cherry coal.
5. Cannel coal.
1. Kilkenny coal has a semimetallic lustre, is black, and
does not soil the fingers. Its specific gravity is 1*4354.
It consumes without flame, and leaves about four per cent,
of light-brown ashes, composed principally of silica and
iron.° It consists of about thirty-five atoms of carbon unit¬
ed to two atoms of oxygen.
2. Caking coal is so called because when heated it melts
into a kind of bituminous mass, in consequence of which
all the pieces of coal, however small, adhere together
into a cake. Its colour is velvet black, its lustre shining
and resinous. Soft and very easily frangible. Fragments
cubical. Brittle. Soils the fingers. Specific gravity 1*269. lnorga«
It catches fire very readily, and burns with a lively yellow Bodies
flame. Its constituents appear to be 33 atoms carbon,
11 atoms hydrogen, 3 atoms azote, and 1*5 atom oxygen.
3. Splint coal occurs abundantly in the neighbourhood Splintcj
of Glasgow, constituting the fifth of the six Glasgow beds.
Colour brownish-black. Lustre glistening, resinous. Not
harder than caking coal, but much more difficultly fran¬
gible. Fragments wedge-shaped. Specific gravity 1*290.
It requires a higher temperature to kindle it than caking
or cherry coal. It burns with flame, and is very durable.
Its constituents seem to be 28 atoms carbon, 14 atoms
hydrogen, 1 atom azote, and 3|- atoms oxygen.
4. Cherry coal abounds in the neighbourhood of Glas-Cherry
gow and in Staffordshire. Colour velvet-black. Lustre coal. '
splendent or shining, resinous. Does not melt nor cake.
Very easily frangible. Specific gravity 1*265. When ex¬
posed to heat it readily catches fire, burns with a clear-
yellow flame, giving out much heat, but not lasting long.
Its constituents appear to be 34 atoms carbon, 34 atoms
hydrogen, 2 atoms azote, and 1 atom oxygen.
5. Cannel coal is so called because it burns like a can-.Canne.
die when lighted, and is often employed as a substitute for coal,
candles. It abounds at Wigan, occurs near Coventry, in
the Marquis of Anglesey’s park, is found in Ayrshire, and
at Lesmahago in Lanarkshire. Colour dark-grayish black.
Lustre glistening, resinous. Does not stain the fingers.
Admits of a good polish, and is often cut into ornaments
like jet. Fragments sometimes cubic, sometimes wedge-
shaped, and sometimes amorphous, but most commonly
sharp edged. About as hard as caking coal. Brittle.
Not nearly so easily frangible as caking and cherry coal,
but more easily than splint coal. Specific gravity 1*272.
Its constituents appear to be 11 atoms carbon, 22 atoms
hydrogen, and 1 atom azote. Of these five kinds of coal,
the best for coking is Kilkenny coal, or Welsh culm, Which
seems to cigrec with it. Caking coal comes next* and
cannel coal is the worst of all.
DIVISION III.—OF SECONDARY COMPOUNDS.
By secondary compounds is meant the compounds form¬
ed by the union of the primary compounds with each
other. Now, as the neutral primary compounds enter into
but few combinations, it is obvious that the secondary
compounds must consist chiefly of combinations of the
acids with bases. Such compounds are called salts, ihey
constitute a very'1 numerous and important set of bodies,
which it is of great consequence to understand well.
The word salt was originally confined to common salt, a
substance which was known and in common use from the
remotest ages. It was afterwards generalized by chemists,
and employed by them in a very extensive and not very
definite sense. Every body which is sapid, easily melted,
soluble in water, and not combustible, was called a salt.
In process of time the term salt was restricted to three
classes of bodies; namely, acids, alkalies, and the com¬
pounds which acids form with alkalies, earths, anc me a
lie oxides. The first two of these classes were called
simple salts. The salts belonging to the third class were
c<i\\e& compound or neutral. rlhis last appellation ong
nated from an opinion that acids and alkalies, of wine
they are composed, were of a contrary nature, and tna
they counteracted one another, so that the resulting co
pounds possessed neither the properties of acids nor
alkalies, but properties intermediate between the two.
The term salt is now still further restricted. Acids a
alkalies are no longer considered as salts. The term
applied only to the combinations of acids with aiKane >
earths, and metallic oxides. Now as there are nine c
CHEMIST R Y.
] fame
ilies.
of acids, it is obvious that there must be as many different
classes of salts.
445
ST Lj.
I re.
N
ell e.
CLASS I.—OXYGEN ACID SALTS.
This class of salts has been longest known and most
completely investigated ; of course the salts belonging to
it are by far the most numerous. The genera of these
salts are named from their acids. Thus, if the acid which
a salt contains be the sulphuric, it is called a sulphate,
if it be nitric, it is called a nitrate, and so on. The spe¬
cies are distinguished from each other by adding the
name of the base. Thus sulphate of soda is a salt com¬
posed of sulphuric acid and soda; oxalate of lime is a salt
composed of oxalic acid and lime. When the salt is a
compound of one atom of acid and one atom of base, it is
distinguished simply by its name. If the salt contains
two atoms of acid united to one atom of base, the Latin
numeral his or hi is prefixed. Thus bisulphate of potash
is a salt composed of two atoms of sulphuric acid and one
atom of potash. When there are three, four, &c. atoms
of acid, the numeral adverbs ter, quater, &c. are prefixed.
Thus quateroxalate of potash means a compound of four
atoms of oxalic acid and one atom of potash. When there
exists a compound of an atom and a half of acid united to
one atom of base, the Latin term sesqui (one and a half)
is prefixed. Thus sesquicarbonate of soda is a compound of
one and a half atom of carbonic acid and one atom of soda.
When there exists a combination of two atoms of base
with one atom of acid, this is denoted by prefixing the
Greek numeral adverb dis. Thus diphosphate of potash
means a compound of two atoms of potash with one atom
of phosphoric acid. The prefixed tris, tetrahis, &c. indicate
three, four, &c. atoms of base with one atom of acid.
The arranging of the salts according to the bases is at¬
tended with such considerable advantage that it has been
generally adopted by modern chemists. Now there are
fifty-one bases known to be capable of combining with
acids. If therefore we divide the oxygen acid salts ac¬
cording to their bases, we shall have fifty-one genera. A
minute description of all the salts belonging to these ge¬
nera, which are very numerous, would be inconsistent
with the limits to which an article of this kind ought to
extend. We refer the reader who wishes for a detailed
description of each of these bodies, so far as they have
been examined, to the second volume of Dr Thomson’s
work on the Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies, where they
occupy no less a space than 566 closely printed pages.
Here we shall give the characters of the different genera,
and point out the number of each which have been examin¬
ed; for it is scarcely necessary to observe, that in conse¬
quence of the difficulty of procuring various acids and
bases, many of the saline substances have been hitherto
but superficially examined.
Genus 1. Salts of Ammonia.
fbe salts of ammonia, with a very few' exceptions, are
all soluble in water.
L When potash or lime is mixed with an ammoniacal
salt, a smell of ammonia is emitted.
2. If to an ammoniacal salt dissolved in water a little
solution containing magnesia be added, and afterwards
some phosphate of soda dropt in, a white precipitate falls.
3. When an ammoniacal salt is exposed to heat it is
completely dissipated in vapours, except when the acid
bas a fixed metal, or phosphorus, or boron, for its base, in
which case the acid alone remains behind, the ammonia
being dissipated.
. The ammoniacal salts are not precipitated by infu-
sion of nutgalls or prussiate of potash.
5. W’hcn a solution of chloride of platinum is dropt into Inorganic
an ammoniacal salt, a yellow-coloured precipitate falls in Bodies,
very small crystals.
This genus of salts has been long knowm, and pretty
completely investigated. The number of ammoniacal salts
at present known amount to seventy-seven. Besides these,
there are sixty-eight double salts containing ammonia.
Thus the whole ammoniacal oxygen acid salts at present
known, single and double, amount to 145.
Genus 2. Salts of Potash.
The salts of potash, a very few excepted, are soluble in
water; but in general they are less soluble than those of
ammonia.
1. Many of them can be obtained in the state of crys¬
tals, but a number of them likewise refuse to crystallize.
In general they have a less tendency to form regular crys¬
tals than the salts of soda.
2. If tartaric acid dissolved in waiter be dropt into an
aqueous solution of a salt of potash, the liquid speedily
deposits a white granular sediment. This sediment has
a sour taste, and consists of small crystals of cream of tar¬
tar, or bitartrate of potash.
3. If a solution of sulphate of alumina be dropt into a
salt of potash, octahedral crystals of alum are soon depo¬
sited.
4. The salts of potash may be exposed to a red heat
without being volatilized like the salts of ammonia. If
the acid contained in the salt be combustible, it is decom¬
posed, and carbonate of potash, mixed wfith a little char¬
coal, remains behind. If the acid is not combustible the
salt usually fuses, and its nature is not altered, though to
this there are some exceptions. Thus the nitric acid is
gradually decomposed at a red heat, sulphurous acid lets
sulphur sublime, phosphorous acid allows phosphuretted
hydrogen to escape, and chloric acid gives out abundance
of oxygen gas.
5. The salts of potash are not precipitated by infusion
of nutgalls, nor by prussiate of potash.
6. They are not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
nor by the addition of a sulphohydrate, except when their
acid contains a metal for its base, in which case the acid
may be decomposed and precipitated, and the potash left
behind.
7. When a solution of chloride of platinum is dropt into
a salt of potash, an orange, or yellow-coloured precipitate
falls.
Sulphate of alumina and chloride of platinum are preci¬
pitated likewise by salts of ammonia. We must therefore,
in order to know whether a salt so precipitated contains
ammonia or potash for its base, expose it to a red heat. If
it be an ammoniacal salt, it will be dissipated or decompos¬
ed, leaving the acid (if fixed) ; but a potash salt will either
not be altered, or it will leave potash, usually in the state
of carbonate, behind.
A salt with base of potash may be distinguished by the
blowpipe in the following manner: Fuse before the blow¬
pipe a little borax to which a small portion of oxide of
nickel has been added. A yellowish glass is obtained.
Fuse this bead with a little of the salt under examination.
IP it contain potash the bead will assume a bluish colour.
The salts of potash known and described amount to nine¬
ty-nine, besides, eighty-three double salts into which pot¬
ash enters as a constituent. Thus the potash salts at pre¬
sent known and examined amount to 182.
Genus 3. Salts of Soda.
In general the salts of soda are much more soluble in
water than the corresponding salts of potash. Many of
the salts of potash contain no water of crystallization, but
446
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic the greater number of the soda salts contain a good deal
Bodies, of water.
'■—1. When exposed to a red heat they usually speedily
melt into a liquid, in consequence of the great quantity
of water which they contain. If the heat he continued,
the water is driven off, and the salt converted into a white
powder. When the heat is further urged, if the acid be
of a combustible nature it is destroyed ; if it be volatile it
is driven off; hut if it be fixed the salt melts again at a
red heat, and continues in a liquid state as long as the
temperature is kept up. The salt on cooling is in the
state of an opaque white mass, and is usually destitute of
water.
2. No precipitate is produced in salts of soda by tai-
taric acid or chloride of platinum; nor does sulphate of
alumina when added occasion the precipitation of octahe¬
dral crystals of alum ; nor is any precipitate pioduced by
infusion of nutgalls or prussiate of potash, except when
the basis of the acid happens to be a metal.
3. One of the easiest methods of determining whether
the base of a given salt he potash or soda, is to determine
the shape of the crystals which it forms. If it does not
shoot into regular crystals, separate the acid by means of
sulphuric or nitric acid, and let the new-formed salt crys¬
tallize. Sulphate of potash crystallizes in right rhombic
prisms ; but commonly from truncations it puts on the
form of a pyramidal dodecahedron composed of two six-
sided pyramids applied base to base. Sulphate of soda
crystallizes in oblique, rhombic prisms ; hut it is usually
in long six-sided prisms longitudinally striated. Sulphate
of potash when exposed to the air undergoes no change,
but sulphate of soda soon falls to powder. Nitrate of pot¬
ash crystallizes in long six-sided prisms, but nitiate of soda
in rhomboids, the feces of which meet at angles of 106°
30' and 73° 30'.
The salts of soda known and described amount to nine¬
ty-one, besides twenty-six double salts into which soda
enters as a constituent; thus the whole soda salts at pre¬
sent known amount to 117.
10. If we mix together one part of fluor spar and one Inorg;;
and a half part of sulphate of ammonia, and add to the Bodiu
mixture a little of any lithia salt, and heat before the
blowpipe, the flame has at first a green colour; hut when
the mixture fuses the colour of the flame becomes purple
red.
The oxygen acid salts of lithia hitherto examined and
described are only seventeen ; and only two of them, the
sulphate and carbonate, have been subjected to analysis.
Genus 5. Salts of Barytes.
A considerable number of the salts of barytes are in¬
soluble in water. Indeed, if we except the nitrate and
acetate, and a few other salts with vegetable acids, most
of the salts of barytes are insoluble.
1. They are white or transparent, and generally affect
a crystalline form.
2. If a little solution of sulphate of soda be let fall into
a salt of barytes, dissolved in water, a white precipitate
falls, which is insoluble in nitric acid.
3. When heat is applied to a salt of barytes it is not
completely dissipated. If the acid be combustible, carbo
nate of barytes remains behind ; if the acid is neither
combustible nor volatile, the salt continues undecomposed.
4. Prussiate of potash occasions no precipitate when
clropt into a salt of barytes, unless the acid happen to
contain a metallic base. The same remark applies to sul-
phohydrate of potassium.
5. The salts of barytes are poisonous.
6. When a fusible salt of barytes is heated before the
blowpipe it tinges the flame yellow. The same coloured
flame appears when alcohol containing a soluble salt of
barytes is burnt.
7. Oxalate of ammonia, when dropt into a solution of a
barytes salt, does not occasion an immediate precipitate.
The salts of barytes which have been examined and de¬
scribed amount to eighty-seven, besides two double salts
into which it enters as a constituent; making the whole
barytes salts at present known eighty-nine.
Genus 4. Salts of Lithia. Genus 6. Salts of Strontian.
Lithia has been known only for a short time, and is The salts of strontian are in general more soluble than
scarce. This is the reason why its salts have been but those of barytes, but less soluble than the salts oi lime,
superficially examined. ^ L The greater number of them are capable of assuming
1. They are all soluble in water (as far as is known), a crystalline form, though they are not moie given to crys-
and in this respect resemble the salts of potash and soda, tallize than the salts ot barytes. . , .
But the carbonate of lithia is much less soluble than either 2. Solutions ot strontian are precipitated by the su -
the carbonate of potash or of soda. phates, phosphates, and oxalates ; but oxalate ot ammonia
2. When carbonate of potash is dropt into a concen- does not occasion an immediate precipitate when dropt
trated solution of a salt of lithia, a white precipitate falls, into a salt ot strontian. t „
This precipitate maybe dissolved again by diluting the li- 3. We can distinguish a.salt of strontian from a salt o
quid with a sufficient quantity of water, or by raising it to barytes by means of succinate of ammonia. When we
the boiling point. drop this salt into a neutral solution of strontian no preci-
3. Chloride of platinum occasions no precipitate when pitate falls, but a precipitate immediately appears if we
dropt into a salt of lithia. drop it into a solution of a neutral salt of barytes.
4. Several of the salts of lithia melt at a very low tern- 4. When a piece of paper dipt into a solution ot a sa
perature. of strontian is set on fire, it burns with a red flame; but
5. When the salts of lithia are heated to redness in a if it be dipt into a salt of barytes, it burns with a yellow
platinum vessel, they act with considerable energy upon flame.  
that metal. 5. When a current of fluosilicic acid gas is passed througn
6. Neither prussiate of potash nor infusion of nutgalls a solution of strontian in muriatic acid, no precipitate a s,
occasion any precipitate in the salts of lithia. but when the same gas is passed through a solution o
7. Salts of litbia are not precipitated by caustic potash, barytes, a precipitate immediately falls.
8. If to a salt of lithia we add a quantity of phosphate 6. Salts of strontian are not precipitated by prussia e o
of soda, and evaporate, the solution becomes muddy. If potash nor sulphohydrate of potassium, unless t le aci
we evaporate to dryness, and pour water on the residue, happens to have a metallic base.
a white powder remains undissolved, which falls slowly to 7. Salts of strontian are not poisonous. . ,
the bottom of the vessel. The number of oxygen acid salts of strontian which have
9. When an alcoholic solution of a lithia salt is set on been examined and described amount to fifty, and eig teen
fire, it burns with a purple-red colour. of these have been subjected to analysis. Only one ou
Ir.; •IllC
ik.
schell.
CHEMISTRY. 447
salt containing strontian has been yet noticed, namely, and the salts of chromium want the astringency which Inoreanic
strontian hyposulphite of silver, which was formed by Her- characterizes the aluminous salts. Bodies.
Genus 7. Salts of Lime.
A considerable number of the salts of lime are insoluble
in water. Some of those which are soluble cannot easily
be crystallized. When a salt of lime is insoluble in water,
if we boil it for some time in a solution of carbonate of
potash, a white powder remains, which is soluble, with ef¬
fervescence, in nitric acid, and which possesses all the
characters of carbonate of lime.
1. The soluble salts of lime are not altered by the ad¬
dition of pure ammonia, but the addition of potash or soda
occasions the precipitation of a white matter, which is
pure lime.
2. When oxalate of ammonia is dropt into a salt of lime,
a dense white precipitate immediately begins to make its
appearance ; but citrate or tartrate of ammonia does not
occasion an immediate precipitate, though racemate of am¬
monia does.
3. The salts of lime are not precipitated by prussiate of of the" blowpipe, it acquires a fine blue colour, which be"
potash; but some oi them are precipitated when infusion comes deeper without altering its nature on the addition
2. ihey are not precipitated by oxalate of ammonia
nor tartaric acid, which sufficiently distinguishes them
from salts of yttria.
3. They are not precipitated by prussiate of potash nor
by tincture of nutgalls, in which respect they differ both
from salts of yttria and of glucina.
4. Phosphate of ammonia, when dropt into an alumi¬
nous salt, occasions a white precipitate.
5. Hydriodate of potash occasions a white flocky pre¬
cipitate in a solution of alumina, which speedily becomes
yellow, and continues permanent. This is not owing to
the excess of acid which the salts of alumina usually con¬
tain ; for the yellow colour does not disappear on the ad¬
dition of carbonate of ammonia.
6. If sulphuric acid, and then sulphate of potash, be add¬
ed to a salt of alumina, and the liquid be set aside, octa¬
hedral crystals of alum soon make their appearance in it.
/. When nitrate of cobalt is mixed with a mineral con¬
taining alumina, and the mixture is exposed to the action
of nutgalls is mixed with them
The salts of lime hitherto examined and described
amount to seventy-five, besides fifteen double salts con¬
taining lime as a constituent, making altogether ninety
calcareous salts at present known.
of more cobalt. This colour is only seen distinctly by
daylight, and after the assay is cold. This method of
proceeding may be followed with most of the salts of
alumina.
8. Most of the salts of alumina are decomposed by a
red heat, the acid being dissipated and the alumina left.
The only exceptions consist of those salts which contain a
fixed acid, as borate, phosphate, tungstate, &c.
The salts of alumina which have been examined and
described amount only to thirty-nine; of these, eleven
have been subjected to analysis. There are also eleven
double salts containing alumina. Thus the whole alumi-
Genus 8. Salts of Magnesia.
A great proportion of the salts of magnesia are soluble
in water, and capable of crystallizing.
1. When any of the fixed alkalies or their carbonates is
dropt into a salt of magnesia, a white flocky precipitate
falls.
2. No precipitate appears when sulphate of soda is nous salts at present known amount to fifty^
dropt into a salt of magnesia, because sulphate of mag¬
nesia is a very soluble and crystallizable salt. Genus 10. Salts of Glucina.
5. If phosphate of soda be dropt into a salt of magnesia, Glucina is so scarce a substance that its salts have been
no precipitate appears ; but if any ammonia be added, a examined very imperfectly.
white precipitate falls, which is a double salt, composed of 1. They are much more soluble in water than the cor-
phosphoric acid, magnesia, and ammonia. This precipi- responding salts of yttria, and a smaller number of them
tate furnishes the best method yet discovered for detect¬
ing the presence of magnesia, and even for separating it
from other bodies.
4. Prussiate of potash occasions no precipitate in a salt from salts of yttria.
seem susceptible of crystallizing.
2. They are not precipitated by oxalate of ammonia or
tartrate of potash, which sufficiently distinguishes them
of magnesia, unless the acid happen to have a metal for
its base.
5. Magnesia has a great tendency to enter into double
combinations, especially with ammonia and potash.
6. W hen a salt of magnesia is tinged with a little nitrate
3. Prussiate of potash occasions a white precipitate when
dropt into a solution of a salt of glucina.
4. Infusion of nutgalls occasions a yellowish precipitate,
which acquires a purplish tint if any iron be present.
5. The sulphate of glucina does not crystallize, nor do
of cobalt, and fused before the blowpipe with a strong crystals of alum form in it when sulphate of potash is
blast, it assumes a fine flesh colour, the tint of which is mixed with the solution.
very leeble, and not easily distinguished till the assay is 6. When a salt of glucina is mixed with a little nitrate
pertectly cold. When the acid of the salt is combustible of cobalt, and exposed to the action of the blow'pipe, it
or volatile, we are not able to accomplish the fusion of it becomes black or dark-gray.
before the blowpipe; in such cases we must add borax or The salts of glucina at present known and described
biphosphate of soda. amount to only nineteen. Of these, only the four sul-
fhe salts of magnesia which have been examined and phates have been subjected to analysis. Only two double
described amount to forty-nine; of these, twenty have been salts containing glucina have been noticed; namely, the
subjected to analysis. There are likewise fourteen double ammonia carbonate of glucina and the sulphochromate of
salts known which contain magnesia; so that the whole glucina.
magnesian salts at present known amount to sixty-three.
Genus 9. Salts of Alumina.
Most of the salts of alumina are soluble in water, but
few of them are capable of crystallizing.
!• Ihey are distinguished by a sweet and astringent
taste. In this respect they resemble the salts of glucina,
}ttna, and chromium, though they are much less sweet;
Genus 11. Salts of Yttria.
The greater number of the salts which yttria forms with
acids remain unknown, in consequence of the great scar¬
city of that substance.
1. A considerable proportion of the salts of yttria are
insoluble in water, and have not therefore been obtained
in the state of crystals.
44S
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic
BocUes.
2. Yttria may be precipitated from its solutions in acids
by phosphate of soda, carbonate of soda, oxalate of am¬
monia, and tartrate of potash.
3. It is precipitated also in a white chalky state by.prus-
siate of potash.
4. The alkaline carbonates throw down a white precipi¬
tate when dropt into solutions of yttria in acids ; but the
precipitate is redissolved by adding an excess m the cai-
bonate. In this property yttria agrees with glucma.
5 The salts of yttria have fully as sweet a taste as
those of glucina, but they are also astringent. The taste
is nearly similar to a mixture of a solution of alumina
The salts of yttria known and examined amount only to
seventeen. Of these, nine have recently been analysed
bv Dr Steel, in the laboratory of the professor of chemis¬
try in the University of Glasgow, ihere are likewise m e
double salts into which yttria enters. Thus all the yttria
salts yet known are only twenty-two.
Genus 12. Salts of Protoxide of Cerium.
These salts, which, from the scarcity of cerium, have
been but imperfectly examined, possess the following cha¬
racters : , ,
1. They have a light flesh-red colour, or are sometimes
nearly white.
2. Their solution in water has a sweet taste.
3*. Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions only a white
precipitate, consisting of the oxide of cerium. Sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen gas occasions no precipitate. _ . .
4. Prussiate of potash occasions a snow-white precipi¬
tate, soluble in nitric and muriatic acids.
5. Gallic acid, and the infusion of nutgalls, occasion no
precipitate. . . .
6. Oxalate of ammonia occasions a white precipitate,
which is soluble in nitric and muriatic acids.
7. Arseniate of potash, when dropt into a solution of
protoxide of cerium, occasions a white precipitate, lar-
trate of potash occasions no precipitate. .
The salts of protoxide of cerium hitherto examined
amount to eighteen. Of these, eight have been analysed
by Dr Steel." There are likewise five double salts into
which protoxide of cerium enters. Thus the salts oi prot¬
oxide of cerium at present known amount to twenty-three.
Genus 13. Salts of Peroxide of Cerium.
These salts are very imperfectly investigated indeed.
They are distinguished by a yellow or orange colour, but
in other respects probably agree nearly in characters with
the last genus of salts. Only seven salts belonging to
this genus are known; and of these, four have been sub¬
jected to analysis by Dr Steel.
Genus 14. Salts of Zirconia.
Zirconia dissolves in acids only when newly precipi¬
tated and still moist. If it be dried, and especially if it
be subjected to a red heat, it is acted on by acids with
great difficulty.
1. The alkalies, the alkaline earths, and the earths pro¬
per, separate zirconia from all its combinations with acids.
2. The greater number of the salts of zirconia are inso¬
luble in water. This is the case with the sulphate, sul¬
phite, phosphate, fluate, borate, carbonate, selenite, oxa¬
late, tartrate, citrate, mucate, and gallate. The muriate,
nitrate, acetate, benzoate, and malate, are soluble in water.
3. They have an astringent, harsh, and disagreeable
taste, similar to some of the metalline salts.
4. When sulphuric acid is dropt into a salt of zirconia,
a white precipitate falls.
5. When carbonate of ammonia is dropt into a salt of
zirconia, a white precipitate appears, which is redissolved, Inorg3;
if an additional quantity of carbonate of ammonia be Body
added.
6. Oxalate of ammonia and tartrate of potash occasion
white precipitates when dropt into a salt of zirconia.
7. Prussiate of potash throws down nitrate of zirconia
white.
8. Chromate of potash occasions a yellow precipitate.
9. The infusion of nutgalls, wffien dropt into a solution of
zirconia, occasions a white precipitate. The sulphohy-
drate of potassium occasions no precipitate if the solution
be free from iron.
The salts of zirconia hitherto examined amount to six¬
teen. Of these, only the three sulphates have been sub¬
jected to analysis. Three double salts containing zirco¬
nia are also known; thus making a total of nineteen salts
of zirconia, most of which have scarcely been examined
except as to colour and solubility.
Genus 15. Salts of Protoxide of Iron.
These salts, some of which have been long known and
much employed, possess the following characters:
1. The greater number of them are soluble in water,
and in general the solution has a greenish colour at first,
but soon becomes yellow when left exposed to the air.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions a light-blue or even
white precipitate when dropt into them; but it speedily
becomes blue, and the intensity of the shade deepens ra¬
pidly when it is left exposed to the air.
3. Sulphohydrate of potassium throws down a black
precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen rendeis the solution
nearly colourless, but occasions no precipitate.
4. Gallic acid, or the infusion of nutgalls, occasions a
black or deep-blue or purple precipitate, at least if the
solution be in contact with the air.
5. Phosphate of soda occasions a white precipitate.
6. Benzoate of ammonia does not precipitate the proto¬
salts of iron; but if they be heated with nitric acid, and
then neutralized, it throws them down light yellow. The
action of succinate of ammonia, is quite similar.
The salts of protoxide of iron hitherto formed and exa¬
mined by chemists amount to thirty-eight. 01 these, ten
species have been subjected to analysis. . Ihere aie like¬
wise nine double salts known which contain the protoxide
of iron. Thus all the salts of protoxide of iron with which
we are at present acquainted amount to forty-seven.
Genus 16. Salts of Peroxide of Iron.
The aqueous solution of these salts has usually a red
or yellowish-red colour. They have a sweetish, astringent,
and very harsh taste. The greater number of them are
incapable of crystallizing. Of those that crystallize, some
form colourless (when they contain much water), and
some red-coloured crystals. In general they are soluble
in alcohol. They are precipitated of a very dark blue,
almost black, by prussiate of potash. Their other charac¬
ters correspond with those of the last genus..
The salts of peroxide of iron hitherto examined amoun
to forty-three. Of these, fourteen have been analyse
with more or less accuracy. There are twelve double
salts known which contain peroxide of iron, thus u
salts of peroxide of iron at present known amount to ht j-
five.
Genus 17. Salts of Protoxide of Manganese.
Most of these salts are soluble in water. The solut!^
are colourless, or nearly so; but the crystals, wie
salts are capable of crystallizing, have a beautiful
red tint. This is most beautiful in the sulphate a
tate. In the tartrate and racemate the shade is so
CHEMISTRY.
ramc
ies.
that the salt appears red. They have usually a saline and
bitter taste, something like that of Glauber salt.
J 1. When a fixed alkali is dropt into a solution of prot¬
oxide of manganese in an acid, a white precipitate falls,
which gradually becomes black by exposure to the air.
2. Prussiate of potash throws down a white precipitate.
3. Sulphohydrate of potassium throws down a yellow
precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives the solution a
white colour, but occasions no precipitate unless the acid
in the solution be weak.
4. Gallic acid and the infusion of nutgalls occasion no
precipitate.
5. Manganese is not precipitated in the metallic state
by any other metal.
6. The salts of manganese are not precipitated by suc¬
cinate or benzoate of ammonia.
7. When chloride of soda is dropt into a solution of
protoxide of manganese, the manganese is thrown down
black and very bulky. This precipitate consists of deut-
oxide of manganese. Chloride of lime also throws down
manganese in the state of deutoxide, but it is combined
with a portion of lime.
8. Ammonia throws down a white precipitate, which gra¬
dually becomes black if air have access to it. If we add
some sal ammoniac to the solution, ammonia becomes in¬
capable of throwing doum the protoxide of manganese.
A solution of sal ammoniac immediately dissolves the
precipitate thrown down by ammonia; but on leaving
the liquid exposed to the air the precipitate again ap^
pears.
_ 9. When a salt of manganese is heated before the blow¬
pipe with carbonate of soda, it fuses into a green glass,
which becomes bluish, green when cold. With borax in
the oxydizing flame it forms an amethyst-coloured glass,
but in the reducing flame the colour disappears.
The salts of protoxide of manganese at present known
amount to thirty-seven. Of these, thirteen have been ana-
j'sed. Only three double salts containing protoxide of
manganese are known. These raise the number of salts
of protoxide of manganese to forty.
Genus 18. Salts of Sesquioxide of Manganese.
These salts have a reddish colour, and cannot be crys¬
tallized, nor even obtained in a solid state. They are
only known in solution, and always contain a great excess
of acid. Only six such salts have been hitherto describ¬
ed, the sulphate, nitrate, oxalate, carbonate, tartrate, and
citrate.
Genus 19. Salts of Protoxide of Nickel
The soluble salts of nickel have a beautiful emerald-
green colour; while that of the insoluble salts is usually
igntgieen, and in some cases leek green.
L Prussiate of potash, when dropt into a solution of a
salt of mekel, throws down a milk-white precipitate.
~. hulphohydrate ol potassium throws down a black
precipitate, which is a sulphuret of nickel. Sulphuretted
Hydrogen gas occasions no precipitate.
• Gallic acid and the infusion of nutgalls occasion no
precipitate, at least in the sulphate of nickel.
4. The ammoniacal solution of oxide of nickel has a
mue colour.
o. Potash throws down an apple-green precipitate, not
re-dissolved by adding an excess of the alkali.
• atbonate of ammonia throws down an apple-green
icapitate re-dissolved in an excess of the carbonate,
lendenng the liquid bluish-green.
I. The greater number of the salts of nickel, when
nr 6 boron before the blowpipe, fuse into an
voj6 y6 °W 0r recbbsh glass, which becomes yellow, or
449
almost colourless, on cooling. When the proportion of in(mranic
salt of nickel is considerable, the glass is opaque and of a Bodies
dull brown while in fusion; but on cooling it becomes
dull red and transparent.
The salts of nickel which have been prepared and exa¬
mined are only twenty-eight, about twelve of which have
been subjected to analysis, ihere are also nine double
salts of nickel known; so that the whole nickel salts
hitherto investigated amount to thirty-seven.
Genus 20. Salts of Protoxide of Cobalt.
The greater number of the salts of cobalt are soluble in
water, and have a red colour.
1. The alkalies, when dropt into solutions of these
salts, throw down a blue-coloured precipitate, or reddish
brown if the solution contain arsenic acid.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions a light-green precipi-
. 3* Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions a black preci¬
pitate, soluble again if the sulphohydrate be added in ex-
cess.. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas occasions no precipi¬
tate in these solutions.
4. Gallic acid occasions no change, but the infusion of
nutgalls throws down a yellowish-white precipitate.
5. The ammoniacal solution of oxide of cobalt has the
colour of port wine. It is not immediately precipitated
by prussiate of potash, but after some time a reddish
precipitate falls.
6. ihe salts of cobalt are not precipitated by the hydrio-
date of zinc. J
7. Cobalt is not precipitated from any of its soluble
salts by a plate of zinc.
Caroonate of ammonia throws down a red precipitate
which is soluble in sal ammoniac.
9. The greater number of the salts of cobalt, when
fused before the blowpipe with borax, form a transparent
blue-coloured bead.
Ihe saRs of cobalt hitherto described and examined
amount to twenty-four, of which there are eleven which
have been subjected to analysis. There are also five
double salts known into which cobalt enters as a consti¬
tuent; so that the whole cobalt salts at present known
amount to twenty-nine.
Genus 21. Salts of Oxide of Zinc.
Almost all the acids act with considerable energy on
zinc. Hence the salts of this metal are easily formed;
and as there is only one oxide of zinc, they are not liable
to change their state, like the salts of protoxide of iron
and protoxide of tin.
1. Ihe greater number of them are soluble in water,
and the solution is colourless and transparent. Many of
their solutions, when properly concentrated, deposit the
salt of zinc which they contain in crystals.
_ 2. Prussiate of potash occasions a white gelatinous pre¬
cipitate when dropt into aqueous solutions of salts of zinc.
3. Sulphohydrate of potassium and sulphuretted hydro¬
gen throw down a white precipitate.
4. Gallic acid and the infusion of nutgalls occasion no
precipitate when dropt into these salts.
5. Potash occasions a wdiite gelatinous precipitate,
which is readily dissolved by sulphuric or muriatic acid,
and by an excess of potash. Ammonia behaves in the
same manner.
6. Zinc is not precipitated in the metallic form from
solutions of its salts by any other metal whatever.
7. Sulphocyanate of potash and hydriodate of potash
occasion white precipitates when dropt into a solution of
a salt of zinc.
8. Gaibonate of potash throws down a white precipitate,
3 L
450
Inorganic
Bodies.
C H E M I
not soluble in the excess of the carbonate; but it may be
dissolved by potasb or ammonia.
9. When a zinc salt is heated before the blowpipe on
charcoal, after the acid is destroyed or dissipated, the
residual oxide of zinc-being reduced, gives out a brilliant
light, and is gradually dissipated before the reducing
flame; a white vapour at the same time condensing on
the surface of the charcoal. . ,
The salts of zinc hitherto examined and described
amount to forty-four, of which nineteen species have
been subjected to analysis. There are likewise six dou¬
ble salts which contain.zinc as a constituent. Thus the
salts of zinc at present known amount to fifty.
Genus 22. Salts of Oxide of Cadmium.
Cadmium being a scarce metal, and but recently disco¬
vered, the salts of its oxide have not been very carefully stu¬
died. A considerable number of them are soluble in water.
The aqueous solutions are colourless, or have a very slight
shade of yellow. The insoluble salts are white powders.
1. When a fixed alkali is dropt into a solution of a salt
of cadmium, the oxide is precipitated in the state of a
white hydrate, which is not again redissolved by adding
an excess of the alkali.
2. Ammonia likewise precipitates it in the state of a
white hydrate. The precipitate is again redissolved when
an excess of ammonia is added.
3. The alkaline carbonates throw down cadmium in the
state of a white carbonate. This carbonate does not form
a hydrate, as is the case with the carbonate of zinc. Nei¬
ther is it redissolved by the addition of an excess of car¬
bonate of ammonia, as is the case with the carbonate of
zinc, unless there existed a notable excess of acid in the
solution before the addition of the carbonate of ammonia.
4. Phosphate of soda throws down cadmium in the state
of a white powder, while zinc is thrown down by the same
precipitant in the state of crystalline scales.
5. Sulphuretted hydrogen and the sulphohydrates pre¬
cipitate cadmium yellow or orange. This precipitate re¬
sembles orpiment, but may be distinguished by the facility
with which it dissolves in muriatic acid, and by its bearing
a red heat without being altered.
G. Prussiate of potash occasions a white precipitate
when dropt into a salt of cadmium.
7. Infusion of nutgalls does not occasion any precipitate.
8. When a plate of zinc is put into a solution of a salt
of cadmium, the cadmium is precipitated in dendritical
crystals, and in the metallic state.
The salts of cadmium hitherto described and examined
amount to fifteen. Of these, twelve have been analysed.
There is also one double salt, namely, the potash sulphate
of cadmium, making the whole cadmium salts at present
known amount to sixteen.
Genus 23. Salts of Protoxide of Lead.
A considerable number of these salts are not soluble in
water unless when they contain an excess of acid. These
before the blowpipe, on charcoal, yield readily a button of
lead. The solutions of those that are soluble are transpa¬
rent and colourless, and are distinguished by a sweet and
astringent taste.
1. Prussiate of potash occasions a white precipitate
when dropt into a solution of a salt of lead.
2. Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions a black preci¬
pitate. A similar precipitate is thrown down by sulphu¬
retted hydrogen.
3. Gallic acid and the infusion of nutgalls occasion a
white precipitate.
4. When a plate of zinc is put into a solution of a salt
of lead, the lead is most commonly thrown down in leaves
S T R Y.
in the metallic state. Sometimes it falls in the state of a IMr8a
white powder. Bodifj
5. When potash is dropt into a solution of a salt of lead,
a white precipitate falls, which is redissolved on adding
an excess of the alkali.
6. When chromate of potash is dropt into a solution of
lead, a beautiful orange-coloured precipitate falls. When
this powder is digested in caustic potash it assumes a fine
scarlet colour.
7. When sulphate of soda is dropt into a solution of
lead, a white precipitate falls.
The salts of lead which have been formed and examined
with more or less accuracy amount to eighty-eight, and
of these no fewer than fifty-one have been subjected to
analysis. Not above five double salts containing protoxide
of lead are at present known. Doubtless many others
might be formed, though hitherto they have escaped the
researches of chemists.
Genus 24. Salts of Protoxide of Tin.
The salts of tin have not been subjected to a rigid exa¬
mination by chemists. The examination is attended with
difficulties, and contains nothing very attractive. The
protoxide has the strongest affinity for acids, though both
oxides have the property of combining with acids and
forming salts.
1. Several of the salts of protoxide of tin are insoluble
in water, and can therefore be obtained only in the state
of white powders. Those that dissolve in water are white,
the solutions are colourless, and have an astringent, harsh,
and metallic taste. When in solution they rapidly absorb
oxygen, and are converted into the corresponding peisalts.
2. When a plate of zinc is put into a solution ot a salt
of tin, the tin is thrown down in the metallic state in fine
thin plates.
3. Prussiate of potash occasions a white gelatinous pre¬
cipitate. _ ,
4. Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions a coffee-brown
precipitate.
5. Neither gallic acid nor the infusion of nutgalls oc¬
casions any precipitate.
6. When chloride of gold is dropt into a dilute solution
of a salt of protoxide of tin, a purple, or at least a reddish-
brown precipitate falls. For the formation of the beauti¬
ful colour called purple of Cassius, both the protoxide and
peroxide of tin ought to be in the solution. . , ,
7. A solution of potash throws down a white piecipi-
tate, which dissolves in an excess of the alkali. If the so¬
lution be boiled, a black powder falls, which is metallic
tin, while a compound of peroxide of tin and potash ic-
mains in solution.
8. Ammonia throws down a white precipitate, not so¬
luble in an excess of ammonia.
9. The solutions of protoxide of tin redden litmus paper.
The salts of protoxide of tin hitherto formed and exa¬
mined amount to twenty-three. Hardly any of them have
been subjected to a rigid analysis. Few double salts ot
tin are known, excepting those which contain chlorides o
that metal.
Genus 25. Salts of Peroxide of Tin.
These salts in many of their characters resemble those
of the last genus, but they are united by a weaker affinity-
and few or none of them can be exhibited in the sta e
C "l. Potash dropt into a solution of a salt of peroxide of
tin throws down a white precipitate, soluble in an exce
of the alkali; but no black powder appears on boiling.
2. Ammonia throws down a white precipitate, w u
soluble in a great excess of ammonia.
CHEMISTRY.
manic 3# Prussiate of potash occasions no immediate precipi-
idles, tate; but after some time the whole congeals into a stiff
yellow jelly, which is insoluble in muriatic acid.
4. Sulphohydrate of ammonia throws down a yellow pre¬
cipitate, and redissolves by adding an excess of the preci-
pitants. Sulphuretted hydrogen produces no immediate
effect, but after some time a yellow precipitate falls.
5. A bar of zinc throws down a white gelatinous preci¬
pitate.
Only ten salts of peroxide of zinc have been hitherto
examined, and not one of these has been subjected to an
accurate analysis.
Genus 26. Salts of Black Oxide of Copper.
The greater number of the salts of copper are soluble
in water, and the solutions have a blue or green colour, or
at least they speedily acquire that colour on exposure to
the air. Their taste is exceedingly nauseous, and they
are poisonous.
1. When ammonia is poured into a solution of a cu¬
preous salt, the colour becomes a deep blue, with a slight
shade of red.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions a red precipitate, which
becomes brown when washed and dried.
3. Sulphohydrate of potassium, or sulphuretted hydro¬
gen, throws down a black precipitate.
4. Gallic acid occasions a brown precipitate.
5. A plate of zinc or iron, when put into a solution of a
salt of copper, throws down the copper in the metallic state.
The salts of copper which have been formed and exa¬
mined by chemists amount to seventy-one. Of these,
thirty have been subjected to analysis. There are no fewer
than eighteen double salts which contain black oxide of
copper as a constituent. Thus the salts of black oxide of
copper at present known amount to eighty-nine.
Genus 27. Salts of Suboxide of Copper.
Of this genus only nine salts have hitherto been exa¬
mined. They are never blue or green, but white, red,
brown, or black. When exposed to the air they speedily
absorb oxygen, and are converted into the corresponding
salts of black oxide of copper.
Genus 28. Salts of Oxide of Bismuth.
The salts of bismuth are commonly white. Their so¬
lutions in water are transparent and colourless. When
much diluted with water, a white precipitate falls, consist¬
ing chiefly of hydrated oxide of bismuth.
1. Prussiate of potash occasions a white precipitate,
sometimes with a shade of yellow.
2. Sulphohydrate of potassium, or sulphuretted hydro¬
gen, throws down a dark-brown precipitate.
3. Gallic acid, or the infusion of nutgalls, occasions an
orange-yellow precipitate.
4. When a plate of copper or tin is put into a solution
of a salt of bismuth, the bismuth is precipitated in the
metallic state.
The salts of bismuth which have been examined by
chemists with more or less accuracy amount to twenty-
three, several of which have been subjected to analysis.
, Genus 29. Salts of Suhoxide of Mercury.
Mercurial salts are very frequently but little soluble in
water. Some of them crystallize, and others can be ob¬
tained only in the state of white powders.
1. When strongly heated they are volatilized and dissi¬
pated, and traces of mercury may sometimes be observed.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions a whitish precipitate,
which becomes yellow on exposure to the air. This pre¬
cipitate is very scanty, unless the solutions be concentrated.
451
. Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions a black pre- Inorganic
cipitate. The same precipitate is thrown down by sul- Bodies,
phuretted hydrogen.
4. Muriatic acid, when poured into a solution of a salt
of suboxide of mercury, occasions a white precipitate.
5. Gallic acid, or the infusion of nutgalls, occasions an
orange-yellow precipitate.
6. Hydriodate of zinc dropt into a solution of a salt of
suboxide of mercury throws down a fine yellow precipi¬
tate.
7. Chromate of potash throws down a fine red precipi¬
tate.
8. When potash is dropt into a solution of a salt of sub¬
oxide of mercury, a black precipitate falls, not soluble in
an excess of the potash.
9. A plate of copper being put into a liquid mercurial
salt, gradually precipitates mercury in the metallic state.
Ihe salts of suboxide of mercury hitherto examined by
chemists amount to thirty-eight. Of these, ten have been
subjected to analysis, but not with much accuracy. There
are very few double salts known in which the suboxide of
mercury forms a constituent.
Genus 30. Salts of Red Oxide of Mercury.
The salts belonging to this genus have a considerable
analogy to those of the last. When they dissolve in wa¬
ter the solution is transparent and colourless. The salts
of this genus insoluble in water dissolve in nitric acid,
and the solution is transparent and colourless.
1. When potash is dropt into a salt of red oxide of
mercury, a yellow precipitate falls, not soluble in an ex¬
cess of the potash ; but if to the liquid we previously add
some sal ammoniac, then the potash precipitate is white.
The same colour is observable when the liquid contains
much uncombined acid.
2. Ammonia throws down a white precipitate, not so¬
luble in an excess of the re-agent.
3. Carbonate of potash throws down a reddish-brown
precipitate, not soluble in an excess of the re-agent. Car¬
bonate of ammonia throws down a white precipitate. The
same observation applies to oxalate of ammonia and prus¬
siate of potash. The prussiate of potash precipitate after
some time becomes blue.
4. Sulphohydrate of ammonia added in very small quan¬
tity produces a black precipitate, which, when the liquid
is shaken, becomes white, and remains long suspended.
When sulphohydrate of ammonia is added in excess, the
precipitate is black, and is not altered by agitation. It is
insoluble in ammonia, but dissolves in potash. Sulphuret¬
ted hydrogen acts in the same way.
5. Iodide of potassium throws down a scarlet-coloured
precipitate, and chromate of potash a yellowish-red pow¬
der, provided the liquid be not too dilute.
6. A plate of copper put into a solution of oxide of mer¬
cury is soon whitened, being converted into an amalgam.
7. When a salt of oxide of mercury is mixed with car¬
bonate of soda, and heated before the blowpipe, the mer¬
cury is restored to the metallic state.
The salts of red oxide of mercury hitherto examined by
chemists amount to twenty-seven.
Genus 31. Salts of Oxide of Silver.
The only acid which dissolves silver well is the nitric.
The solution is transparent and colourless, but very caus¬
tic. It readily deposits beautiful crystals. Many of the
salts of silver are insoluble in water.
1. The solutions of the soluble salts are colourless and
transparent. The insoluble salts are white, and in some
cases yellow or red.
2. A solution of potash dropt into a salt of silver gives
452
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic a light-brown precipitate. Carbonate of potash throws
Bodies, down a white precipitate. Both of these precipitates are
redissolved when ammonia is added.
3. When ammonia, in very small quantities, is poured
into a salt of silver, a brown precipitate falls, which dis¬
solves at once when a little more ammonia is added.
4. When the salts of silver are exposed on charcoal to
the action of the blowpipe, they are reduced, and a glo¬
bule of silver is obtained.
5. Prussiate of potash, when dropt into a solution of
a salt of silver, occasions a white precipitate.
6. Sulphohydrate of potassium throws down a black
precipitate.
7. Muriatic acid, or the chlorides of the alkaline bases,
occasion a heavy white flaky precipitate resembling cui d.
8. Gallic acid and the infusion of nutgalls occasion a
yellowish-brown precipitate, at least in several of the so¬
lutions of silver.
9. The solution of sulphate of iron precipitates the sil¬
ver in the metallic state.
10. When a plate of copper is put into a solution of sil¬
ver, the silver is precipitated in the metallic state, retaining,
however, a little of the copper in the state of an alloy.
The salts of silver hitherto examined by chemists
amount to forty-four. Very few of them seem to contain
chemically combined water. The number of double salts
into which oxide of silver enters as a constituent amount
to ten. Thus all the silver salts at present known amount
to fifty-four.
Genus 32. Salts of Peroxide of Gold.
The oxide of gold appears to partake more of the pro¬
perties of an acid than of a base; yet there are a few sa¬
line compounds known, in which it is united with an acid
as a base. Indeed the only solution of gold which we are
acquainted with is the chloride, which is yellow and very
acrid. The action of re-agents on this solution is as fol¬
lows :—
1. Potash added in excess produces no change at first,
but by degrees the liquid assumes a greenish colour, and
a little black matter falls down.
2. Ammonia throws down a dirty-yellow precipitate,
which is fulminating gold, and which is redissolved by
adding the ammonia in great excess.
3. Carbonate of potash produces no precipitate, but car¬
bonate of ammonia effervesces with the liquid, and throws
down a yellow precipitate.
4. Prussiate of potash strikes an emerald-green colour.
5. Nitrated suboxide of mercury occasions a black pre¬
cipitate.
6. Sulphate of iron throws down the gold in the metal¬
lic state; so does oxalic acid, but not so completely.
7. Protochloride of tin strikes a purple colour with very
dilute solutions, and throws down a brown-coloured preci¬
pitate when the solution is more concentrated.
8. Sulphohydrate of ammonia throws down a dark-brown
precipitate, which is redissolved on adding an excess of
the sulphohydrate.
The salts of gold at present known amount only to eight,
namely, the sulphate, nitrate, iodate, arseniate, molybdate,
acetate, benzoate, and pinate, all of which have been ex¬
amined very superficially.
Genus 33. Salts of Peroxide of Platinum.
These salts are not better known than those of the pre¬
ceding genus. Almost the only solution of platinum which
we can form is the chloride. Its characters are the fol¬
lowing :>—
1. It has a fine brownish-red colour, and is transparent.
2. Potash throws down a yellow precipitate, which is
not sensibly soluble in acids; but it dissolves when heat- Inorgai
ed in an excess of potash, and does not again precipitate Bodies
when the liquid cools.
3. With ammonia the phenomena are exactly the same
as with potash.
4. Carbonates of ammonia and potash produce a similar
effect. But the precipitates are not redissolved M'hen
heated in an excess of the alkaline carbonates.
5. Neither soda nor its carbonates throw down any pre¬
cipitate.
6. Nitrated suboxide of mercury throws down a yellow¬
ish-red precipitate.
7. Neither oxalic acid nor phosphate of soda occasions
any precipitate.
8. Sulphuretted hydrogen changes the colour to brown,
and by degrees a brown precipitate falls, which becomes
gradually black. Sulphohydrate of ammonia produces the
same effect, but the precipitate is redissolved when an
excess of the sulphohydrate is added.
9. A plate of zinc precipitates platinum from its solu¬
tion in the state of a black metallic powder.
Only eight salts belonging to this genus have been ex¬
amined, and these very superficially. They are the sul¬
phate, nitrate, iodate, arseniate, chromate, oxalate, ben-
zoate, and camphorate.
Genus 34. Salts of Protoxide of Platinum.
This genus of salts, owing to the difficulties attending
the productions of protoxide of platinum, is almost wholly
unknown. Only three of them have been formed, name¬
ly, the sulphate, nitrate, and acetate. They are soluble
in water, and have a greenish-brown colour.
Genus 35. Salts of Oxide of Palladium.
The scarcity of palladium has hitherto prevented che¬
mists from fully investigating these salts.
1. They are almost all soluble in water, and the colour
of the solution is a fine red.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions a dirty yellowish-brown
precipitate.
3. Sulphohydrate of potassium occasions a blackish-
brown precipitate.
4. The alkalies throw down an orange-coloured preci¬
pitate. -
5. Mercury and sulphate of iron throw down the palla¬
dium in the metallic state.
6. Protochloride of tin renders the solution opaque, by
throwing down a brown precipitate ; but if the solution be
sufficiently diluted, it assumes a fine emerald-green colour.
7. Neither nitrate of potash nor sal ammoniac occasions
any precipitate.
The salts of palladium hitherto formed amount only to
eight, namely, sulphate, disulphate, nitrate, iodate, avse-
niate, oxalate, citrate, and benzoate.
Genus 36. Salts of Peroxide of Rhodium.
The characters of the salts belonging to this genus are
so imperfectly known that a detailed description is out of
our power. The metal is so scarce that chemists have it
not in their power to examine them.
1. Their solution in water is red.
2. Prussiate of potash occasions no precipitate.
3. Neither is any precipitate produced by sal ammoniac
or the alkaline carbonates; but the pure alkalies throw
down a yellow pow’der, soluble in an excess of alkali.
Only four of these salts are at present known, namely,
sulphate, nitrate, arseniate, and acetate.
Genus 37. Salts of Protoxide of Iridium.
This genus of salts is almost entirely unknown.
ranic
.ies.
1. The salts of iridium appear to be soluble in water,
and to have a colour at first green, but which changes to
red by concentrating the solution in an open vessel.
2. Neither prussiate of potash nor the infusion of nut-
galls occasions any precipitate, but both render the solu¬
tion colourless.
3. They are partially precipitated by sal ammoniac, and
the precipitate has a deep-red colour.
Genus 38. Salts of Oxide of Osmium.
This genus of salts is still altogether unknown.
Genus 39. Salts of Oxide of Tellurium.
The scarcity of tellurium, which cannot be procured in
any quantity, has prevented the investigation of these
salts.
1. The salts of tellurium, when insoluble in water, are
white powders. The soluble salts form transparent and
colourless solutions.
2. Alkalies throw down from the solution a white pre¬
cipitate, which disappears again if the alkali be added in
excess.
3. Prussiate of potash occasions no precipitate.
4. Sulphohydrate of potassium throws down a brown or
blackish precipitate.
5. The infusion of nutgalls occasions a flaky precipi¬
tate of a yellow colour.
6. Zinc, iron, and antimony, when put into a solution
of tellurium in an acid, cause the tellurium to separate in
the state of a black powder, which assumes the metallic
brilliancy when rubbed.
7. Sulphite of ammonia, when added to a solution of
tellurium, throws down a black powder, which is tellurium
in the metallic state.
8. Sulphohydrate of ammonia added in excess to a so¬
lution of tellurium, throws down a black precipitate, which
is redissolved by digestion if the quantity of sulphohy¬
drate be sufficient.
Only nine of these salts have been formed, and not one
of them has been subjected to a rigid analysis.
Genus 40. Salts of White Oxide of Arsenic.
It has been already stated in this article, that white
oxide of arsenic possesses the characters of an acid, and
not of a base. Yet several acids have the property of
dissolving this acid, and of keeping it in solution, so that
with them it seems to act the part of a base. Sulphuric
acid dissolves it by digestion, but lets it fall again on cool¬
ing. Muriatic acid forms a permanent solution, from
which, however, most of the white oxide falls when the
solution is diluted with water.
CHEMISTRY.
453
o. Sulphohydrate of ammonia throws down an orange- Inorganic
coloured precipitate, which is redissolved by adding an Bodies,
excess of the precipitant. Sulphuretted hydrogen throws
down the same orange-coloured precipitate.
6. When a plate of iron or zinc is plunged into an anti-
monial solution, a black powder precipitates in great abun¬
dance, and very speedily, when there is an excess of acid
and the solution is not too much concentrated.
Ihe salts of protoxide of antimony hitherto examined
amount to sixteen. There is also a double salt contain¬
ing the same oxide, tartar-emetic, which is better known
than any other of the antimonial salts. It is a compound of
1 atom tartrate of potash 14*25
1 atom ditartrate of antimony 27*25
2 atoms water.  2‘25
43*75
Genus 42. Salts of Protoxide of Chromium.
The solutions of the salts of protoxide of chromium (Tor
the greater number of them are soluble in water) have
usually a dark-green colour, though some of them are blue
and some of them purple. The intensity of the colour
is such that most of them are opaque, even when dilute.
When evaporated to dryness they do not. yield crystals,
but leave an opaque mass of so deep a green that it ap¬
pears black. Ihe taste of these solutions is a powerful
and pure sweet, which is very agreeable when the solu¬
tion is slightly acidulated by a trifling excess of acid.
1. Potash throws down a green precipitate, which is
again dissolved by adding an excess of the alkali.
2. Ammonia and its carbonate also throw down a green
precipitate.
3. Prussiate of potash occasions no precipitate; but
when the mixture is heated it becomes dark brown or
opaque, yet no precipitate falls.
4. The infusion of nutgalls throws down a green preci¬
pitate in flocks.
_ 5. Sulphuretted hydrogen occasions no precipitate, pro¬
vided the salt of chromium be free from all traces of chro¬
mic acid. Sulphohydrate of ammonia throws down a pre¬
cipitate in green flocks, probably in consequence of an ex¬
cess of ammonia.
6. When benzoate of potash is dropped into a concen¬
trated solution of muriate of chromium, a precipitate falls ;
but no precipitate falls when the solution is dilute.
The salts of chromium hitherto examined amount to
eighteen, besides a few double salts into which the prot¬
oxide of chromium enters.
Genus 43. Salts of Protoxide of Uranium.
Genus 41. Salts of Protoxide of Antimony.
The best known solution of antimony is the solution in
muriatic acid. It becomes milky when diluted with wa¬
ter, but if an excess of muriatic acid be added, the preci¬
pitate is again redissolved.
1. Potash or ammonia added to this solution throws
down a white precipitate, which is not redissolved by add¬
ing an excess of the alkali.
2. The same effects are produced by carbonate of pot¬
ash and carbonate of ammonia.
3. Phosphate of soda and oxalic acid also occasion a
white precipitate.
4. Prussiate of potash occasions a white precipitate
^ en dropt into a solution of protoxide of antimony.
e precipitate is merely the protoxide of .antimony.
ien the precipitate is applied in a sufficiently concen-
rated state, no precipitate falls.
The protoxide of uranium has a dirty-green colour, and
its salts, at least when in solution in water, have the same
colour. The taste of these salts is astringent.
1. Caustic potash dropt into a solution of protoxide of
uranium throws it down green.
2. Prussiate of potash throws down a brownish-red pre¬
cipitate, which does not assume the form of flakes, like
prussiate of copper.
3. Gallic acid strikes a chocolate-brown colour when the
salt is neutral.
4. Sulphuretted hydrogen occasions no precipitate, but
sulphohydrate of ammonia throws down a brownish-yellow
powder.
5. No precipitate is occasioned by zinc, iron, or tin.
The salts of protoxide of uranium are almost unknown ;
only three of them, the sulphate, nitrate, and carbonate,
having been hitherto formed. The carbonate is a light-
green powder.
454
Inorganic
Bodies.
CHE M I
Genus 44. Salts of Peroxide of Uranium.
The colour of the salts of the peroxide of uranium is a
fine yellow, and their taste is astringent.
1. Gallic acid and prussiate of potash produce the same
effect upon them as upon the last genus.
2. Carbonate of ammonia throws down a yellow preci¬
pitate, which is redissolved by an excess of the carbonate.
The solution has a lemon-yellow colour.
3. Carbonate of soda throws down a yellow precipitate,
which is redissolved by an excess of the precipitant.
4. Chromate of potash throws down a fine ochre-yellow
precipitate, of great intensity of colour.
5. Phosphate of soda throws down a yellowish-white
precipitate. _ , .
The salts of peroxide of uranium hitherto examined
amount to twenty-five. Of these, seven have been sub¬
jected to analysis. From these analyses it appears that
this oxide is much given to combine with an atom and a
half of acid, and so to form sesquisalts. There are also
five double salts known into which the peroxide of ura¬
nium enters ; so that the salts of peroxide of uranium
known amount to thirty.
Genus 45. Salts of Protoxide of Molybdenum.
This genus of salts has been very superficially examin¬
ed. Most of them have a green, brown, or black colour,
similar to the solution of sesquioxide of manganese in cold
muriatic acid, without the evolution of chlorine. The taste
is simply astringent, without any thing metallic. They are
not so apt to absorb oxygen as the salts of deutoxide of
molybdenum, and may therefore be concentrated without
so much risk of alteration. Sometimes (especially when
they have an excess of acid) they assume a purple colour,
precisely like the salts of sesquioxide of manganese in the
same circumstances. Eleven of these salts have been form¬
ed, but they have been all very superficially examined.
Genus 46. Salts of Deutoxide of Molybdenum.
The salts of deutoxide of molybdenum, while they re¬
tain water of crystallization, are red.; but when deprived of
their water they become black. Their solutions have an
astringent taste, and communicate at the same time an
impression of acidity, and leave a feeling of something
metallic in the mouth.
1. When infusion of nutgalls is added to a solution of
these salts, the colour becomes bright yellow, with a shade
of brown, and a small quantity of grayish-brown matter
precipitates.
2. Prussiate of potash throws down a dark-brown preci¬
pitate, which is not redissolved by an excess of the pre¬
cipitant.
3. A rod of zinc strikes a black colour, while protoxide
of molybdenum mixed with zinc gradually precipitates.
4. The insoluble salts of deutoxide of molybdenum, when
put into an alkaline solution, become black, because the
oxide is changed into molybdic acid, and is taken up, pro¬
vided there be a sufficient quantity of alkali.
Thirteen salts of deutoxide of molybdenum have been
examined, though rather superficially. The difficulty of
procuring the deutoxide in sufficient quantity presents a
bar to these investigations.
S T R Y.
luted with water it has a yellow colour; but it soon be- Inorga;
comes muddy, and deposits molybdic acid in the form of Rodie
a white powder. When this precipitate is washed and
dried it is a white matter, which, when ignited, gives out
about one per cent, of water. Ihe ignited mass is soft to
the touch, and may be spread upon the skin. In this state
it dissolves easily in acids, and forms a genus of salts
which have not been much examined. About nine of them
have been examined, though rather superficially. They
have either a yellow colour, or are colourless and trans¬
parent.
Genus 48. Salts of Tungstic Acid.
It is known that tungstic acid is capable of combining
as a base with other acids. But none of these salts have
been hitherto examined except the sulphate and nitrate,
and these superficially. The former is a white, the lat¬
ter a yellowish powder, both soluble in water.
Genus 49. Salts of Columbia Acid.
The white oxide of columbium, though it possesses the
characters of an acid, is capable also of combining with
acids as a base, and of forming salts which have scarcely
been examined. The only salt of this kind hitherto ex¬
amined is the sulphate. With phosphoric and boracic
acids columbic acid fuses into a transparent and colourless
glass.
Genus 50. Salts of Titanic Acid.
The characteristic property of solutions of titanic acid
in acids is the bulky, dark reddish-brown precipitate,
which falls on the addition of infusion of nutgalls, similar
in appearance to coagulated blood.
1. Titanic acid is thrown down from its solution in acids
by boiling, but the precipitate cannot be washed. When
we collect it on a filter, the liquid passes colourless as
long as it is acid; but when it becomes pure water, it
assumes a milky appearance, and the whole titanic acid
passes along with it through the filter. W hen the solution
contains zirconia, the whole titanic acid cannot be sepa¬
rated by boiling.
2. Titanic acid is not precipitated by sulphuretted
hydrogen gas nor by sulphohydrate of ammonia added
in excess. .
3. When a rod of tin is plunged into a solution of tita¬
nium, the liquid around it gradually assumes a fine red
colour. A rod of zinc, on the other hand, occasions a
deep-blue colour.
The salts of titanic acid hitherto examined by chemists
amount only to nine; and of these, not one is capable ot
crystallizing, and none of them constitutes a neutral salt.
CLASS II. CHLORINE SALTS.
Chlorine, like oxygen, combines with all the salifiable
bases, and doubtless forms acids with many of them; but
except those of muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid, scarcely
any of the salts of chlorine have been investigated. 0
late, indeed, the salts of chloride of mercury, and other
eight chlorides which possess acid properties, have been
formed and examined by Bonsdorf. But this rich field is
still very imperfectly traversed.
Genus 47. Salts of Molybdic Acid.
Molybdic acid is not only capable of forming salts by
combining with bases, but it may also be made to act the
part of a base, and combine w ith acids.
Molybdic acid does not combine with water; but when
molybdenum or its oxides are acidified by nitric acid, this
acid dissolves molybdic acid ; and when the solution is di-
Genus 1. Muriates or Chlorides.
The chemical law is, that whatever principle has con¬
verted the acidifiable base into an acid, the same principle
must have converted the alkalifiable base into anJ” .
Oxygen acids unite only with oxygen bases, and chlorine
acids with chlorides. When a chlorine acid is unite o
an oxide, a double decomposition usually takes place,
I raiiic
:lies.
water being formed and a chloride. Muriates, therefore
must consist of muriatic acid united to a chloride - but
" such salts, supposing them to exist, have not yet been in¬
vestigated. Most of the salts usually called muriates are
really chlorides. Whether these are also muriates has not
yet been determined.
A considerable number of the chlorides are soluble in
water. The alkaline chlorides have a saline taste, and
form transparent and colourless solutions. Such also are
the solutions of the earthy chlorides. The colours of the
metalline chlorides depend upon the nature of the metallic
base.
When a solution of nitrate of silver is dropt into a chlo¬
ride, a white, heavy, curdy precipitate falls, which dissolves
readily m ammonia, and which blackens when exposed to
the direct rays of the sun. 1
The number of chlorides and muriates at present known
amount to foi ty-seven, the greater number of which have
been subjected to a rigid chemical analysis.
Genus 2. Chlorostannates.
Both the chloiides of tin possess the characters of an
acid, though only a very few of their chlorostannates have
been hitherto examined. Chlorostannate and bichloro-
stannate of ammonia may be obtained in crystals, by
mixing sal ammoniac with a solution of chloride of tin,
Chloiostannate of potassium, sodium, and barium, have
also been formed. No doubt many other salts belonging
to this genus might be obtained, if the requisite trouble
were taken.
Genus 3. Clilorohydrargyrates.
Coirosive sublimate possesses the characters of an acid,
and is capable of combining with other chlorides, and of
forming a genus of salts, to which the name of chlorohy-
drargyratesh&s been given. Some of these, as sal alem-
brolh, or ehlorohydrargyrate of ammonia, have been long
r.own. Eighteen of these salts have been particularly
examined by Bonsdorf, and most of them analysed by
him. With many of the bases it would appear that cof-
roswe sublimate is capable of combining in various propor-
Genus 4, Chloro-aurates.
The chloride of gold possesses likewise acid properties,
and combines readily with the alkaline chlorides, with
seveial of which it forms beautiful crystals. Several of
these salts have been long known, while others have been
examined more lately by Professor Bonsdorf. There are
eleven chloro-aurates which have been examined, and four
ox these have been subjected to analysis.
CHEMISTR Y.
water, and likewise in alcohol. They have usually a
by°I3onsdorf[* ^ °f' 'em ,laVC ,ICCn cx!ll,linc<l> chiefly
Genus 7. Chlororhodiates.
This genus of salts, consisting of chloride of rhodium
combined with alkaline chlorides, owing to the great
scarcity of rhodium, is very imperfectly understood. Only
two of them are known, namely, chlororhodiates of pot¬
assium and sodium, both of which have been subjected to
analysis. J
Genus 8. Chloro-iridiates.
This genus of salts is equally unknown with the pre¬
ceding, and for a similar cause, the difficulty of procuring
mdium. Five combinations of chloride of iridium with
alkaline chlorides have been formed, and examined with
more or less care.
Genus 9. Chloro-osmiates.
Five salts composed of chloride of osmium united to
an alkaline chloride have been examined by Berzelius,
and their properties imperfectly investigated.
. CLASS III. BROMINE ACID SALTS.
The analogy between chlorine and bromine is so perfect
that we cannot have the least doubt that both are capable
of entering into similar combinations. But from the short
time that bromine has been known, it is evident that che¬
mists have not yet had time to examine the whole of its
combinations. Indeed the only salts of bromine with which
we are at present acquainted are the hydrobromates or
bromides.
Genus 1. Bromides or Hydrobromates.
These salts are easily recognised by the property which
they have of becoming yellow and giving out bromine
a;6” t are actec* on hy bodies which have a strong
afiimty for hydrogen, as chloric acid, nitric acid, and espe°
cially chlorine. All the bromides are decomposed by chlo¬
rine, with the disengagement of bromine. The bromides
or hydrobromates hitherto examined and described amount
to twenty-eight.
Genus 2. Bromohydrargyrates.
The bromide of mercury possesses the characters of an
acid ; and two of the salts which it forms have been noticed
by Lowig, namely, bromohydrates of ammonia and of pot¬
assium. 1
455
Inorganic
Bodies.
Genus 5. C/doroplatinates.
Jl ha,s been ]?ng kn°wn that chloride of platinum unites
tn sal ammoniac and with several other chlorides. Bons-
amln 7 tU,rned his attenti«'i to these salts, and ex-
havo k fifteea o( No fewer than eleven of these
nave been subjected to analysis. They consist chiefly of
an auT °f bJcbloncIe °f platinum united to one atom of
an aikahne chloride. Water, when present, is either in
no 01 eiSkt atoms ; but several of the salts contain
Genus 6. Chloropalladiates.
wW101^ °f P.alIadium combines with chlorine bases,
are rn\v i^ addln£ a llttIe muriatic acid, the solutions
drvnpseC<ti °£etbe1r* The mixture must be evaporated to
in the * 1C residue dissolved in water, and crystallized
chlornnV£mUrm °f,a.n a*r‘PumP over sulphuric acid. The
P adiates hitherto examined are very soluble in
CLASS IV.—IODINE ACID SALTS.
The investigation of this class of salts has not made
much greater progress than the preceding. But now that
iodine can be procured at a cheap rate, it is to be hoped
that some chemist will take the trouble to investicate
them., b
Genus 1. Hydriodates or Iodides.
The analogy of these salts is complete with the chlorides
and bromides. I hey must all be alike m their composi¬
tion. There are twenty-three iodides at present known.
Genus 2. lodostannates.
Genus 3. lodoplumbates.
Genus 4. lodohydrargyrates.
It is known that the iodides of tin, lead, and mercury
have acid propeities, and of course that they are capable
456
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic of combining with the alkaline iodides and forming salts;
Bodies, but few or none of these salts have been examined, except
four iodohydrargyrates, which were investigated by bons-
dorf.
CLASS v.—FLUORINE ACID SALTS.
As fluorine has not hitherto been obtained in a separate
state, it must still be regarded as a hypothetical substance.
But the evidence in its favour is so strong, that we believe
all chemists are at present disposed to consider it as y
far the most probable opinion. At all events, the genera
of salts classed under it have a real existence, whatever
may be the ultimate end of our views respecting the na¬
ture of their constitution.
Genus 1. Fluorides, Hydrofluates, or Fluates.
The salts composed offluoric or hydrofluoric acid have
received different names, according to the opinion enter¬
tained respecting the nature of the acid which they con¬
tain. Those who consider it as a compound of a combus¬
tible base and oxygen call these salts fluales ; those w 10
consider the acid as a compound of fluorine hydrogen
call them hydrofluates; while those who are of opinion that
fluorine is analogous to oxygen, and that when hydroflu¬
oric acid comes in contact with a base a double decompo¬
sition takes place (fluorine uniting with the base, while the
oxygen and hydrogen form water), give them the name
of fluorides. This last opinion is by far the most plausible,
though it would be too much to affirm that it has been
demonstrated. , .
The fluorides or hydrofluates hitherto described and
examined by chemists amount to thirty-six: the gieatei
number of these are soluble in water. The fluorides of ba¬
rium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium, are insoluble.
The soluble salts cannot be kept in glass vessels without
undergoing decomposition.
Genus 2. Fluoborates.
These salts, consisting of combinations of fluoboric acid
and bases, have been but imperfectly examined. Twelve
of these salts have been formed. They are almost all so¬
luble in water.
Genus 3. Fluosilicates.
Of these salts twenty-seven species have been formed
and examined in a cursory manner, almost all by Berze¬
lius. They are mostly soluble in water. Fluosilicic acid
affords us an easy method of distinguishing barytes from
strontian. It precipitates the former, but forms a very so¬
luble salt with the latter. ,
There are five other genera of fluorine acid salts, name¬
ly, fluomolybdates, fluotung states, fluochromates, fluocolum-
bates, andtfluotitaniates, which have been so little examined
that they may be considered as still almost unknown.
CLASS VI. CYANOGEN ACID SALTS.
This class of salts will ultimately contain a great num¬
ber of genera. It promises also to throw light upon the
nature of organic compounds ; for cyanogen is not only
itself derived from the animal kingdom, but it is liable to
undergo changes quite analogous to those which puzzle .us
so much at present when we attempt to obtain definite
views respecting the organic kingdoms of nature.
Genus 1. Cyanodides and Hydrocyanates.
That cyanogen, like chlorine, combines with the greater
number of simple bases, and converts them into a species
of salt, has been proved by the most decisive experiments.
Of these, no fewer than twenty-two have already been Inord
formed and described. They are of exceedingly easy de- Bodie
composition, and constitute the prussiates long ago form-
ed and examined by Scheele. It excited at that time great
astonishment that they differed so much fiom the ferro-
prussiates.
Genus 2. Cyanates.
As cyanic acid contains oxygen, this genus of salts
might with propriety have found its place among the oxy¬
gen acid salts. We have placed them here because, in the
present state of our knowledge, it is better that all the salts
containing cyanogen should be placed together. 1 he cy¬
anates consist of combinations of the cyanic acid with
bases. The number of them hitherto formed is only nine,
and none of them possesses any remarkable properties.
Genus 3. Cyanurates.
This genus consists of combinations of cyanuric acid
with bases. The acid has been so recently discovered, and
obtained in so small quantities, that scarcely any of the
salts which it forms have been investigated.
Genus 4. Fulminates.
This genus of salts possesses the remarkable property
of fulminating in general very loudly when struck upon an
anvil, or when heated. They owe this property to the ful-
minic acid which they contain, the nature and constitu¬
tion of which has been explained in a preceding part of
this article. These fulminates are easily obtained, by dou¬
ble decomposition, from the fulminate of mercury. Mr E.
Davy has described no fewer than twenty-four of them.
The most formidable of thbm is fulminate of silver, ougi-
nally discovered by Mr Howard.
Genus 5. Sulphocyanodides.
This genus consists of combinations of thehydrosulpho-
cyanic acid originally discovered by Mr Porrett with bases.
It is at present the opinion that this acid loses its atom ot
hydrogen, while the oxides give out their oxygen, and are
converted into simple bases. Hence the ivavoo sidphocy-
anodides by which they are distinguished. Of these salts
twenty-seven are known, most of which were first examin¬
ed by Mr Porrett. The most remarkable of them is the
hydrosulphocyanated peroxide of iron, which has a beau¬
tiful crimson colour, and is very deliquescent.
Genus 6. Bisulflhocyanodides.
This ffenus of salts is still almost unknown. Four of
them have been formed by Wohler, but only very super¬
ficially examined.
Genus 7. Ferrocyanodides.
This genus of salts contains those bodies formerly dis¬
tinguished by the name offerroprussiates. . They are, ma 7
of them, powders thrown down by the action ot a
of ferroprussiate of potash on a metallic solution. .
consist in general of two cyanodides united togc e’i
it is to this double combination that they are indebted
for their greater permanency than the simple cyan , f
tL most important of th/m all is the W»oW»/
potassium, which used to be called or
ply prussiate of potash. It is a fine yellow salt,
in octahedrons composed of two four-sided pyre ^
square bases, applied base to base, and the aF .
pyramids truncated. Its taste is very strong and disag^
able. It loses its water when gently heated. A ^
decomposes the cyanodide of iron which it contain ^
by throwing down the iron from its so 11 lon’ .
wards evaporating, we obtain cyanodide o po
C H E M
ganic The ferrocyanodides at present known amount to twen¬
ties. ty-nine, but the greater number of them have only been
"T-J very superficially examined.
Many other genera of cyanogen salts will be hereafter
added to the preceding list. It is known at present that
the following exist:—
Manganese cyanodides.
Nickel cyanodides.
Cobalt cyanodides.
Zinc cyanodides.
Copper cyanodides.
Mercury cyanodides.
Silver cyanodides.
Tellurium cyanodides.
All of these, and doubtless many more, are capable of
forming each a genus of salts similar to the ferrocyano¬
dides, and doubtless containing as many species.
CLASS VII. SULPHUR ACID SALTS.
It has been already stated that sulphur, when it com¬
bines with the acidifiable bases, converts many of them
into acids, while its compounds, with the alkalifiable bases,
constitute alkalies or salifiable bases. The acid com¬
pounds of sulphur we call sulphides, the alkaline sulphu-
rets. A sulphide has the property of combining with a
sulphuret, without decomposition, and of forming a salt;
but when it comes in contact with an oxide, chloride, bro¬
mide, or iodide, decomposition takes place. Hence all
the sulphur-salts contain as a base a sulphuret. The ge¬
nera of sulphur-salts will increase much when the general
attention of chemists is turned towards them. Hitherto
only a few have been investigated.
Genus 1. Sidphohydrates.
The acid of this genus has been long known under the
name of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and its acid proper¬
ties are well determined. But as the term sulphuretted
hydrogen is not well adapted for the generic name of a class
of salts, it has been deemed requisite to change it to sul-
phohydrogen, from which sulphohydrate, a term analogous
to the generic names of the oxygen acid salts, is easily
derived. In a similar way all the genera of the sulphur-
salts are formed. What we call sulphohydrates, then, is the
same as the salts formerly called hydrosulphurets, and first
imperfectly described by Berthollet. Eight of these sul¬
phohydrates have been particularly examined, namely,
those which have for their bases ammonia, potassium, so¬
dium, lithium, barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium.
Genus 2. Bisulphocarbonate.
The acid of this genus is the transparent liquid com¬
posed of two atoms of sulphur and one atom of carbon,
ormerly distinguished by the name of bisulphuret of car¬
bon, and now called bisulphide of carbon. It combines
. ^nany of the sulphurets, and forms salts, many of
w mh are insoluble powders; while others are soluble, and
capable of crystallizing. Twenty-seven such combinations
ave been examined, though not wfith much care. They
way be frequently formed by placing bisulphide of carbon
in contact with an alcoholic solution of a sulphuret. A
good many are easily procured by double decomposition.
Genus 3. Sulpho-arseniates.
Arsenic and sulphur combine, as has been already ex-
p ained, in three proportions, and all the three possess acid
2rafers- By sulpho-arseniates we mean those sulphur-
s that have the sulphide of arsenic, composed of
VOL. VI. » 4
I S T R Y.
1 atom arsenic 4-75
2^ atoms sulphur   5
and whose atomic weight is 9-75. It is analogous to ar¬
senic acid.
The sulpho-arseniates may be formed in various ways.
1. By digesting a sulphuret with sulphide of arsenic.
2. By treating a sulphohydrate with sulphide of arsenic.
3. When an arseniate is decomposed by sulphide of hy¬
drogen, the oxygen salt is destroyed, and an equal num¬
ber of atoms of sulphur enter into the salt in place of the
oxygen. This decomposition proceeds at first slowly,
but becomes at last more rapid ; and it is the best method
of obtaining in a state of purity those salts that do not
crystallize. The decomposition is completed when the
salt is no longer rendered muddy by chloride of barium
or calcium. Those arseniates which are soluble in muria¬
tic acid (though insoluble in water) may be decomposed,
if their basis consists of a metal which is thrown down by
sulphide of hydrogen, for example arseniate of copper.
4. When sulphide of arsenic is dissolved in caustic am¬
monia, or by means of an earthy hydrate : but in that case
the sulpho-arseniate is mixed with an arseniate, and the
sulphide of arsenic is driven off by acids without any smell
of sulphide of hydrogen.
5. When sulphide of arsenic is boiled with the carbo¬
nates. The carbonic acid may be completely driven off;
but in this case also there is a mixture of arseniate pre¬
sent. 1
.6. When sulphide of arsenic is fused in the dry way
with a hydrate or a carbonate, which is present in excess.
In that case we obtain a sulpho-arseniate, mixed with a
sulphate and an arseniate, while metallic arsenic sublimes.
7. When sulphide of arsenic is digested with a solution
of quatersulphuret of potassium. All higher sulphurets
produce the same salts, while at the same time sulphur is
precipitated.
8. When an arseniate is mixed with a sulphohydrate of
ammonia. Ammonia and the excess of the sulphohydrate
are distilled off, and the sulpho-arseniate remains in the
retort. This method answers only with those salts whose
bases are not precipitated by ammonia.
The colour of the sulpho-arseniates having an alkaline
metal for a base is yellow when anhydrous. The aqueous
solutions are nearly colourless. The colour of the metal¬
line salts varies. The taste of these salts is hepatic, and
at the same time a very nauseous bitter. When decom¬
posed by an acid, they give out a peculiar hepatic odour,
like the smell of orpiment in linseed-oil varnish. Most
of them are insoluble in water. Those containing the
bases of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and a few others,
constitute exceptions. They have a strong tendency to
form subsalts, consisting of an atom of the acid combined
with an atom and a half of the base. These subsalts crys¬
tallize very readily, while this is frequently not the case
with the neutral salts; hence the difficulty of obtaining
the neutral salts.
When alcohol is mixed with a concentrated solution of
these salts, it occasions a peculiar alteration in them. A
subsalt containing two thirds of the sulphide of arsenic is
precipitated, commonly in a crystalline state, and the li¬
quid becomes yellow. It now holds in solution a bisul-
pho-arseniate, sometimes mixed with a small portion of
the subsalt held in solution. From this spirituous liquid
the bisulpho-arseniate may be obtained by hasty evapora¬
tion in a flat glass. It leaves a solid matter, of a lemon-
yellow colour, which is decomposed by water, leaving sul¬
phide of arsenic. If the spirituous solution in consider¬
able quantity be concentrated on the sand-bath it gives,
3 M
457
Inorganic
Bodies.
458
CHEMISTRY.
Inorganic by slow cooling, a light-yellow striated or scaly mass, and
Bodies. at the bottom of the retort is deposited a one red or red-
' dish-yellow powder. The yellow, crystallized mass is per-
sulphuret of arsenic, and the red substance deposited sul¬
phide of arsenic. . ,
The sulpho-arseniates are decomposed by acids with
the evolution of sulphide of hydrogen. If the solution be
dilute, no effervescence takes place, the liquid merely
smells of sulphide of hydrogen. Even carbonic acid gas
passed through the solutions of these salts throws down
sulphide of arsenic.
The sulpho-arseniates have a great tendency to foim
double salts with each other, and this disposition is most
remarkable in those which have a tendency to unite when
in the state of oxygen salts. Thus sulpbo-arsemate of so¬
dium and ammonia unite into a crystallized double salt.
When these salts are heated to redness in an open ves¬
sel they are easily decomposed, sulphurous acid and arse-
nious acid are given out, and a sulphate remains without
any trace of an arseniate. .
The sulpho-arseniates hitherto examined amount to
thirty-seven. Of these, five have been subjected to ana¬
lysis. For the investigation of these salts we are indebted
to Berzelius.
The sulpho-arsenites described and examined amount Inorgg.
to thirty-three. Of these, those which have for a base the hodt
sulphurets of the alkalies and alkaline earthy bases are 1
soluble in w'ater. Most of the others are insoluble.
Genus 4. Sulpho-arsenites.
These salts are composed of orpiment, or sesquisulphide
of arsenic, and the alkaline sulphurets. They may be ob¬
tained in the same wayas the sulpho-arseniates, substituting
for arsenic acid and sulphide of arsenic, arsenious acid and
orpiment. They are formed exclusively in the dry way,
and cannot be obtained by means of the alkaline sulphurets.
Alkaline sulphohydrates dissolve orpiment only till the
solution contains a bisulpho-arseniate. The sulphurets of
barium, calcium, and magnesium, take up a very inconsi¬
derable excess of orpiment.
These salts (when their bases are colourless), wnetner
neutral or in the state of subsalts, are colourless, or have
only a slight tint of yellow. The salts with coloured
bases have in general the same colours with the sulpho-
arseniates; their taste and smell are also similar.
They are best obtained either in a solid form or in a
dilute solution. The subsalts may be kept better than
the neutral or supersalts. When a solution of these salts
is evaporated, it begins, at a certain degree of concentra
*■ y • l .11 Ti- rlonn
Genus 5. Hyposulpho-arsenites.
Realgar, which is a compound of one atom sulphur and
one atom arsenic, has likewise the property of combining
wdth alkaline sulphurets. rIhese salts may be called Ay-
posulpho-arsenites, from analogy with the hyposulphites
and hypophosphites, which exhibit analogous combina¬
tions among the oxygen acid salts.
This combination docs not take place diiectly5 tor when
realgar is digested with sulphuret of potassium, or with
caustic potash, it is decomposed, and gives a dark-brown
powder, consisting of arsenic combined w:ith a minimum
of sulphur. When sulpho-arsenite of potassium is melted
with an additional quantity of arsenic, we form hyposul-
pho-arsenite of potassium, which easily swells up, and the
excess of arsenic makes its escape. In water the salt is
decomposed, just as when realgar is dissolved in potash.
If orpiment be boiled with carbonate of potash oi soda
in a tolerably concentrated solution, and be filtered while
boiling hot, a colourless liquid passes through, which, after
cooling deposits (within twelve hours) a copious precipi¬
tate, quite similar to kermes mineral. This is a hyposul-
pho-arsenite of potassium or sodium. _ It is soluble in wa-
ter, but not so while the liquid contains sulpho-arsenite of
potassium in solution. Let it be collected on the filter,
and when the liquid has been drained from it, a little pure
water must be poured on it once or twice. It soon swells
out, becomes gelatinous, and the liquid passes through
pure yellow. The salt precipitates again if the liquid
holding it in solution be mixed with more water. It dries
into a translucent red mass. . .
On the filter remains a dark-brown powder, insoluble in
water, which is a bihyposulpho-arsenite of potassium. It
melts easily when heated, gives out nothing volatile, and
leaves a translucent red mass, insoluble in water. Caus¬
tic potash dissolves it with the same phenomena as real¬
gar When the neutral sulpho-arsenites of the bases of
the alkalies and alkaline earths are exposed to spontane¬
ous evaporation, they leave dark-red insoluble compounds,
which are bihi/posulpho-arsenites. _
With glucinum, yttrium, and aluminum, such compounds
tion, to assume a brownish-yellow colour, ft then depo- ^ ^“vvkh the evoTution^fTulphide of hydrogen,
sits a brown powder which ■ncro.se. «**<>_,.yHdr.es, P'^'^Cet of zirconium realg'ar unites to a dart-
when it is in a great measure decomposed into suipno
arseniate and subsulpho-arsenite. Water dissolves only
the first of these salts, leaving the second, which, how¬
ever, may be taken up by boiling water. Alcohol produces
a similar deposition.
Orpiment dissolves easily in caustic potash or soda. 1 he
cold solution is nearly colourless. When boiled it assumes
a dark-brown colour, and at last deposits a dark-biown
powder, which when dry is almost black.
The sulpho-arsenites with an alkaline basis are not de¬
composed at a red heat in a retort. Ihe others lose mote
or less of their orpiment. By alcohol they are decompos¬
ed in the same way as the sulpho-arseniates. I be sub¬
salts, which are thrown down by alcohol, are obtained only
when the solution is not fully saturated with orpiment.
By acids they are altered in a way analogous to the sul¬
pho-arseniates. Easily reducible oxygen bases or oxides
form with them, in the cold, arsenites, and when boiled
with them, arseniates, while the reduced metal unites with
the sulphur, producing a sulpho arseniate. _ _
Tfie solutions, when exposed to the air, undergo simi-
.,. cj ....vk c..i,-,iir>_r,>-o«n'obnc tint they depo-
brown precipitate, which sinks slowly. With manganese,
zinc, and cerium, are obtained red or dark-yeilow preaF-
tates, not like the sulpho-arsemates or sulpho-arsenites,
but the remaining metals give precipitates quite sum
to the sulpho-arsenites.
Genus 6. Sulphomolybdates.
The sulphomolybdates consist of combinations of the
alkahne^wi^r^piide of molybdenum, which
• i   I  .4-r-. ifiitinn to nrmlvbdlC SCICl
lar alterations with the sulpho-arseniates, but t
tfWsiWiW bllh b
During evaporation the liquid . ,
of hydrogen, but no precipitate falls, a Ct which con-
,0- When burnt they are decomposed. 11 ?se 1 h ed
tain the basis of an alkali or alkaline earth aie b
aiKanne suqniuiciB w^i.-v-.o—r  y . , rpi
is analogous in its constitution to moiybdic aud.
sulphomolybdates are most easily obtained when ^
gen salt is decomposed by sulphide of hydr. E,e"1‘ tions
decomposition goes on with difficulty m ) ^ ^ d’
hut rapidly in concentrated ones, ihe lKluld J^0h b;.own.
like a bichromate, or (if it contain iron reddish brown^
These salts, when pure, have a red colour; a
brown indicates the presence of iron. An ker>
jlphide of molybdenum likewise renders the c.o!ou d
)urine: evaporation the liquid emits the smell of su plna
CHEMISTRY.
;anic into quatersulphurets of the base, and into bisulphide of
ties, molybdenum. The salt of potassium is decomposed to
the amount of two thirds, the salt of sodium farther, and
the rest altogether. The sulphomolybdates, with weaker
bases, give out sulphur, and leave a compound of the base
with bisulphide of molybdenum. When the solutions of
these salts are left exposed to the air, they are but little
altered when in the state of bisulphomolybdates; but
the subsalts are oxydized rapidly even in a solid form, and
a molybdate with a subsulphite and sulphite is formed,
leaving a neutral sulphomolybdate. A grayish-brown
matter is gradually deposited, during which the beautiful
colour of the solution is altered. It becomes opaque and
dark brown, then greenish brown, and at last pure blue.
The liquid contains a solution of sulphate and molybdate
of potash, together with molybdate of molybdenum.
Thirty-two of these sulphomolybdates have been form¬
ed and examined. Several of these crystallize and form
very beautiful salts.
459
Genus 7. Hyper sulphomolybdates.
These salts are combinations of the quatersulphide of
molybdenum with the sulphurets. Sixteen species have
been examined, but not very minutely.
Jamesonite, a mineral first distinguished from common Organic
sesqmsulphide of antimony by Mohs. It is a compound of Bodies.
1^ atom bisulphide of antimony 18
1 atom sulphuret of lead 15
33
Ihere are at least five different species of hyposulpho-
antimonites whose existence has been recognised in the
mineral kingdom. These are,
1. JBerthierite, composed of
1^ atom sesquisulphide of antimony.... 16-5
1 atom sulphuret of iron  5*5
22
2. Zinhenite, composed of
2 atoms sesquisulphide of antimony 22
1 atom sulphuret of lead 15
37
3. Hournonite, composed of
1 atom sesquisulphide of antimony 11
1 atom disulphuret of lead 28
1 atom disulphuret of copper 10
Genus 8. Sulphotungstates.
The acid of these salts is the tersulphide of tungsten,
corresponding in its composition with tungstic acid.
Thirty-two species have been described by Berzelius, many
of them rather imperfectly. Several of them are soluble
in water, and form crystals of a ruby-red, or sometimes of
a fine-yellow colour. Many of them are insoluble powders,
of a yellow or brownish-yellow colour.
Genus 9. Sulphotellurates.
These salts consist of combinations of sulphide of tel¬
lurium with the sulphurets. The sulphide of tellurium
is best obtained by decomposing either the tellurates or
the salts in which oxide of tellurium acts the part of a
base, by a current of sulphide of hydrogen. A brown
flooky precipitate falls, which is sulphide of tellurium.
When heated in close vessels the sulphur is driven off,
and pure tellurium remains. Eighteen species have been
described, several of which dissolve in water and crystal¬
lize. The colour of these salts is usually yellow, some¬
times very dark.
Genus 10. Sulpho-antimoniates.
There are three sulphides of antimony, namely, persul¬
phide, analogous to antimonic acid ; bisulphide, analogous
toantinionious acid; sesquisulphide, analogous to oxide of
antimony. Each of these is capable of combining with the
sulphurets and forming a genus of sulphur-salts. These
may be distinguished by the names of sulpho-antimo-
mates, sulpho-antimonites, and hyposulpho-antimonites,
according to the mode of naming which we adopted for
m sulphosalts of arsenic. The antimonial sulphur salts
ave not yet been investigated; of course it is impossi-
e o give any account of them here. The subject, how¬
ever, is interesting, and is calculated to throw much light
upon some of the most complicated ores in the mineral
mg om. We do not at present know any sulpho-anti-
omates; but there are two sulpho-antimonites, namely,
jea er ore, which was considered as a common ore of
esquisu phide of arsenic, but has been lately shown to be
a compound of
1 atom bisulphide of antimony 12
1 atom sulphuret of lead 15
4. Dark-red silver ore, composed of
1 atom disesquisulphide of antimony..19
1£ atom sulphuret of silver 23-625
^ . . 42-625
5. Miargirite, composed of
5 atoms sesquisulphide of antimony 55
3 atoms sulphuret of silver 47-25
102-25
PART III.
CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC BODIES.
The substances which constitute the subjects of the che¬
mistry of organic bodies are the principles of which vege¬
tables and animals are composed. In animals, for exam¬
ple, we find glue, albumen, muscle, bone, &c. In vege¬
tables we have sugar, starch, gum, resin, &c. The object
of this part of the article is to give an account of the che¬
mical properties of these most important substances.
Organic bodies differ from unorganized bodies in many
important particulars. They are in general of a much
more complex character than inorganic bodies, containing
a very considerable number of atoms united together in
some wray that we do not as yet understand completely.
It would appear that as many as forty or fifty atoms (and
in some cases a great many more), belonging to two, three,
or four different simple substances, are somehow or other
united so as to constitute an integrant particle of the or¬
ganic matter.
The electrical theory of affinity, which is at present pre-Structure
valent in chemistry, necessarily leads to the notion thatcomplicat-
union can take place only between two atoms in differented.
states of electricity. The compound atoms or particles
thus formed may be conceived to be in opposite states of
electricity, though undoubtedly these opposite states must
be weaker than in the simple substances before union.
One atom combined with one atom makes a binary com¬
pound. If two binary compounds be in opposite electrical
states they will combine and form a quaternary compound,
or a compound containing four atoms. Should these qua¬
ternary compounds be in different electrical states, they
may combine two and two and make an octonary com-
460
Organic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
pound, or a compound of eight atoms. Two of these unit¬
ing would make a particle containing sixteen atoms. I wo
of these united would make a particle containing thirty-
two atoms. In this way we might suppose compounds to
unite, containing, any number of particles whatever, as
long as the electric states continued different, but it is
evident that the intensity of the electricity must diminish
after every new combination ; consequently the intimacy
of the combination must become less and less, and hence
it must happen that they are much more easily decom¬
posed than inorganic bodies, which, containing fewer atoms,
or, what comes to the same thing, consisting of a much
smaller series of combinations, must be united by a much
greater difference in the electric state of the combining
bodies. ^ .,
It is probably the consequence of this little intensity
with which the constituents of organic bodies are united,
that they are all capable of being decomposed by heat,
which is but rarely the case with inorganic bodies. To
the same cause probably we are to ascribe the combusti¬
bility which almost all of them possess. Even when the
constituents of an organic and inorganic body are the very
same, we find the organic body combustible, and the inor¬
ganic incombustible. Thus oxalic acid and carbonic acid
are composed each of carbon and oxygen ; oxalic acid of
two atoms carbon and three atoms oxygen, and carbonic
acid of one atom carbon and two atoms oxygen.
Oxalic acid is combustible, and easily decomposed by
heat; while carbonic acid is incombustible, and not decom¬
posed by heat, unless assisted by affinity. Thus, if we
pass carbonic acid through red-hot charcoal, it is decom¬
posed and converted into carbonic oxide, which is capa¬
ble of burning. It is in this way that carbonate of lime is
deprived of its acid. The coal with which it is mixed de¬
prives it of an atom of oxygen; and the whole, thus con¬
verted into carbonic oxide, occasions, by its combustion,
the intense heat which continues for so long a period in
a well-constructed lime-kiln. We conceive that most of
the peculiarities which distinguish organic bodies are de¬
rived from their very complicated structure, which neces¬
sarily involves a feeble affinity. How far their formation
and properties depend upon the principle of life, we have
no means of determining ; but till the inadequacy of the
former cause to produce all the peculiarities of organic
bodies be proved, we are disposed to rest satisfied with it.
Organic bodies naturally divide themselves into two
great branches, according as they belong to the vegetable
or animal kingdom. W e shall treat of each of these king¬
doms in succession.
DIVISION I. OF VEGETABLE BODIES.
Vegetables are too well known to require any definition.
They are perhaps the most numerous set of bodies be¬
longing to this globe. The species already known amount
to at least 60,000; and as great additions are daily mak¬
ing to this number, and vast tracts of country remain yet
unexplored, the probability is, that the whole species of
plants on the globe are not fewer than 120,000. The na¬
ture of the substances which belong to the vegetable king¬
dom has attracted the attention of chemists almost from
the commencement of the science. Their number has in¬
creased as analytical chemistry improved, and very great
accessions have been made to that number during the
course of the present century.
The principles of vegetables, or the different substances
which may be extracted from the vegetable kingdom, na¬
turally divide themselves into three sets, namely, acids,
alkalies, and neutral bodies. These three sets will consti¬
tute the subject of the three following chapters.
CHAP. I.—OF VEGETABLE ACIDS.
Orga-
The acids which exist in the vegetable kingdom, or /
which may be obtained by certain processes from vege- T
table principles, amount to about fifty-eight. We thought
it better to describe them in a former part of this article,
while treating of primary compounds. We refer the read¬
er who wishes to make himself acquainted with these acids
to that part of our article.
CHAP. II. OF VEGETABLE ALKALIES.
Ammonia probably occurs in the vegetable kingdom,
but certainly rarely, and rather as a product in certain
decompositions which vegetable bodies containing azote
are apt to undergo, than as a real constituent of vegetable
substances. Potash and soda occur in small quantities in
vegetables, always or almost always in combination with
acids. Lime is also a pretty common constituent; but it
occurs only in small quantity, and, like potash and soda, is
almost always in combination with an acid. Lithia has
never been found in the vegetable kingdom; and barytes,
strontian, and magnesia, are exceedingly rare. These
substances have been described in a preceding part of this
article, and are not usually considered as belonging to the
vegetable kingdom. But there are a considerable number
of vegetable principles, which may be extracted by che¬
mical processes, and obtained in a separate state, and
which possess alkaline properties; for they are capable
of combining with and neutralizing acids; These in ge¬
neral act with great energy on living beings. Some of
them are narcotics ; others violent stimulants, and as such
very active poisons ; while there are others which act as
emetics, or cathartics, or tonics. We shall devote this
chapter to the description of these important bodies, all
of which have been made known to chemists since the
beginning of the present century,—with very few excep¬
tions, indeed, since the year 1810. The investigation
was begun by Serturner, an apothecary at Eimbeck, in Ha-
nover, who extracted morphin from opium, and pointed
out its alkaline characters in 1817. Ihe subject was taken
up by Pelletier and Caventou, who made known a variety
of these vegetable alkalies. Of late years Dumas and
Boullay, and Liebig, have particularly distinguished them¬
selves in these investigations.
Sect. I.—Of Morphin.
Opium is a milky juice obtained by incisions from the
unripe seed vessels of the papaver somniferum. It speed¬
ily becomes solid, and assumes the dark-brown colour by
which opium is characterized. It has a peculiar sme ,
and a particular but bitter taste. It has been long used
as a narcotic and a powerful antispasmodic. It is a very
complicated substance ; but the most important of its
constituents are two acids and two alkalies. Ihc acics
are the meconic and the codeic. The first of these ha
been described in the former part of this article, but tne
codeic has never yet been obtained separate, so that it
existence is still problematic. The two alkaline bod es
have received the names of morphin and narcotin, the lauer
of which was discovered by Derohne in 1803. •^orP .V
in opium, is believed by Robinet to.be in combination witn
C°Morphfn maybe extracted from opium by the foll°2£;
process : Digest opium in water till every thing solubletain
is taken up, then evaporate the solution to the state ot a
extract. Three parts of this extract are agitated w
one part and a half of water, and then mixed in a
with twenty parts of ether, and heated. Tie \
tached to a receiver, and boiled till five parts o
are distilled off. The ether remaining m the retort
CHEMISTRY.
tame
lies.
'Y-'
Iti roper-
tie
by this time extracted the narcotin salt from the extract.
The process is now interrupted, and the ether in the re¬
tort, hot as it is, is decanted into a separate vessel, and the
rest of the narcotin salt is washed out of the extract by
the five parts of ether that have been distilled over. The
thin extract now remaining is allowed to cool, and then
mixed with a very little water, and after standing an hour
is decanted fiom a crystalline precipitate, which consists
likewise of the narcotin salt. It is now diluted with more
water, and then precipitated by caustic ammonia. The
precipitate is collected on the filter. When the filtered
liquid is heated, a little additional portion of morphin sepa¬
rates, which is added to the former quantity in the filter.
After washing it well with cold water, it is dried, and then
boiled with alcohol of the specific gravity 0-84, amounting
to three times the weight of the opium employed, and the
solution mixed with a little ivory-black, to deprive the mor¬
phin of its colouring matter. Being now filtered while
boiling hot, the morphin is deposited in white crystals as
the liquid cools. By this process the morphin is obtained
pure, but the whole portion which exists in the opium is
not extracted. Opium yields at an average about one six¬
teenth of its weight of pure morphin.
Morphin forms white crystals in prisms, sometimes ter¬
minated by four-sided pyramids. When heated cautious¬
ly it melts, without undergoing decomposition, into a yel¬
low liquid not unlike melted sulphur, which on cooling be¬
comes white and crystallizes. When heated more strong¬
ly in an open vessel it smells like resin, smokes, and burns
with a lively red flame, giving out much smoke, and leav¬
ing an unburnt charcoal.
Its taste is very bitter and astringent, and when taken
into the stomach in a state of solution it acts very power¬
fully ; but in a solid state its action is, comparatively speak¬
ing, very trifling. It is insoluble in cold water, and but
slightly soluble in boiling water; and the portion dissolved,
not exceeding y^yth of the weight of the water, separates
as the solution cools. It dissolves in forty times its weight
of cold, and in thirty times its weight of boiling alcohol.
It is hardly soluble in ether. It dissolves also in fixed and
volatile oils, and may be fused with camphor.
Morphin has been repeatedly analysed by means of
oxide of copper. I he most accurate of these analyses
seem to be those made by Pelletier and Dumas, and by
Liebig. 1 he following little table shows the constituents
according to these analyses.
Pelletier and Dumas. Liebig.
Carbon 72-02 72*340
Hydrogen  7*61  6*366
Azote  5*53  4*995
Oxygen 14*84 16*299
. 100*00 1000001
Liebig made a very careful analysis of sulphate of mor¬
phin, and found it composed of
Sulphuric acid 10*32 or 5
Morphin 75*38 or 36*51
Water 14*30 or 6*92
461
100*00
According to this analysis, the salt is a compound of one
a om of acid, one of atom morphin, and six atoms of water ;
an an atom of morphin weighs 36*5. But the analysis
of the chloride of morphin gave only 34*17 for the ato¬
mic weight of morphin. The mean of these two quanti¬
les is 35*33. Now the number of atoms of carbon, hy-
rogen, azote, and oxygen, corresponding with the preced¬
ing analysis, and giving the atomic weight of morphin Organic
nearest to 35*33, is the following i Bodies.
34 atoms carbon 25*5
18 atoms hydrogen  2*25
1 atom azote  1*75
6 atoms oxygen  6
35*5
It would appear from this analysis that the atomic
weight of morphin is 35*5, and that it is a compound of
no fewer than fifty-nine atoms; but of the way in which
these atoms are combined we have at present no distinct
idea.
The salts of morphin are formed by dissolving morphin Salts,
in the dilute acids till they are saturated, and then evapo¬
rating the liquid. They are colourless, and the greater
number of them crystallize. They have a very sharp and
disagreeably bitter taste. The alkalies precipitate the
morphin from the solutions of these salts. But when very
dilute solutions of these salts are mixed with caustic am¬
monia, either no precipitate falls, or it is again taken up;
but it appears again when the liquid is heated. They
are thrown down by the infusion of nutgalls; and this
re-agent is so delicate that it indicates the presence of a
morphin salt in solution, containing no more than tyobbth
of its weight of it; but as this property is not peculiar to
morphin salts, it cannot serve to detect them. The most
characteristic property of these salts is, that when they
are mixed with a little of a salt of peroxide of iron, they
strike a fine blue colour. This colour is destroyed by heat,
by alcohol, and acetic ether, but not by sulphuric ether.
Sulphate of morphin contains three atoms of water; of
these, two atoms may be driven off by heat, but the remain¬
ing atom cannot be separated without destroying the salt.
Morphin acts most powerfully upon the animal economy
when combined with acetic acid. It is the opinion of some
that the patent medicine called the black drop, which is
known to be more powerful than laudanum, is an infusion
of opium in acetic acid.
Sect. II.— Of Narcotin.
The other alkaline constituent of opium, detected origi¬
nally by Derohne, is narcotin, called opian by some mo¬
dern German chemists. It may be extracted from opium
by means of ether in combination with an acid, hitherto un¬
known, by the process described in the last section. This
salt is to be dissolved in hot water, and digested with some
ivory-black, to deprive it of its colouring matter. From the
filtered liquid the narcotin is to be precipitated by caustic
ammonia. If the precipitate is not colourless, it must be
dissolved in muriatic acid, digested again with ivory-black,
filtered, and finally precipitated by ammonia.
Narcotin is obtained in white loose flocks, but when it Properties,
is dissolved in hot alcohol or ether it shoots into rhombic
prisms, usually larger than the crystals of morphin. It
falls also in scales having a pearly lustre. When the tem¬
perature is elevated a little, it melts, and loses about three
per cent, of its weight. When cooled very slowly, it crys¬
tallizes from a variety of points, but when rapidly cooled
it becomes translucent, and splits in all directions. Its
behaviour when heated is similar to that of morphin.
Cold water does not dissolve it, and hot water not more
than ^oth part of its weight of it. Cold alcohol dissolves
yiy th, and hot alcohol g’yth of its weight of it. Ether dis¬
solves it in considerable quantity, and much more abun¬
dantly when hot than when cold. It dissolves likewise in
volatile and fixed oils. It is distinguished from morphin
Ann. de Chtm. et dc Phys. 47, 165.
462
Organic
Bodies.
Constitu¬
ents.
CHEMISTRY.
Salts.
by the following characters: 1. It is tasteless, whereas
morphin is bitter; 2. It is soluble in ether, in which mor-
phin is insoluble; 3. Whether in a separate state, oi corn-
bined with acids, it does not strike the blue colour with
solutions of peroxide of iron, which characterizes morphin
and its salts. , _ . , -p,
We have two analyses of it, one by Pelletier and Du¬
mas, and another by Liebig. The following little table
shows the results:
Pelletier and Dumas. Liebig.
Carbon 68-88 65-00
Hydrogen  5*91  5-50
Azote  1'2\  2-51
Oxygen 18-00 26-JJ
100-00 100-00
As none of the salts of narcotin have been subjected to
analysis, we do not know the weight of an atom of this
substance ; but the smallest number of atoms of each con¬
stituent, corresponding with Liebig s analysis, is the fol¬
lowing: .ronr
60-5 atoms carbon 45*5/o
31 atoms hydrogen  3-875
1 atom azote  1*75
19 atoms oxygen 19-00
70
Strychnin maybe obtained from nux vomica in the fol- Organ
lowing manner : Digest nux vomica, previously reduced Bodies
to powder, in alcohol, and evaporate the alcoholic solution,
which is very deep coloured, to dryness. Dissolve the™Wob'
dry residue in water, and drop into the solution Gou- ine '
lard's extract as long as a precipitate continues to fall.
By this means a variety of substances, particularly the co¬
louring matter of the nux vomica, are thrown down ; while
the strychnin remains in solution, combined with the ace¬
tic acid of the extract (diacetate of lead). A current of
sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through to throw down
the lead. To the filtered liquid add magnesia, and boil.
The magnesia displaces the strychnin, which is precipita¬
ted. Wash the precipitate in cold water, and then digest
it in alcohol. The strychnin will be dissolved, while the
magnesia (in excess) remains behind. By evaporating the
alcoholic solution, the strychnin separates either in pow¬
der or in small crystals. The strychnin thus obtained
usually contains some brucin, and some other impurities,
from which it may be freed by digestion in spirits of the
specific gravity 0-88. The strychnin remains undissolved.
It may now be dissolved in boiling alcohol, and left to
crystallize.
It crystallizes in very small four-sided prisms ; but when Proper.;
the alcoholic solution is rapidly cooled, it falls down in
small white grains. It has no smell, but its taste is ex¬
cessively bitter, leaving a kind of metallic impression in
the mouth. It is not altered by exposure to the air.
This would make the atomic weight as high as 70; but, the mouth. It is not altered by exposure to me air.
from the very small quantity of azote present, we think When heated it does not melt, like morphin and narcotin,
that an error might have easily been committed in that it gives out™ ™ffrfh^hde„“7°oTl 'Ll «
part of the analysis
gives us
The analysis of Pelletier and Dumas heated to the temperature at which olive oil boils, or
about 600°. When strongly heated it swells, blackens,
gives out ci little einpyreum&tic oil5 some water containing
acetate of ammonia, and leaves a very bulky charcoal be¬
hind. It requires 2500 times its weight of boiling water,
and 6667 times its weight of cold water, to dissolve it.
When the cold solution is diluted with a hundred times
its weight of water, it still retains a distinctly bitter taste.
In alcohol it is exceedingly soluble, even when the spirit
is not quite free from water; but it is scarcely soluble m
ether. It is soluble in volatile oils, and more soluble when
In fixed oils it dissolves
22 atoms carbon 16-5
11 atoms hydrogen  1-375
1 atom azote  1*75
4 atoms oxygen  4
23-625
so that the two analyses are irreconcilable. Liebig’s being
the latest, and made apparently with much care, is pro¬
bably the nearest to the truth. . , , . , ,,
The salts of narcotin are obtained by dissolving that they are hot than when cold.
principle in the diluted acid, and then concentrating the only in minute quantity, yet it gives them a bitter tas
solution sufficiently. Their taste is more bitter than that When heated with su phur it undergoes/^r0p7p°dS1^rao!
of the morphin salts. They dissolve readily in water, and the melting point of the sulphur, and sulphuretted hy
redden litmus paper. The narcotin is thrown down both gen gas is given out. , Dlimas CoiJ;
bv the alkalies and by the infusion of nutgalls. The pre- Strychnin has been analysed by entj.
cipitateby nutgalls lias a light-yellow colour. Severn! of ami by Liebig. The follow,„g table exh.b.ts the const,.**-
them are soluble in alcohol, and still more soluble in ether, tuents according to then determination. .
Pelletier and Dumas. Liebig.
The action of narcotin is not nearly so violent upon the
animal economy as that of morphin. It may be taken to
the extent of a"couple of drachms in the day, without any
sensible effect whatever. Orfila found that half a drachm
of it dissolved in oil very soon destroyed the life of a dog.
In smaller doses it occasioned a stupor, from which the ani¬
mal could not be roused. Acetate of narcotin was found
almost without action on dogs.
Sect. III.— Of Strychnin.
Strychnin was discovered in 1818 by MM. Pelletier
Caventou, in the fruit of three different species of strych-
nos, namely, nux vomica, ignatia, and colunibrina. The
first of these fruits has been long known in this country
under the name of nux vomica, the second under that of
St Ignatius’ bean, and the wood of the tree which bears
the third species of fruit has been long known under the
name of snakewood. The vpas tree of Borneo, and the
woorora, with which the South American Indians poison
their arrows, owe their poisonous qualities to the presence
of strychnin in them.
Carbon 78-22..
Hydrogen  6-54.
Azote  8-92.
Oxygen  6-38.
.76-43
, 6-70
. 5-81
.11-06
100-06 100-00
Liebig determined the atomic weight of strychnin by
the quantity of dry muriatic acid which it is capable o
absorbing. A hundred parts of strychnin absoibe ^
parts of this gas. This would make the atomic weight
30-79. The number of atoms which agrees best with tn
preceding analysis, and with this atomic weight, are the
following:
31 atoms carbon ^
16 atoms hydrogen  2-00
1 atom azote     
3^ atoms oxygen  3-50
30-5
This would make the atomic weight 30-5.
882 bioa oiffinnin or I .«B3, moir juj * “M
CHEMISTRY.
■anic Strychnin 'acts with great violence on living beings,
lies. About half a grain of it is sufficient to destroy the life of
W a rabbit: convulsions are induced, and the animal dies
in about five minutes, in consequence of a violent attack
of tetanus. The same effects take place when strychnin
is introduced into a wound. Morphin diminishes the vio¬
lence of its action, but does not neutralize it or destroy its
effects.
463
11 Strychnin appears to be one of the strongest of the com
pound vegetable alkalies, and it precipitates many orga¬
nic bodies from their solution in acids. The salts of
strychnin have an excessively bitter and disagreeable
taste. They are precipitated by tannin. When" treated
with nitric acid they assume a red colour, provided they
were in a solid state when the acid was applied. Twelve
species of salts of strychnin have been formed and exa¬
mined. The nitrate and sulphate of strychnin crystallize,
and act with more violence when taken internally than
strychnin itself. With both nitric and sulphuric acid
strychnin combines in two proportions, forming neutral
and bisalts. All the salts of strychnin are more poison¬
ous than strychnin itself.
being thrown down by nitrate of silver, he obtained 412 Organic
parts of chloride of silver, indicating 10-15 parts of chlo- Bodies,
rine. The mean of these two results gives us 35-64 for
the atomic weight of brucin. The number of atoms de¬
duced from Liebig’s analysis, and agreeing best with the
atomic weight thus found, is the following :
32^ atoms carbon 24 375
18 atoms hydrogen  2-25
1 atom azote  1-75
6 atoms oxygen  6-00
Pr .ra¬
tios
Pr
foil tu
ent
Sect. IV.— Of Brucin.
Brucin was discovered in 1819, by Pelletier and Caven-
tou, in the bark of the Brucea antidysenterica, usually dis¬
tinguished by the name of false angmtura bark. It exists
also in the nux vomica. The easiest method of obtaining
it is the following : Macerate the brucea bark in water,
mix the infusion with some oxalic acid, and evaporate to
the consistence of an extract. Digest this extract at the
temperature of 32° with absolute alcohol, which will dis¬
solve every thing except the oxalate of brucin. Boil this
oxalate with magnesia and water, and then dissolve the
precipitated brucin in boiling alcohol. When the solution
cools, brucin is separated in crystals,
rties. Brucin thus obtained is white, and crystallized in four¬
sided oblique prisms. Its taste is very bitter, with a cer¬
tain degree of acridity, which remains long in the mouth.
When rapidly precipitated, it falls in pearly scales, similar
in appearance to boracic acid. The crystals constitute a
hydrate of brucin. If they be heated a little above 212°,
they melt and give out about 19 per cent, of water. The
fused mass has the appearance of wax. When pulverized
and put into water, it recovers in a few days its chemi¬
cally combined water. In the open air it behaves when
heated like the preceding bodies. It requires 850 times
its weight of cold, and 500 times its weight of boiling
water to dissolve it. It dissolves very easily in alcohol,
even as weak as 0-88. It is insoluble in ether and in the
fixed oils, but the volatile oils dissolve it in small quan¬
tity. Its most characteristic property is the red or yellow
colour which it assumes when treated with nitric acid,
the protochloride of tin strikes with it a fine violet colour,
and the same coloured precipitate falls down. By this
mode of precipitation brucin may be separated from mor-
plun when they happen to be mixed.
Brucin has been analysed by Pelletier and Dumas, and
y Liebig. Ihe following are the results obtained:
Pelletier and Dumas. Liebig.
Carbon .....7504 70-88
Hydrogen  6-52  6-66
Azote  7-22W(t _ A-07
Oxygen..... 11-21 17-39
. 99-99 .100-00
to determine the atomic weight of brucin, Liebig as-
certained how much muriatic acid gas the dry alkali would
absorb 11 ^he reSult was’ t.hat eighty-five parts of brucin
h 11T parts of the acid gas. The muriatic acid gas
34-375
This makes the atomic weight 34-375. Were we to take
the number of atoms of carbon at thirty-four, according to
the analysis of Pelletier and Dumas, the atomic weight
would be 35-5. This last is probably nearest the truth.
Sect. V.— Of Quinin.
Some steps towards the discovery of this important
principle had been made by Vauquelin and by Gomes in
1811; but it was in 1820 that Pelletier and Caventou
pointed out its alkaline character, and showed how it
might be obtained in a separate state. Since that period
sulphate of quinin has been introduced into medicine, and
has almost superseded the administration of bark. Quinin
may be extracted from the yellow bark, the cinchona cor-
difolia, by the following process :
Let the yellow bark be coarsely pulverized, and boiled Prepara-
in eight times its weight of water, containing five per cent. t’on-
of sulphuric acid. Let this boiling be repeated with an
additional dose of acidulated water. Filter and squeeze
out the liquid portion from the undissolvea bark. Mix the
liquid thus obtained with unslaked lime amounting to a
fourth of the weight of yellow bark employed. Agitate well,
and as soon as it begins to exhibit alkaline characters, let
it be passed through the filter. The lime remaining is to
be washed with a little cold water, exposed to pressure,
and then dried. It is then to be boiled three titnes in suc¬
cession in different portions of alcohol of the specific gra¬
vity 0-836. Mix the filtered alcoholic liquors with a little
water, and distil. The quinin remains, but not in a state
of absolute purit}'. To free it from the colouring matter
with which it is still combined, we must dissolve it in an
acid, and digest the solution with ivory-black. When now
th rown down by an alkali, it is white. The following me¬
thod is said to yield pure quinin:
The yellow bark is digested in water holding one per
cent, of muriatic acid. The acid liquor is concentrated
till it acquires the specific gravity of 1-109. It is then
precipitated by the protochloride of tin, after which the
liquid remains only slightly yellow. A current of sulphu¬
retted hydrogen gas is passed through the liquid, to throw
down any excess of tin which it may contain. The quinin
is now precipitated by means of a caustic alkali.
Quinin crystallizes with great difficulty, but is obtained Properties,
by precipitation by an alkali in white curdy looking flakes,
which, when dried, rarely preserve their white colour.
When dissolved in alcohol of 0-815 to full saturation, and
left during winter in a dry place to spontaneous evapora¬
tion, it shoots into small crystals, the form of which, ac¬
cording to Pelletier, is different from that of cinchonin.
Both the crystals and flocks are in the state of hydrate.
By gentle heating, about four per cent, of water is driven
off, and the quinin melts into a translucent liquid, which
when cold assumes the appearance of resin, and, like re¬
sin, becomes strongly electrified negatively when rubbed.
When the melted matter is put into water it gradually ab¬
sorbs the chemically combined water.
The taste of quinin is excessively bitter, similar to that
of the bark from which it has been extracted. It is
464
Organic
Bodies.
Constitu¬
ents.
Salts.
CHEMISTRY.
slightly soluble in water when assisted by heat, two hun¬
dred parts of boiling water being capable of dissolving
one part of quinin. It is very soluble in alcobol, which,
after evaporation by heat, leaves a soft viscid mass.. It
dissolves also in ether; and, when assisted by heat, it is
soluble in the fixed and volatile oils.
Quinin has been analysed by Pelletier and Caventou,
and by Liebig. The following table exhibits the results
which they obtained :
Pelletier and Caventou. Liebig.
Carbon 75‘00 75-76
Hydrogen  6’66  7‘52
Azote  8-45  8T1
Oxygen 10’40  8‘6I
100-51 100-00
Liebig, to determine the atomic weight of quinin, analys¬
ed the sulphate, and found its constituents to be,
Sulphuric acid 10-00 or 5
Quinin..... .-SS'SS or 42-915
Water   4-17 or 2-085
According to this analysis, the atomic weight of quinin is
42-915. But as the salt is a disulphate, the atomic weight
must be 21-5. . .
The number of atoms deduced from the analysis ot qui¬
nin by Liebig, and according best with this atomic weight,
are as follow:
26 atoms carbon 19-50
13 atoms hydrogen    1*625
1 atom azote  1*^5
2 atoms oxygen  2-00
24-875
This number, 24-875, considerably exceeds the weight
derived from the analysis of the sulphate ; yet the ratios
of the constituents deduced from Liebig’s analysis have
been preserved, excepting a small addition to the oxygen.
It is only 1-88 instead of two atoms. We believe that the
1. Neutral Salt.
Sulphuric acid  8-474
Quinin  76*272
Water  15-254
urgat;
Bodiis
'WV
100-000
2. Bisulphate.
Sulphuric acid  13-698
Quinin  61*644
Water  24-658
100-000
The disulphate of quinin is obtained when a boiling-hot
solution of sulphate of quinin is precipitated by disulphate
of barytes, added slightly in excess. The solution being
filtered while boiling hot and left to cool, deposits the di¬
salt in crystals, which may be purified by washing them
in cold water. Few of the remaining salts of quinin crys¬
tallize, and none of them has been applied to any useful
purpose.
Sect. VI.— Of Cinchonin.
Cinchonin is obtained from the gray or pale Peruvian
bark by the same process as quinin, only it is more easily
obtained pure, in consequence of the property which it
has of crystallizing. Precipitate a solution of it in sul-Prepa-
phuric acid by a caustic alkali. Wash the precipitate tion.
well, dry it, and then dissolve it in boiling alcohol. When
the solution cools, the cinchonin is deposited in crystals.
The crystals are small four-sided prisms. Its taste is Proper i,
similar to that of quinin ; at first it seems slight, but it be¬
comes very strong, and remains long in the mouth, \\ hen
heated it loses no weight, and does not melt until it be¬
gins to undergo decomposition, at which temperature a
portion sublimes unaltered. It is almost insoluble in cold
water, and it requires 2500 times its weight of boiling wa¬
ter to take it up. It is much less soluble in alcohol than
and is almost insoluble in ether. In fixed and vo-
The following table exhibits the constituents of cincho-Const)
nin, according to the analysis of Pelletier and Caventou,en s-
and Liebig:
Pelletier and Caventou.
Carbon  76-97 
Hydrogen  6-22 
Azote  9*02 
Oxygen  7-79. 
100-00
ouantitv of azote has been slightly underrated. quinin, -- -- ; - .
q The salts of quinin are distinguished by an excessively latile oils it dissolves in very small quan^ty.
bitter taste, like that of the bark itself. They are soluble
in water, and some of them in alcohol and ether. . Their
solutions are precipitated by oxalic acid, tartaric acid, and
gallic acid, and by the salts containing these acids. They
are thrown down also by the infusion of nutgalls. Of
these salts, by far the most important is the sulphate,
which has been introduced into medicine as a substitute
for bark, of which it possesses the medicinal virtues, with
this great advantage, that a few grains of it go as far as an
ounce of bark. Quinin unites with sulphuric acid in three
proportions. The neutral sulphate is deposited by cau¬
tious evaporation in long small plates or needles, having a
pearly lustre. It is very difficultly soluble in cold water,
but dissolves very readily in boiling water. It dissolves
easily in alcohol, but is little soluble in ether. When
heated it melts, and assumes the appearance of wax. In
a higher temperature it assumes a fine red colour, and
burns all away without leaving any residue. Ihe water
which it contains amounts to 15-254 per cent, of the
weight of the salt. Of this it loses three fourths in a
gentle heat. The remainder adheres obstinately to the
salt.
Bisulphate of quinin crystallizes in four-sided rectangu¬
lar prisms. It reddens litmus paper, but its taste is not
sensibly sour. At the temperature of 54° it dissolves in
eleven times its weight of water. It is very soluble in rec¬
tified spirits, but scarcely soluble in absolute alcohol. It
effervesces when exposed to the air. The water of crys¬
tallization in it amounts to 24-66 per cent. The composi¬
tion of these two salts, according to Baup, is as follows ;
99-98
To determine the atomic vveight of cinchonin, Liebig
tried how much muriatic acid gas a given weight of cin¬
chonin would absorb. Ihe result was, that a hunt re
parts of cinchonin absorbed 22*698 of the acid. 1S
makes the atomic weight 20-37. . , ,. . •
The number of atoms agreeing best with this atomic
weight, and derived from Liebig’s analysis of cinchonin,
is the following:
20£ atoms carbon  
11 atoms hydrogen  L375
1 atom azote 
1 atom oxygen  1-000
19-5
If there were one additional atom of oxygen present, the
atomic weight deduced from these numbers would almost
tally with that from the muriate. t t Salts.
The salts of cinchonin have a very bitter taste, not un
like those of quinin. They exist both neutral and witn an
excess of acid. Like salts of quinin, they are precipi
CHEMISTRY.
P :ira-
anic by oxalic acid, tartaric acid, and gallic acid salts, and by-
lies. the infusion of nutgalls. The sulphate has been tried as
' Y"'-' a medicine, but it does not answer nearly so well as the
sulphate of quinin.
Sect. VII—Of Veratrin.
Veratrin was discovered in 1819, by Pelletier and Ca-
ventou, in the seeds of the vcvcitr'ii'tTi scibctdillcty vcvdtnim
album, and the roots of the colchicum autuMnale, or mea¬
dow saffron. To obtain it from the seeds of the veratrum
sabadilla, the following process may be employed: Boil
the seeds in water, and mix the filtered solution with ace¬
tate of lead, which throws down the colouring matter.
Filter and precipitate the excess of lead by a current
of sulphuretted hydrogen. Drive off the excess of sul¬
phuretted hydrogen by heat. Then boil the liquid with
magnesia, which throws down the veratrin. Dissolve
the veratrin thus thrown down, by digesting the undis¬
solved magnesia in boiling alcohol. From the alcohol
it is thrown down by evaporation, or dilution with water.
Veratrin, when obtained in this way, is usually yellow
coloured. It may be deprived of its colouring matter,
either by repeated solutions, or by digesting it with ivory-
black.
Pi trties. It is a white powder, which does not seem capable of
being obtained in crystals. It has no smell, but when in¬
troduced into the nostrils in very minute quantity it pro¬
duces violent and long-continued sneezing. Its taste is
exceedingly acrid, without any mixture" of bitterness.
When given internally in very minute quantities, it pro¬
duces excessive vomitings, and irritates the mucous mem¬
branes. This irritation proceeds along the intestines when
the dose is a little stronger, and a very few grains are suf¬
ficient to occasion death.
It is very little soluble in cold water. Boiling water dis¬
solves a hundredth of its weight of it, and "acquires a
sensible acridity. It dissolves in great abundance in al¬
cohol. Ether dissolves it also, but not in such quantity.
It melts when heated to the temperature of about 122°.
In this state it resembles wax. On cooling it congeals
into an amber-coloured and translucent mass. When
strongly heated it swells up, and is decomposed, produ-
cing a great, deal of oil, water, &c. and leaves a bulky
charcoal, which, when incinerated, leaves scarcely any re¬
sidue. It restores the blue colour of litmus paper red¬
dened by acids.
It was analysed by Pelletier and Dumas, and found by
them composed of
Carbon 66*75
Hydrogen 8*54
Azote 5-04
Oxygen 19*60
46*5 atoms carbon 34*875
36 atoms hydrogen 4*500
1*5 atom azote 2*625
10 atoms oxygen iq
465
Organic
Bodies.
52
This is nearly in the ratio of the analysis of veratrin by
Pelletier and Dumas; and it supposes the sulphate to be
a compound of three atoms veratrin and one atom sulphu¬
ric acid. 1
The salts of veratrin have a sharp and burning taste. cQnc
V eratrin dissolves in concentrated solutions of acids to sa-
turation, and the solutions do not redden litmus paper •
but when they are diluted with water they lose their neu¬
tral state, a portion of the veratrin separating. These salts
cannot be crystallized ; when evaporated they assume the
form of gummy-hke masses. The only one in which tra¬
ces of crystallization have been observed is the supersul¬
phate of veratrin ; but it must be acknowledged that these
salts have been only superficially examined.
Sect. Emetin.
tu-
99*93
The atomic weight, if any confidence can be put in
the analysis of sulphate of veratrin by Pelletier and Ca-
^entou, is not less than 150; but their analysis of muri¬
ate of veratrin gives only 107 for the atomic w-eight.
. he number of atoms which agrees best with the preced¬
ing analysis, and with this last atomic weight, is the fol-
93 atoms carbon 69*75
71 atoms hydrogen 8*875
3 atoms azote 5*25
20J
atoms oxygen 20*5
This substance was discovered in 1817, by Pelletier and
Majendie, in the root of the plant used as an emetic, and
generally known by the name of ipecacuanha. It may be
extracted in the following manner :
I he root, previously reduced to powder, is digested in Prepara-
the first place in ether, which separates an oily matter tion.
having a strong smell. It is then boiled in alcohol. The
alcoholic solution is filtered, mixed with a little water, and
the alcohol is distilled off. The residue being mixed with
a little more water, is filtered from a fatty matter, which
separates. This liquid is now boiled with caustic magne¬
sia, which precipitates the emetin. The undissolved mag¬
nesia mixed with the emetin is washed with cold water,
and then digested in boiling alcohol, which dissolves the
emetin. By evaporating the alcohol, the emetin is preci¬
pitated, still mixed with a little colouring matter. To pu-
rify it, let it be dissolved in an acid, and mixed and agi¬
tated with ivory-black. The liquid being now filtered and
precipitated by an alkali, the emetin is obtained in a state
of purity.
Emetin thus obtained is in white scales, which become Properties,
yellowish by exposure to the air. It has a very slight 1
bitter taste, and no smell. It is scarcely soluble in cold
water, but boiling water is a better solvent of it. When
heated it melts very easily, and sublimes in a tempera¬
ture hardly so high as 122°. It dissolves very readily in
alcohol, but is almost insoluble in ether and oils. It
combines with acids like an alkali, though the salts which
it forms always redden vegetable blues. It acts very
powerfully as an emetic: half a grain taken into the sto¬
mach occasions violent vomiting, followed by sleep, and
the animal awakes in a state of health. Twelve, or even
six grains, occasioned vomiting, followed by death. A
violent inflammation of the lungs and intestinal canal ap¬
pears to be the proximate cause of the death which in this
case ensues.
Emetin has been analysed by Pelletier and Dumas, who Constitu-
found its constituents, ents.
Carbon 64*57
Hydrogen 7*77
Azote 4*30
Oxygen 22*95
Tp- ,, , . . 104*375 99*49
n , Woul(‘ make the atomic weight 104*375. It would As no attempt has been hitherto made to determine the
ind \ surPr*sing if it should ultimately turn out to be 52, atomic weight of emetin, this analysis does not enable us
o be a compound of to give the atomic constitution of this remarkable sub-
Vor- 3 N
CHEMISTRY.
466
Organic stance; but the smallest number of atoms whmhcorre-
Bodies. spond with the preceding numbers are the follow g •
35 atoms carbon    q Tok
25 atoms hydrogen 
1 atom azote two
9 atoms oxygen J‘uu
40-125
Hence the atomic weight is 40-125, or some multiple of
thDil‘uUtenstulphuric acid produces no other effect upon it
than to combine with it; but when heated with concen¬
trated acid it is charred and destroyed. Nitric acid dis¬
solves it, and forms a fine red-coloured solution, which
gradually passes into yellow, while nitrous gas exhales,
fnd crystals of oxalic acid are formed. Muriatic, phos¬
phoric,y and acetic acids combine with it readily, and may
be saturated with it. Gallic acid throws it down in the
state of a dirty-white precipitate. It is precipitated equa -
ly by the infusion ot nutgalls.
Sect. IX.— Of Delphinin.
This alkaline body was discovered in 1819, by Lassaigne
and Feneulle, in the seeds of the delphinium staphisagna,
or stavesacre, which is occasionally employed externally to
destroy vermin. It may be obtained in the tallowing
n ^iwst the seeds in water acidulated with sulphuric
fr1"1- acid.8 Then precipitate the acid liquid by an alkah or
magnesia. Wash and dry the precipitate, and boil it in
alcohol, which dissolves the delphmm. To free it com¬
pletely from foreign matter, it may be obtained from t e
alcohol by evaporation, and dissolved in an acid. Let t
solution be digested with ivory-black, and after filtration
let it be mixed with an excess of caustic ammonia. Ibe
precipitate is gelatinous, not unlike newly precipitated
Ena If we dissolve it in alcohol, and evaporate the
solution, it falls in the state of a crystalline powder, which
when dried becomes translucent.
.. its t.iste is feebly bitter, and it restores the blue coloui
Properties. ofIi.tmus paper Reddened by acids. When heated it
melts like wax, and on cooling assumes the appearance of
resin. It appears, from the experiments ot Brandes, to be
insoluble in water, though it communicates its taste to
that liquid; but it dissolves very easily in alcohol a
ether. When these liquids at a boiling heat are saturat¬
ed with delphinin, it falls down again in flocks as they
cool. It is soluble both in fixed and vo atile oils.
With acids it forms salts which rarely afford crystals,
their taste is bitter and sharp. According to Feneul e, it
forms both neutral salts, bisalts, and disalts. Neutral sul¬
phate of delphinin, according to him, is composed ot, sul¬
phuric acid 3-116 or 5, delphinin 100 or 160.
If any confidence could be put in this analysis, the ato¬
mic weight of delphinin would be 160. No attempt has
hitherto been made to analyse it.
ly bitter and nauseous taste. It melts when heated a Organi;
little above 212°, and on cooling concentrates into a le- Bodies
mon-yellow mass. It restores the blue colour of litmus
paper reddened by an acid. It is insoluble in cold water,
and requires 8000 times its weight of boiling water to dis¬
solve it. It is very soluble in alcohol, but little so in
ether. In the oils it is insoluble. With acids it forms
neutral salts which have a bitter taste. The sulphate,
nitrate, and muriate, when dry, have a gummy-hke appear¬
ance, and are easily reduced to powder. According to
Desfosses, 100 parts of solamn neutralize 10-J81 parts ot
sulphuric acid. This would make its atomic weight 45-5.
From trials made upon a cat, it would appear that sola-
nin is highly emetic and narcotic. Upon dogs it acted as
an emetic, but did not induce sleep. In large doses it is
poisonous. No attempt has been made to analyse it.
Sect. X.— Of Solanin.
This alkaline substance was discovered m 1822, by Des-
fosses, in the berries of the solatium nigrum. It has been
since discovered in the stalks, leaves, and berries, of the
solanum dulcamara, and likewise of the tuberosum, or com¬
mon potato. To obtain it, we have only to press out the
sap of the ripe berries, filter it, and mix it with caustic
Premra- ammonia. From the unripe berries it may be obtained
tionaml also, but it is then impure, and of a green colour. The
properties, gray precipitate from the ripe berries is to be well was i-
1 ed and dried, and then dissolved in boiling alcohol. By
slow evaporation the solanin is deposited in a white pow¬
der, having somewhat of a pearly lustre. It l^as a weak-
Sect. XI.—Of Picrotoxin.
This alkaline substance was discovered by Boullay in
1811, in the cocculus indicus, which is the fruit of the
menispermum cocculus. It may be obtained in the fo low¬
ing manner: .
Let the berries be boiled m water as tang as any thing prepa.
is taken up, and let the liquid be concentrated into an ex-tion.
tract. Digest this extract in alcohol of the specific gra-
vitv 0-827 Filter the alcoholic solution, and leave it for
de lays in a cool place: drops of a solid crystalline
fatty matter are gradually deposited on the sides of the
vessel. Decant off' the clear liquid, and distil it in a re¬
tort till the alcohol is abstracted. To the extract remain¬
ing in the retort add a little water. Mix it well with about
one sixth of its weight of caustic magnesia, and theft dry
the mixture. The extract contains much uncombmed
acid, and more of the fatty matter formerly mentioned,
which now combines with the magnesia and becomes in¬
soluble. Let the matter be now boiled with alcohol ot
the specific gravity 0-87, as long as anything dissolves
Mix this liquid with ivory-black, which will depnve ito
most of its colouring matter. Filter and evaporate: picrot¬
oxin not quite pure separates during the evaporation. Be¬
ing again dissolved in spirits, and left to spontaneous crys¬
tallization, it shoots into groups of small, colourless, oblique,
^Ytatasta^stas'upportably bitter. Cold water fcsolvespj,
one seventy-fifth, and boiling water one twenty-fifth pait
of its weight of it. It is still more soluble in water con¬
taining a little alkali. Boiling alcohol of 0-8 dissolves one
third of its weight of it. Ether of 0-716 specific gravity
dissolves four tenths of its weight of it, but it is inso
ble both in fixed and volatile oils. . . o .;11
It dissolves in acids, but the saturated solutions stiff
p„cid qualities. Several of its salts are capable
crystallizing. They have a very bitter taste, and are but
Sle solubll According to Boullay, 100 parts of picrot¬
oxin saturate IM parts of sulphuric acid. Ibis »ou
make its atomic weight 45. ^ccpcapd of
Sulphate of picrotoxin forms silky n^es possessed 0f
o-rpat beauty. It is soluble in 120 times its we B
boilino water. The nitrate at first contains on excess
acid. D When evaporated to one half, it becomes vis ,
and concretes on cooling into a transparent mass, like m
lave. If it be kept in the temperature of U0 it »e
up becomes opaque, and at last quite white, similar in T
peartmee to calcined alum. If in this state «e keeP “
a temperature below that of boiling water addmg a 1 ^
water occasionally, the whole excess o . _
the taste of the salt becomes purely bitte .
phate, oxalate, tartrate, and acetate, may be
Picrotoxin is very poisonous, producing veitigo, convu
CHEMISTRY.
iranic sions, and death. Ten grains destroyed a dog in about
dies, three quarters of an hour. Its salts seem to be less poi-
sonous than the alkali itself. No attempt has hitherto
been made to analyse it.
Sect. XII.—Of Daphnin.
Sect. XIII.— Of Digitalin.
Le Royer discovered, in 1824, that if the dried leaves of
digitalis purpurea, or fox-glove, be digested with ether in a
close vessel, and the solution be afterwards concentrated,
by distilling off the ether to the consistency of an extract,
water dissolves from this extract an acid salt, having a
peculiar alkaline basis, and leaves a green faecula. The
acid salt is treated with oxide of lead evaporated to dry¬
ness, and the dry residue treated with ether, which leaves
the salt of lead, but dissolves the digitalin. When the
ether is driven off, the digitalin remains in the form of a
brown butter-looking substance, having a sharp taste, and
acting weakly as an alkali upon litmus paper reddened by
an acid. When dissolved in alcohol, and dried on a glass
plate, it gives microscopic crystals, which speedily absorb
moisture from the atmosphere. It dissolves readily in
water, and possesses the characters to which digitalis is
indebted for its celebrity as a medicine. It has been but
very imperfectly examined.
asceitained. Indeed the subject has been very imperfect¬
ly investigated. 1
This alkaline principle was first detected by Vauquelin
in 1812, in the daphne alba. In 1822 it was discovered in
the bark of the daphne mezereum by MM. C. G. Gmelin
and Baer.
ijwra. If an infusion of the bark of daphne mezereum be made
t . in boiling water, and if the filtered solution be mixed with
magnesia, and distilled in a retort as completely as can be
done without burning, we obtain a sharp-tasted liquid,
acting strongly as an alkali, and having the smell and taste
of the bark. If this matter be saturated with an acid, and
the solution concentrated, a crystalline salt is obtained.
If we dissolve this salt in a little water, mix the solution
with magnesia, and distil, we obtain the alkaline substance
in a concentrated state. To this substance the name of
daphnin has been given.
P lerties. It crystallizes in four-sided oblique prisms, which are
transparent and colourless. Its taste is bitter and dis¬
agreeable. When heated it melts, swells up, becomes
black, and gives out an acid liquid. By nitric acid it is
destroyed, and partly converted into oxalic acid. It is but
little soluble in cold, but very soluble in hot water. When
mixed with a little potash, carbonate of potash, barytes
water, or lime water, it becomes golden yellow, and loses
its property of crystallizing. It is easily soluble in alco¬
hol and ether.
No attempt has been made to analyse this substance,
or to examine the salts which it may form with acids.
Sect. XIV.— Of Jalappin.
This alkaline substance was first obtained by Mr Hume
Sect. XVI.— Of Rhabarbarin.
Mr Carpenter, in 1826, published the following formula
for obtaining this substance : Boil for half an hour six
pounds of coarsely bruised Chinese rhubarb, in six gallons
of water acidulated with two and a half fluid ounces of
sulphuric acid. Strain the decoction, and submit the re¬
sidue to a second ebullition in a similar quantity of acidu¬
lated water, and submit it again to a third boiling. Unite
all the three decoctions, and add by small portions recent¬
ly powdered lime, constantly stirring it to facilitate its
action on the acid decoction,. Wdien the decoction has
become slightly alkaline, it deposits a red, flocculent pre¬
cipitate, which is to be separated by straining through a
linen cloth. It is to be washed and dried, and digested
in alcohol for several hours in the water bath. The rha¬
barbarin is taken up, while the gypsum, &c. remains.
Separate the alcoholic solution, and distil off three fourths
of the alcohol. I here remains a strong solution of rha¬
barbarin. Add as much sulphuric acid as will exactly
neutralize it, and evaporate the solution to dryness in a
low heat. A brownish-red coloured matter is obtained,
intermingled with brilliant specks, having a pungent styp¬
tic taste, soluble in water, and having the smell of native
rhubarb. This sulphate of rhabarbarin contains the whole
virtues of rhubarb in a concentrated state.
467
Organic
Bodies.
Sect. XV.— Of Parillin and Smilacin.
Palotta stated, in 182o, that if the infusion of sarsaparilla
be digested with a little hydrate of lime, an alkaline basis
is separated, which, after being washed and dried, is so¬
luble, and, dissolved in boiling alcohol, is deposited as the
solution cools, in the state of a white powder, having a
bitter and disagreeable taste. It gives a brown colour to
tincture of turmeric, dissolves in acids, and forms salts,
which produce nausea when taken into the stomach, and
diminish the celerity of the pulse. To this alkaline sub¬
stance he has given the name of parillin.
Falchi states, that if the pith of sarsaparilla be mace¬
rated in water, and the solution, after having been treat¬
ed with ivory-black and filtered, be left to spontaneous
evaporation, small light-yellow crystals separate, which
are slightly soluble in alcohol, have little taste, yet leave
a strong impression in the throat, and give a green colour
to syrup of violets. To this substance he has given the
name of smilacin. Its properties have scarcely been in¬
vestigated.
m 1824, by the following process: Jalap in powder is ma¬
cerated for a couple of weeks in weak acetic acid. A
ark-coloured solution is obtained, which is filtered, mix¬
ed with caustic ammonia, and well agitated. A granular
powder precipitates, consisting, of small crystalline grains,
w ich is to be washed in cold water. Being again dis-
so ved in acetic acid, and thrown down by ammonia, it is
o tained in small needles. It has neither taste nor smell,
is insoluble in cold, and but little soluble in boiling water,
issolves well in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether. Its
co our is snow-white. An ounce of jalap yields about five
grains of this substance. How far jalappin possesses the
pecu iar properties which characterize jalap, has not been
Sect. XVII.— Of Cathartin.
The examination of the leaves of senna (cassia acutifo-
lia) was begun by Bouillon, La Grange, and more lately
by Braconnot; but it was Lassaigne and Feneulle who in
1821 first extracted from it the cathartic principle to which
that plant owes its introduction into medicine. To this
principle they gave the name ol cathartin. It was obtain-Prepara-
ed by the following process : The decoction of the dried tion.
leaves of senna was precipitated by acetate of lead, and the
filtered solution was treated with sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, to throw down all excess of lead that might have
been added. The liquid was now evaporated to dryness,
and the residue treated with alcohol, which dissolved the
cathartin, together with some acetate of potash. The al¬
coholic solution was distilled off to the consistence of an
extract, and then mixed with alcohol containing some sul¬
phuric acid, in order to throw down the potash in the state
of sulphate. The liquid was now filtered, to-separate the
sulphate of potash. The excess of sulphuric acid was
thrown down by acetate of lead; and the excess of lead
468
CHEMISTRY.
Organic being got rid of by sulphuretted hydrogen, nothing re-
Bodies. niained but cathartin, held in solution by acetic acid.
Adding a little ammonia, and evaporating to dryness, we
obtain the cathartin in a separate state.
Properties. It has a yellowish-red colour, and cannot be made to
assume a crystalline form. Its smell is peculiar. Its
taste is bitter and nauseous. It is very soluble both m
water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. _ When exposed
to the open air, it gradually attracts humidity. Its aque¬
ous solution is precipitated in brown flocks by the intusion
of nutgalls; and the diacetate of lead occasions a preci¬
pitate having the same shade of colour. I he sulphated
peroxide of iron strikes with it a brown colour. I he al¬
kalies do not throw it down from its aqueous solution.
Whether it possess alkaline properties has not been exa¬
mined, but it is probable that it does, because in senna it
seems to exist in the state of malate. It possesses the pure
gative qualities of senna in great perfection.
Prepara¬
tion.
Properties
Sect. XYlll.—Of Nicolin.
The peculiar principle in the leaves of the tobacco (ni-
cotiana latifolia and tabacum), to which the name of mco-
2m-has been given, was discovered by Vauquelm in 180J,
Its alkaline properties were afterwards investigated by
Posselt and Reiman in 1828. It may be obtained by tue
following process: , , , .
Distil a mixture of dry tobacco with water and hydrate
of potash. Pour on the residue twice its weight oi water,
and distil again. Neutralize the distilled liquid (contain¬
ing nicotin and carbonate of ammonia) with sulphuric acid,
and evaporate in a moderate heat not quite to dryness.
Digest the residue with absolute alcohol, which will leave
sulphate of ammonia undissolved. To the alcohol solu¬
tion add a little water, and then distil off the alcohol. 1 lix
the residue with an excess of potash ley, and distil. An
oily, almost colourless liquid comes over, which is to be
agitated with ether, renewed repeatedly till the whole ni¬
cotin is separated from the water. By exposing the ethe¬
real solution to the heat of a water bath, the ether may be
distilled off, and the nicotin remains, _
Nicotin thus obtained is a colourless liquid, which does
not congeal at 21°. Its specific gravity is greater than
that of water. It stains paper like grease, and m twelve
hours the spots assume a yellowish colour. At it
mav be distilled slowly over. It boils at 464°. It has a
strong smell, especially when heated similar to that ot to¬
bacco. It is a strong poison, and acts as a narcotic. A
single drop introduced into the mouth of a dog occasioned
It dissolves readily in water, alcohol, and ethei. This
last liquid is capable of separating it from water. It is
soluble in fixed and volatile oils. It combines readily with
the acids and forms salts. These salts are soluble in watei,
and the solutions may be evaporated to dryness in a mo¬
derate heat without the loss of any nicotin. When mixed
with a fixed alkali, the smell of nicotin becomes sensible.
When mixed with iodine they strike a kermes red colour.
This is characteristic of these salts. The phosphate, sul¬
phate, oxalate, tartrate, and acetate of nicotin have been
formed and examined. They all dissolve in water. I he
phosphate, oxalate, and tartrate crystallize ; the sulphate
and acetate can be obtained only in the state of a syi up.
There is some reason for suspecting that the atomic
weight of nicotin is a little below 28*68.
Sect. XIX.—Of Gentianin.
This vegetable principle was discovered by Henry and
Caventou i:* 1822, in the root of the Gentiana lutea. It
may be obtained by the following process:
The powdered root is digested in ether for twenty-four
hours. The yellow-coloured solution, containing gentia- (%
nin, oil, acid, and an odorous matter, is left to spontaneous Bod!
evaporation in the open air, by which the gentianin spee-^Y'
dily separates. The residue is again digested in alcohol, ™Par'
and the yellow tincture evaporated. The residual matter ’
is again washed with very dilute alcohol, which takes up
the gentianin, and leaves an oily matter, behind. This
last solution being evaporated, there remains behind gen¬
tianin, acid, and odorous matter. .When this mixtuie is
boiled with some magnesia and water, and the liquid is
evaporated to dryness, the odorous piinciple is dtiven off.
Ether being boiled in the residue, dissolves pure gentianin,
and lets it fall when distilled off.
Gentianin thus obtained is in yellow needles, destitute Prop
of smell, but has an aromatic and bitter taste. It is not
poisonous, and does not restore the blue coloui of litmus
paper reddened by an acid. It dissolves slightly in cold
water, but sufficiently to communicate its bitter colour to
that liquid. Boiling water dissolves it rather more abun¬
dantly. It is very soluble in alcohol and ether, and is de¬
posited in crystals when these solutions are evapoiated.
It combines with the mineral acids, and forms compounds
which are slightly coloured, and have a moie bitter taste
than gentianin itself. 4 he sulphate and phosphate of
o’entianin are almost colourless. I he acetate has a yellow
colour. The fixed alkalies deepen the colour of gentianin,
and render it rather more soluble in watei.
Sect. XX.—0/ Corrjdalin.
This vegetable principle was discovered by Wackenro-
der in the roots of the corydalis tuberosa (fumaria bum-
so). The coarsely powdered root is macerated for someprepa:
days in pure water, and the maceration is repeated withtion.
water acidulated with sulphuric acid. The filtrated liquids
are mixed with carbonate of soda till the liquid becomes
distinctly alkaline. The precipitate formed is collected
on a filter and washed with alcohol. After being dried it
is now to be dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and the so¬
lution is to be filtered in order to separate a greenish re¬
sinous matter which remains undissolved. The acid solu¬
tion being mixed with some potash, dark-coloured cory-
dalin is precipitated, and after this an additional dose of
alkali throws down corydalin in a purer state, it it be
dissolved in alcohol, and the solution evaporatea, the co¬
rydalin may be obtained in crystals. . . ,
When pure, it is in the state of white prisms and scales. Proptj r •
When heated, it melts below 212°, and floats in a melted
state on the surface of water. It has no smell. Its taste is
bitter, but not strong. When in solution, the taste resem¬
bles that of quinin. On vegetable blues it acts as an a a .
It is very sparingly soluble in cold water; even boi g
water dissolves but a minute quantity of it. . It is vej7
soluble in absolute alcohol, but the solubility is di«iinis
ed the more the alcohol is diluted with water. I he so¬
lution has a greenish-yellow colour. B dissoWes al
ether, and with a similar colour. It dissolves and neut
lizes acids. From these solutions it is .thrown down wffiffi
by alkalies, and yellowish white by tincture of nutg^ls.
The sulphate, muriate, nitrate, and acetate , J lts
have been formed and examined. The last of these It
may be obtained in the state of crystals, but this
the case with the three others.
Sect. XXI.— Of Xcinthopicvin*
This alkaline substance has been lately di^overed^y
Chevalier and Pellelan, in the bark of the y
caribcmm. The bark is digested in ^ ^ Pfirst
being distilled off', leaves an extract, which is dig
in water, and afterwards in ether. What remams undts
CHEMISTRY.
Prl
anic solved is taken up by alcohol; and the solution being eva-
ies. porated, crystals of xanthopicrin are separated.
^ ^ It has a greenish-yellow colour and a silky lustre. It
•rtics.has no smell, but a very bitter and astringent taste. It is
not altered by exposure to the air, and does not restore
the blue colour of litmus paper reddened by an acid. It
is moderately soluble in water. It dissolves also readily
in alcohol, especially when hot. In ether it is insoluble.
It dissolves in dilute acids, and is precipitated by alkalies.
Sect. XXII.— Of Hesperidin.
,ra- This substance was discovered byLebreton in 1828, in
the ripe and unripe fruits of different species of orange
and lemon trees. To obtain it, the white portion of the
unripe orange is freed by a silver knife from the green
rind and the innermost part of the fruit. It is then di¬
gested in water of a temperature between 75° and 86°,
filtered and concentrated to three fourths of its original
bulk. A little albumen precipitates, which must be sepa¬
rated. The malic acid which it contains must now be
saturated with lime, and the liquid must be evaporated
to the consistency of a syrup. This syrup being digested
in alcohol of the specific gravity 0-817, gum, albumen, a
brown bitter matter, and malate of lime, are left undis¬
solved. Let the solution be filtered and evaporated, and
let the granular extract remaining be mixed with twenty
times its weight of water or distilled vinegar, and often
agitated. Being left undisturbed for eight days, the hes¬
peridin is deposited in small crystals,
rties. It has the form of soft, silky needles, without smell, and
at first appearing tasteless, but leaving a bitter impression
in the mouth. It is almost insoluble in cold water, but it
dissolves in sixty times its weight of boiling water. When
the solution cools most of it is deposited in white flocks. In
cold alcohol it is very little soluble, but it dissolves abun¬
dantly in hot alcohol. In ether, fixed and volatile oils, it
is insoluble. It is insoluble in dilute sulphuric and muri¬
atic acids, but dissolves in alkaline leys. When the aque¬
ous solution is mixed with sulphated peroxide of iron, a
brownish-red precipitate falls. It is very soluble in hot
acetic acid.
Sect. XXIII.— Of Guaranin.
This substance was discovered by Martius, in guarana,
which is prepared by drying the fruit of the poullinia sor-
bilis. It may be obtained by the following process : Mix
guarana with three tenths of its weight of calcined lime,
and digest it repeatedly in alcohol of 0*852 specific gravi¬
ty. Filter the solution, concentrate it a little, and allow
it to cool in order to separate a greenish fat oil. Evapo¬
rate to dryness, and heat the dry residue. Guaranin su¬
blimes, first in the state of yellowish white, and then of
white feathery crystals. When heated it gives out a pe¬
culiar smell. It has a bitter taste, and possesses the cha¬
racters of a weak alkali. It is but little soluble in water, but
is easily soluble in hot alcohol. It may be fused with cam¬
phor into a white crystalline mass. The aqueous solution
gives a white precipitate with tincture of nutgalls. When
distilled, besides other products, ammonia is given out,
showing that it contains azote as a constituent. With io¬
dine it combines into a brown mass. When heated with
concentrated sulphuric acid it is partly charred.
Sect. XXIV.— Of Piperin.
This substance exists in black and long pepper. It was
first noticed by GUrstedt in 1819, and afterwards more
minutely examined by Pelletier in 1821. It may be ob-
pre rained in the following way:
tioi 5 Pepper in alcohol. Evaporate the tincture to dry-
ness, and wash the residue with water. What remains
469
undissolved by the water is to be dissolved in hot alcohol. Organic
Set the solution aside for a few days, that it may have time Bodies,
to deposit crystals. These crystals, by washing in cold
alcohol, and subsequent solution in hot alcohol or ether,
and crystallization, are to be freed from a greenish-white
resin. Such is the process of Pelletier: other processes
have been proposed by Buchner, Meli, Pfeil, Henkenius.
and Winkler.
It crystallizes in oblique four-sided prisms, whose faces Properties,
are inclined to each other at angles of about 85° and 95°.
When heated to about 212° it melts into a light-yellow
transparent oil, which hardens on cooling into a light-yel¬
low, translucent, resinous-like matter. It has very little
taste, and what it has is probably derived from a little of
the oil of pepper, of which it is not easy to free it. It is in¬
soluble in cold, and only slightly soluble in boiling water.
It is very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether ; but dissolves
better in these two liquids when hot than while cold. Ace¬
tic acid is also a good solvent of it. Dilute sulphuric, ni¬
tric, and muriatic acids do not act sensibly on it; but
when these acids are concentrated they alter its nature.
Concentrated sulphuric acid gives it a blood colour, but
the colour disappears it the acid be diluted with water.
Muriatic acid acts in the same way, only the colour pro¬
duced is not red, but an intense yellow. Nitric acid ren¬
ders it first greenish yellow, then orange, and at last red.
By long continued action oxalic acid and a bitter matter
are formed. \\ hen distilled it produces water, acetic acid,
oil, carburetted hydrogen gas, but no ammonia. Though,
from the experiments of CErstedt, we have placed piperin
among alkaline bodies, there is reason to believe, from the
subsequent researches of Pelletier, that its properties are
not alkaline, but that it approaches nearer to resins. If
so, it is rather an acid than an alkaline body.
Sect. XXV.— Of Plumbagin.
This substance was discovered by Dulong, in the root ofprepara.
the plumbago Europcea in 1828. It may be obtained by the tion.
following process:
The roots, not too woody, are digested in lukewarm ether.
After separating the solution, distil off the ether, and boil
the dry residue in water. Plumbagin and gallic acid will
be taken up. Filter the liquid boiling hot; on cooling,
flocks of plumbagin are deposited. Decant the liquid off'
these flocks, and boil it again on the black residue. The
liquid being again filtered while boiling hot, and allowed
to cool, deposits more plumbagin. This process is to be
repeated several times, till the residue is exhausted of
plumbagin. By dissolving the plumbagin two or three
times successively in ether, or in alcohol mixed with ether,
it is deprived of the gallic acid with which it is at first
contaminated.
It crystallizes in soft, oblique, lemon-yellow needles, pr0pertjes#
when the ethereal or alcoholic solution is concentrated.
From a saturated aqueous solution it falls in flocks. When
gently heated it melts, and concentrates on cooling into a
yellowish, fibrous mass. It may be partly volatilized with¬
out decomposition. Its taste is sharp and hot, though,
according to Derohne and Henry, the first impression is
that of sweetness.
It is very little soluble in cold water. In hot water it
is more soluble, communicating a lemon-yellow colour to
the liquid, and being again deposited in crystalline flocks
when the liquid cools. It is soluble in alcohol both cold
and hot, and is precipitated in flocks by the addition of
water. It is soluble also in ether. It dissolves in sulphu¬
ric acid with a lemon-yellow colour; the addition of water
throws it down in yellow flocks, but an additional dose
of water takes them up again. The same phenomena
take place with nitric acid.
470
CHEMISTRY.
Organic
Bodies.
The addition of a little ammonia or fixed alkali increases
the solubility of plumbagin in water, communicating at the
— y — same time a cherry-red colour. Lime water produces the
same change of colour. Diacetate of lead dropt into an
aqueous solution of plumbagin occasions a kermes red pre¬
cipitate, and leaves the liquid of a red colour. Sulphate
of copper communicates a reddish colour, and very dilute
perchloride of iron strikes a dirty-red colour. lartar-eme-
tic, nitrate of lead, acetate of lead, nitrated suboxide ot
mercury, have no action on it.
Sect. XXVI.— Of Jamaicin.
This substance was detected in 1824, by Huttenschmul,
in the bark of the Geoffroya Jamaicensis, or cabbage-bark
tree of Jamaica. It may be prepared by the following pro-
Prepara- Boil the bark repeatedly in alcohol of the spccdk' gra-
tion. vity 0-832. From the filtered decoctions distil oft the al¬
cohol. Dissolve the residue in water, and filter the liquid.
Mix it with acetate of lead as long as any precipitate falls,
and throw down the excess of lead by a current ot sul¬
phuretted hydrogen gas. Filter the liquid, and add a
little sulphuric acid to it. Sulphate of Jamaicin falls in
small grains. Concentrate the residual liquid till as many
of these crystals as possible are obtained. Dissolve the
sulphate of Jamaicin in water, and digest the solution with
carbonate of barytes, till all the sulphuric acid is abstract¬
ed. Filter while boiling hot, and concentrate the solution
till the Jamaicin is deposited in crystals.
Prnnerties The crystals are lemon yellow, translucent, four-sided
P tables; fusible below 212°; very bitter tasted, and seem
to possess purgative properties. Ihey dissolve readily m
water, and the colour of the solution is lemon yellow. I he
aqueous solution gives a yellow precipitate with tincture
of nutgalls. It dissolves also in alcohol. It possesses al-
kaline qualities, dissolves in acids, and forms-salts, ihe
phosphate, sulphate, nitrate, and muriate crystallize. Ihey
have a bitter taste ; they are soluble in water and alcohol,
and burn when sufficiently heated. Ihe oxalate and ace¬
tate are also capable of crystallizing.
Sect. XXVIL—0/ Surinamin.
This substance was also obtained by Huttenschmid, from
the bark of the Geoffroya Surinamensis.
-n To prepare it, digest the bark in alcohol, and from the
Sa alcoholic solution distil off the spirit. Digest the rents,n-
ing extract in water, and mix the solution with acetate of
lead. Filter and throw down the excess of lead by means
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Filter again, and then eva¬
porate the solution. A portion of surinamin precipitates.
The rest may be obtained by digesting the liquid with
magnesia, filtering, and further evaporation. _
P .T.prtifr It is in white, bulky, woolly needles. Its taste is slight
1 but disagreeable, and, when given to the extent ot two
grains, it had no sensible action on a pigeon. It is but
little soluble in cold, but moderately soluble in hot water.
The aqueous solution is not altered by iodine, ammonia,
nitrated suboxide of mercury, and the tincture of nutgalls.
In hot alcohol it is less soluble than m water. In dilute sul¬
phuric acid it dissolves with facility. The solution is light
red, tastes like sulphate of magnesia, and yields crystals.
The muriatic solution of surinamin also yields crystals.
When heated in a tube it gives out first a smell resem¬
bling bruised plums, and at last gives out a vapour con-
Sect. XXVIII.—O/1 Asparagin. Org;.
This substance was discovered in 1808, by Vauquelin ,
and Ilobiquet, in the juice of asparagus sativus, or com¬
mon asparagus. It was afterwards discovered in marsh¬
mallow-root by Bacon, and in liquorice-root by Robiquet
and Plisson. The juice of the asparagus is expressed in
the usual way, filtered, evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, and then set aside. Crystals of asparagin are gra¬
dually deposited.
The crystals are white, and are iOur-sided obliquePropc^L
prisms, whose faces are inclined to each other at angles
of 130° and 50°. It is hard and brittle. Its taste is cool¬
ing and disagreeable. It does not produce any change on
vegetable blues. It dissolves pretty well in water, but is
insoluble in alcohol unless it be diluted with w ater. The
aqueous solution is not affected by sulphohydrate of pot¬
assium, oxalate of ammonia, chloride of barium, acetate
of lead, and tincture of nutgalls.
When heated, it swells and emits penetrating vapours,
affecting the eyes and nose like the smoke of wood. Ni¬
tric acid dissolves it with the evolution of nitrous gas. The
solution has a yellow colour and a bitter taste, like that of
an animal substance in the same acid. Lime disengages
a considerable quantity of ammonia. , . „
The evidence that asparagin is an alkaline body is tar
from being complete.
Sect. XXIX.—0/ Salicin.
This principle has lately been discovered in the bark of
the salix alba, or white willow, by M. Leroux. It has
much analogy in its medical properties to quinin, and,
like it, is found an effectual remedy for intermittent fever.
The bark of the salix monandra, after it has reached the
age of three years, appears, from the experiments ot M.
Leroux, to be much richer in sahcm than that of the salix
alba. It may be procured in the following manner:
The dried bark is to be reduced to a coarse powder, prep2
and boiled in water for a couple of hours. The decoction hon.
is to be filtered, and the bark subjected to pressure. Mix
the liquid thus obtained with diacetate of lead as long as
any precipitate continues to fall. Filter and boil the i-
quid with carbonate of lime till all the excess of lead add¬
ed be thrown down, and acetic acid present be satuiate°'
Decant off the clear liquid, and wash the sediment two or
three times, and, mixing the whole liquids together, ev -
porate to the consistence of an extract. Expose the ex¬
tract to pressure between folds of blotting paper, and ex¬
pose the dry matter remaining to the action of alcohol o
the specific gravity 0-837. Filter and concentra e J
tilling off the alcohol. The salicin precipitates in crystals
"Tl taSt 'very W ana there is also sotnethingP*
aromatic, like that of the bark of the wallow. A hundre ^
parts of water at the temperature of 6/ dissolve 1 P
of salicin. Hot water is a much better solvent, an ^
ing water dissolves it in any proportion whatever- .
soluble also in alcohol; but ether and oil of turpentine
not take up the smallest quantity of it. k
Concentrated sulphuric acid, poured on sahc > *
a very beautiful red colour, very similar to that ®f bid
mate of potash. It dissolves in nitric and muriatic aacl
without acquiring any colour. The solution^ not prec^
pitated by nutgalls, gelatine, acetate or diacetate
alum, or tartar emetic. .^nlnation
When boiled in excess with lime water, noco ^
takes place ; nor is it capable ot'^ssoWing °xi^^^ of
last Berlin blue. In forty-eight hours the colour vanishes,
and violet-coloured flock's are precipitated.
vvneii neatcu a rM-vstai-
boiling water, it melts, and on cooling assu if it be
line form. When thus treated it loses no wate •
(fie
1 es.
U ^
Co P-
eni !;|
CHEMISTRY.
exposed to a higher heat it assumes a lemon-yellow co¬
lour, and becomes brittle like a resin.
It was analysed by MM. Pelouze and Jules Gay-Lus¬
sac, who found its constituents as follows :
Carbon 55-491
Hydrogen 8-184
Oxygen 36-325
principle of that plant. We have not yet seen any de¬
scription of it. J
It is crystallized in small needles, and has a very white
colour. Liebig analysed it, and found its constituents
Carbon 66-36
Hydrogen 6-17
Oxygen 27-47
471
Organic
Hodies.
100
As no attempts have been made to determine the ato¬
mic weight of salicin, we cannot, from this analysis, de¬
termine its atomic constitution ; but the smallest number
of atoms corresponding with these proportions is,
22£ atoms carbon 16-875
20 atoms hydrogen 3-5
11 atoms oxygen H
100
It contains no azote. As no attempt has been made to de¬
termine the atomic weight of colombin, we cannot give its
atomic constitution ; but the smallest number of atoms
which corresponds with the above analysis is,
24 atoms carbon 18-0
20 atoms hydrogen 2-5
11 atoms oxygen H
31-375
Its atomic weight, then, is 31-375, or some multiple of that
number.
Pre a-
tion s
Proa ies,
Sect. XXX.— Of Populin.
This substance was detected in 1830, by M. Braconnot,
in the bark of the popidus tremula. He found afterwards
that the leaves of that tree furnish it in greater abun¬
dance. It may be extracted by the following process :
Boil the leaves in water, and pour into the solution dia¬
cetate of lead. A fine yellow precipitate falls. Filter the
liquid, and evaporate it to the consistence of a syrup.
When it cools, the populin separates under the form of a
very bulky crystalline precipitate. Expose it to strong
pressure between folds of linen cloth ; then heat it with
a hundred and sixty times its weight of water and a
quantity of ivory-black, and filter the liquid while boiling
hot. On cooling it deposits abundance of very fine silky
needles. When dried on blotting paper it is a very light
matter, having a snow-white colour.
. Populin has a sweet taste, not unlike that of liquorice.
It requires about two thousand times its weight of cold
water to dissolve it. The aqueous solution is not affected
by most of the metalline salts; but chloride of sodium
throws it down unchanged, and in the form of crystals. It
is soluble in seventy times its weight of boiling water,
boiling alcohol dissolves it in much greater proportion,
and when the liquid cools it is totally converted into a crys¬
talline magma. It is very soluble in acetic acid and nitric
acid, and it may be precipitated from these solutions by
the alkalies. Phosphoric acid dissolves it also ; but when
that acid is too concentrated, it converts it at once into a
resin. Ihe weak mineral acids, when hot, act upon it as
they do on salicin ; they convert it into a white resinous
powder, perfectly similar to that produced from salicin.
Like salicin, it gives a purple-red solution with concentrated
sulphuric acid.
When treated with nitric acid it furnishes, as salicin
hoes, a great quantity of crystallized carbazotic acid, but
no oxalic acid. When heated sufficiently with potash it
is converted into oxalic acid, as is the case with all orga¬
nic bodies. When heated, it first melts into a transpa¬
rent and colourless liquid; it then burns with a strong
arne, giving out at the same time an aromatic odour. By
anVben'011' ^ seem t0 yield an empyreumatic oil
How far this substance is alkaline has not been exa-
*ne , but its ready solution in acids seems to favour that
notion.
, - /? Jill' // i ,j «
Sect. XXXI.— Of Colombin.
in tW su^st^n^e has been lately discovered by Wittstock,
root of the Colombo. He considers it as the active
31-5
so that its atomic weight approaches 31-5, or some multi¬
ple of that number.
Sect. XXXII.— Of Mudarin.
This substance has been recently detected by Dr Dun¬
can, in the bark of the root of the calotropis tnudarii, or
mudar. Its alkaline qualities have not been made out, but
we place it here in consequence of its bitter taste, which
assimilates it to many of these bodies. It may be obtain¬
ed by the following process :
Digest the powdered root in cold rectified spirits. When
the greater part of the spirit has been distilled off, the li¬
quid becomes darker coloured, but retains its transparency.
As it cools, a white granular resin is deposited. Let the
liquid evaporate spontaneously to dryness, and digest the
diy matter in cold water, which dissolves the coloured
portion, and leaves the resin. This solution consists chief¬
ly of mudarin.
When evaporated spontaneously to dryness, it forms a
transparent brown-coloured matter, not crystalline, but
cracking in all directions, and not adhering to the vessel
in which it formed. It has no smell, but an intensely bit¬
ter and nauseous taste. It is very soluble in cold water,
but much less soluble in that liquid while hot. It dissolves
also in alcohol, and the solubility increases with the tem¬
perature. In ether, oil of turpentine, and olive oil, it does
not dissolve.
When a saturated solution in cold water is heated to 74°,
it becomes slightly opal. At 90° the transparency is near¬
ly gone, and the liquid assumes the form of a jelly; but if
allowed to cool, it becomes, in a day or two, as liquid and
transparent as ever. At 95°, a soft, brownish coagulum be¬
gins to separate from a liquid nearly colourless, and the
coagulum contracts in size as the heat increases; so that
at 212° it has the consistency of pitch. This matter dis¬
solves very slowly in water; yet that liquid takes it upas
completely as at first, if time be allowed for its action.
No trials seem to have been made respecting the solu¬
bility of this substance in acids. Indeed w-e have no evi¬
dence that the mudarin, as examined by Dr Duncan, was
pure.
CHAP. III. OF NEUTRAL VEGETABLE PRINCIPLES.
These substances exist in great abundance in plants,
and may be considered as the principal ingredients of
which they are composed. It has not yet been ascertain¬
ed that they possess either the characters of acids or of
alkalies. I his ignorance of any definite compounds into
which they can enter stands very much in the way of the
attempts which have been made to determine their consti-
472
CHEMISTRY.
Organic
Bodies.
tution, and renders all knowledge of their atomic weig i
quite uncertain. It is not unlikely that not a ew o
these bodies will be arranged hereafter either among
acids or alkalies, when they come to be more completely
investigated. Sugar, gum, and several of the resins, ap¬
pear to be acids; while starch and lignin bear a closer re¬
lation to alkaline bodies. But till these analogies be more
closely investigated, we must be satisfied with arranging
them under the name of neutral or indifferent substances.
These substances will occupy our attention m the tol ow¬
ing sections.
2 atoms sugar 40'5
1 atom ammonia 3T25
2 atoms water   2-25
Orga:
Bodi
V-Y
4.5-875
Salts.
Sect. L—Of Sugar.
2d, Saccharate of Potash. Sugar dissolves in potash ley,
and forms a liquid having not the least sweetness. When
boiled to the thickness of a syrup, it is not miscible with
alcohol; but if the potash be neutralized by sulphuric acid,
boiling alcohol is capable of again extracting sugar from it.
3<i, Saccharate of Strontian. When equal quantities of
strontian and sugar are dissolved in hot water, the solu¬
tion has a light-yellow colour and a caustic taste. On cool¬
ing it deposits crystals which absorb carbonic acid trom
  4/ - liiv> It    ill 1 • 1
Sugar exists, though in no great quantity, in a great va- the atmosphere. These crystals are probably not ring else
riety of vegetables; and as every vegetable prineiple d'S- th“ Lime dissolves in syrup in far
tinguished by a sweet taste has been ca sug ’ Greater nuantitv than in pure water. When the solution
can be no doubt that substances possessed o. veiy i n . v. clnwlv^evanorated it deposits four-sided prisms. It has
properties have been confounded together under the same no sweetness. It would
name. The most important of all the species of sugar is that a better and alkaline taste, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
:frcCo«TrUcLXr;r wHm tLrefoio describe party of gradually decomposing sugar, and of converting
it in the first place, and afterwards point out the charac- it into Lead! When a solution of sugar is di-
ters of the other species, so far as they have een t ^ Qn oxide of ieac[j tiie oxide is gradually dissolved;
P o nnwrlpr makps its
tained.
1. Cane Sugar-U is obtained from the arundo sacchari- bid after a certoin »
^ PtontUmi ThlS 18 SaCCharate
Its constituents, as
Prout, it may be obtained in crystals
determined by Berzelius, are, mno
Sugar 41-74 or 10-03
Oxide of lead 58-26 or 24
100-00
Crystals.
'be a native of India and China, but has been long culti¬
vated to a great extent in the West Indies. Good sugai-
canes give about half their weight of juice, by boiling
which, the sugar is obtained in small grams or crystals.
It is afterwards refined in this country, and converted
into the beautiful white crystalline mass known by the
name of loaf sugar. Its taste is a strong and agreeable
sweet. Its colour is white, and when properly crystallized
it is translucent or semitransparent. The crystal is an
oblique four-sided prism, whose base is a rhomb, the composed o     20-25
leneth of which is to its breadth as ten to seven, and 1 atom sugai
There is reason, from the composition of the crystals of
sugar, to consider its atomic weight as 20-25. It so, the
saccharate here analysed was obviously a disaccharate,
whose height is a mean proportional between the length
and breadth of the base. These crystals contain water,
and appear to be composed of on or
1 atom sugar 20-2o
1 atom water     1-125
2 atoms oxide of lead 28
21-375
48-25
Qth, Saccharate of Copper. Syrup dissolves black oxide
of copper rather abundantly. The solution is green, an
it is not precipitated by the alkaline carbonates, u
copper is throwm down by the common precipita e o
The specific gravity of sugar is 1-5629. It is soluble in potash. repeatedly and carefully analysed bye
the third part of its weight of cold, and in any proportion S g P following little table exhibits itst.on su-
whatever of hot water. The concentrated solution is call- dlffeyftte various experimenters. 8^
ed svrun. It is thick and adhesive, and may be employed constituents, accordi g 1 ^
J i • • . ■ x- It is soluble in a—-— 1  """ "
to agglutinate pieces of paper togethei
eighty times its weight of absolute alcohol; but as the so¬
lution cools, the greater part of the sugar is deposited in
crystals. It is soluble in four times its weight of boilmg
alcohol of the specific gravity 0-830, and the solubility in¬
creases with the weakness of the spirits.
It is not altered by exposure to the atmosphere ; if the
air be damp, however, it is apt to absorb moisture.
When heat is applied to sugar, it melts at 250°, then
swells, becomes brownish black, emits air bubbles, and ex¬
hales a peculiar smell known by the name of caromel. At
a red heat it instantly bursts into flame with a kind of ex¬
plosion. The colour of the flame is white, with blue edges.
Sugar seems to have the property of entering into com¬
binations with the bases, and of forming definite com¬
pounds which have some analogy to salts. The following
are the principal of those which have been noticed.
\st, Saccharate of Ammonia. Twenty parts of sugar
Guy-Lussac
and Thenard.
Carbon 
Hydrogen
Oxygen...
Berzelius.
42-47
6-90
50-63
100-00
42-225
6-600
51-175
100-000
Prout.
42-85
6-35
50-80
100-00
Dobereiner.
40-14
7-05
52-81
100-00
The number of atoms that agree best with the analysis
of Prout is as follows:
11 atoms carbon 
10 atoms hydrogen L'^
10 atoms oxygen 
.10
19-5
But this does not fully accord tvith the atomic weight *•
absorb l“gas.Td ^ » 2a ?uced front the anal^is of the
monia. It is a bisaccharate, composed of
C H E M I S T R Y.
imc
ies.
,St|hf
fid
Ofj ipes.
Pit ties,
bon to 44^ per cent, considerably exceeding that deduced
from any of the preceding analyses. Hence it is likely
' that the true atomic weight of sugar does not exceed 19-5.
Maple sugar, and the sugar extracted from beet, carrot,
&c. are precisely of the same nature with that from the su¬
gar-cane.
2. Sugar of Figs.—The sugar of figs may be seen in a
concrete state on the outside of that fruit as it is commonly
sold in this country. When we dissolve this fruit in boiling
alcohol, and set the solution aside with a small piece of
wood or a quill in it, we readily obtain the sugar in crys¬
tals. As the shape of these crystals is quite different from
that of common sugar, it obviously constitutes a peculiar
species ; but its characters have not yet been determined.
3. Sugar of Grapes.—This sugar ‘is obtained from the
juice of ripe grapes, which in a good year contain from
thirty to forty per cent, of solid matter, the most of which
consists of sugar. The acid which it contains must be, in
the first place, saturated with chalk. Draw off the clear
juice, mix it with white of egg, and boil. The scum
which collects on the surface is to be taken off, and the
liquid boiled till its specific gravity becomes 1-32. It is
then set aside for two or three days, when a granular mass
of sugar is deposited. The liquid portion is poured off.
The crystals are a mixture of three parts solid sugar and
one part syrup, and this syrup cannot be separated. By
means of ivory-black it may be made white.
Grape sugar crystallizes so imperfectly, that the shape
of its crystals has not been made out in a satisfactory
manner; but it is different from that of common sugar. It
is usually in very minute needles, collected together in
small spheres. Its taste resembles that of honey. It con¬
tains much more water than common sugar. It melts at
212°, or a little higher, and loses about eight per cent, of
its weight. On cooling it constitutes a yellowish translu¬
cent mass, which attracts moisture from the atmosphere.
It is not so soluble in cpld water as common sugar, re¬
quiring once and a third of its weight of that liquid
dissolve it. In tfoiling water it is very soluble; but the
syrup has not the same consistence as common sugar, and
cannot be drawn into threads. The solution is sweeter
than the sugar itself. It may be kept without alteration ;
but if we mix it with yeast it ferments, and the sugar is
gradually decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid. It
is much less soluble in alcohol than common sugar.
Its affinity for salifiable bases is much weaker than that
of common sugar, yet it unites with them, and forms com¬
pounds having a bitter taste. If we add an excess of the
base, and heat the liquid to 140° or 160°, the sugar becomes
brown, and gives out the smell of caramel: When saturated
with lime it is converted into a slimy matter, from which
alcohol throws down white curdy flocks. These, when
dried, become light brown, and are composed of
Lime 24-26
Sugar and water 75-74
473
Thus it would contain two atoms less carbon and half an Organic
atom more oxygen. But no confidence can be put in this Bodies,
estimate till satisfactory experiments have been made to ^Y^-/
determine its atomic weight.
4. Sugar of Starch—When starch is boiled in water Of starch,
acidulated with sulphuric acid, employing one part of
starch for every four of water, replacing the water as it
evaporates, and continuing the boiling till it is found that
when a few drops of the liquid are mixed with twice its vo¬
lume of alcohol no precipitate falls, the starch is convert¬
ed into sugar. The length of time necessary for this con¬
version depends upon the proportion of sulphuric acid
present. If it amount to one per cent, of the water,
thirty-six hours’ boiling will be required. Two and a half
per cent, of acid reduces the time to twenty hours, while
ten per cent, reduces it to seven or eight hours. The
boiling may take place in a copper or wooden vessel. To
obtain the sugar from this liquid, w-e must saturate the
acid with chalk, and filter. The liquid is to be then boiled
to a thin syrup, and afterwards allowed to shoot into crys¬
tals. In three days it is generally all converted into a
yellowish granular mass, without any mother liquid. We
may obtain it quite white if we digest the liquid before
concentrating it with ivory-black.
During this process nothing is abstracted, from the at- Properties,
mosphere nor from the water. The process goes on
equally well in close vessels as in open vessels. The acid
is not altered, and the weight of the sugar exceeds that
of the starch employed. Saussure found that 100 parts
of starch became 110-14. The shape of the crystals, ac¬
cording to Saussure, is a small table, or cube. The pro¬
perties of starch sugar, so far as known, are the same as
those of sugar of grapes. The presence of gluten seems
to prevent starch from being converted into sugar by boil¬
ing it in dilute sulphuric acid, for neither flour nor meal
can in this way be converted into sugar. Yet, when bar¬
ley meal is infused in hot water, it is well known that the
infusion becomes sweet; for it can be fermented into
beer. Malt (which is barley germinated) is converted
into sugar by simple infusion in hot water. It has not
been made out yet by decisive experiments that this su¬
gar is the same with starch sugar; but it is very probable
that it is. Starch, in its conversion into sugar by sulphu¬
ric acid, seems to pass through the state of gum. The Composi-
constituents of starch sugar, according to the analysis oftion.
Saussure, are the following:
Carbon..., 37*29
Hydrogen 6-84
Oxygen 55-87
/
100-00
These numbers agree best with
10 atoms carbon  7-5
11 atoms hydrogen  T375
11^ atoms oxygen 11*25
Comj
tion.i
Q 100-00
kaussure analysed this sugar, and found it composed of
Carbon   36-71
Hydrogen  6-78
Oxygen 56-51
T, ... 100,°0
the atomic constitution which agrees best with this ana¬
lysis is the following:
9 atoms carbon.. 6-75
10 atoms hydrogen 1 -25
' 101 atoms oxygen 10-5
VOL. VI.
18-5
/ 20-125
But whether the difference between this analysis and that
of sugar of grapes, which lies chiefly in the oxygen, re¬
sults from an error in the analysis, or from a real differ¬
ence in the constitution of the two sugars, cannot at pre¬
sent be determined.
The crystallizable sugar of honey is considered at present
as identical with sugar of grapes, though we are not aware
of any series of experiments by which that identity has
been established.
5. Mushroom Sugar.—This sugar may be extracted Mushroom
from the agaricus volvaceus, and several other mushrooms, sugar.
It crystallizes in rectangular prisms with square bases.
It has such a disposition to crystallize, that when a very
3 o
474
C H E M I S T R Y.
Organic weak aqueous solution of it is put upon the surface of a
Bodies, vessel, it is immediately sprinkled with small acicular crys-
tals. When heated this sugar melts, swells, and takes fire,
giving out the odour of caramel. There remains a small
quantity of charcoal, which is destitute of alkali. Acids
do not deprive this sugar of the power of crystallizing, as
they do common sugar. When digested with nitric acid
it produces abundance of oxalic acid. It is capable of un¬
dergoing the vinous fermentation.
Manna. 6- Manna.—Manna is the produce of a great variety of
trees, and even of other plants; but the manna to be met
with in apothecaries’ shops is chiefly the produce of the
fraxinus ornus, a species of ash which grows abundantly
'in Sicily and Calabria. It flows out during summer in
the state of a clear sap, which gradually concentrates into
drops, and then constitutes manna. A good deal exudes
from the larch, but so mixed with turpentine that it can¬
not be employed.
Properties. Pure manna is very light, and appears to consist of a
congeries of fine capillary crystals. Its taste is sweet, but
ratlmr nauseous, in consequence of a foreign matter with
which it is contaminated. It is easily obtained pure by
dissolving it in hot alcohol to saturation, and setting the
solution aside. The pure manna is deposited in a white
spongy crystalline mass, bearing some resemblance to
camphor. Its taste is agreeably sweet, and it melts on
the tongue, like snow.
The crystals are fine translucent four-sided needles.
It dissolves very readily in alcohol, and crystallizes on
cooling. When digested in nitric acid it yields both oxa¬
lic and malic acid. Its solution does not ferment like that
of sugar, hence it seems incapable of furnishing alcohol.
Composi- It was analysed by Saussure, and by Prout, who obtained
tion. from it,
Saussure. Prout.
Carbon 38*53 38*46
Hydrogen  7*87  6*84
Oxygen 53*60 54* /0
100*00 100*00
The atomic proportions agreeing best with Dr Prout’s ana¬
lysis are,
10 atoms carbon 7*o
10| atoms hydrogen 1*333
lOf atoms oxygen 10*666
19*5
This is the same atomic weight as we found for common
sugar, though the constitution of manna is obviously dif¬
ferent. But no conclusion can be drawn from these ana¬
lyses till we have obtained definite notions respecting the
atomic weight of manna, and till we know whether the
crystals contain any rvater.
Liquorice 7. Liquorice Sugar.—This substance is obtained from
sugar. the roots of the ghjcirrhyza glabra, ox commonXicpiovxce,
a plant cultivated in the south of Europe, and even in
England. The decoction of these roots inspissated by boil¬
ing is known by the name of black sugar, or liquorice su¬
gar. To obtain pure liquorice sugar, the following pro¬
cess may be followed:
Prepava- Macerate liquorice roots in boiling water, and concen-
tion. trate the liquid in a very gentle heat. Then mix it with
sulphuric acid, which will occasion a white precipitate,
consisting of liquorice sugar mixed with albumen. Let
the precipitate be washed in water acidulated with-sul¬
phuric acid, and at last .with a small quantity of pure wa¬
ter. Alcohol will now dissolve the sugar, and leave the
albumen behind. To the solution add cautiously carbo¬
nate of potash till the liquid loses its acid characters.
Then filter and evaporate. The sugar remains under the
form of a yellow translucent brittle mass, which does not OrJi
adhere to the vessel. In nearly the same way may it be Boo,
extracted from the common black sugar of commerce. ^v
When in powder it resembles pounded amber. Its taste
is sweet, with a peculiar flavour which is well known to
characterize liquorice. It dissolves readily both in water
and alcohol. It cannot be deprived of its yellow colour
by ivory-black. When heated it swells like borax; and
taking fire it burn§ with a clear flame, emitting much
smoke.
Its most remarkable characters are the strong affinityPr0j:,L
which it has for acids, bases, and even for several salts.
With acids it forms compounds, which are nearly inso¬
luble in water; hence the addition of an acid throws it
down from its aqueous solution. Sulphate of liquorice
sugar is a glutinous, resinous-looking substance, which,
when dried, becomes yellow and translucent. Its taste
is simply sweet, like that of the sugar; but it dissolves
much more slowly in the saliva. It dissolves in boil¬
ing water, and is deposited in a gelatinous state as the
liquid cools. It is soluble in alcohol; and when the solu¬
tion is evaporated it leaves an opaque, straw-yellow mat¬
ter. It burns precisely like the pure sugar, and leaves no
ashes.
Acetate of liquorice sugar is pretty similar to the sul¬
phate, but much more soluble in boiling water.
So great is the tendency of liquorice sugar to unite with
bases, that we must take care not to add more of a base
than is just necessary to saturate the acid w-ith which it
was in combination, otherwise the sugar wdll be sure to
unite with the excess. When a solution of liquorice su¬
gar is digested with a carbonate, the carbonic acid is given
off, and the sugar combines with the base. When the sugar
is exactly saturated, the taste is simply sweet. The com¬
pounds thus formed are soluble in water, and likewise in
alcohol, though in less quantity. None of these com¬
pounds crystallizes. . t
Sulphate of potash, nitrate of copper, acetate of lead,
sulphated peroxide of iron, chloride of tin, &c. may be
combined with liquorice sugar; but it occasions no preci¬
pitate in a solution of corrosive sublimate.
No attempts have yet been made to determine the ato¬
mic weight, or to analyse liquorice sugar.
8. Glycerine.—This is the name given by Ghevreul toGlm
the substance discovered by Scheele, and called by him
the sweet principle of oils. It may be obtained by mixing
together one part of protoxide of lead and one part ot
hog’s lard, and boiling it with water for some time. The
water is to be drawn off from time to time, and new water
added. The aqueous solution contains the glycerine in
combination with oxide of lead, from which it may be
freed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Let
the liquid be now filtered and evaporated on the vapour
Thus prepared, it is a colourless or yellowish syrup, which Pro oes.
will not crystallize ; has a sweet taste, and no smell. When
as much concentrated as possible by a heat of 212°, its
specific gravity is 1*252 ; and after being left for a month
in a vacuum over sulphuric acid,- it lost six per cent, o
water, and its specific gravity became 1*27. According
to Chevreul, a small portion of glycerine may be distillea
over with boiling water. This substance was analysed oy
Chevreul, who found its constituents
Carbon  40*0/1
Hydrogen 8*925
Oxygen   ..51*004
100*000
These numbers agree best with the following atomic pro
portions; stfai bolii
CHEMISTRY.
^anic
dies.
10^- atoms carbon 7-875
14 atoms hydrogen l-f5
10 atoms oxygen 10
475
P: b ra¬
ti |
19-625
?rties.
It seems to contain more hydrogen and less oxygen
than any of the other species of sugar; but no great,
confidence can be put in the accuracy of the analysis on
which the preceding calculation is founded.
The preceding enumeration does not include all the va¬
rieties of sugar hitherto observed ; but the rest have been
so imperfectly studied, that we cannot as yet describe
them. About fifteen years ago a sweet substance like
manna was brought from Botany Bay. It had been ga¬
thered in a plain covered with wood, and doubtless had
been an exudation from some plant. Its solubility in al¬
cohol was the same as that of manna, but the shape of
its crystals did not agree with that of manna, nor did it
make so cooling an impression on the tongue. It was pro¬
bably a variety of manna ; but the small quantity brought
to London did not permit any thing like a rigid examina¬
tion.
The substance found by Petroz and Robinet in the ca-
nella alba, to which they have given the name of canellin,
is probably another species of sugar; but the description
is too imperfect to enable us to give any account of it here.
Sect. II.— Of Starch.
This principle is one of the commonest in the vegetable
kingdom. It constitutes a portion of the seeds of almost
the whole tribe of grasses, and of many other plants, be¬
sides almost all the bulbs, as potatoes, iatropba manjhot,
helianthus tuberosus, &c. It exists also in the pith of va¬
rious palms, as the sagus rumphii, cycus revoluta, and cir-
cinalis, but seldom in the pith or stems of bicotyledonous
plants. The leaves also of plants very frequently contain
it. There are several varieties of it, but the type of the
whole is common starch, whether extracted from wheat
or from potatoes.
1. Common Starch.—Common starch is usually made
from wheat by the following process: Good wheat is al¬
lowed to steep in water till it becomes soft, and yields a
milky juice when squeezed. It is then put into coarse
linen sacks, and subjected to pressure in a vat filled with
water; a milky juice exudes, and mixes with the water
in the vat. This process is repeated so long as the wheat
will yield any milky juice. The sack and its contents are
then removed. Fermentation takes place, alcohol and an
acid are generated, which dissolve all the impurities, leav¬
ing nothing behind but pure starch. The starch, after
being washed, is dried. In drying, it splits into small co¬
lumnar masses, which have considerable regularity. Very
pure starch may also be obtained from the potato, simply
by grating down the potato, and washing it on a seirce :
the water carries the starch with it, leaving the fibrous
part of the potato behind.
Starch is a beautiful white matter, composed of small
grains, having considerable lustre, and probably a crystal¬
line structure. It is insoluble in cold water, but when
boiled with water it is converted into a translucent jelly.
If this jelly be thin, and set aside for some time, it begins
to subside, and falls very slowly to the bottom. If infusion
ofnutgalls be poured into this jelly, a light brownish-red
precipitate falls. If the liquid be heated up to 120°, this
precipitate dissolves ; but it appears again when the liquor
cools. This properly characterizes starch, and enables us
to detect its presence.
Starch is insoluble in alcohol and ether. When boiled
m dilute sulphuric acid it is converted into sugar. The
same change takes place partially when the infusion of Organic
starch in w^ater is left to spontaneous evaporation. When Bodies,
digested in nitric acid, starch is converted into malic and
oxalic acids, without the least trace of mucic acid.
The aqueous infusion of starch is precipitated by diace¬
tate of lead.
When heated so high as to change its colour a little,
without being burnt, it acquires the smell of new bread,
and becomes completely soluble in water. When the aque¬
ous solution is evaporated, a substance so like gum is ob¬
tained, that it may be used by the calico-printers, and is
knovyn in commerce by the name of British gum.
V hen heated rapidly, starch undergoes a kind of semi¬
fusion ; it is charred, smokes, and burns with a lively flame.
Starch absorbs chlorine gas, and assumes at the same
time a brown colour. With bromine it combines and forms
an orange-coloured precipitate. With iodine it strikes a
deep.blue, and is in consequence a very delicate re-agent
for discovering the presence of that substance.
Ihe dilute acids dissolve starch, and the solution is
clear and quite liquid. By long boiling the starch is con¬
verted, first into gum, and then into sugar.
It has. a stronger affinity for the bases than for acids.
When triturated with caustic potash, it is converted into
a. transparent jelly, soluble both in w-ater and alcohol, and
from this solution the starch is precipitated by acids.
\\ hen the jelly is dduted with much water it becomes
opal. W hen the infusion of starch is mixed with barytes
or starch water, a precipitate falls, consisting of these
bodies united with starch. In the same way we may ob¬
tain a compound of starch and oxide of lead, by mixing
diacetate of lead with the infusion. The precipitate is
white, curdy, and heavy. According to the analysis of
Berzelius, it is composed of
Starch 72
Oxide of lead 28
100
W e know little of the action of salts upon starch. The
infusion of starch is coagulated by borax. When the in¬
fusion is boiled with phosphate of lime, it dissolves a por¬
tion of that salt. There is a light-blue compound of prus-
sian blue and starch commonly sold under the name of
blue, and used by washerwomen.
Starch has been analysed with considerable care bycornnosi-
chemists. The following little table shows the results oftion.1
these analyses:
Carbon..
Hydrogen.
Oxygen....
Azote...
Gay-Lus¬
sac and
Thenard.
Wheat
Starch.
43-55
6-97
49-68
100-00
Berzelius.
Potato
Starch.
44-250
6-674
49-076
100-000
Prout.
Saussure. | Arrow Root
Wheat dried in vacuo
Starch, over Sulphu¬
ric Acid.
45-39
5-90
48-31
0-40
100-00
36-40
7-07
56-53
100-00
ric Acid.
37-50
6-94
56-56
100-00
The atomic numbers that agree best with the last ana¬
lysis in this table are,
10 atoms carbon 7*5
llJ^y atoms hydrogen 1-3875
11^ atoms oxygen 11-1
19-9875
But if we take the second analysis, the numbers agreeing
best with it are
476
Organic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
How,ob¬
tained.
Composi¬
tion.
How ob¬
tained.
10 atoms carbon.. 7*5
9 atoms hydrogen 1*125
8^ atoms oxygen 8*333
16*958
Now the difference between the two was, that in the one
ease the starch was dried at 212°, and in the other in °a
vacuum over sulphuric acid. Prout dried starch at 212 ,
and obtained nearly the same results. Had the oxygen been
a little higher than it is in Berzelius’ analysis, it would be
evident that by the temperature of 212° two atoms of wa¬
ter had been driven off. As it is doubtful whether this
water existed in the starch in that state, or whether its
evolution was not owing to a commencement of decompo¬
sition, we cannot, in the present state of our knowledge,
form an adequate idea of the composition of starch. It is
most probably a compound of
10 atoms carbon 7*5
9 atoms hydrogen 1*125
9 atoms oxygen 9
17*625
This approaches very nearly to the component parts of
sugar, and renders it not unlikely that sugar and starch
differ not in the number and nature of their atomic con¬
stituents, but in the way in which they are arranged.
2. Horddn.—-When barley-meal is washed in a small
current of water in the same way as wheat flour, in order
to extract the gluten, instead of that principle there re¬
mains a great quantity of matter, which Prout distinguish¬
ed by the name of hordein. It is a yellow granular pow¬
der, like saw-dust. As it is not soluble in water, it may
be freed from starch by boiling the residue of washed bar¬
ley-meal (about 80 per cent.) in water. The residuary
hordein amounts to about fifty-five per cent, of the barley-
meal from which it was extracted. When distilled it
yields, together with gaseous bodies, acetic acid, and an
empyreumatic oil, and leaves the fifth part of its weight
of charcoal. When digested in nitric acid it furnishes
oxalic acid, acetic acid, and a little bitter principle. Prout
is of opinion that during malting the greater part of this
substance is converted into starch. It exists also in maize.
The constituents of hordein, according to Mr F. Marcet,
are,
Carbon   44*2
Hydrogen   fi'-I
Azote  1'8
Oxygen : 17*6
100*0
The atomic proportions agreeing best with these num¬
bers are,
10 atoms carbon  7*5
8§ atoms hydrogen 1*083
J.th atom azote 0*291
8 atoms oxygen 8
16*875
According to this analysis (if we admit a little ammonia,
or its elements), hordein differs from starch by the ab¬
sence of an atom of water, or at least of its constituents.
3. Inulin.—This substance was discovered by Valen¬
tine Rose in the root of the inula helenium, or elecam¬
pane. It has been since found in the roots of angelica
archangelica, anthemis pyrethrum, colchicum autumnale,
georgina (dahlia) purpurea, helianthus tuberosus, and it
probably exists in the roots of all the asters. It has been
called helenin, alantin, datisdn, and dahlin. It exists most
abundantly in the root of the georgina; but it may be
easily extracted from the roots of elecampane or arti¬
choke. Grate down the root and boil it with water. Fil- Organ;
ter the decoction while boiling hot. If it is not clear it Bodies
may be clarified by white of egg. Let it now be evapo-
rated till a film collects on the surface. On cooling, the
inulin precipitates in the form of a powder. Let it be col¬
lected on a filter, and well washed and dried. From the
georgina we can extract ten per cent, and from the arti¬
choke three per cent, of inulin.
It constitutes a light and very white powder, without Propert
taste or smell, and having a specific gravity of 1*356.
When heated a little higher than 212°, it loses water and
melts. On cooling it assumes the appearance of a grayish
scaly mass, which may be easily reduced to powder. Its
characters are now very nearly the same as those of starch.
Iodine gives it a yellow” colour, and makes it soluble in cold
water.
It is very little soluble in cold water, a hundred parts
of that liquid dissolving only two of inulin; but boiling
water dissolves it abundantly. The solution is mucilagi¬
nous, but has not the property of pasting pieces of paper
together. When the solution is boiled the inulin forms
a crust on the surface, and on cooling it falls in the form
of a powder. When inulin is roasted, it is converted into
hard translucent lumps like sago.
It is insoluble in cold alcohol, and precipitated by it
from water; but boiling alcohol dissolves a little of it,
and allows it to fall again on cooling.
It is dissolved readily by dilute acids. When boiled
with dilute sulphuric acid, it is more readily converted
into sugar than starch itself. Nitric acid converts it into
malic and oxalic acids. It combines with the bases precise¬
ly as starch does. The action of the infusion of nutgalls
is precisely the same on inulin as on starch.
No attempt has been made to analyse inulin ; but its
constitution cannot differ much from that of starch.
4. Lichen Starch.—Different species of lichens contain
a starch very similar to common starch, except that it has
nothing of the powdery form which common starch so
readily assumes. Iceland moss, the cetraria islandica of
Acharius, contains it in greatest abundance; but it is
found also in the lichen plicatus and barbatus. From Ice¬
land moss it may be obtained in the following way:
Let the moss be chopt fine, and digested in eighteen Prepart
times its weight of water having about the thirtieth parttion.
of its weight of potash dissolved in it. Let this mixture
remain for twenty-four hours, often stirring it during that
time. The alkafi dissolves a bitter matter, nearly insolu¬
ble in pure water, and the liquid acquires a dark-brown
colour. The lichen is now laid upon a linen cloth, to al¬
low the ley to run off. It is afterwards well washed with
water till it is quite freed from every trace of the alkali.
We must not apply pressure, otherwise we would lose a
good deal of the starch. The lichen is now to be boiled
in nine times its w*eight of water, till the liquid be re¬
duced to two thirds of its original bulk. Filter while boil¬
ing hot, and subject the residue to pressure. The filtered
liquor is transparent and colourless. As it cools, a skm
forms on its surface, and it at last assumes the form of a
translucent-grayish jelly, which gradually contracts ana
cracks, and lets the water ooze out. If we suspend it in
a linen bag the water drops out, and it gradually hardens.
When fully dried it is black, hard, and breaks with a
glassy fracture. When put into water, it swells an oses
its black colour, which proceeds from an extractive ma -
ter that does not dissolve. If it be now dissolved in boiling
water, it gives after cooling a colourless, translucent je y-
It is destitute of taste, but has a slight smell of thepropert
lichen from which it was procured. It is insoluble in a -
cohol and ether. It contains no azote, and yields, wne
distilled or burnt, the same products as potato staici.
CHEMISTRY.
477
•anic It is slightly soluble in cold water. When the solutinn nf Tf a™*--.., <. c n 11 , ,
lies- it in hot water is concentrated by boiling, it separates un rifle o-rnvit ' e,° ias ^ut'lt^e taste* Its spe- Organic
W der the form of a skin on the surface oAhe iTquW which ™flv f„!.? ? Tf ”, 1'48', 11 C0,Uains natu- liodi,,s'
puts an end to the evaporation. One part „f th,s’ search o^ohufon y'C?mb‘Ded TO*f: b«‘ when .«» «9«e-
forms a jelly with twenty-three parts of water. Chlorine alimit sevr ^Um lo ^vaPorate^ to dryness, it retains r°i!ei lCb
does no a,ti it. Iodine gives U a colour between brown off°by heatinglt uTvacuo*overAdphuric acidTm^tempe!
anu gree    rature of 212°. When it ie PYnncorl h™* u __ .i
does not alter it.
and green.
The weak acids dissolve it, and when boiled in dilute
sulphuric acid, it is converted into sugar like common
starch. Nitric acid acts on it as on common starch. It
dissolves in caustic potash. It is not precipitated by ba¬
rytes water, but by the disalts of lead.* With the infusion
of nutgalls it behaves like common starch.
The lichen fastigiatus and plicatus yield a starch dif-
rature of 212°. When it is exposed to heat it softens and
swells, but does not melt. It emits air bubbles, blackens,
and at last, when nearly reduced to charcoal, it emits a
low blue flame.
It dissolves slowly but completely in water, and more
rapidly in boiling than in cold water. The solution is
called mucilage. It is thick, and adheres, and is often
used as a paste, to give stiffness and lustre to linen. It
S 1" i,S Ch“ ft0” the £tarch °f lhe be" 4' great length of" time withouMmder-
5. Amylin—When the infusion of starch in water is S'8 Sp0,,tane°US dec°"1r°siti°”’ b“* il b<*°™s at last
left to spontaneous decomposition, nearly one fourth of It is insoluble in alcohol and ether. Alcohol throws it
he starch disappears, sugar ,s formed, and gum andano- down from water, but not completely. The tmWs dissdve
ther substance mtermed.a e between sugar and gum, to gum if they be dilute; the more powerful acids if they
winch Saussure has g,ven the name of amylm or amidm. be concentrated, decompose it. If the powder of gum be
It ,s qbtamed from the residue, after every th.ng soluble triturated with concentrated sulphuric add, a combination
111 “ld 'va.t7 ,s ram.oved- ,Bo‘1'n« water takes up the takes place, and we obtain a slightly coloured mass, wWch
Zl ed m d m PUr ^ When 11 ,S ^ ” Iwenty-four hours becomes darker. If we dilute ft wfth
poraieu to aryness. water and saturate the acid with chalk w bt j t]
It ,s sem,transparent and brittle and very soluble in precisely in the state that sawings of wood assume when
water of the temperature 144°. Tins solution becomes treated with the same acid. When sulphuric add and
blue when it comes in contact with iodine. It is coagu¬
lated by diacetate of lead, and copiously precipitated by
barytes water, but not by lime water nor infusion of nut-
gum are boiled, the gum is decomposed, sulphurous acid
is given out, and a charry matter remains, weighing only
029 of the gum. It is said, that by boiling gum in dilute
galls. It dissolves in the aqueous solution of potash, and sulphuric acid, ^gar may be formed in the same^yas
the solution has no viscidity. It is thrown down by acids by boiling starch. ^
^L31?01- fU i * u , , Wllen gum is heated gently in nitric acid, and then al-
Ihere are some other substances obvious y connected lowed to cool, mucic acid is deposited, amounting to near-
th starch. The fibrous starchy matter of the potato, ly one fourth of the weight of the gum. When the diges-
with starch.
for example, may be mentioned. Arrow root seems very
nearly the same as potato starch. Sago and tapioca are
also closely allied to the same substances. They owe
their chief differences probably to the way in which they
have been dried. The very nutritious article of food
known in Scotland by the name of sowans consists chief¬
ly of a starch from the seeds of oats.
Sect. III.— Of Gum.
tion is continued, malic and oxalic acids are formed. Vau-
quelin affirms that chlorine gas converts gum into citric
acid. Iodine produces no change on gum.
It combines readily with the saline bases. The solu¬
tion of potash converts it first into a substance not unlike
curd, and then dissolves it. Alcohol throws down the
gum in white flakes, but it obstinately retains a portion of
the potash, and is more brittle than when pure. Lime wa¬
ter, and the other alkalies and alkaline earths, likewise
aiwaiica cum cUWcUllit; eai UIS, ilKCWlSC
Inis principle is still more abundant m the vegetable unite with gum, and form compounds which are soluble
nffdom than starrh • hut hithorf-n the* c>n«rv>i'c.ol — 0:1: _ • i -.i ,
kingdom than starch; but hitherto the chemical proper¬
ties of gum have been but imperfectly investigated.
Hence it is not unlikely that different substances are at
present confounded together under the name of gum.
fhe principal characters are solubility in water, and the
solution being possessed of a glutinous property, and be
ing capable of pasting pieces of paper together, and stif- consists of
IPnimr ll no VI 17 r\ W-* 4-1-n-v »-» 4-? 4-1.    * — f
in water. Silicated potash, when mixed with a solution
of gum, though even much diluted, occasions a flaky pre¬
cipitate. An abundant precipitate falls when the solutions
of gum and diacetate of lead are mixed together. It is
like curd; and after being washed and dried it remains
white, and is easily reduced to powder. This compound
fening linen. From the aqueous solutions the gum is
precipitated by the addition of water. We know at least
three distinct substances at present confounded together
under the name of gum. We shall give a short account
of each of these in the present section.
1. Gum Proper.—Gum exudes from a variety of trees
Gum ....61-75 or 23-2
Oxide of lead..... 38-25 or Id*
100-00
Gay-Lussac
andThenard.
Berzelius.
Prout.
Gobel.
Saussure
A good many experiments have been made to deter-Composi-
.  x—   —— v. mine the constituents of gum. The following little table tion.
in t ie form of a mucilage, and gradually dries on the bark exhibits the result of these experiments,
m the form of a clear yellow or brown, hard, brittle con¬
cretion. Almost all plants contain some gum, which may
he extracted by water; and when the liquid has been suf¬
ficiently concentrated, the gum may be thrown down by
alcohol, though it seldom falls in a state of purity, but
usually mixed with some other of the principles which the
pant contains. Almost all the chemical properties of
gum have been determined in gum-arabic, which is a gum
under the form of small light amber-coloured and translu¬
cent tears, hard and brittle, and having a vitreous lustre,
exudes from the acacia vera.
Carbon 
Hydrogen.
Oxygen....
Azote 
42-23
6-93
50-84
0-00
100-00
42-682
6-374
50-944
0-000
100-000
41-4
6-5
52-1
0-0
100-0
42-2
6-6
51-2
0-0
100-0
45-84
5-46
48-26
0-44
100-00
47S
Organic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
The atomic numbers which agree best with the analy- ago from India, for the use of the calico printers, but it org£;
. 1 lie atomic numners wmci was foun(i not t0 answer. A tea-spoonful of its powder Bod:
sis of 1 rout are, . eg to water the consistence of capillaire. In India it W
10j atoms carbom.  ^ ^ |nters into the composition of some varnishes.
10 atoms hydrogen  ~ ^ Cherry-tree Gum.—T\\e prunus avium, the common
10 atoms oxygen   cherry and plum trees, and the almond and apricot, like-
jq.25 wise yield a gum, which exudes in abundance irom natu-
Pm 10-25 the atomic weight deduced from these num- ral and artificial openings in the stem. It is in large, dark,
Cut 19 25, the atomic we g tomic weight de- reddish-brown masses, at first soft and elastic like gum
bers, does not accord with 25 ~, , ? w knteera- but bv keeping it becomes exceedingly hard,
duced from the compos,t,on of ^ We assy fracture. When put
it swells like bassorin into a jelly ; but a portion dissolves
in cold water, while the gelatinous portion does not dis¬
solve even by several hours boiling, ihe portion dissolv¬
ed is similar in its characters to gum kuteera. When
treated with nitric acid it yields mucic acid.
The atomic weight *^25, and gum contains no ^"ToteTt^y w^iTT
feruct1'rrpperties„fgumarahic Gtumsenegal S
almost superseded the use of gum ara ic in i ' y not become opaque and milky, like mucilage of
thick: in other respects it resembles gum-arab.c pi o- oH ^ by infuPsion of nutgalls. Salop, from
^".‘liiMKirin.-This variety of gum was first particularly Caventou's experiments, seems to contain a great deal of
described by Vauquelin under the name of bassora gunu mucus
UUCcU 11 U 111    0 ^
mus-t therefore consider the true atomic proportions as
13 atoms carbon.. 
12 atoms hydrogen 
12 atoms oxygen 12
23-25 •
Properties
John gave it the names of cerasin and prunin', and Bu
cholz called it tragacanthin, because the properties of gum
tragacanth are the same ; while Berzelius gave it the name
of vegetable mucus.
It is a solid substance, having exactly the external ap-
6. CalcnduUn.—T\\\?> substance may be obtained from
the calendula officinalis, and was first described by Geiger
in 1818. The leaves and blossoms of the calendula are
dio-ested in alcohol. The infusion is evaporated to the
consistence of an extract. Ihis extract is fiist treated
pe,a„ce of gum. U ^ S
reddish-brown and deep. When put mto water , does her cold or bo mg hot. ^ out’int0 „
not dissolve like gum, but gradually imbibes t lat icjuu, ucen , . „rear distinction between it and mucus is
dSSng ,ts sofubihty | ^
so “ia^,en 0“^“ P°;aS " “ f nutgal.s It is insoluble in ether, and in the
Its aqueous solution is not completely precipitated by fixed and volatile oils.
alcohol. When mixed with diacetate of lead an immediate Sect. IV. Of Gluten and Albumen.
precipitate does not fall, but in twenty-four hours it ma es , . crst obtained bv Beccaria in
Its appearance. It is not coagulated by sulphated per- The orfy ^ make a quantity of
oxide of iron, as is the case with common gum , nor is it lid-. P , , i kopori it between the fin-
precipitated like gum by silicated potash. But with per- good ‘"t" ^b’s s oi,ly on it. We
chloride of tin it forms a coagulum, having the form of a gers while a ° the watei passes off
stiff jelly. I. is not precipitated by the infusion of nut- *£*£*££ the Imnd is the gluten.
^I'Gum Kvteera.—This gum is the produce of the ster- It is a bre'ak-
culio urens, a tree which grows m Hindustan. It is in tended to we y t j “sly t0 ot|fer bodies, and has
large roundish lumps, having a brownish-red colour, much ing. It adheres veiy te a f together pieces of broken
lighter than cherry-tree gum, and is not hard, but soft and olten been emp oye niotture of vegetable ghi-
elastic. When put into water it gradually imbibes that porcelain In this state t bran and a little
liquid, and swells into a transparent and almost colourless ten and ^ and albumen from this
jelly. But none of it dissolves in that liquid. In this re- starch. Jo l hol tiU thatli-
spect it agrees with bassorin. But if we boil the jelly for matter, it must be dl§e/t^u "b^l^ol-„(T Thfi alcohol
some hours, we obtain a complete solution, from which no quid ceases to become muddy on cool *
precipitate falls when the liquid cools. The solution, even dissolves the WffiLes when the alcoholic Pro:
when much concentrated, possesses very little of the muci- \. Gluten. g ^ ' tue alcohol is
laginous qualities which characterize the aqueous solution solution is mixe ,vvl, . , ’ • tjie „iuten swims in ad-
of gum ; nor can it be employed for pasting together oft. •*-rkt ie w ,, nrt;nn 0f it is united to gum, and
pieces of paper or stiffening linen. Large quantities of breejve flocks. A sma p bug obtained has 0
thic emm xvPt-fl hrnmrht. to this country about thirty years held in solution m water. Glute  
this gum were brought to this country about thirty years held in solution m water.
The albumen thus obtained was called zimome by Taddei.
>Juis Jo <5 bn no
CHEMISTRY.
light-yellow colour; and when the liquid is stirred it col¬
lects altogether into an adhesive mass, which sticks to
' the fingers, is elastic, and recovers its form after beino-
forcibly drawn out. It is destitute of taste, but has a pe^
culiar smell. When left to itself in a dry place, it assumes
a darker yellow colour, and dries into a translucent brittle
matter, resembling a dried animal substance. It dissolves
in alcohol with a light-yellow colour ; and if the solution
be evaporated, the gluten remains in the state of a yellow
translucent varnish. Wdien cold alcohol is poured on glu¬
ten,'it becomes white, a glutinous matter separates in
plates, and the liquid becomes milky. The substance
which thus separates is not gluten, though its properties
approach those of that substance. Boiling alcohol takes
it up, but when a concentrated solution cools it becomes
glutinous.
If gluten be dissolved in boiling spirits, it is deposited,
on cooling, with the whole of its glutinous characters. It
is insoluble in ether, and in fixed and volatile oils. When
steeped moist in acetic acid it swells out, becomes adhe¬
sive, loses its yellow colour, and assumes a half-liquid ap¬
pearance. If in this state it be mixed with water, gluti¬
nous flocks remain undissolved, and the liquid has the ap¬
pearance of water mixed with some drops of milk. Boil¬
ing does not alter the appearance of this liquid. In this
case the gluten dissolves in the acid ; but the other sub¬
stance with which it is mixed, which is difficultly soluble
in alcohol, is insoluble in the acid, becomes glutinous, and
separating from the liquid very slowly, occasions its milky
appearance.
The solution of the gluten in acetic acid, freed as much
as possible from the glutinous substance, which is insolu¬
ble in the acid, dries to a colourless translucent varnish.
When caustic ammonia or its carbonate is added in such
quantity as not to saturate the acid completely, it falls
down in flocks, which in about an hour collect together,
and assume the usual appearance of vegetable gluten. In
this state, when treated with warm water, a small portion
of it dissolves, for the liquid is slightly precipitated by in¬
fusion of nutgalls.
When gluten is covered with a dilute organic acid, and
agitated in it, no solution takes place; but the gluten
combines with a portion of the acid. If wq now pour off
the dilute acid and digest the gluten a couple of times in
water, the gluten dissolves; but the peculiar glutinous
substance already mentioned remains.
The compound of gluten and sulphuric acid is very dif¬
ficultly soluble in pure water, but it dissolves very readily
in nitric or muriatic acid. It is soluble also in boiling al¬
cohol; and it a little carbonate of lime be added to the
boiling hot liquid, the gluten may be obtained from the
alcohol afterwards, quite free from acid.
When dilute caustic potash is mixed with gluten in
water, it becomes slimy, and dissolves the gluten into a
muddy liquid, which cannot be made transparent by filter¬
ing. When more gluten is added than the alkali can dis¬
solve, so as to saturate the potash, the liquid loses its al¬
kaline taste, but acquires an astringent flavour, and is al¬
most colourless. When evaporated at a temperature not
exceeding 100°, a portion of the dissolved matter precipi¬
tates, and then dries into a white opaque mass, which
'viStS itself up, and does not adhere to the vessel. When
water is poured upon this substance, the gluten dissolves,
wne the other matter remains in the form of a slime.
mmonia, even when concentrated, has little dissolving
power on gluten in its solid state; but when a solution of
! ,ln,an.a^1^ ** dropt into caustic ammonia, the precipi-
gluten is almost immediately re-dissolved. Lime
water acts in the same way.
e compounds of gluten with the other bases are all
479
insoluble in water, and precipitate when glutinate of pot- Organic
as11 111 a neutral state is mixed with an earthy or metallic Bodies.
salt. Ihese precipitates have the usual colour which cha-   
ractenzes the salts of the bases employed.
Gluten is not dissolved by the alkaline carbonates, which
throw it down from its solution in acids the more com¬
pletely the more of the precipitant we add, and the more
concentrated the solution is. If the alkaline liquid be
poured oft, the precipitate may be dissolved in pure water
constituting a muddy liquid.
. The solutions of gluten are precipitated white by corro¬
sive sublimate. The solution of gluten in acetic acid is
not precipitated by acetate or diacetate of lead, nor by
sulphated peroxide of iron ; but it is readily precipitated
by infusion of nutgalls.
2. Albumen.— The albumen remains undissolved when
Beccaria s gluten is boiled in alcohol. It is considerably re¬
duced in volume, has lost all its glutinous characters, and is
easily dried into a white or gray hard mass. When digested
in a very dilute alkaline ley, it swells and becomes moist,
and then dissolves into a clear colourless liquid, leaving
the bran and the starch with which it had been mixed. If
the alkaline solution be saturated, and quite free from car¬
bonate, it has no alkaline taste whatever; and when eva¬
porated, it lets fall at first a little coagulated albumen, and
then leaves a white mass, which is attached to the glass,
and which is again soluble in water, with the exception of
the portion which had coagulated during the evaporation.
By mixing this saturated alkaline solution of albumen with
the different earthy and metallic salts, we may obtain com¬
binations of albumen with the other bases. These com¬
pounds are generally insoluble in water. The albuminate
of peroxide of iron is dark red after being dried ; that of
piotoxide white, but it becomes yellow when exposed to
the air. The albuminate of copper is bluish-green, the
albuminates of mercury and lead snow-white.
Albumen is soluble in water before coagulation; but it Properties,
is insoluble in alcohol, and it is coagulated by the action
of that liquid. When dried it becomes white, gray, brown,
or black. It dissolves easily in caustic alkali, and neutra¬
lizes the taste. From this solution it is precipitated by
acids, provided they be added in excess. Such an excess
of acid as gives a perceptibly sour taste, and causes the
liquid to redden vegetable blues, may be added without
occasioning any precipitation. The liquid becomes merely
milky, and recovers its transparency, when heated. When
a considerable excess of acid is added, the albumen is
thrown down, and the precipitate is a compound of the
albumen and the precipitating acid, scarcely soluble in
acidulated water, but easily soluble in pure water.
One of the most remarkable characters of albumen is,
that in? combination with an acid, if in solution in water,
is precipitated white by prussiate of potash.
Einhof, to whom we are indebted for the establishment
of most of the preceding facts, examined also the gluten
and albumen of rye, oats, and peas, and showed that they
possessed various peculiarities, which he minutely details.
For these investigations the reader is referred to the differ¬
ent volumes of Gehlen’s Journal, where Einhof’s papers
originally appeared.
Sect. V.— Of Lignin.
What is at present called lignin by chemists, is the pe¬
culiar substance of trees called wood, after it has been de¬
prived of all foreign matter. It is very different in differ¬
ent trees, in its colour, hardness, specific gravity, &c. It
probably also differs in its constitution, though this has
not been ascertained by experiment. Its texture is al¬
ways porous, inconsequence of the numerous vessels which
480
Prepara¬
tion.
CHEMISTRY.
Organic
Bodies.
pervade it. In 100 parts of dried wood there exists about
ninety-six parts of lignin and four parts of foreign mattei ,
which may be removed by digestion in water and alcohol.
To obtain pure lignin, the method followed is to take a
portion of wood, or rather of saw-dust, and to digest it ns
in water, then in alcohol, and successively in ether, muri¬
atic acid, dilute potash ley, and even in chlorine, so long
as these menstrua continue to dissolve anything.
It is white, opaque, and of a fibrous texture, and tiese
fibres have different directions in different species of trees.
Its specific gravity varies, as is evident from the following
little table. , i lor/t
Poplar l’48o4
Elm 1‘5186
Beech    1*5284
Maple  1*4599
Fir  1*4621
Lime     1*4846
Birch   1*4848
Oak 1*5344
Lignin is destitute of taste and smell, and is of course in¬
soluble in all the menstrua employed in purifying it.
When heated it becomes brown, and gives out moisture.
When heated during four days in an oven, it was chaired,
and gave out a bituminous matter, insoluble in water and
alcohol, but soluble in ether, though with difficulty. _ By 0rg£
this treatment it was deprived of more than half its v eight. Sod
When distilled in a retort it becomes black, without melt- ''-'v
ing, softening, or altering its shape. It gives out carbo¬
nic acid and carburetted hydrogen gas, water, acetic acid,
pyroxylic spirit, empyreumatic oil, and resin. _
Nitric acid gradually acts upon lignin, transforming it
into a kind of starch, while malic acid is evolved. By long
continued boiling the lignin is dissolved, and a quantity of
oxalic acid formed. . ,
Lignin heated in concentrated sulphuric acid is charr¬
ed, and the residual charcoal amounts to 0*4375 of the ori¬
ginal weight of the lignin. If it be boiled with dilute sul¬
phuric acid, it is converted first into gum, and afterwards
into sugar, while at the same time a peculiar acid is evolv¬
ed. When mixed with potash ley, and pretty strongly
heated, it is converted into oxalic acid.
A good many experiments have been made to deter¬
mine the composition of lignin from various kinds of wood.
The following little table shows the results of these ana¬
lyses.
Composi-
tion.
Carbon 
Hydrogen.
Oxygen....
52*53
5*69
41*78
100*00
51*45
5*82
42*73
100*00
42*60
6*38
51*02
100*00
49*80
5*58
44-62
100*00
42*70
6*37
50*93
100*00
50-00
5*55
45*44
100-00
42*81
5*50
51*70
100*01
42*11
5*06
52*83
100-00
If we take Dr Prout’s analysis of boxwood dried at 350°,
we find that it gives the following as the ratios of the atoms
which enter into the composition of lignin :
3 atoms carbon 
2 atoms hydrogen 0*25
2 atoms oxygen 2
4*5
The analysis of the same lignin dried at the ordinary tem¬
perature of the air gives us
24 atoms carbon ^
2Jatoms hydrogen 
2 atoms oxygen 2
4-65
We see from this that the heat merely drives off a quan¬
tity of water, without altering the carbon. This will be
better seen if we state the atomic constitution of hgmn in
different states of dryness as follows:
Air Dried. Dried at 350°.
Carbon II atoms. H atoms.
Hydrogen 10 Lj-  
Oxygen ...10... •••**•
WTe perceive that by the heat two and a half atoms of
water have been driven off. Being ignorant of any defi¬
nite compound into which lignin enters, these analyses do
not enable us to determine its atomic weight.
The following vegetable principles seem to be so close¬
ly connected with lignin that they can scarcely be con¬
sidered as constituting distiiict genera. Ve shall there¬
fore hbtice them here.
2: Madullin.—This is a name by which John has dis-
tino-uished the pith of the sun-flower (helianthus annuus),
synnga; vulgaris, &c. It possesses the following characters:
Characters. !• It is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oils.
2/ It is destitute of taste and smell.
3l Its structure is peculiar, being full of pores.
4. It is soluble in nitric acid, and when treated with a
sufficient quantity of that acid it yields oxalic acid. >
5. When distilled it yields a considerable quantity of
ammonia, and leaves a charcoal having a metallic appear¬
ance, and a colour similar to bronze.
All these characters, except the last, so far as they are
chemical, npply t° lignin as well as medullin. The last
character shows that medullin contains azote as a consti¬
tuent. It must, therefore, differ essentially from lignin,
though, so far as it has been examined, there is a great si¬
milarity between them.
3. Suberin.—CoxV, the outer bark of the quercus suber,
has been examined by various chemists; but the most
elaborate examination is that of Chevreul. _ He treated it
with water in his silver digester till that liquid was cap¬
able of dissolving nothing more. He obtained an aroma¬
tic principle and a little acetic acid, which passed over
into the receiver. The extract formed by the water con¬
tained two colouring matters, the one yellow, the other
red; an acid, the nature of which was not determined;
gallic acid, an astringent substance; a substance contain¬
ing azote; a substance soluble in water, and insoluble in
alcohol; gallate of iron, lime, and traces of magnesia.
Twenty parts of cork thus treated left 17*15 parts of in¬
soluble matter. .
This undissolved matter being treated a sufficient num
ber of times with alcohol in the same digester, yielded re¬
sin, oil, and cerin, or a species of wax. The twenty part
by this treatment were reduced to fourteen parts, y
were considered as pure suberin. _ ^min-Chara.*
The properties of suberin have been imperfecfly exam
ed. It is insoluble in all the re-agents hitherto t >
except the strong mineral acids. Sulphuric acld ^ , 7
chars it. Nitric acid gives it a yellow colour, cor >
dissolves, and decomposes it, suberic acid being
and a peculiar dark-coloured variety^ of waX* , m!cai
There is some reason for suspecting that the die
CHEMISTRY.
characters of the epidermis of most plants are nearly the
same as those of suberin; but the subject has not been
sufficiently investigated.
4. Fungin.—This name was applied by Braconnot to
the fleshy part of different mushrooms after every thiiv
soluble has been removed. He obtained it from the aoa*
ricus volvacius, piperatus, and stypticus ; the boletus ju<>--
landis and pseudo-igniarius; the phallus impudicus; the
481.
nutgalls, a concretion which appears upon different species Organic
ot oak, but the best of which are brought to this country Bodies,
iiom the Levant, is considered as constituting the purest
kind of it. We shall therefore, in the first place, describe
the characters of tannin from nutgalls.
1. Tannin from Nutgalls.—Nutgalls are excrescences charac
of the oak (quercus robur), occasioned by a small insectters.
merulius cantharellus, hydrium repandum anifhybridu'm';
    »nder surface. Nhe ball presen,^
The mushroom is subjected to pressure, to drive out
every thing liquid. The residue is treated first with wa¬
ter, then with alcohol, and finally with a dilute solution of
potash. What remains undissolved is the fungin.
It is a wnite, fibrous, soft, insipid substance, possessing
but little elasticity, and dividing easily between the teeth.
It is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, oils, and diluted
acids. When put into the infusion of nutgalls it absorbs
the greater part of the tannin contained in the liquid, and
assumes a fawn colour.
Alkalies have but little action on it; yet when boiled
.   presently begins to grow,
and the egg in the centre changes to a worm; the worm
gradually changes into the perfect insect, which, by eat¬
ing its way out, leaves a round hole. The best galls
come from Aleppo; they are bluish, and dark on the sur¬
face, hard and thick. 1 wo of them are considered equiva¬
lent to thiee of the galls from the south of Europe. Their
taste is exceedingly astringent. They contain gallic acid,
and tannin, and a considerable quantity of lignin. Sir
II. Davy endeavoured to show that, besides these sub¬
stances, there exists also a considerable quantity of ex-
ti active matter. But his reasons for that opinion are far
.v .uaLLfi. .uui ms reasons tor tiat opinion are fiii-
in a concentrated alkaline ley, fungin is partly dissolved, from satisfactory; and nobody has been able to obtain any
and a saponaceous liquid ,s obtained, from winch the acids such extractive matter from nutealls in a separate state
throw down a flocky matter. Ammonia also dissolves a To obtain pure tannin from nut|alls, we miy adopt the
little of it
Concentrated sulphuric acid chars it, acetic and sulphu¬
rous acids being evolved. Muriatic acid acts on it very
slowly, converting it into a jelly which is soluble in water.
Dilute nitric acid disengages azote from it. When distil¬
led with six times its weight of nitric acid, it becomes yel¬
low, swells up, and effervesces; but the violent action is
soon over. Hydrocyanic acid is evolved, and oxalic acid
formed, together with two fatty bodies resembling tallow
and wax. Vv hen mixed with water, and left to spontane¬
ous decomposition, it emits at first the smell of putrid
cheese; but this smell soon goes off, and the putrefactive
process stops, or goes on very slowly.
Ihese characters show that fungin, though resembling
lignin in many of its characters, yet differs from it in
others; and that it contains azote as one of its constitu¬
ents. In this respect it agrees with medullin, though it
differs from that principle in others of its characters.
5. Pollenin.—This name was given by Dr John to a
substance found in the pollen of the pinus abies, pinus
sylvestris, and lycopodium clavatum, and supposed by him
to constitute a characteristic constituent in every pollen.
It was first recognised by Bucholz in 1806, in the pollen
of the lycopodium. Fourcroy and Vauquelin showed it to
exist also in the pollen of the phoenix dactilifera.
Pollenin is yellow, and destitute of taste and smell. It
is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, fixed and volatile oils,
and naphtha. It is insoluble also in alkaline leys. It ap¬
pears to be soluble in muriatic acid, and to be precipitated
by ammonia. When distilled it yields ammonia, showing
fhat, like medullin and fungin, it contains azote as a con¬
stituent.
It is exceedingly combustible, burning with a kind of
explosion. It is well known that the pollen of the lyco-
podmm clavatum is used on the stage to imitate flashes
0 “ghtning, by throwing it through the flame of a candle.
Sect. VI.— Of Tannin.
ter.m ^an^n was first applied by Seguin to the ve-
following process:
Reduce the nutgalls to small pieces, but not to powder, Prepara-
and digest them for two or three days in a sufficient quan-tion.
tity of water. A dark-brown infusion is obtained, which
must be stiained through a cloth, to separate the insoluble
portion of the galls. Saturate this infusion nearly, but not
completely, with caustic ammonia, taking care that it still
possesses decided acid characters. Now add a solution of
chloride of barium as long as any precipitate falls. Leave
the liquid to become clear in a bottle well corked and fill¬
ed with the mixture; for when left in the open air, gal-
late of barytes precipitates green. Decant off the clear
liquid from the tannate of barytes, and wash that residue
on the filter with cold water, taking care not to employ
too much of that liquid, as the precipitate is somewhat
soluble in water. It is now to he dissolved in acetic acid,
which will leave a little green gallate of barytes (proceed¬
ing from the action of the air on the liquid) undissolved.
Filter the solution, and mix it with acetate of lead. A
yellowish precipitate falls, which, when washed, becomes
grayish green. This compound is decomposed while still
moist, by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The
lead is thrown down, and a solution of pure tannin is ob¬
tained, which by cautious evaporation leaves the tannin
in a state of purity.
While in solution in water it is nearly colourless, but Properties,
it becomes yellow when obtained in a dry state. It has
no smell, but a purely and intensely astringent taste, and
strongly reddens litmus paper. It does not imbibe mois¬
ture from the atmosphere, and is very easily reduced to
powder. When heated on platinum foil it decrepitates,
softens, swells, chars, and burns with a bright flame, leav¬
ing a charcoal which is easily consumed by continuing the
heat.
When distilled it gives off, in the first place, a thick
smoke and inflammable gas, which is followed by a yel¬
lowish oil, and by a liquid which on cooling deposits co¬
lourless crystals. These crystals seem, at first sight, to
consist chiefly of gallic acid; but they do not strike a
black with the salts of peroxide of iron, but give them a
a* V»1 * •  . uy ocguiu tu me vc- i^icicxv wilu me ociilo ui pci uaiuc ui nun, UUl give lliem a
ge able principle which possesses the property of convert- yellowish-green colour, while a precipitate falls having a
wg the skins of animals into leather by combining with grayish-green colour. Very little ammonia is found among
icm. It exists in all those vegetable bodies which are the products of distillation,
distinguished by their astringent taste. There are doubt- Tannin dissolves easily both in water and alcohol. Ab-
ss various species of it, distinguished from each other by solute alcohol, however, does not dissolve it without the
611 Properties; but the tannin from oak bark and from assistance of heat. It dissolves also in ether of the speci-
vol. vi. 3 p
482
CHEMISTRY.
Organic fic gravity 0*72. The ethereal solution is colourless, and
Bodies, after spontaneous evaporation the tannin is left very near-
]y colourless and translucent. When the tannin is now
digested in ether, there usually remains undissolved a yel¬
lowish-brown portion, which does not dissolve in ethei, and
which even water does not take up completely. Tannin
is insoluble in oils, both fixed and volatile. ^ , ,
When a solution of tannin in water is left to the influ¬
ence of the air, it becomes gradually darker coloured ; and
if it be evaporated to an extract, it hardens to a brittle
mass, which, when digested in water, leaves a brown sub¬
stance undissolved. We see herd a gradual decomposition
of the tannin, the insoluble portion being kept in solution
by the unaltered tannin. It is in this altered state that
tannin exists in the infusion of nutgalls and of oak baik.
When this altered tannin is precipitated by a lead salt,
and the tannate of lead is decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, only the pure unaltered tannin is dissolved by
the water, while the altered tannin remains mixed with
the sulphuret of lead. It may be partially removed from
this sulphuret by boiling water, and still better by ammo¬
nia, which forms with it a dark-brown liquid. Ihis liquid
being evaporated, leaves a dark-brown substance, almost
destitute of taste, and which does not precipitate lime
water unless an acid be added, when a brown coagulum is
formed, containing lime.
A solution of tannin mixed with chlorine water becomes
brown and muddy, and undergoes an alteration similar to
what takes place when it is left to evaporate spontaneous¬
ly in the open air.
Action of With acids tannin unites readily, and most eagerly ot
acids. ap with sulphuric acid. When this acid is put into t e
infusion of nutgalls, it forms two different combinations.
What falls first is agglutinated together, and when stirred
becomes glutinous, and finally translucent and yellowish
brown. When agitated in cold water it dissolves in small
quantity, but the liquid acquires a yellow colour and an
astringent taste. After being repeatedly treated with cold
water, a light-gray powder remains undissolved. In bou-
ing-hot water it dissolves with a dark-brown colour, and
the liquid becomes muddy on cooling. A brown powder
precipitates, leaving the solution of a lighter colour, but
retaining a quantity of sulphated tannin. It is readily so¬
luble in alcohol, with a dark-yellow colour, leaving a small
residue of powder. .
Nitric acid occasions a precipitate when poured into a
solution of tannin; but an excess of the acid speedily di¬
minishes the precipitate, while nitrous gas is evolved, and
the solution becomes yellow. When caustic ammonia is
added to the liquid, a precipitate falls, at first reddish,
then grayish-green, and finally brown. A sufficient quan¬
tity of nitric acid evolves malic and oxalic acids, lannin
is precipitated more completely by muriatic, phosphoric,
arsenic, oxalic, tartaric, and malic acids. A little boracic
acid may be dissolved by the solution of tannin when as¬
sisted by heat. On cooling, the whole liquid assumes the
form of a jelly, which, after being dried, is a bulky snow-
white substance, soft to the touch, like the finest talc.
Tannin is not precipitated by acetic acid. All these pre¬
cipitates are combinations of tannin with the precipitating
acid. They are insoluble in an excess of the acid, but so¬
luble in pure Water. When acids are dropt into the infu¬
sion of nutgalls two precipitates fall. I he first, which con¬
tains the dark-coloured and altered tannin, is difficultly
soluble in water ; but the other, containing the unaltered
tannin, dissolves easily.
VtTmitv Tannin exhibits a marked affinity for the saline bases.
for bases. With potash it,forms a white pulverulent compound, dif¬
ficultly soluble in water. It precipitates when a strong so¬
lution of tannin is mixed with hydrate of potash, w-ith car¬
bonate or with bicarbonate of potash. If the tannin was 0^,
pure, the tannate of potash is formed. The compound is Bod;
white and earthy looking, and undergoes no change when <
exposed to the air. When dissolved in the smallest quantity
of boiling water it forms a yellow liquid, which on cool¬
ing assumes the form of a gelatinous mass, and after spon¬
taneous drying, it recovers its original earthy appearance.
If it be dissolved in a large quantity of water, it remains
in solution after cooling. This solution has neither an al¬
kaline taste, nor does it re-act as an alkali. Its taste is sim¬
ply astringent. It constitutes a neutral salt, which may be
distinguished by the name of tanncite of potash.. When it
is mixed with lime water no precipitate falls till the pot¬
ash be saturated with an acid. An excess of potash causes
this salt to dissolve in water. The solution is yellow; but
if too great a quantity of potash be added, the tannate falls
down if the liquid be left to spontaneous evaporation.
Tannin gives with soda a much more soluble salt. It
does not fall unless the solutions be very concentrate, and
even then but imperfectly. When the compound is as
nearly neutral as possible, and left to spontaneous evapo¬
ration, it gives a greenish-yellow half crystallized mass.
Cold water dissolves a portion of this matter, and leaves a
matter which remains undissolved, like tannate of potash.
This being dissolved in boiling water, and left to sponta¬
neous evaporation, a white powder falls, which is quite
neutral. The crystallized portion, soluble in cold water, is
insoluble in alcohol. It contains an excess of alkali.
With ammonia tannin combines, exhibiting similar phe¬
nomena as with potash. Tannate of barytes is very little
soluble in cold water. It precipitates white when tannate
of potash or ammonia is mixed with chloride of barium.
Hot water dissolves it in considerable quantity. Tannate
of strontian is similar to that of barytes. When hydrate
of lime is added in excess to a solution of tannin, almost
the whole is thrown down, and a subsalt formed ; but neu¬
tral tannate of lime is soluble in water, and the liquid as¬
sumes a yellow colour. The dry salt is yellowish brown,
and translucent, and soluble both in water and spirits.
When a solution of tannin is digested with hydrate of
magnesia, or with magnesia alba, the earth acquires a yel¬
low colour, and a subsalt is formed, almost all the tannin
being removed from the liquid. When the infusion of nut-
galls is employed, the liquid becomes green from the galiate
Tannin combines with the metallic oxides, and forms
difficultly soluble compounds. These salts may be obtain¬
ed by mixing tannate of potash dissolved in water with a
solution of the metalline salts. Indeed several of the me¬
tallic salts are precipitated by the solution of tannin in va
ter, viz. the salts of lead, copper, protoxide of tin, silver,
mercury, peroxide of uranium, protoxide 0 ciromiu ,
&c. The colour of most of these precipitates is similar t
that which infusion of nutgalls strikes with the same salts.
With protoxide of iron tannin gives no precipita e.
When mixed with it in a very concentrated state, a w ■
gelatinous magma is formed, which, when 1 u e >
solves. With the peroxide of iron tanmn forms a to
compound, which is the colouring mattei in our
111 With the protoxide of lead tannin unites in vai’10US
portions. When a solution of tanmn is mixed with ac
‘of lead, a white precipitate falls, which darkens whea «
posed to the air. It must therefore, it we wish jo pH ^
its white colour, be dried in vacuo; over su j ^ ^
This precipitate contains an excess of tannl“* ,
boiled in water the excess of tannin is dissolved ^
neutral tannate remains, which water is incap
composing. If it be digested in, caustic ammoma,^.
comes mucilaginous and dark coloured, b
chemistry.
(j nic wise altered in iti! nature. This neutral tannate is a com-
1 es. pound of
Tannin   ...100 or 26-93
Protoxide of lead..., 52 or 14
We obtain a subtannate whence mix a solution of tannin
with diacetate of lead. The precipitate is white, but when
washed it becomes yellowish, with a shade of green.
WThen a solution of tannin is mixed with tartar-emetic
483
Con]1 ii-
tion,'
complete account of them all would be to introduce into Organic
the article Chemistry a treatise on dyeing. Bodies.
The most common vegetable colours are red, yellow,
green, and bine.
1. Jlcd Colouring Matters.
The most important of the red colouring matters of ve> Madder,
getables is madder, the root of the rubia tinctorum, a plant
dissolved in water, the oxide of antimony is precipitated which is cultivated as a dye-stuff in Turkey and the Le¬
in combination with a portion of the tannin, while at the vant. It is raised also in Holland; but the Dutch mad-
same time another portion of the tannin replaces the ox- der, owing to the coldness of the climate, is not pearly so
ide of antimony in the tartar-emetic. The consequence rich in colouring matter as that frorp Turkey. When these
is, that no cream of tartar appears, but a salt is formed si- roots are employed in dyeing, they are \n the first place
milar to the combination of cream of tartar with boracic cut into a kind of powder by stampers driven by machinery,
acid. _ . When madder roots are digested in cold water, gum,
Tannin combines with all the vegetable bases described sugar, yellow extract, and malic acid, are dissolved- The
in the last chapter, and forms with them very little solu- liquid is poured off, and the maceration repeated as long
ble compounds, which in general are distinguished by a as these substances are taken up. The roots thus purified
white colour. They may be separated from many other are boiled in water, which dissolves a considerable quan-
precipitates which tannin forms with vegetable bodies, in tity of the red colouring matter, especially if a little car-
consequence of the property which they have of being so- bonate of soda be. dissolved in the liquid. Filter the deep-
luble in alcohol. These tannates may be freed from tan- red decoction, and mix it with sulphuric acid. The co-
nin if an alcoholic solution of them be dropt into an aque- louring matter is thrown down of a yellow colour in corn¬
eas solution of acetate of lead. The oxide of lead preci- bination with the acid. Collect the precipitate on the
pitates in combination _ with tannin, while the vegetable filter, and wash it with dilute sulphuric acid. Subject
alkaline base remains in solution combined with acetic it to pressure between folds of filtering paper, and then
acid. Several of the salts have the property of precipi- dissolve it in alcohol of the specific gravity 0-83, which
tating tannin from its solution. Sulphate, nitrate, and will leave undissolved a small quantity of foreign matter,
acetate of potash, occasion a precipitate when dropt into The filtered red liquid is acifi. If it be mixed with car-
tannate of potash, but the precipitate consists chiefly of bonate of potash in small quantities at a time till the acid
tannate of potash. Common salt acts in the same way. be saturated, and the liquid be separated from the sulphate
of potash, precipitated, and then evaporated to dryness, a
red imperfectly crystallized matter remains, which consti¬
tutes the colouring matter of madder, or rubin as it might
Tannin occasions precipitates when dropt into solutions
of starch, albumen, and gluten. It combines with many
animal substances.
The affinities of tannin, when it acts as an acid, are
feeble.
Berzelius analysed it by consuming tannate of lead by
means of chlorate of notash. He obtained the following
for its constituents
Mean.
.52-69 to 52-49 52-590
. 3-86 to 3-79  3-825
.43-45 to 43-72 43-585
Carbon 
Hydrogen.,..
Oxygen......
100-00 100-00 100-000
The number of atoms corresponding best with this ana¬
lysis, and with the atomic weight deduced from the com¬
position of tannate of lead, is the following:
181 atoms carbon 13-875
8 atoms hydrogen...  1
12 atoms oxygen 12
26-875
Besides the tannin from the oak and from nutgalls, which
is considered as the purest, there are various other varie¬
ties which have not hitherto been examined sufficiently in
detail. Thus the tannin in the bark of the cinchona offi-
cinalis strikes a green colour with salts of peroxide of
yon. The tannin in catechu, a substance which comes
from India, and is extracted from the mimosa catechu,
also throws down the persalts of iron green. Catechu,
which is an extract from the coccoloba uvifera, contains
also a tannin which strikes a green with the same salts.
Sect. VII.—Of Vegetable Colouring Matter.
That many substances exist in plants capable of com¬
municating different colours to other bodies, is sufficiently
known. In this section we shall take a cursory view of
some of the most important of these bodies. To write a
be called. When prepared in this way, which is the pro¬
cess of Kuhlmann, it may not be free from alkali.
It is soluble in cold water; but the solution is very Properties,
easily altered by the action of the air, so that while we
are evaporating the solution, a good deal of the rubin falls
in an insoluble state. This propensity is so strong, that
madder roots are injured by free exposure to the air.
Rubin is soluble in alcohol, and the solution keeps mode¬
rately well, yet at last it becomes muddy, and lets fall
brown flocks. Tfie aqueous solution is thrown down yel¬
low by acids, but the alcoholic is merely rendered yellow
without any precipitation. The alkalies combine with
rubin without altering its colour. The compound which
it forms with barytes is reddish brown, that with strontian
kermes red. It is dissolved by lime water and chloride of
calcium without any precipitate falling. The compounds
which it forms with the earths proper are red. It combines
with the metallic oxides- With protochloride of tin it
gives a reddish-yellow colour, with acetate of lead a dark-
reddish brown, with nitrate of mercury a fine amethyst-
red, with nitrate of silver a smutty-reddish brown, and
with acetate of iron a dark brown.
Rubin has a strong affinity for different animal substan¬
ces. It dissolves in albumen wbep diluted with water.
When the albumen i& coagulated by heat, the colouring
matter unites with the coagulurq, and the liquid only re¬
tains a yellow colour. Urine dissolves rubin from madder
root. Milk acquires a yellow coffiur, apd deposits ayed-
coloured curd. It does not precipitate the solution of gfue.
It is well known that rubin constitutes the colouring
matter of the Turkey-red dye, which is the most beauti¬
ful and permanent red colour that can be given to cotton.
The process is very complex, and the theory of some of
the steps is still rather obscure. yj ffepoa rfjiW
1. Colouring Matter of Red Saunders.—This matter is ob- U°!V ob¬
tained from the wood of the pterocarpus santalinus, a veryta,rK'1-
C H E M I S T R Y.
Properties.
Organic hard species of wood, from a tree which grows in the
Bodies, mountainous parts of India. This colouring matter is in-
soluble in water, but it is easily extracted by alcohol, after
the evaporation of which it remains under the term of a
red resin, which melts at 212°. It may be obtained also
by digesting the wood in a dilute solution of caustic am¬
monia. The colouring matter may be thrown down by
saturating the ammonia with muriatic acid. I his colour¬
ing matter is easily destroyed both by sulphuric acid and
nitric acid. It is readily soluble in acetic acid, and
the saturated solution is precipitated by the addition of
water. When the alcoholic solution is mixed with proto¬
chloride of tin, a fine purple precipitate falls. With salts
of lead the precipitate is violet. Green sulphate of iron
is thrown down dark violet, corrosive sublimate scarlet red,
and nitrate of silver reddish brown. From all these pre¬
cipitates alcohol separates a portion of the colouring mat¬
ter.
, A saturated solution of red saunders in alcohol is dark
red or brown, but when much diluted it becomes yellow.
Ether dissolves red saunders more easily than alcohol,
and acquires first a yellow, then a red, and finally a brown
colour. Water precipitates almost all the colouring mat¬
ter from the alcoholic solutions, but does not alter the
ethereal solution. Oil of lavender dissolves four per cent,
and oil of rosemary somewhat less, of the colouring matter.
Oil of turpentine does not dissolve it cold, but when heat¬
ed takes up one and a third per cent, of it. Fat oils are
slightly coloured by it. Red saunders is employed by
apothecaries tp colour tinctures.
2. Colouring Matter of Brazil Wood.—This colouring
matter, called Fernambouc by the French, and Birzil in
Scotland, both from the parts of South America from
which it is usually imported, is obtained from the wood of
various species of Caesalpinia, particularly the echinata
and sapan, trees which grow in South America and in
India. It contains a very delicate and easily altered red
colouring matter, which is rendered yellow by acids and
violet by alkalies. This colouring matter may be obtain¬
ed pure by the following process :
The wood is rasped down, and then treated with water.
The solution which contains uncombined acetic acid is
evaporated to dryness, and when the acid is dissipated it
is redissolved in water, and agitated with oxide of lead in
order to get rid of another free and not volatile acid. It
is then evaporated to dryness a second time, dissolved in
alcohol, filtered, and concentrated. It is next mixed with
water, and a solution of glue is added so long as tannin
continues to be precipitated. It is afterwards filtered, eva¬
porated to dryness, and redissolved in alcohol to get rid of
any excess of glue that may have been added. Finally, it
is filtered and evaporated to dryness. In this state it is
the pure colouring matter.
It is soluble in water and alcohol, and the solutions
never exhibit their fine red colour till all acid which they
may contain is neutralized. Acids render it yellow. Sul¬
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids give a dirty yellow.
With fluoric acid it becomes first yellow, and then green¬
ish gray. Phosphoric and citric acids give it a very fine
yellow, which may be fixed on woollen and silk. Sul¬
phurous acid, sulphohydrogen, and boracic acid, blacken
and destroy the colour. The alkalies added in slight ex¬
cess change the colour to violet or blue ; hence the in¬
fusion of Brazil wood is a delicate re-agent for alkalies.
3. Colouring Matter of Logwood.—This colouring mat¬
ter is obtained from the wood of the Haematoxylon Cam-
pechianum, a tree which grows in America, particularly
round the Bay of Campeachy. This colouring matter has
a considerable resemblance to that of Brazil wood. It
may be obtained from logwood by the following process:
Prepara¬
tion.
Properties.
Digest the raspings of logwood in water of the tempe- Org;,
rature of about 125°, evaporate the solution to dryness in Bot'
a gentle heat, and treat the residue with alcohol of the ^ -
specific gravity of 0843. The colouring matter is dissolv- ^reP*
ed, but a brown residue remains, which, however, is not lon'
quite free from colouring matter. Filter the solution, and
distil off1 the alcohol, till it is reduced to the state of a thin
syrup. Mix this with a little water, and leave it to spon¬
taneous evaporation. A number of small crystals are de¬
posited. Decant off the mother ley, and wash these crys¬
tals with a little alcohol. These crystals constitute the
colouring matter of logwood to which Chevreul has given
the name of hematin.
Hematin has considerable lustre, and exhibits a playofPr
colours, varying from rose-red to yellow. When reduced
to powder the colour is yellow. The taste is slightly astrin¬
gent, bitter, and acrid.
Boiling water dissolves it with facility, and acquires an
orange-red colour, which becomes yellow when the liquid
cools ; but heat again restores the original colour. W7hen
this liquid is evaporated the hematin crystallizes. The addi¬
tion of an acid renders it first yellow and then red. Sul¬
phurous acid, however, gradually destroys the colouring
matter if it be left long enough in contact with it. Potash,
soda, and ammonia give it a purplish-red colour, and with
a considerable excess of these alkalies the colour becomes
violet blue, then reddish brown, and finally yellowish
brown. By this action the hematin is destroyed, for the
colour cannot be again restored. Barytes, strontian, and
lime water produce the same effect; but they gradually
precipitate hematin from its solution.
When a current of sulphohydrogen gas is passed through
an aqueous solution of hematin, it assumes a yellow colour,
which disappears in the course of a few days. The oxides
of lead, tin, iron, copper, nickel, zinc, antimony, and bis¬
muth, unite with hematin, and give it a blue colour with
a shade of violet. Peroxide of tin acts on it as the mine¬
ral acids do. Glue throws it down in reddish flocks.
4. Colouring Matter of Lichens.—Wh-At the French call
orseille is a preparation from the lichen roccella, and pro¬
bably from other species. I he lichen is reduced to pow¬
der, and mixed with putrid urine, or still better with am¬
monia distilled from it. By this process the whole is con¬
verted into reddish-blue matter, which is employed in dye¬
ing red. What is called in this country cudbear is pre-
pared by a similar process from the lichen tartarens. The
manufacture began in Leith under the firm of Messrs
MTntosh and Cuthbert Gordon, from the last of whom,
who had the management of the work, the dye-stuff was
called cudbear. It was transferred to Glasgow, where it
is still carried on by Charles MTntosh and Company. The
ammonia employed was originally procured from urine,
but now it is obtained from the liquor which comes over
during the manufacture of coal gas. The process is the
same as for the manufacture of orseille, but the lichen em¬
ployed is different. <
There is a similar dye-stuff manufactured in Germany,
under the name Persio. Cudbear is a bluish-red powder,
which does not readily dissolve in water. It dissolves
more readily in alcohol. Ihe solution is red. In caustic
ammonia it dissolves with great readiness, and the solu¬
tion is purple. When this solution is spread on paper,
and the paper allowed to dry, it becomes red. The small¬
est portion of alkali applied to this paper renders it purp e,
hence cudbear is by tar the most delicate test of alkalies
which we have it in our power to apply.
In Holland there is a preparation of lichen made i
small blue cakes, which is known by the name of to*
In this country it is called litmus, and the aqueous so u-
tion of it is called by the French infusion of turnsole. 1llh
V.,-
CHEMISTRY.
( mic solution is blue, but the smallest addition of an acid ren¬
tes. ders it red. It is one of the most delicate tests of acids,
~ J and is usually employed by chemists for that purpose.
Cudbear does not constitute a fast colour, though it is
a beautiful one. It is chiefly used as a ground on which
other colours are to be applied. Thus blue cloth is often
dyed with it before the application of the indigo. Cud¬
bear is also employed generally in the dyeing of the red
cloth employed in this country for making coats to the
common soldiers. There is a manufacture of cudbear also
in Liverpool.
2. Yellow Colouring JMatters.
These colouring matters are rather numerous, but they
have scarcely drawn any of the attention of chemists ; we
cannot, therefore, say much respecting their chemical pro¬
perties. We shall merely point out a few of them as sub¬
jects deserving to be studied by future chemists.
1. Quercitron Bark.—This is the bark of the quercus
tinctoria and nigra, trees which grow in North America.
It was introduced as a dye stuff by Bancroft in 1775. It
contains a yellow-colouring matter, seemingly nearly the
same with what occurs in other vegetables ; but when im¬
pure, it has a greater tendency to pass into brown than
most other yellow dyes.
Heat seems prejudicial to this colouring matter, for the
decoction does not dye a good yellow. In this respect
woad has the superiority. The method of using it is to
make an infusion of the bark in water at the temperature
of 80°. The bark being now removed, the liquid may be
heated to 200°, and at this temperature employed for dye¬
ing without inconvenience.
Pic flies. Water dissolves the colouring matter of quercitron bark
with facility, and acquires a brownish-yellow colour. If
the decoction be left exposed to the air, a white precipi¬
tate falls, consisting of resinous matter. The acids render
the yellow colour brighter, unless they be too much con¬
centrated, when they destroy it altogether. The alkalies,
on the other hand, deepen the shade. Alumina put into
the decoction of quercitron assumes a golden-yellow co¬
lour. Oxide of tin assumes a still deeper shade of colour.
If cotton previously treated with silicate of potash be put
into an infusion of quercitron, it assumes a Nankin colour.
Alum thrown into the infusion of quercitron occasions
a slight precipitate of a deep-yellow colour. Cloth impreg¬
nated with nitrate of alumina acquires a finer colour from
quercitron than those impregnated with alum. With sul¬
phate of lime it gives a Nankin yellow, and with muriate
of lime a buff colour, which is preferable to that obtain¬
ed by means of iron. With salts of iron quercitron gives
olive colours. The effects of various other salts have been
determined; but the colouring matter has not yet been
obtained in a separate state, nor its properties determined.
2. Woad.—Woad consists of the stems and leaves of
the reseda luteola, a plant which grows wild in this coun¬
try. When boiled in water it gives a yellowish-brown
decoction, which, when much diluted, becomes greenish
yellow. Acids render it lighter coloured, and alkalies
darker, while at the same time, if they have been added
m considerable quantity, a dark-yellow precipitate falls.
Alum throws down a fine yellow precipitate, and so does
protochloride of tin. Protosulphate of iron throws down
a dark gray, and the sulphate of copper a greenish-brown
precipitate.
3. Turmeric.—Turmeric is the root of the curcuma
onga, a plant which is a native of India. It is very rich
!n a fine yellow-colouring matter, which, however, is fugi-
tlve, and cannot be fixed by mordants. The colouring
Matter is not given out readily to water, but abundantly
to alcohol. Alkalies rbnder this colouring matter reddish
485
biown, and dissolve a portion of it. On this account it is Organic
employed as a re-agent for detecting the presence of alka- Bodies,
line bodies ; but it is not very delicate. Most acids ren- '' i '
der the yellow colour of turmeric lighter, except the bo-
racic, which renders it reddish brown, as the alkalies do.
The salts of uranium, of iron, and the supersalts of tin, bis¬
muth, and antimony, give it a brown colour. It is employ¬
ed occasionally by apothecaries to give a yellow colour to
their draughts. It constitutes also an ingredient in curry
powder.
4. Saffron.—Saffron is composed of the stigmata of the
crocus sativus, a plant which is cultivated in England. It
was examined by Bouillon-la-Grange and Vogel in 1811,
who extracted from it a colouring matter, to which they
gave the name oi'polychroite. This substance may be ob¬
tained by the following process :
Digest saffron in water, and evaporate the infusion to
the consistence of honey. Digest this yellow residue in
alcohol of 0800, filter the solution, and distil off the alco¬
hol. I he yellow matter which remains is polychroite.
Its colour is intensely yellow. When exposed to the air p0ly-
it absorbs moisture, and becomes a viscid liquid. It is chroite.
very soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble, or nearly
so, in ether. When the aqueous solution is exposed to the
direct rays of the sun, it becomes colourless, and the yel¬
low colour cannot be restored. Sulphuric acid gives it a
deep indigo-blue colour, which becomes gradually lilac.
The same change is produced by sulphuric acid on the al¬
coholic solution. Nitric acid causes these liquids to as¬
sume a green colour. The addition of a little water causes
the colour to disappear. Sulphate of iron throws down a
dark-brown precipitate, lime water a yellow precipitate,
barytes water a red precipitate. Acetate of lead has no
effect, diacetate of lead throws down a yellow, and nitrate
of mercury a red precipitate. Polychroite is insoluble in
oils. It seems to contain no azote in its composition, if
we are to judge from the products of its distillation.
3. Green Colourmg Matters.
From the universal prevalence rif a green colour in the
leaves of plants, one would naturally expect a vast variety
of green colouring matters in the vegetable kingdom ; yet
there is not so much as a single vegetable substance known
capable of dyeing a green colour. The green colour of
leaves resides usually in a kind of resinous or waxy sub¬
stance, which is not soluble in water.
What is called sap green, used as a water colour, is
obtained from the expressed juice of the berries of the
rhamnus infectoria, which is mixed with a little alum, and
evaporated to an extract. Alkalies change this colour into
yellow, and acids into red.
To dye green, the method is to give the cloth first a
jrellow colour, and then a blue.
4. Blue Colouring Matters.
There are various vegetables which furnish a blue co¬
lour that may be fixed on cloth ; but there is one of these
so superior to all the rest, that it has superseded them all,
and is alone used by the dyers. That substance is indigo.
1. Indigo.—This valuable pigment was known to the Indigo,
ancients. It is prepared from a variety of plants; various
species of indigofera, the argentea, disperma, and tincto¬
ria, and even others; the nerium tinctorium, marsdenia
tinctoria, asclepias tingens, isatis tinctoria, &c. The plants
are cut down with sickles, and laid in strata in the steeper,
a large cistern containing water. Here they ferment, and
the utmost attention is required to the process. It goes
on best at the temperature of 80°. The water soon be¬
comes opaque, and assumes a green colour, while gases are
extricated. When this fermentation has proceeded far
486
CHEMISTRY.
Organic enough, the liquor is let into a lower cistern, called the
Bodies, battery. There it is agitated for fifteen or twenty mi-
v—nutes by means of levers moved by machinery, till the lioc-
culi beginning to separate gives it a curdled appearance.
A quantity of lime water is now poured in, and the blue
flocculi are allowed to subside. The water is drawn oft,
and the pigment ppt to be drained m small linen bags;
after which it is put into little square boxes, and allowed
to dry in the shade. . r t
Indio-o, as it comes to this country, is a fine, light, triable
substance, of a deep-blue colour. Its texture is compact,
and the tints on the surface of the lumps vary according
to the mode of preparation; being copper, violet, and
blue. The lightest indigo is considered as the best, but
it always contains more than halt its weight of foreign
matter, partly earthy, but chiefly vegetable. From the
late experiments of Berzelius, it appears that it contains
at least four different vegetable substances, which he has
distinguished by the names of indigo-gluten, indigo-brown,
indigo-red, and indigo-blue. .
1. Indigo-gluten is obtained when indigo in fine pow¬
der is digested with a dilute acid. A yellow solutidn is
obtained, but the water employed to wash the undissolv-
ed indigo contains most of the gluten, as the acid com¬
pound of it is much more soluble in water than in acid.
If we employ dilute sulphuric acid, we have only to satu¬
rate the acid with pulverized marble, filter, and evaporate
to dryness; the indigo-gluten (almost pure) remains. It
may be dissolved in alcohol, and the alcohol may be dis¬
tilled off. The gluten remains in the form of a translu¬
cent shining varnish. It is soluble in water, and tastes
Prnnorties not cnlike beef tea* Wken heated on platinum foil it
p melts, and burns with flame, and leaves a very small quan¬
tity of white ashes. When distilled it swells, and gives
out a brown oil, and a water strongly impregnated with
ammonia. Its aqueous solution is precipitated by the
same substances which precipitate gluten, namely, tan¬
nin, corrosive sublimate, prussiate of potash, acetate ot
lead, and sulphated peroxide of iron. Ihese precipitates
are white, or have a shade ot yellow. An excess ot acid
prevents the precipitate by tannin and corrosive subli¬
mate ; but prussiate of potash does not occasion a pieci-
pitate unless an excess of acid be present. It combines
readily both with acids and alkalies. Sulphuric acid dis¬
solves it without becoming black. Nitric acid makes it
yellow; a fatty matter is formed, and a quantity of oxalic
acid. These properties make this substance approach to
gluten ; but it is distinguished from gluten by its solubi¬
lity in water, and by its wanting the glutinous and adhe¬
sive qualities which distinguish gluten. From albumen it
is distinguished by its solubility in alcohol, and by its not
coagulating at a boiling temperature.
2. Indigo-brown constitutes a much greater proportion
of common indigo than the gluten. It is occasionally
united in indigo with lime, from which it may be separat¬
ed by acids; occasionally it is combined with a vegetable
acid. Indigo-brown is dissolved when the indigo, previ¬
ously treated with a dilute acid, is mixed with a concen¬
trated potash ley gently heated. The mass beqomes im¬
mediately black, and swells up to a loose magma, in pro¬
portion as the alkali dissolves the indigo-brown. The li¬
quid passes with difficulty through the filter, and is very
dark and opaque, unless in very thin layers. From tins li¬
quid acids throw' down a blackish-brown matter in a half
gelatinous state. If the alkaline liquid be mixed with sul¬
phuric acid till it acquires a sour taste, and then filtered,
indigo-brown remains in the filter. The dark colour is
owing to indigo-blue being held in solution. It is exceed¬
ingly difficult to obtain the indigo-brown in a pure state.
If the precipitate with sulphuric acid be digested with
How ob¬
tained.
newly precipitated carbonate of barytes, the greater part Orgar,
of the acid is separated, but not the whole. The liquid Bodu-
being evaporated, leaves a translucent, brown varnish, which
is not completely soluble in water, and the dissolved por¬
tion contains a little barytes.
In this state indigo-brown has scarcely any taste. It does Proper-.
not act on re-agents either as an acid or alkali. When heat¬
ed it becomes moist, swells, smokes, and gives out an ani¬
mal smell. Finally, it takes fire and leaves a bulky char¬
coal containing carbonate of barytes. It unites readily
with acids, and the compounds formed are very difficultly
soluble in water. It combines equally readily with alka¬
lies, and forms with them compounds easily soluble m
water. It saturates a certain portion of alkali so complete¬
ly, that it is no longer capable of restoring the blue colour
to litmus paper reddened by acetic acid. If a solution of
indigo-brown in potash be saturated with acetic acid so as
to be rendered quite neutral, and then, after bemg evapo¬
rated to dryness, be treated with alcohol, the acetateof pot¬
ash will be dissolved, and what remains undis&olveff is a
neutral combination of indigo-brown and potash. Whep
dissolved in water and evaporated, it gives a black shin¬
ing mass, in the form of long needles like prismatic crys-
The compound of indigo-brown and ammonia has the
same appearance. It dissolves eapily in vvater, and pretty
readily in alcohol. The acid or alkaline solutions ohmchgo-
brown are not thrown down by prussiate of potash, qorrp-
sive sublimate, or infusion of nutgalls ; but acetate oficad
and sulphated peroxide of iron occasion precipitates, these
precipitates have a dark colour, :, . c ,
It is decomposed by nitric acid ; oxahe acid isiormed,
and a bitter-tasted yellow substance, which is soluble in
caustic ammonia. • . . A . TT
3. Indigo-red is obtained when indigq^after being
ed with an acid and with potash, is boded m alcohol oBa.ne
the specific gravity 0-83. It is very difficultly solub e in
alcohol, and requires the solvent to be boding hot; and re¬
peated portions of alcohol ought to be used in succession.
The alcohol at first acquires a dark-red colour; hut fipt
last becomes light blue, showing that indigo-blup is be¬
ginning to be taken up. The alcoholic solution is very
deep coloured. It is not precipitated by water. J the
alcohol be distilled off, a dark-brown matter precipitates,
consisting of a mixture of indigo-brown and mdigo-red.
The liquid is dark red. If acetic acid be added in slight
excess? the indigo-brown is dissolved, or may be mosUy
washed out with water. When the residual J^go-mUs
dissolved in alcohol, we obtain a fine rpd solution. ^ hen
the alcoholic solution is evaporated to dryness, the pidig
red remains in the form of a dark-brown,; shining varmsfi
It is insoluble in water, diluted acids, and aikahne leys- P
It is soluble in alcohol and ether, but only in small quan¬
tity; but ether dissolves much more than alcoh"J\.
dilute solutions have a fine red colour; the conce
a B7c„b—edtlphuric acid it is
dark-yellow colour. When the solut.pn is ddutej
water it becomes yellowish red, and no precip j
When this dilute ^solution is digested with iwiM#
it becomes colourless, and the cloth assumes a gj
termediate between yellowish brown and red. N
dissolves it with a fine purple po our, wlnp^speeddy g ^
to yellow. When heated rapid y m the open air ^
fumes, takes fire, and burns vvith a clear ^ W#
much smoke. When
small quantity of colourless sublimate
and is charred. The sublimate epp^ts^^g^
tals mixed with unaltered indigo-red. . No gasps ^
during the process. Alcohol dissolves tl?e, md e
CHEMISTRY.
i ;>ob
i.
o
:anic a portion of the crystals. What remains is colourless, and
| lies- may be sublimed in vacuo. It is now snow-white, and
consists of very small needles. It is insoluble in water,
and destitute of taste and smell. It is soluble with diffi¬
culty both in alcohol and ether. The solution is of a yel¬
lowish-brown colour (perhaps from a mixture of indigo-
red), and by spontaneous evaporation gives very small
translucent and colourless crystals. Sulphuric acid dis¬
solves it with difficulty, and assumes a fine lemon-yellow
colour. Concentrated muriatic acid unites with it, giving
it a yellow colour, and becoming itself yellow. Acetic acid
dissolves a trace of it, but does not acquire any colour.
Dilute nitric acid converts it into indigo-red. Concentrated
nitric acid dissolves it with a purple colour, and decom¬
poses it. Dilute nitric acid is a very delicate test of it,
assuming a red colour when acted on by a very minute
quantity of it. In alkalies it is insoluble even when assist¬
ed by a boiling heat.
4 Indigo-blue, or the true colouring constituent of in¬
digo, remains after the indigo of commerce has been treat¬
ed with alcohol, not however in a state of purity, some of
the preceding substances still remaining, and likewise not
unfrequently sand and gravel. To obtain the indigo pure,
let it be mixed, while still wet, with twice its weight of
lime which had been slaked just before mixing it with
the indigo. Put this mixture into a flask capable of hold¬
ing about 150 times its weight of water. Fill the flask
with boiling water, and shake it well. To this add two
thirds of the weight of the lime of protosulphate of iron
in the state of a fine powder, or just previously dissolved
in a little hot water; then cork the flask and shake it well.
Let it remain a couple of days in a warm place. By de¬
grees the mixture becomes green. The protoxide of iron,
precipitated by the lime by little and little, is converted
into peroxide at the expense of the indigo. The indigo
thus deprived of a portion of its oxygen combines with the
lime, and forms a compound soluble in water. The con¬
sequence of this is, that the liquid assumes a deep-yellow
colour. Draw off the transparent liquid with a syphon,
and pour hot water on the residue, to dissolve out all the
compound of indigo and lime.
As soon as this yellow liquid is exposed to the air the
indigo absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, becomes in¬
soluble, and precipitates in the state of a blue powder,
which is pure indigo-blue. To prevent the foreign sub¬
stances which may be present from falling with the blue
powder, the best way is to pour the yellow indigo solution
into water acidulated with muriatic acid. This acid keeps
the foreigti substances in solution, and requires a yellow
colour. First wash the precipitated indigo with water
till it becomes a fine blue, then collect it on the filter, and
wash it clean and allow it to dry.
The colour has now a shade of purple, with somewhat
of a metallic lustre almost like copper. When pulverized
it becomes again a fine blue. It is destitute of smell and
taste, and re-acts neither as an acid nor an alkali. When
gently heated on a platinum plate it gives out a fine pur¬
ple vapour. If the heat be suddenly increased, the indigo
welts, boils, catches fire, and burns with a clear flame, emit-
v'ffi muC^ ®rn°ke’ and leaving a charcoal which burns with
difficulty without leaving any residue. The purple smoke .
}s a gaseous substance, or rather vapour. If indigo be put
into a retort, and the retort, after being exhausted, be heat¬
ed, it is filled with the vapour, which on cooling deposits
itself in dark purple plates; but by this process a consi-
erable portion of the indigo is destroyed.
Indigo is insoluble in water. Boiling alcohol assumes
a lue colour when digested on it, but generally loses its
co our in a few hours, while a little indigo is precipitated,
is insoluble in ether. Oil of turpentine, when boiled on
487
it, acquires a blue colour; and the fixed oils, when treated Organic
m the same way, dissolve a portion, but the indigo is gra- Bodies,
dually decomposed. The specific gravity of pure indieo
is 1-35. ^ r 6
Chlorine instantly destroys it, and gives it a yellow co¬
lour. Iodine has no action on it in the wet way; but
when mixed with it and heated the indigo is decomposed.
It cannot be combined with sulphur or phosphorus.
All bodies having a strong affinity for oxygen, and
which are placed in contact with indigo and lime, or on
alkali; at once absorb oxygen from the indigo, and bring it
to a state in which it combines with the alkaline body, and
becomes in that way soluble in water.
By sulphuric acid, especially the smoking variety, it is
dissolved; but the nature of the indigo is altered by the
action of the acid. By nitric acid it is decomposed with
a strong effervescence, and either carbazotic acid or indi-
gotic acid may be obtained, according to the way in which
the acid is applied.
. Indigo has been subjected to a careful analysis by va-Composi
nous chemists, by means of black oxide of copper. Thetion.
following little table exhibits the results of these analyses.
Le Royer and Dumas.
Sublimed. Washed.
Carbon 73‘26 71-71
Hydrogen  2-50 2-66
Azote 13-81 13-45
Oxygen 10-43 12-18
Revived. Crum.
74-81 73-22
3-33 2-92
13-98 11-26
7-88 12-60
ties.
If we take Mr Crum’s experiment as nearest the truth,
and it was made with great care with sublimed indigo, we
have the following atomic ratios for the constitution of
this substance:
16 atoms carbon 12-00
4 atoms hydrogen  0-50
1 atom azote  1-75
2 atoms oxygen  2-00
16-25
This shows us that its atomic weight is 16-25, or a
multiple of that quantity. As we do not know any defi¬
nite compounds into which it enters, we have no means of
determining at present what its atomic weight really is.
Indigo rendered soluble in alkalies, by being deprived
of oxygen, is known by the name of reduced indigo. It will
be proper to describe its properties when in that state.
To prepare it, fill a flask with the yellow solution ofReduced
reduced indigo and lime, from the indigo vat prepared by indigo,
the process formerly described. Then let fall into it a
few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid or acetic acid,
previously deprived of air by boiling, or by being kept in
the vacuum of an air-pump. The flask must now be well
corked, and care taken that not a particle of air remains
in it. The acid occasions an abundant white, flocky
precipitate, which is reduced indigo. The purer the so¬
lution is, the more difficultly does the precipitate fall to
the bottom. When the matter has been left twenty-four
hours to collect at the bottom of the vessel, collect the
precipitate on the filter, and wash it with water which has
been long boiled and allowed to cool in a well-stoppered
bottle, till the uncombined acid disappears. During this
washing the colour darkens, but it does not become blue,
but acquires a grayish-green colour, especially on the sur¬
face. Let the washed matter be pressed between folds of
blotting paper, and then dried in vacuo over sulphuric-
acid.
It is a grayish-white matter, having a silky lustre and
some slight appearance of crystallization. It has neither
taste nor smell, and produces no change on vegetable
blues. It is insoluble in water. It is soluble both in al-
488
CHEMISTRY.
Organic cohol and ether, with a yellow colour. When the solution
Bodies, is exposed to the air, oxygen is absorbed, and blue indigo
PrIt'doefnot combine with diluted acids. Concentrated
smoking sulphuric acid dissolves it instantly with a dark
purple colour. It combines very readily with the sahform
bases. It dissolves both in caustic alkalies and their car¬
bonates, and likewise in barytes, strontian, and lime, with
a yellow colour. The ammoniacal solutions are generally
green, in consequence of a little blue indigo which is dis¬
solved along with the white portion. Whenever these so¬
lutions are exposed to the air, the indigo becomes blue
and is precipitated. i • v
Lime forms two distinct compounds with reduced indi¬
go. The first is a saturated solution of the indigo, known
only in the liquid form, and having a dark-yellow colour.
The other has an excess ot lime ; it is insoluble, and lemon-
yellow in colour. It falls to the bottom in consequence of
the excess of lime employed when indigo mixed with
lime is reduced by means of sulphate of iron; and as it
is heavy, the gypsum and peroxide of iron may be washed
away. It is slightly soluble in water previously deprived
of air, giving it a slight shade of yellow. When exposed
to the air it becomes first green and then blue by the ab¬
sorption of oxygen. , ...
Reduced indigo even forms a soluble compound with
magnesia, but it requires more water to dissolve it than
the compound with lime. .
The other bases may be combined with reduced indigo,
by putting the salts containing them in a clear solution of
reduced indigo as neutral as possible, taking care that an
be excluded. Alumina forms with it a white compound,
which instantly becomes blue when exposed to the air.
The salts of protoxide of iron, protoxide of tin, and prot¬
oxide of lead, give white compounds with reduced indigo.
Neutral sulphated peroxide of iron throws down a dark-
brown compound, which does not alter under the liquid so
long as all the reduced indigo is not thrown down. But
if an excess of the salt be employed, that excess is
changed into a protosalt, and the precipitate becomes
blue.& The salts of the protoxides of cobalt and manga¬
nese p-ive green precipitates. Nitrate of silver throws
down a brown, and afterwards a black precipitate, which
is not altered by exposure to the air.
From the experiments that have been made yipon re¬
duced indigo, there is reason for believing that it differs
from blue indigo merely by containing one atom less of
While moist it has so deep a blue colour, as to appear Orgar
black. When dry it has a shining copper-red colour. By Bodie:
transmitted light it is blue. It attracts water from air
with great rapidity. Cold water dissolves y^th of its
weight of it, and hot water is a much better solvent. Its
colouring power is so great that water holding jooVoo^1
of its weight in solution is distinctly blue coloured. All
water added to its solution precipitates a little of it, ex¬
cept distilled water. When heat is applied to it, it does
not melt, nor do any purple fumes rise from it. When a
luminous object, as a candle, is viewed through the blue
solution of this substance, it appears red. A single drop
of nitrate or sulphate of copper added to the liquid makes
the candle appear blue, ^inc produces the same effect,
though not so powerfully. Mr Crum has shown that ce-
rulin differs from indigo merely by containing four atoms
of water, or their elements, united to one atom of indigo.
Hence its constituents are,
16 atoms carbon 12
8 atoms hydrogen  1
1 atom azote  l*7t>
6 atoms oxygen  6
Composi¬
tion.
oxygen.
Hence its constituents must be,
16 atoms carbon 12
4 atoms hydrogen  0-5
1 atom azote   1"^
1 atom oxygen  1
15-25
It is in this state that it is combined with cloth.^ When
the cloth is exposed to the air it gradually absorbs oxy¬
gen, and becomes first green and at last blue.
Cerulin. ^ When indigo is digested in concentrated sulphuric acid,
it is converted into a peculiar blue substance, to which
Mr Crum, who first investigated its nature, has given the
name of cevulin. When potash is added to the acid solu-
, tion previously diluted with water, a deep-blue pi ecipitate
is formed. All the salts of potash are capable of precipi¬
tating this blue matter from its solution. Ihe precipitate
consists of the cerulin and the salt employed to throw it
down. If we employ acetate of potash, we may wash out
this salt by means of alcohol, and leave the blue matter
in a state of purity. It is a compound of cerulin and sul¬
phate of potash, and has been called by Mr Crum cerulio-
sulphate of potash.
20-75
If the action of the sulphuric acid on indigo be stopped atPhenk
a certain point, a new substance is produced, to which Mr
Crum, who first obtained it, has given the name otpheni-
cin. It may be obtained in the following way:
Prepare a quantity of indigo by boiling it in sulphuric
acid diluted with thrice its weight of water. Then wash
it well and dry it. Mix one part of this purified indigo
with seven or eight parts of concentrated sulphuric acid
in a stoppered phial, and agitate the mixture occasionally
till it becomes of a bottle-green colour. Then mix it with
a large quantity of distilled water, and throw it on a filter.
By continuing to wash the filter with distilled water, the
liquid, which at first passed through colourless, becomes
more and more blue ; and after some time all the indigo
which has been changed passes through blue. Hus blue
liquid contains the phenicin in solution. Add to it chlo¬
ride of potassium, and the phenicin falls down in the state
of a fine reddish-purple colour, similar in appearance to
the vapour of sublimed indigo. Collect it on a filter, and
wash it till the liquid passing through gives a red precipi¬
tate with nitrate of silver. It may then be dried.
When dry it has a brownish-black colour. Heated in
a crucible, it gives out a little vapour of indigo. yVhen
burnt it leaves about fifteen per cent, of ashes, consisting
of sulphate and muriate of potash. It dissolves both in
water and alcohol, and the solutions are blue; and it is pre¬
cipitated of its original colour by any soluble salt what¬
ever. Acids do not prevent this precipitation.
From the analysis of this substance by Mr Crum, it ap¬
pears that it is a compound of one atom of blue m ig
and two atoms of water. The constituents are,
16 atoms carbon ^
6 atoms hydrogen  0-75
1 atom azote 
4 atoms oxygen  4
18-5
Sect. VIII.—0/ Oils.
These have been already described in a former part of
this article.
Sect. IX.—0/ Camphor.
This substance possesses a good many Points 0^re^'
anre with the volatile oils, but differs so much m otne
blance with the volatile oils, but differs
CHEMISTRY.
(j ;nic
.es.
489
”Setl;icil,te.se,'ves t0 be considered M a ^ o^J
Pri rties
vegetable principle,
It is obtained from different species of laurus, particu¬
larly the carnphora and Sumatrensis, and comes to Europe
from Japan and the Indian islands Borneo and Sumatra.
It is said to be obtained by distilling the wood alon^ with
water in large iron pots, to which are fitted earthen"heads
stuffed with straw. The camphor sublimes and concretes
upon the straw in the form of a gray powder. It is after¬
wards refined in Europe by a second sublimation.
Pure camphor is a solid substance, having a white co¬
lour, a peculiar aromatic odour, and a strong, hot, and
somewhat acrid taste. Its specific gravity is 0*9887.
When slowly sublimed, or when a hot alcoholic solution
is left at rest, it crystallizes in octahedrons or in hexago¬
nal plates. It is soft enough to be squeezed fiat between
the fingers, but it is somewhat tough, and cannot be re¬
duced to powder unless we add a little alcohol. It un¬
dergoes no alteration when left exposed to the air.
When heated to 347° it melts into a transparent and
colourless liquid. At 400° it boils. It sublimes complete¬
ly without any decomposition whatever. When mixed
with six times its weight of clay, and distilled, it under¬
goes decomposition, giving a yellow-coloured aromatic oil,
with a little acid water, in which a portion of the oil is
dissolved. In the retort remains the clay, mixed with
charry matter. When the vapour of camphor is passed
through a red-hot porcelain tube, it is partly decomposed,
furnishing a volatile oil, which contains undecomposed
tamphoi in solution, together with a considerable quan¬
tity of inflammable gas, composed of carbon and hydro¬
gen, apparently in equal atomic proportions, and there¬
fore constituting simple carbo-hydrogen. Camphor, in
the open air, burns with a clear flame and much smoke,
and burns all away without leaving any residue.
i , . J i v J i LI j WJllLIJ*
when exposed to the air, soon crystallizes, because the Bodies,
acid absorbing moisture allows the camphor to separate.
One part of camphor is dissolved in 2*6 parts of concen-
trated muriatic acid, and is again precipitated by the ad¬
dition of water.
Camphor has very little affinity for the saliform bases,
it is neither dissolved by caustic alkalies nor their carbo¬
nates, and it scarcely absorbs its own volume of ammonia-
cal gas.
Camphor has been repeatedly subjected to analysis byComnosi-
different chemists. I he following little table exhibits thetion.
result or these experiments.
Saussure. Gdbel. Thomson.
Carbon 74*38 74*67 73*8
Hydrogen 10*67 11*24.14*4
°xygen 14*61 14*09 11-8
Azote   0*34  
100*00 100*00 100*0
Being ignorant of the atomic weight of camphor, these
analyses do not enable us to give the atomic constituents
with certainty; but the smallest number of atoms which
approach near the results of Saussure’s analysis are the
following:
7 atoms carbon 5-25
6 atoms hydrogen   0*75
1 atom oxygen 1*00
7*00
I his would make the atomic weight of camphor seven,
or some multiple of that number. The analysis of Dr
Thomson indicates a greater number of atoms of hydrogen
than of carbon, in the proportion of 8|- carbon to 10 hy-
^ - o —  drogen ,* and the great volatility and other similar dualities
Camphor is very httie soluble m water, requiring about which camphor possesses is rather favourable to tha notion
1000 times its weight ot that liquid to dissolve it. Potash notion.
precipitates it from its aqueous solution, but neither soda
nor ammonia. It dissolves readily in alcohol, 100 parts of
alcohol ol 0*806 dissolve 120 parts of camphor at the tem¬
perature of 54°. The alcoholic solution is precipitated by
water. I he alcohol may he distilled off, but it carries a
portion of the camphor with it. It is soluble also in ether,
and in fixed and volatile oils.
It may be fused with sulphur or phosphorus, and the
fused mass is soluble in bisulphate of carbon. With iodine
it combines into a brown, soft, deliquescent mass. If this
compound be dissolved in oil of turpentine, and alcohol be
added to the solution, the alcohol takes up the whole cam¬
phor, and leaves the combination of iodine and oil of tur¬
pentine undissolved.
One part of camphor combines with eleven parts of con¬
centrated sulphuric acid to a brownish tough mass, which
is soluble in alcohol; but water throws down almost the
Sect. X.— Of Resms.
Resins are to be met with in almost all plants. They
constitute, of course, one of the most abundant and most
important of the vegetable principles. They frequently
exude spontaneously from trees; they often flow from
artificial wounds, and very frequently they are held in
solution by volatile oils, from which they may be freed by
distillation. It is easy to obtain them in a state of toler¬
able purity, by the following process:
Digest the vegetable substance containing resin in al- How ob-
cohol. Filter the liquid, and mix it with water. The re- tained.
sin falls down, and may be collected and washed on the
filter. When dry, it may be melted into a mass; but in
this state it may be contaminated with various vegetable
principles, which are soluble in alcohol; and we have no
evidence that different species of resins are not mixed or
wbnla  1 7— —v—- t„c combined together. Yor cobphon ox common ro-
„ • i ,° . . c^mphor unaltered. When the sulphuric sin is completely soluble in alcohol, but only partially sc¬
an n'l° U 101i 1S r , su^P^urous acid is given out, and luble in naphtha. Is it not probable from this that it con-
may J?.e distilled over, smelling of peppermint and sists of two distinct resinous bodies, one of which is solu-
1 or* | , Y* ^iere passes over a little sulphuretted ble in naphtha and the other not? Animt# and elemi may
ro^> . Ui the retort there remains a mixture of be divided each into two distinct resins by means of alco-
rcoa, artificial tannin, and sulphuric acid. hoi; cold alcohol dissolving one of them, and not acting
ne part of: nitric acid dissolves six parts of camphor on the other, which however is soluble in boiling alcohol.
arirD 01 00xinS liquid. By agitation with water the The chemical characters of resins are, that they are so-
is removed, and the camphor remains unaltered. This luble in alcohol, but insoluble in water; and that when
MpT l .so utl0n. °i' camphor dissolves readily in alcohol, heated they melt without any thing being volatilized ex-
;cidaS ao not ivell in it, Because a portion of the cept by decomposition.
fli=tai1!,in!UtrallZf!^ by. the camphor. When camphor is _ They do not crystallize, but, like gums, are amorphous. propertjes
distillprl m A ,llcAcUI1Puor* . vvneP     ^  x —-7 -— »—x.x~x.—.^.xv,^. j
mnr* x* lePeatedly WIth Keight times its weight of nitro- They are usually translucent, and have different shades of
lunatic acid, it Is'gfadually^onVerted into -1— •- 
acid.
” O          J     7 —^ KJL
ly converted into camphoric colour, most commonly brown, though some of them are
, transparent, and almost colourless. Their specific gravity
vol^vi01- absorbs t™68 hs bulk of muriatic acid varies from 0*92 to T2. In general they are heavier than
3 Q
490
C H E M 1 S T R Y.
Organic
Bodies.
Balsams,
water. Their consistence varies considerably, some are
hard, and break with a vitreous fracture, and are easily
pounded in a mortar; others are soft, or almost liquid;
but this generally proceeds from the presence of a vola¬
tile oil. When rubbed they usually become negatively
They are insoluble in water, but dissolve in alcohol,
both cold and hot; but their solubility vanes very much.
These solutions redden litmus paper, but not syrup of vio¬
lets. When they are mixed with water they become
milky, and the resin gradually falls to the boU°jm 1 iey
are soluble also in ether and the volatile oils. I hey may
also be dissolved in the fixed oils. By fusion they may
be combined with sulphur, and m some measure with
phosphorus. Chlorine frequently bleaches the powder of
a coloured resin, and renders it white. They dissolve
readily in bisulphide of carbon. , . ,
For acids they have very little affinity. Concentrated
sulphuric acid dissolves them without decomposition, the
solution is precipitated by water. When it is heated sul¬
phurous acid is evolved, and there remains a coaly mass,
mixed with some artificial tannin. Nitric acid dissolves
them with the assistance of heat, fhe solution at hist is
precipitated both by water and alkali. If the action be
continued some time longer, when the solution is concen¬
trated, a dark-yellow, tough substance is obtained, soluble
both in water and alcohol. At last there is formed a bit¬
ter-tasted, resinous powder, together with some artificial
tannin. Sometimes oxalic acid is formed, as when nitric
acid is made to act on guaiacum.
With alkalies and the salifiable bases in general the re¬
sins combine readily and form salts, which, when the base
is potash or soda, are soluble in water, ihese combina¬
tions have been long known and considered as soaps ; but
Unverdorben has recently shown that they are true salts,
and that the resins in them act the part of weak aci s.
When resin in excess is digested in a concentrated solu¬
tion of potash, it is dissolved; and if the solution be di¬
luted with water and filtered, a neutral compound is ob¬
tained, the excess of the resin being separated by the di¬
lution. Pulverized resin left in contact with ammoniaca
gas over mercury, absorbs it, and forms a neutral com¬
pound, sometimes soluble and sometimes insoluble in wa¬
ter. The alkaline earths, in like manner, may be combin¬
ed with resins, and they generally form salts very little
soluble in water, while the salts formed by the earths pro¬
per, and the metallic oxides by means of double decom¬
position, are all insoluble in water.
The resins have been analysed by different chemists,
and shown to be compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. But it is not worth while to give the numerical
results, because we have no method of obtaining indivi¬
dual resins in a state of purity. Of course our results
cannot be satisfactory.
Resins are of two kinds, liquid and solid. The liquid
resins are in fact combinations of resin with a volatile oil.
They are usually called balsams. The most important of
these liquid resins are,
1. Balsam of Capaiva, from the capaifera officinalis, a
tree which grows in South America and some of the West
India islands. ,
2. Opobalsamum, or balm of Gilead, from the amyns
Gileadensis, a tree which grows in Arabia, especially near
Mecca. , „
3. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon Peruiferum, a
tree which grows in the warm parts of South America.
4. Styrax, from the Liquidambar styraciflua.
The following is alistof the most remarkable solid resins :
1. Benzoin.
2. Storax.
3. Dragon’s blood.
4. Rosin or colophon.
5. Mastich.
6. Guaiacum.
7. Sandarach.
8. Elemi.
9. Tacamahac.
10. Anime.
11. Labdanum.
12. Botany Bay resin.
13. Black poplar resin.
14. Jalap resin.
15. Copal.
16. Lac.
17. Amber.
Sect. XI.—Of Gum Resins.
The substances called gum resins (because they are
partially soluble both in water and alcohol), have long
attracted the attention of apothecaries and physicians, in
consequence of the active properties which they possess.
They consist of the milky juices which exude from vari¬
ous plants, and which, when left exposed to the aii, gra¬
dually harden into solid matter. The milky juice of the
lactuca virosa, of leontodon taraxacum* of the chelidonium
maius, &c. may be mentioned as examples. The chemical
characters which these gum resins have been obseived to
possess are the following: _ , .
They dissolve with difficulty and incompletely in water, Char
and when the water containing them is agitated or tntu-ters.
rated in a mortar, a milky liquid is formed, from which
the undissolved portion precipitates very slowly.
Alcohol dissolves them also incompletely, leaving from
one half to one fifth of the gum resin undissolved; but the
solution is transparent. Weak spirit is the best solvent,
because it is capable of taking up resin, gum, extractive
and saline matter, all at once.
They are soluble in dilute alkaline solutions, with the
exception of any portion of saline base which they may
contain. . c i u
Acids act upon them nearly as upon resins. Sulphuric
acid converts them into a mixture of artificial tannin and
charcoal. Nitric acts upon them with energy, converting
them first into a brittle mass, and then, with the assistance
of heat, dissolving them. f
Their specific gravity is rather higher than that of the
re The gum resins may be divided into three classes, the
fetid, the drastic, and the aromatic. .
l! Fetid Gum Resins.-The principal fetid gum resins
are the five following. c sa n
1. Assafcetida, obtained from the ferula assafcetida, a per¬
ennial plant which is a native of Persia. Ij comes to
rope in small grains of different colours. At first 'J18 S
yellow, but becomes much darker by keeping. Its taste
fs acrid and bitter, and its smell strongly a bacons nd fo
tid. Its constituents, according to the analysis of Bran >
are as follows :
Volatile oil.....  
Resin soluble in alcohol 
Resin insoluble in alcohol ^ ^
Gum1.:  6.4
Bassorin 
Extractive2  
Malate of lime with resin      2
Sulphate of lime with sulphate of potash ^
Carbonate of lime...—  
Oxide of iron and alumina ^ ^
Water 4.6
Sand,    _
Cor U-
ent
101-35
With a trace of malate, acetate, phosphate, and sulphate of potash and lime.
With acetate and malate of lim6-
CHEMISTRY.
:amc
:lies.
2. Ammoniac is said to be obtained from the roots of
the Heracleum gummiferum, and to be collected in Libya,
' Abyssinia, and Upper Egypt; but this is somewhat un¬
certain. It is in small pieces, agglutinated together, and
has much the appearance of tallow or wax. Its taste is a
nauseous sweet, mixed with bitter, and its smell alliacious.
Its constituents, according to the analyses of Bucholz and
Braconnot, are as follows:
Bucholz. Braconnot.
Resin TS-O ....70-0
Gum 22*4 18*4
Bassorin 1*6 4*4
Volatile oil, water, &c 4‘0 7-2
491
100-0 100-0
3. Opoponax, from the pastinaca opoponax, a plant which
is a native of the countries round the Levant. It is in
lumps, of a reddish-yellow colour, and white within. Its
smell is peculiar, and its taste bitter and acrid. Its con¬
stituents, according to the analysis of Pelletier, are as fol¬
lows:
Resin 42-0
Gum   33-4
Lignin 9-8
Starch   4-2
Malic acid 2-8
Extractive 1-6
Caoutchouc, a trace.
Wax 0-3
Volatile matter and loss 5-9
100-0
4. Sagapenum, supposed to be obtained from the ferula
Persica, and to come from Egypt. It is usually in tears,
agglutinated together. Colour yellow, taste hot and bit¬
ter, smell alliacious. Its constituents, according to the
analysis of Brandes, are,
Resin 50-29
Volatile oil 3*73
Gum 32-72
Gluten 4-48
Malate and sulphate of potash 0-85
Phosphate of lime 0-27
Moisture 4-60
Foreign matter 4-30
99-24
5. Galbanum, from the bubon galbanum, a plant which
grows in Africa and in Syria. It comes to us from the Le¬
vant in tears. It has a yellowish-white colour, an acrid
and bitter taste, and a peculiar smell. Its specific gravity
is 1-212. Its constituents, according to the analyses of
Meissner and Pelletier, are as follows:
Meissner. Pelletier.
Resin 65*8 66-86
Gum 22-6 19-28
Bassorin 1-8 
Volatile oil 3-4}
Water 2-0^
Foreign matter 2-8 7-52
.6-34
98-4 100-00
II. Drastic Gum Resins.—These, when given in small
doses, act as violent purgatives.
1. Scammony, from the convolvulus scammonia, a climb- Organic
ing plant which grows in Syria. The colour is dark gray, Bodies,
or almost black. The smell is peculiar and nauseous, the
taste acrid and bittex*. The constituents of the two varie¬
ties of scammony, from Aleppo and from Smyrna, accord¬
ing to the analyses of Bouillon Lagrange and Vogel, are
as follows:
Aleppo. Smyrna.
Resin  60 29
Gum     ,3...f   8
Extractive   2. 5
Vegetable debris, &c. 354   58
100 100
2. Gamboge or gumgutt, from the stalagmitis gambo-
gioides, and, it is said, also other plants which grow in
the East Indies. It is brought to Europe in large cakes.
Its colour is yellow; it is opaque. It has no smell, and
very little taste. Its specific gravity is 1-221. According
to Braconnot, it is a compound of four parts resin and one
part bassorin ; according to John, of about nine parts resin
and one part gum.
3. Euphorbium, from the Euphorbia officinalis and some
other species which grow in the interior of Africa. It is
imported in larger or smaller pieces. It has a yellowish
colour, and is often very impure. It is destitute of smell,
and has at first no taste; but it leaves a sharp impression
in the mouth, and excites an inflammation in the gums and
tongue. Its constituents, according to the different ana¬
lyses which have been made of it, are as follows:
Resin  
Wax   
Caoutchouc 
Gum  
Malate of potash.
fMalate of lime ...
Bassorin 
Foreign bodies...,
Water 
Laudet.
64-0
, ,M?
23-3
9-3
Braconnot,
37-0
19
2
20-5
13-5
5
Pelletier.
60-8
14-4
1-8
12-2
2
8
96-6 97 99-2 98-961 |
Brandes,
43-77
14-93
4-84 ,
4- 90
18-82
5- 60
5-40
ll\. Aromatic Gum Resins.—These are not much employ¬
ed in medicine, as their effects are not so remarkable on
living beings as those of the two preceding sets.
1. Myrrh is obtained chiefly from Abyssinia and Arabia,
and there is some doubts about the plant which yields it.
Bruce considers it as a mimosa. According to others, it is
the amyris kataf. It is in the form of tears, having a red¬
dish-yellow colour, a peculiar smell, and a bitter and aro¬
matic taste. Its constituents, according to the analyses of
Braconnot and Brandes, are as follows:
Braconnot. Brandes.
Resin   23-0 27-8
Volatile oil 2-5 2-6
Gum 46-0 54-4
Gluten 12*0 9-3
Salts  1-42
Foreign matter  ... 1-6
83-5
97-1
1 Including sulphate of potash 0-45
Sulphate of lime Q'lO
Phosphate of lime ...0-15
0-7
3 These salts were, sulphate, benzoate, malate, and acetate of potash and lime.
Organic
Bodies.
CHEMISTR Y.
2. Olibanum is the frankincense of the ancients. It is
brought to London from various places, among others from
the East Indies; but the Indian olibanum is least esteem¬
ed. Lamarck is of opinion that the Arabian olibanum is
from the amyris Gileadensis. The Indian comes from the
Boswellia serrata. It is a semitransparent, brittle, whitish-
yellow substance ; its taste is acrid and aromatic, and when
burnt it diffuses an agreeable odour. Its constituents, ac¬
cording to the analysis of Braconnot, are,
Resin 5f>
Volatile oil ®
Insoluble gum
99-2
3. Caranna is obtained either from the amyris caranna
or the bursera gummifera. It has a dark-brown or greenish-
brown colour, and its specific gravity is 1T24. While cold
it has a slight smell, similar to that of gum ammoniac; but
its smell when heated is aromatic. Its taste is bitterish
and resinous. It contains at least ninety-six per cent, of
resin, with a trace of volatile oil. There are present also
0*4 of malate of potash, with some glutinous matter, and
3-6 of foreign bodies. It hardly, therefore, deserves to be
considered as a gum resin, but rather as a resin.
4. Bdellium comes from the Levant, and is supposed to
be the produce of the daucus gummifer, though this is not
certain. It is in yellowish transparent tears. When tri¬
turated between the teeth it becomes soft. Its specific
gravity is 1-371. According to the analysis of Pelletier,
its constituents are as follows:
Resin 59
Gum 9-2
Bassorin 
Volatile oil and loss 1'2
duce such a solution a considerable interval of digestion is Orga*
requisite. The caoutchouc is gradually softened into a Bodk
kind of jelly, which is afterwards dissolved in the naphtha.
It is by spreading several coatings of this naphtha solution
between two folds of cloth that the cloth of Mr MTntosh,
which is impervious to water, is made. The solution is laid
on by machinery, the tvro plies of cloth are laid upon each
other, and then the whole is passed between a pair of rollers.
Finally, it is dried by exposure to the air in a dry place.
When caoutchouc is heated to 248° it begins to alter
its appearance, and when the temperature is increased it
melts into the consistency of tar. When the heat is with¬
drawn it still continues in this semifluid state. When still
farther heated it takes fire and burns with a strong flame,
and diffuses a fetid odour. In South America it is used
instead of flambeaux.
Caoutchouc is not acted on nor dissolved in dilute acids.
Even concentrated sulphuric acid acts very imperfectly
while cold, though the digestion be continued for a con¬
siderable time. When heat is applied sulphurous acid is
disengaged, and the caoutchouc is reduced to the consis¬
tency’ of turpentine. Water throws down from this liquid
a resinous-looking substance, which hardens when exposed
to the air. Nitric acid renders it yellow, and when the
concentrated acid is assisted by heat, the caoutchouc is
dissolved with a dark-brown colour, and with the evolu¬
tion of nitrous gas. Water, when poured into the solution,
throws down yellow flocks, which are soluble in alcohol,
acids, and alkalies, but not in volatile oils. Caoutchouc is
insoluble in alkaline leys, even when concentrated and
boiling hot.
According to the analysis of Faraday, the constituents
of caoutchouc are,
Carbon 87*2 Compa
Hydrogen 12‘8
100*0
Sect. XII.—Of Caoutchouc.
This valuable substance, which has of late years been
employed so extensively by Mr MTntosh to render cloth
impervious to water, was first brought to this country from
South America about the beginning of the last century;
and, under the name of Indian rubber, was employed to
efface the traces of black-lead pencils from paper. It ex¬
udes in a liquid state from a considerable number of trees
both in South America and India; the hevoea caoutchouc
and guianensis, the iatropha elastica, artocarpus integri-
folia, urceola elastica, smilax caduca, and a good many
other plants. When these plants are punctured, there
exudes from them a milky juice, which, when exposed to
the air, gradually lets fall a concrete substance, which is
caoutchouc.
Properties. Caoutchouc, when pure, is of a white colour, and without
either taste or smell. The blackish colour of the common
caoutchouc is owing to the method of drying it. The usual
way is to spread a thin coat of the milky juice upon the
mould, and then to dry it by exposing it to smoke; after¬
wards other coats are spread out, which are dried in the
same way.
It is soft and pliable like leather, and very elastic, so
that it may be forcibly stretched out .far beyond its natu¬
ral length, and instantly recovers its former bulk when the
force is withdrawn. Its specific gravity is 0-9335. It is
not altered by exposure to the air. It is insoluble in water,
but if boiled in water its edges become transparent, and
so soft, that when two of them are pressed together they
adhere as closely as if they formed one piece.
It is insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether. It dis¬
solves also in volatile oils and in coal naphtha ; but to pro-
100-0
This corresponds nearly with
9 atoms carbon 8*75
8 atoms hydrogen 1*80
7-75
But as we are not acquainted with any definite compounds
into which caoutchouc enters, this analysis does not ena¬
ble us to form any conception of the number of atoms
which it contains, or even of its atomic weight.
DIVISION II.-—OF ANIMAL BODIES.
The constituents of the animal kingdom are probably of
a still more complex nature than those of the vegetable.
They are distinguished from the greater number of the
vegetable bodies by the presence of azote, which m gene¬
ral constitutes one of their essential constituents, hcarce-
ly so much progress has been made in the investigation ot
animal principles as in that of vegetable, and those which
have been well characterized are much fewer, un. a
account we shall not attempt any classification of animal
principles, but satisfy ourselves with giving a short account
of the animal secretions, and the most important consti¬
tuents of animal bodies ; and under their respective secre¬
tions we shall give the character of those animal princi¬
ples which are peculiar to them.
CHAP. I.—OF BLOOD.
Blood is a fluid which circulates in the veins and arte¬
ries of the more perfect animals. In the veins i
deep brownish-red colour, but on exposure to tie5* .
becomes scarlet. The blood in the arteries has a scane
CHEMISTRY.
Prop
c colour. It has considerable consistencj', and an unctuous
i. feel, as if it contained soap. Its specific gravity is about
x' 1-0527, but it varies somewhat in dift'erent animals, and
even in the same animal at different times.
When blood, after being drawn from an animal, is al¬
lowed to remain for some time in a state of rest, it coagu¬
lates into a gelatinous-looking mass. This mass gradu¬
ally separates into two parts, one of which is fluid, and is
called serum ; the other, which is a tough, gelatinous-look¬
ing matter, is called the crassamentum or coagulum. The
serum is greenish yellow, but the coagulum is red. The
proportions between the serum and crassamentum are
very various, according to the health or disease of the ani¬
mal. But it is difficult to determine the point with accu¬
racy, because we cannot free the crassamentum from all
remains of serum. We may state the serum at 56, and
the crassamentum (freed from serum as much as possible
by blotting paper) at 44. But in the Asiatic or malignant
cholera these proportions are nearly reversed, the crassa¬
mentum constituting about sixty of the blood, and the se¬
rum only about forty parts.
I. The serum or liquid portion of the blood has a light
greenish-yellow colour. It has the taste, smell, and feel
of blood, though its consistence is not so great. Its mean
specific gravity is 1-0287. It gives a green colour to syrup
of violets ; but Herman affirms that it reddens litmus, and
that, when it is mixed with some sulphuric acid and dis¬
tilled, it gives out a small quantity of acetic acid. If ace¬
tic acid be present, it must be in combination with an al¬
kali; for it has been ascertained by many experiments
that the serum of healthy blood contains a small quantity
of uncombined soda.
When serum is heated to the temperature of 159°, it
coagulates precisely as the white of an egg does, and for
the same reason ; it contains a notable quantity of albumen.
Of Albumen.
Albumen, not in a state of absolute purity, but tolerably
pure, may be procured my mixing the fresh white of an
egg with water, and, after the portion which does not dis¬
solve in the water has fallen to the bottom, pouring off the
clear solution. It consists of a solution of albumen in
water. No method of freeing it from salivin, with which
it is always mixed in the white of an egg, has yet been
discovered.
3*. The aqueous solution of albumen is a viscid liquid, hav¬
ing but little taste. It may be freed from water by eva¬
poration at a low heat, and then the albumen is left in the
state of a translucent crust, having considerable lustre,
t may be employed to cement pieces of paper together.
When the aqueous solution of albumen (containing four
parts water and one part albumen) is heated to the tem¬
perature of 159°, the albumen coagulates, and separates in
white flocks, similar to the appearance of the white of a
oiled egg. Alcohol and acids have the property of coa¬
gulating albumen as well as heat, with the exception of
acetic acid, which is destitute of that property. There
are some salts also which possess the same property. The
coagulation of albumen takes place in close vessels, as well
as in the open air.
When coagulated albumen is washed and dried, it forms
a ranslucent, firm, and somewhat elastic crust, having a
ye °w colour, and a good deal the appearance of horn.
ien steeped in water, it resumes its former appearance,
u is no longer soluble in water, as it was before its coa¬
gulation.
493
Organic
Bodies.
When a solution of albumen in water is exposed to the
action of galvanism, the albumen coagulates round the ne¬
gative wire ; but when the galvanic battery is very power- - T -
ful, the albumen coagulates on both poles. Probably in this
case the coagulation is occasioned by the heat of the wires.
When coagulated albumen is put into water, and heat¬
ed in a digester to a temperature not lower than 390°, a
solution of the albumen is obtained, having a brownish-
yellow colour, soluble both in water and alcohol, and re¬
sembling osmazome in appearance. There remains undis¬
solved a glue-like matter, little soluble in water, and not
at all in alcohol.
rlhe solution of uncoagulated albumen in water soon
putrifies, but coagulated albumen is not so liable to under¬
go this alteration.
Albumen in solution in water is precipitated white by
conosive sublimate. The infusion of nutgalls forms with
it a yellowish precipitate, of the consistence of pitch, and
insoluble in water. But the infusion of nutgalls is not a
very delicate test of albumen, not being capable of detect¬
ing less than j-^q^th part of that substance when in solution
in water.
When into an aqueous solution of albumen a little ace¬
tic acid is added, and then some prussiate of potash is
dropt in, a white precipitate appears. This is one of the
most delicate tests of albumen that we have it in our
power to employ.
I-rom the experiments of Hatchett, there is reason to
believe that nitric acid is capable of converting coagulat¬
ed albumen into gelatine.
Albumen has been analysed by different chemists with c •
considerable care. . The following table exhibits the re- tion/
suits of these experiments ;
Gay-Lussac and -n
„ Thenard. Prout*
Carbon 52-883 49-750
Hydrogen  7-540  7-775
Azote 15-705 15-550
Oxygen 23-872 26-925
100-000 100-000
If we consider the analysis of Prout as most accurate,
it will indicate the atomic constituents of albumen to be
7^ atoms carbon 5-625
7 atoms hydrogen 0-875
1 atom azote  1-750
3 atoms oxygen 3-000
H-25
so that its atomic weight is 11-25, or some multiple of
that number.
When coagulated serum is broken in pieces, a small
quantity of liquid oozes out, which has been called the
serosity. The saline contents of this liquid are somewhat
increased by washing the coagulated serum well with dis¬
tilled water. This liquid contains some common salt and
some soda, together with a few other salts. The consti¬
tuents of 1000 parts of serum, as determined by Berze¬
lius, are as follows:
Water 905-00
Albumen  79-99
Lactate of soda and extractive 6-1751 q.7/u
Common salt and chloride of potash....2-565 J   ^
Soda and animal matter soluble only in water  1-52
Loss  4-75
1000-00
1 Soluble in alcohol.
494
Organic
Bodies.
CHEMISTRY.
II. The crassamentum of the blood is scarlet coloured,
containing all the colouring particles. But it is difficult to
free it completely from the serum. This may be done as
far as possible by placing it on bibulous paper, till the pa¬
per refuses to imbibe any more moisture. It may now be
considered as consisting of fibrin and coburing matter.
The latter of these is soluble in cold water, but not the
former. Hence we may obtain the fibrin by washing the
crassamentum in cold-water till the red coloui is icmove .
Of Fibrin.
Fibrin exists also in the muscles of animals, as well as
in blood, and constitutes the fibrous part ot the muscle.
Hence the origin of the term fibrin.
Properties. Fibrin, when pure, is brownish yellow, and has little or
no taste or smell. When newly extracted from blood it
is soft and elastic, and resembles the gluten of wheat. Its
colour deepens very much in drying.
It is not altered by exposure to the air, nor is it speed¬
ily decomposed though kept under water. It is insoluble
in cold water. In boiling water it curls up, and after the
boiling has continued for some hours, the water becomes
opal-coloured, but no gas is evolved. When infusion of
nutgalls is dropt into the water, white flocks precipitate,
which do not adhere together, as the precipitate formed
in solution of gelatine. The evaporated liquid does not
gelatinize, and leaves a white, dry, hard, friable residue,
soluble in cold water, and having a taste resembling that
of fresh broth. _
Fibrin dissolves in acetic acid; and when the solution ot
prussiate of potash is dropt into the solution, a white pie-
cipitate falls, as is the case with the solution of albumen
in the same acid ; but fibrin, by long boiling in water,
loses its property of softening and dissolving in acetic acid.
In alcohol of the specific gravity 0-81, fibrin undergoes
a species of decomposition, and forms an adipocirous sub¬
stance, soluble in alcohol, and precipitated by the addition
of water. It has often an unpleasant odour. The alcohol
solution, when evaporated, leaves a fatty residue.. Fibrin,
after being heated in alcohol, continues soluble in acetic
acid. Ether acts on fibrin in the same way as alcohol does.
Action of In weak muriatic acid fibrin shrinks, and gives out a
acids on. small quantity of azotic gas ; but scarcely any portion is
dissolved, even by boiling, nor does the acid liquid afford
any precipitate with ammonia or prussiate of potash. The
fibrin thus treated is hard and shrivelled. When repeat¬
edly washed with water, it is at last converted into a ge¬
latinous mass, which is soluble in water. It is a compound
of fibrin and muriatic acid.
Concentrated sulphuric acid decomposes and carbonizes
fibrin. This acid, when diluted with six times its weight
of water, acquires a red colour if digested in fibrin, but
dissolves scarcely any thing. The fibrin combines with
sulphuric acid; and when it is deprived of the excess of
acid by washing it with water, the compound becomes
capable of being dissolved in water.
Nitric acid of the specific gravity of 1-25, digested^ in
fibrin, renders it yellow, and diminishes its cohesion. The
fluid becomes yellow, and the surface of the fibrin is co¬
vered with a small quantity of fat formed by the action
of the acid. During this process pure azotic gas is dis¬
engaged. After twenty-four hours digestion the fibrin is
converted into a pulverulent mass of a yellow colour. By
washing it becomes orange. It is a compound of fibrin
and nitric acid.
Ofalkalies- In caustic alkalies fibrin increases in bulk, becomes
transparent and gelatinous, and at length is completely
dissolved. The solution is yellow, with a shade of green. Orgai;
Acids occasion in it a precipitate, which gradually becomes Bodi
confluent. Alcohol occasions a precipitate in it. No soap y
is formed.
When fibrin is exposed to heat it contracts suddenly,
and moves like a bit of horn, exhaling at the same time
the smell of burning feathers. In a strong heat it melts.
When exposed to destructive distillation it yields water,
carbonate of ammonia, a heavy, fetid oil, traces of acetic
acid and heavy inflammable air, and it leaves a quantity
of charry matter.
Fibrin has been subjected to analysis in order to deter-Comp{ 1
mine its constituents. The following table exhibits thetion. j
results of these analyses :
Gay-Lussac and Michaelis.1
Thenard. «• L
Carbon 53-360 51 -374 50-440
Hydrogen  7*021  7-254  8*228
Azote.! 19-934 17-587 17-267
Oxygen 19-685 23-785 24-065
100-000 100-000 100-000
If we adopt Michaelis’ analyses, the following will be
the ratios of the atomic constituents in arterial and venous
blood:
Arterial Blood. Venous Blood.
Carbon 8^ atoms 7 atoms.
Azotef. H 1
Oxygen 2-84 2£
If any confidence could be put in these analyses, it is
clear that arterial blood contains more carbon and more
azote and oxygen than venous blood ; but many repeti¬
tions of these analyses will be requisite before any certain
conclusions can be drawn from them.
The fibrin usually constitutes about the third part of
the crassamentum of blood.
Of the Colouring Matter of Blood.
The other constituent of the crassamentum is the co¬
louring matter. In the living blood it exists in globules,
which may be detected under the microscope, and con¬
cerning the shape and size of which much has been writ¬
ten. These globules are dissolved when the crassamen¬
tum is washed in water ; and when the water is evaporated
by a gentle heat, we obtain the colouring matter in the
state of a dark-red powder, not, however, quite free from
albumen. , ,, •
Its colour is a dark-reddish brown. It is soluble in wa- Prop'
ter, provided it has been obtained by a very low heat; but
if we boil the water, the colouring matter is deprived of its
solubility altogether. _
Its properties (if we except its colour) are very nearly
the same as those of albumen and fibrin. It combines
with acids like these bodies, and forms compounds, which
are soluble in water. Alkalies dissolve it, and the so u-
tion has a purple colour. The alkaline solution is precipi
tated by alcohol, which, however, acquires a red tinge.
There is a considerable difference in the properties o
this substance, as described by different chemists, the
colouring matter of blood, as described by Brande, is qui e
different from that of Berzelius; while the character as¬
signed it by L. Gmelin differs from those of the other w
chemists. It is evident from this that colouiing matter
a state of complete purity has not yet been subjected
examination. That of Berzelius was obviously mixed witn
a great deal of albumen.
1 The fibrin of column a was from arterial, and that of column 6 from venous blood.
CHEMISTRY.
(feme When the colouring matter of blood is incinerated, the
I es. ashes are found to contain half their weight of red oxide
J of iron; yet no iron can be detected before the incinera¬
tion. To the presence of this iron the red colour of the
globules has been ascribed by some chemists; but this
opinion does not seem to be well grounded. If the iron
existed in blood in the state of red oxide, its presence
would certainly be detected by re-agents. The impossibi¬
lity of detecting it would seem to show that it exists in
blood in the metallic state.
The colouring matter in the crassamentum is about
twice as heavy as the fibrin.
CHAP. II. OF SALIVA.
This fluid is secreted by a set of glands which discharge
it through ducts into the mouth. Its quantity is consi¬
derable, though it would be difficult to determine it with
precision. It is transparent and colourless, but has a good
deal of viscidity, and is destitute of taste and smell. Its
mean specific gravity is about 1*0038. When agitated it
froths like all other adhesive liquids. When mixed with
water, a few flocks of mucus precipitate. It was merely
suspended in the saliva, and not dissolved. When saliva
is evaporated it swells greatly, and leaves behind it a thin
brown-coloured crust; but if the evaporation be conducted
slowly, small cubic crystals of common salt are deposited.
Saliva contains dissolved in it a peculiar animal principle,
which we may distinguish by the name of salivin. It
contains also a small quantity of soda and of salts of soda.
The following table exhibits the constituents in a thousand
parts of saliva, according to the analysis of Berzelius :
Water 992’9
Salivin..    2*9
Mucus  T4
Alkaline muriates  T7
Lactate of soda and animal matter.... 0-9
Pure soda  0-2
1000-0
Ch4
:ters.
trate of silver, and chloride of platinum. Corrosive subli¬
mate and tincture of nutgalls render it muddy, but not
immediately. Acetic acid gradually throws down from it
large white flocks. This liquid consists of a solution of a
peculiar substance, which has a strong analogy to salivin.
The salivin, and mucus of the saliva, constitute in a
great measure the tartar of the teeth. To these two sub¬
stances, however (if the tartar is not removed), phosphate
of lime, with a trace of phosphate of magnesia, is gradually
added. The following table exhibits the constituents of
tartar, according to the analysis of Berzelius :
Earthy phosphates 79-0
Mucus  12-5
Salivin i  1-0
Animal matter soluble in muriatic acid 7-5
Of Salivin.
Salivin, the speichelstoff of the Germans, exists not
merely in saliva, but likewise in some other animal sub¬
stances. It may be obtained from saliva by the following
process: After freeing saliva from mucus, evaporate it to
dryness by a gentle heat. Digest the residual matter in
rectified spirits, to dissolve the salts. What remains is to
be dissolved in water. By evaporating the solution to
dryness, salivin remains in a state of tolerable purity.
Salivin is thus obtained in a translucent light-yellow-
coloured crust. It dissolves readily in water, and when
the solution is heated and concentrated, no coagulation
takes place. If the salivin has been dried in too high a
temperature it loses its solubility in water. Salivin is in¬
soluble in alcohol. It is not precipitated from water by the
infusion of nutgalls. Lime-water, chloride of tin, the nitrate
or acetate of lead, and nitrate of mercury, occasion preci¬
pitates, when dropt into the aqueous solution of salivin.
In the small intestines of the horse (when the animal
is kept fasting for thirty or thirty-six hours before death),
there is occasionally found a light-yellow, transparent, and
glutinous liquid, which dissolves in cold water. The so¬
lution is light yellow, transparent, slightly glutinous, may
be passed through the filter, and possesses the following
characters : It is not altered or precipitated by a boiling
heat, by iodine, chlorine, muriatic acid, nitric acid, or al¬
cohol. It is precipitated by barytes water, lime-water, alum,
green vitriol, perchloride of iron, sulphate of copper, pro¬
tochloride of tin, acetate of lead, nitrate of mercury, ni¬
495
Organic
Bodies.
100-0
CHAP. III. OF THE PANCREATIC JUICE.
The pancreas is a gland of considerable size, situated in
the abdomen, from which passes a duct which terminates
in the duodenum, sometimes separately and sometimes in
common with the bile duct. It secretes a liquid which is
deposited in the duodenum, where it is mixed with the
chyme, and is obviously intended to assist in the digestion
of the food. From the situation of the pancreas, it is very
difficult to obtain the liquid which it secretes, and which
is usually called the pancreatic juice. It was considered
as analogous to, if not the very same with, saliva. Francis
de le Boe first affirmed that it is acid; and in 1664, R.
de Graaf, a disciple and partizan of De le Boe, collected
the pancreatic juice of a dog, and found it limpid and
slightly viscid. It was sometimes acid and sometimes
only saline in its taste. A controversy took place soon
after respecting the nature of this juice, one party affirm¬
ing it to be acid, and another party to be alkaline. It is
only within these few years that we have acquired definite
ideas respecting the nature of this liquid, in consequence
of the chemical analysis of it by Tiedemann and L. Gme-
lin. They collected it from dogs, sheep, and horses.
The pancreatic juice from the dog was at first muddy
and slightly reddish; but after flowing for some time, it
became quite limpid, with an opaline tinge inclining slight¬
ly to bluish white. It was viscid, like the white of an egg
diluted with water. Its taste was weakly but sensibly sa¬
line. In about four hours 154 grains of the liquid were
collected.
The pancreatic juice of the horse was of a very pale-yel¬
low colour and limpid, excepting a very slight opaline tinge.
It was viscid, like the white of an egg diluted with water.
It very slightly reddened paper tinged blue by litmus. In
the dog and the sheep the first portion of the pancreatic
juice collected was acid. It afterwards became alkaline.
The pancreatic juice of the dog was found to contain
an alkaline carbonate and acetate, an animal matter thrown
down by the infusion of nutgalls and many other re-actives,
and which was considered as osmazome, and another mat¬
ter reddened by chlorine, which is peculiar to the pan¬
creatic juice, and may therefore be called pancreatin.
A hundred parts of pancreatic juice from a dog being
evaporated to dryness, left 8-72 of a residue. It was brit¬
tle and elastic, of an orange colour, and semitransparent.
When a hundred parts of this solid residue was incine¬
rated, the ashes left weighed 8-28 parts. A hundred parts
of the solid portion of pancreatic juice were composed of
Osmazome with pancreatin 44-32
Casein with pancreatin 18-44
Albumen with salts 42-83
105-59
496
Organic
Bodies.
Pancreatin.
CHEMISTRY.
The characteristic property of pancreatin is to be red¬
dened by a small quantity of chlorine, and discoloured by
a large quantity. This matter is soluble both in water
and alcohol, but much more soluble in the former than
in the latter.
The pancreatic juice of the sheep was composed of
Solid matter  5T9
Water   94-81
100-00
The solid matter consisted of
Osmazome with some casein 4T4
Casein  7'G
Albumen 61-8
110-8
No pancreatin was found in it.
From these facts, for which we are chiefly indebted to
Tiedemann and L. Gmelin, it is obvious that the pancrea¬
tic juice is quite different in its nature from saliva.
CHAP. IV.—OF BILE.
Bile is a liquid of a yellowish-green colour, an unctuous
feel, bitter taste, and peculiar smell, which is secreted by
the liver ; and in most animals considerable quantities of
it are usually found collected in the gall-bladder. The
bile of the ox has been chiefly examined by chemists,
being most easily procured.
Its colour is usually greenish yellow, but sometimes
green. Its taste is bitter, but at the same time leaving an
fmpression of sweetness. Its smell is feeble, but peculiar
and disagreeable. It does not act on vegetable blues. Its
consistence varies a good deal, being sometimes a very
thin mucilage, sometimes very viscid and glutinous; some¬
times it is transparent, but generally contains a yellow-
coloured matter, which precipitates when the bile is di¬
luted with water. Its specific gravity is about 1-027.
When agitated, it lathers like a soap.
It mixes readily with water in any proportion; but it
refuses to unite with oil. Yet it dissolves soap, and is
often employed to free cloth from greasy stains.
When an acid is added to bile, even in a minute quan¬
tity, it acquires the property of reddening vegetable blues.
The addition of a little more acid occasions a precipitate,
part from the precipitate, then add fresh sulphuric acid as Ch-ga;
long as any precipitate appears. This precipitate has a Bodk
green colour, and is what chemists have been in the habit '•'-’Y
of distinguishing by the name of resin of bile. Wash it
with water, and then digest it with carbonate of barytes
and water for some time. The barytes will combine with
the sulphuric acid, while the picromel will dissolve in the
water. Evaporate the aqueous solution to dryness by a
gentle heat. Pure picromel remains behind.
Picromel resembles entirely inspissated bile. It has aprope,.
green, or rather yellowish-green colour, and a bitter taste,
followed by an impression of sweetness. It is soluble in
water and in alcohol, in all proportions. Ether does not
dissolve it, but converts it into an adipocirous substance,
having a very disagreeable smell.
It has the property of combining with acids, and of form¬
ing compounds soluble when neutral, but insoluble, or
only sparingly soluble, when there is an excess of acid. It
unites also with many metallic oxides, constituting with
them a pulverulent mass.
It is not precipitated by infusion of nutgalls, but nitrat¬
ed suboxide of mercury, diacetate of lead, and the salts of
iron, occasion a precipitate when dropt into its aqueous
solution.
When picromel is subjected to destructive distillation,
it gives out no ammonia, showing the absence of azote
from its constitution. Its constituents are carbon, hydro-comi)l
gen, and oxygen. According to the analysis of Dr Thom-tion.
son, its constituents are,
Carbon 54*53
Hydrogen  1’82
Oxygen 43-65
100-00
This corresponds with
5 atoms carbon 3-75^
1 atom hydrogen 0-125
3 atoms oxygen 3-000
6-875
Hence 6-875, or some multiple of it, represents the atomic
weight of picromel.
Human bile differs considerably from that of the ox.
Its colour is sometimes green, sometimes yellowish brown,
xnt   - r r  , sometimes nearly colourless. Its taste is not very bitter.
and sulphuric acid occasions a greater precipitate than It generally contains some yellow- matter suspended in it.
any other acid. This precipitate consists of a yellow mat- When evaporated to dryness, it^ leaves a brown matter,
ter, which is insoluble in water. If we continue to add
sulphuric acid after the yellow matter has been precipi¬
tated, a green matter falls down, formerly denominated
the resin of bile. It is a compound of picromel (or the
peculiar matter of bile), and of the precipitating acid.
The following table exhibits the constituents of 1000
parts of ox bile, according to the analysis of Berzelius:
Water 875-00
Picromel and resin 105-35
Yellow matter  5-65
Soda  5-00
Phosphate of soda  2-50
Common salt  4-00
Sulphate of soda  P00
Phosphate of lime    P50
Oxide of iron, a trace.
1000-00
Prepara¬
tion.
Of Picromel.
This substance, which is the characteristic constituent
of bile, may be obtained by the following process: Drop
a little sulphuric acid into bile, in order to separate the
yellow matter which it may contain. Separate the fluid
amounting to about one eleventh of its weight. When
this matter is calcined, it yields all the salts to be found in
ox bile. All the acids decompose human bile, and throw
down a copious precipitate, consisting of albumen and pic¬
romel. One part of nitric acid is capable of saturating
100 parts of bile. The acetate of lead throws down the
picromel, and leaves a yellowish liquid, containing the salts
of bile, and a small quantity of a peculiar matter, the na¬
ture of which has not yet been determined. The follow¬
ing table exhibits the constituents of human bile, as de¬
termined by the analysis of Berzelius:
Water 908-4
Picromel  39”9
Albumen  3-0
Soda    4-1
Phosphate of lime  9‘1
Common salt  3-4
Phosphate of soda with lime  P0
1000-0
CHAP. V. OF MUCUS.
All the different passages and cavities of the
body through which liquids, air, or any substance h e
CHEMISTRY.
j anic to prove injuiious to. the organ is destined to pass, are
ies. supplied with a quantity of secreted semifluid, destined to
^ protect them from the injurious action of these foreign
bodjes. Thus the nostrils and the trachaea, through which
air is continually passing during the continuance of life, is
supplied with a matter to defend therti, usually called the
mucus of the nose and trachcea. In like manner the ure¬
ters, the bladder, and urethra, are covered with mucus, to
protect them from the action of the urine. The mouth
oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, are also covered with
mucus, to protect them from the injury which they mio-ht
sustain from the food. To these semifluid substances the
common term mucus has been applied, though they are far
from agreeing exactly in their chemical constitution ; and
the membranes which throw out this substance are distin¬
guished by anatomists by the name of mucous membranes.
The animal matter peculiar to mucus is the same in all
cases, and has the following properties. It is insoluble in
water, but is able to imbibe so much of that liquid as to
become more or less transparent, and semifluid, or glairy
as it is termed. If in this state it be laid on bloating paper,
and the paper be changed as it becomes wet, the° mucus
may be deprived of the greater part of the moisture which
it had absorbed, and will then have lost most of its pecu¬
liar properties. Mucus is not coagulable by boiling; it
becomes transparent when dry, and generally resumes its
mucous character on adding fresh water; but there is a
great difference in this respect in the mucus from different
parts of the body.
The liquid part of mucus, or that fluid which the pro¬
per mucous matter imbibes, and to which it owes its flui¬
dity, is the same thing as the serosity, or the liquid which
oozes out of coagulated serum.
1. Mucus of the Nose—The constituents of this matter,
as analysed by Berzelius, are as follows :
Water 933.7
Mucous matter  53.3
Chlorides of potassium and sodium  5’6
Lactate of soda, with animal matter  3*0
Soda   O'Q
Albumen and animal matter, insoluble ini
alcohol, but soluble in water, with a >- 3*5
trace of phosphate of soda \
497
XT 1 . 1000'0
JNasal mucus, when just secreted, contains only 025 per
cent, of solid matter*. The peculiar animal matter seems
at first to be held in solution by the soda, and to be pre¬
cipitated as the alkali becomes carbonated.
The proper mucous matter of the nose has the following
properties. When immersed in water it imbibes so much
moisture as to become transparent, excepting a few par¬
ticles that remain opaque. It may then be separated by
Ve from the rest of the water, and may be further
diied on bloating paper, till it has again lost nearly all the
water it had imbibed. It may be made to imbibe water,
and dried alternately as often as you please; but the
mucous matter gradually becomes yellow, and assumes a
I resemblance to pus. Five parts of recent mucus imbibe
ninety-five parts of water, and form a glairy mass, so thick
at it cannot be poured from one vessel to another. When
is mucus is boiled with water, it does not become horny,
nor does it coagulate. It is broken in pieces, but collects
again unaltered at the bottom of the vessel, when the
01 mg is finished. But we must, to obtain this result, se¬
parate, in the first place, a little albumen which it contains,
oy means of cold water.
t is soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. Concentrated sul-
P mnc acid chars it Nitric acid at first coagulates it;
vol. vi. &
by continuing the digestion it softens, and is finally dis- Organic
solved into a clear yellow liquid. Acetic acid hardens Bodies,
mucous matter, but does not dissolve it even at a boiling
tempeiature. . Caustic alkali at first renders mucous mat¬
ter more viscid, and afterwards dissolves it into a limpid
liquid. Tannin coagulates mucus, both when softened by
the absorption of water, and when dissolved either in an
acid or an alkali.
2. Mucus of the Trachcea.—The mucus of the trachaea is
exactly similar to that of the nose. The bluish or dark-
coloured flocculi expectorated in the morning will imbibe
twenty times their bulk of water, and become so transpa¬
rent as hardly to be visible. The action of acids and al¬
kalies is the same on it as on nasal mucus.
3. Mucus of the Gall-Bladder.—The mucus of the gall¬
bladder much resembles that of the nostrils, but is more
transparent, and always tinged yellow by the bile. When
dried it may be again softened in water, but loses part of
its mucous property. Biliary mucus dissolves in alkali,
and its fluidity increases in proportion to the quantity of
the alkali. When the alkaline solution is exactly neu¬
tralized with an acid, the mixture becomes slightly turbid,
and may be drawn out into threads. All the acids pro¬
duce with biliary mucus a yellowish coagulum, which red¬
dens litmus. The coagulum formed with the sulphuric
acid may be restored to its mucous properties by exact
saturation with an alkali. Alcohol coagulates this mucus
into a very yellow granular mass, to which the mucous
property cannot be restored. It is this mucus of the gall¬
bladder which chemists formerly mistook for albumen.
4. Mucus of the Intestines.—This mucus accompanies
the excrements, in which it often forms long and transpa¬
rent filaments. When once dried, the addition of water
will not restore its mucous property. Alkalies produce
this effect, but without rendering it transparent.
5. Mucus of the Urinary Passages.—It accompanies the
urine, in which it is partly dissolved, and partly suspend¬
ed mechanically. This last portion is generally too trans¬
parent to be distinguished by the eye; but it may be ex¬
hibited by leaving the urine for some time at rest, decant¬
ing off the fluid part, and collecting the mucus on a filter.
It loses its mucous property totally when dried. It then
often becomes rose-coloured, and appears as if crystallized.
It softens a little in water. The urinary mucus dissolves
readily in alkalies, and is not separated from this solution
by acids. Tannin separates it in white flocculi.
CHAP. VI.—OF THE FLUIDS OF THE SEROUS MEMBRANES.
The surface of serous membranes is always moistened
by a liquid, which is never secreted during health in
quantities sufficient for analysis. It is therefore only du¬
ring a dropsical state of these membranes that we can
gain any knowledge of its properties. It seems to be se¬
rum deprived of from two thirds to four fifths of its albu¬
men. It does not coagulate by mere boiling; but it gra¬
dually becomes turbid; and during the evaporation a co¬
agulated mass collects. This matter seems to be albu¬
men, but it has a sulphur-yellow colour. The following
is the result of the analysis of the fluid of hydrocephalus
by Berzelius :
Water 988*30
Albumen  1*66
Chloride of potassium and sodium.... 7*09
Lactate of soda and animal matter... 2*32
Soda  0*28
Animal matter only soluble in water,
with a trace of phosphate.
0*35
1000*00
3 R
493
Organic
Bodies.
Dr Marcet found the constituents of the liquid of spina
bifida as follows:
Water  
Muco-extractive matter, &c  2-20
Chlorides, &c 
Carbonate of soda  1*35
Phosphates, &c 
1000
The other dropsical fluids are in general more concen¬
trated, which may arise either from the mere consequence
of being long kept, or from the transudation of the serum
of the blood, which always occurs in the last stages of
dropsy, and appears also to take place in the urine and
cellular membranes.
CHAP. VII.—OF MILK.
Milk is a fluid secreted by the female of all those ani¬
mals denominated mammalia, and intended for the nou¬
rishment of her offspring. _ .
The milk of every animal has certain peculiarities which
characterize it. But the animal whose milk is chiefly
used by man as an article of food, and with which, of
course, we are best acquainted, is the cow. Vve shall
therefore, in the first place, describe the nature and con¬
stitution of cow’s milk; and afterwards notice the pecu¬
liarities which distinguish from it the milk of other am-
mals. ...
Cow’s milk. Milk is an opaque liquid, of a white colour, a slight, pe¬
culiar smell, and a pleasant, sweetish taste. It slightly
reddens vegetable blues. When allowed to remain foi
some time at rest, there collects on its surface a thick
yellowish unctuous matter called cream.
The milk thus deprived of its cream has a bluish-white
colour, and a specific gravity of about 1‘033. Its consti¬
tuents, by the analysis of' Berzelius, are as follows :
Water  
Casein, with a trace of butter 28 C0
Sugar of milk 35’00
Chloride of potassium  I’^O
Phosphate of potash  0‘25
Lactic acid, acetate of potash,)^ . . 0.q
with a trace of lactate of iron J
Earthy phosphates 
CHEMISTRY.
same acids. A great excess of acetic acid is required in Org.
order to dissolve casein; and the neutral combination of Bot
acetic acid and casein appears to be insoluble. Casein
is easily dissolved in alkalies. Its solution in acetic apd,
as well as in ammonia, becomes covered with a small quan¬
tity of cream every time that the casein has not been well
separated from the butter. Alcohol converts casein into
an adipocirous and fetid substance.
When casein has been precipitated from milk by alco¬
hol, and the casein thus obtained is put into an aqueous
solution of ammonia, it first swells into a glutinous matter;
and when an additional quantity of water is added, it dis¬
solves completely. Milk is coagulated by tannin.
Casein has been subjected to an analysis by Gay-Lus-Com
sac and Thenard. They obtained the following constitu-^
ents:
Carbon 59,781
Hydrogen  7*429
Azote.! 21*381
Oxygen 11*409
0-3
1000
Curd. Curd, which is separated from creamed milk by rennet,
has some resemblance to coagulated albumen. It is a
white solid, and when freed from moisture has a good
deal of brittleness.. It is precipitated from milk by acids,
and the precipitate consists of casein, combined with the
acid employed to throw it down. If we employ sulphuric
acid to throw it down, and, after washing it well with wa¬
ter, digest it with carbonate of barytes and water, the sul¬
phuric acid separates, while the casein dissolves in the
water. The aqueous solution thus obtained is yellowish,
and resembles a solution of gum. When evaporated to
dryness it leaves a yellow matter, which is the puie cuidy
part of milk, or casern as it was called by Proust.
Of Casein.
Characters. Casein thus obtained dissolves readily in water. Hie
solution, when boiled in an open vessel, becomes covered
with a white pellicle, precisely as milk does, and acquires
the smell of boiled milk. The pellicle is almost insoluble
in water, and appears to be a product of the action of air
on the dissolved casein.
With the mineral acids casein forms similar combina¬
tions with those that fibrin and albumen form with the
100*000
This corresponds with
7 atoms carbon „
5 atoms hydrogen 0*625
1 atom azote 1*750
1 atom oxygen 1*000
8*625
This makes the atomic weight of casein 8*625, or some
multiple of that number. .
When we compare casein with albumen, we see that it
contains less hydrogen and oxygen than albumen, but
nearly the same proportion of carbon and azote. It is
clearly, however, intimately connected with albumen,being
intended in milk to answer the same nutritious purposes
as albumen does in the egg. I
The cream which collects on the surface oi milk con- Gresj
tains a great deal of whey, and a considerable proportion
of casein. A quantity of cream, of the specific gravity
1*0244, was found by Berzelius composed of
Butter  
Casein 
Whey    92 0
100
so that cream may be considered as a kind of emulsion.
It is easily decomposed by agitation, absorbing oxygen,
and the butter separating. By this process of churning
the milk becomes more acid than it was at first. _ ,
Butter is of a yellow colour, possesses the properties otLutt,!1
an oil, and mixes readily with fixed oily bodies. When
heated to the temperature of 96°, it melts, and becomes
transparent. When kept melted for some time, some curd
and whey separates, and it assumes exactly the appear¬
ance of an oil. Butter possesses nearly the same proper¬
ties as marrow. When treated with an alkali it is con¬
verted into butyric acid, the^characters of which have been
given in a preceding part oi this article. _ tLpWlit
Milk freed from butter and casein is known by the
name of whey. It is a thin pellucid fluid, of a yellowish-
green colour, and pleasant sweetish taste, m which u
flavour of milk may be distinguished. When boiled,
additional portion of casein separates from ll* Att^ .
separation it is almost colourless, but has still a swe
ish and agreeable taste. If it be slowly evaporated,
deposits at last a number of white crystals, which
stitute sugar of milk. The other constituents
stated in the table inserted near tiie beginning o
chapter.
CHEMISTRY.
Con
tion
Hun
milk
Ass'
Of Sugar of Milk.
, This substance crystallizes in four-sided rectangular
prisms, terminated usually by four-sided pyramids. &It is
translucent and white coloured ; its specific gravity 1’543
At the temperature of 59° it is soluble in live times its*
weight of water, and in two and a half times its weight
of boiling water. By itself it is insoluble in alcohol; but
the addition of a little sulphuric acid renders it soluble in
that liquid. When heated it emits the odour of caramel,
and when burnt exhibits the same phenomena as com¬
mon sugar does. When distilled it yields similar pro¬
ducts with common sugar. It dissolves in muriatic and
acetic acids.
Like common sugar, it appears to possess acid qualities
or at least to be capable of combining in definite propor¬
tions with bases. Thus, with oxide of lead it unites in
two proportions. The neutral compound appears to con¬
sist of
Sugar of milk  3.35
Oxide of lead 14
499
22-25
rri • -i , „ , ttooumt; me consi:
There is another compound of these bodies, containing excellent cheese,
four times tne quantity of sup-ot nf mill- •
but by no means so abundant as on human milk. This Organic
cream by long agitation yields a butter, which is always Bodies
soft, white, and tasteless, and, what is singular, very rea- ' 
dily mixes again with the butter-milk; but it may be
again separated by agitation, while the vessel which
contains it is plunged in cold water. Skimmed ass’s
milk is thin, and has an agreeable sweetish taste. Alco¬
hol and acids separate from it a little curd, which has but
a small degree of consistence. The serum yields sugar of
milk and chloride of calcium.
Goat’s milk, if we except its consistence, which is greater, Goaf'
does not differ much from cow’s milk. Like that milk, it milk,
throws up abundance of cream, from which butter is easily
obtained. The skimmed milk coagulates just as cow’s
milk, and yields a greater quantity of curd. Its whey
contains sugar of milk, chloride of calcium, and common
salt.
Ewe's milk resembles very closely that of the cow. Its Ewe’s
cream is rather more abundant, and yields a butter which milk,
has Jess consistency than that from cow’s milk. Its curd
has a fat and viscid appearance, and is not easily made to
assume the consistence of that from cow’s milk. It makes
. .  VyWi.il/t4, 111 Hit/
four times tne quantity of sugar of milk, united to the
same quantity of protoxide of lead. We may therefore
consider it as a quater-saccholactate, composed of
4 atoms sugar of milk 33
1 atom oxide of lead 14
rri 47
The crystals of sugar of milk, according to the experi¬
ments of Berzelius, are composed of
1 -atom sugar of milk 8-25
1 atom water 1-125
9-375
Mare's milk is thinner than that of the cow, but scarce-mw,
iy so thin as human milk. Its cream cannot be converted milk
into butter by agitation. The skimmed milk coagulates
precisely as cow s milk, but the curd is not so abundant.
I he serum contains sugar of milk, sulphate of lime, and
chloride of calcium.
CHAP. VIII.—of URINE.
Healthy urine is a transparent liquid, of a light amber cjiarac_
colour, and an aromatic odour resembling that of violets, ters.
Its specific gravity varies a great deal, but most commonly
it is between T015 and 1-020. Hysterical urine is some-
Lussac and Thenard, Prout, and Berthollet. All the ana¬
lyses coincide to show that the crystals, or hydrated sugar
of milk, are composed of
5 atoms carbon 3.75
5 atoms hydrogen 0-625
5 atoms oxygen 5
9-375
high as 1-048. When it cools the aromatic smell leaves
it, and is succeeded by another, well known under the
name ot urinous. This smell gradually disappears, and a
fetid ammoniacal odour replaces it.
Urine reddens delicate vegetable blues, and therefore
contains a disengaged or imperfectly saturated acid. This
acid wms at first considered as the phosphoric. Berzelius
endeavoured to show that it was the lactic. Ur Prout has
rnno^.,^+1 • *1 , , cnueavoureu 10 snow mat it was tiie lactic. Ur Prout has
must be 7’ m 116 anhydrous state’ the constituents shown that urate of ammonia reddens vegetable blues, and
5 atoms carbon 3.75
4 atoms hydrogen 0-5
4 atoms oxygen 4
8-25
that uric acid is so insoluble in w-ater, that the quantity
of it in urine could not exist in solution unless it w-ere
united with something which increased its solubility.
Hence he infers that urine contains urate of ammonia,
dan that this salt produces the observed change on vege¬
table blues. &
When ammonia is dropt into recent urine, a very minute
5 ;ik
has a mucn sweeter taste than cow s milk. rv mm ammonia is uropt mio recent urine, a very minute
mnr! nK f rf a.cre.a!11 collects on its surface, which is quantity of phosphate of lime falls down in the state of a
cn < and whiter coloured than the cream of white sediment. Now phosphate of lime being insoluble
and ;a vail ,ille1miIkPfPnycd of cream is much thinner, in water, but biphosphate being slightly soluble in that
It pfmn‘f i61 a W leiy W1ith, a b, U1S1'whlte colour than milk- Ii(luid> the probability is, that in urine” it exists in the
cnnSno1 bG VoaSulated by the ordinary methods; yet it state of biphosphate. Now, as biphosphate of lime red-
snrfnno ,-fSeT’ r wben, boded a pellicle collects on the dens vegetable blues, this salt doubtless contributes to the
Nn h * 6 ,at f°rms when the milk of the cow is boiled, effect which urine has on litmus or red cabbage.
What1 01 Can be procured from human milk by churning. If healthy urine be left standing for some time in cylin-
hiimanSePmat^ff r^St is ratber casein than butter. Thus drical glass vessels, small four-sided rectangular prisms
less • k, 1 . rs . om tbat. °f tbe cow by containing are found deposited in small numbers on the sides of the
cnmhf186!111’ • 1 iltS °lly- constituent being so intimately vessel. These consist of ammonia-phosphate of magnesia,
bv acrW Wlt l 1? casein ^at they cannot be separated From this it would appear that urine contains a small
of s &1 a f11’ and by containing rather a greater quantity quantity of biphosphate of magnesia.
‘ . If urine be aciduUted with nitric acid, to prevent the
has n , ^llas a great resemblance to human milk. It precipitation of the phosphates of lime and magnesia, and
left at ^ c Same c.tdour’ smell, and consistence. When a quantity of chloride of barium be introduced into it, a
rest for some time a cream forms on the surface, precipitate of sulphate of barytes falls down. Hence it
500
CHEMISTRY.
Organic appears that urine contains sulphuric acid. This acid is
Bodies, partly combined with potash and partly with soda.
When healthy urine is allowed to cool, small red needles
make their appearance in it, sometimes swimming on the
surface of the liquid, and sometimes deposited upon the
vessel containing it. These needles consist ot uric acid,
coloured by being united with the colouring matter of
urine.
If we concentrate healthy urine by a low heat, and then
mix it with some nitric acid, and set it aside for twenty-
four hours, a number of brown-coloured plates are depo¬
sited, having a silky lustre. These consist of urea com¬
bined with nitric acid. They may be deprived of their
colouring matter by dissolving them in water and agitat¬
ing them with ivory-black.1 If we now add as much pot¬
ash as will just saturate the nitric acid, nitre will be form¬
ed and deposited, and the urea will dissolve in the water.
By evaporating the solution, the urea is deposited in beau¬
tiful white plates or prisms.
Besides these constituents, urine contains common salt,
phosphate of soda, and phosphate of ammonia. When
the liquid is sufficiently concentrated, these two last salts
unite together and form a double salt, ammonia-phosphate
of soda. This salt, when first extracted from urine, drew
much attention, and was known by the name of microcos-
mic salt.
Urine is said also to contain a small quantity of sal am¬
moniac. Urine is sometimes precipitated by infusion of
nutgalls, and therefore must contain albumen. But this
usually happens only in the urine of dropsical patients.
When such urine is in the first place mixed with acetic
acid, it gives a copious white precipitate with prussiate of
potash.
The following table exhibits the constituents of 1000
parts of healthy urine, according to the analysis of Berze¬
lius.
Water 933-00
Urea    30-10
Sulphate of potash  3-71
Sulphate of soda  3-16
Phosphate of soda  2-94
Common salt  4-45
Phosphate of ammonia  1*65
Sal ammoniac  1*50
Free lactic acid T
Lactate of ammonia f 17*14
Animal matter soluble in alcohol f
Urea mixed with ditto 3
Earthy phosphates  1*00
Uric acid  1*00
Mucus of the bladder  0-32
Silica  0-03
urea and colouring matter of urine, but leaves the nitre. Org
Evaporate the alcoholic solution to dryness, dissolve the Bcdi
residue in water, and agitate the solution in a phial with
some good ivory-black. The ivory black separates the
colouring matter, and the liquid alter filtration is a pure
colourless solution of urea. By careful evaporation it is
deposited in beautiful white and semi-transparent four¬
sided prisms.
Urea has little or no smell. Its taste is strong and acrid,Proper
resembling that of the ammoniacal salts. W hen exposed
to the air it'attracts moisture, and is converted into a thick
liquid. It is exceedingly soluble in water, and during its
solution considerable cold is produced. Alcohol dissolves
it with facility, and the alcoholic solution yields crystals
much more easily than the aqueous.
When nitric acid is dropt into a concentrated solution
of urea, a great number of pearl-coloured crystals are de¬
posited. Oxalic acid produces the same effect, but no
other acid tried. The infusion of nutgalls gives the aque¬
ous solution of urea a yellowish-brown colour, but causes
no precipitate.
When heat is applied to urea, it melts, swells up, and
evaporates. When distilled, much carbonate of ammo¬
nia is obtained, together with some hydrocyanic acid.
Many curious mutual conversions of urea and cyanogen
into each other have been lately observed by Wohler, Se-
rullas, &c.
Considerable pains have been taken to determine the
constituents of urea, by distilling it at a red heat when
mixed with oxide of copper. The following table exhibits Comp®
the results obtained:
Constitu
ents.
tion.
Front.
Carbon 19-975.
Berard.
...18-9..
Frevost and
Dumas.
....18-23
Hydrogen  6-650  9-7  9-89
Azote 46*650 45-2 42-23
Oxygen  26-650 26-2 29-65
99-925 100-0 100-00
Dr Prout dried his urea, before analysis, in vacuo over
sulphuric acid, at a temperature of 200°. If we consider
his result as approaching nearest to the truth, we obtain
the following as the atomic proportions of which urea is
composed:
1 atom carbon 0-75
2 atoms hydrogen 0-25
1 atom azote I‘f5
1 atom oxygen 1*00
3-75
1000-00
Of Urea.
How ob¬
tained.
Hence 3-75, or some multiple of that number, is the ato¬
mic weight of this substance. It is easy to see, from this
constitution, how, when it is decomposed by destructive
distillation, hydrocyanic acid, carbonic acid, and ammonia,
may be formed from it.
Urea is doubtless one of the most important of the con-
Urea may be obtained from healthy urine by the fol- stituents of urine, and to the changes to which it is liab e
lowing process. Evaporate the urine to one fourth of its many of the derangements to which the urinary system is
bulk, and mix it with about one third of its wTeight of liable may be ascribed. The quantity of it in mine is
nitric acid of the specific gravity 1-4, and set it aside for much greater than that of any of the other consti uen
twenty-four hours. Many silky plates of nitrate of urea iU ' ^'r'" ^ tV>Q ”'Qfo’* p s a no
are deposited. Dry them on blotting paper, dissolve them
in water, and add as much potash as is requisite to satu¬
rate the nitric acid which they contain. Concentrate the
solution, and set it aside. Crystals of saltpetre are depo¬
sited. Separate these crystals, concentrate the residual
liquid, and digest it in alcohol. The alcohol dissolves the
of urine, with the exception of the water. We shall now
notice some of the most remarkable alterations to which
urine is subject. ^ .
1. Diabetes.—Diabetes is a disease fortunately of rare
occurrence, but still so frequent that every medical man
in tolerable practice is pretty sure of meeting with more
than one case of it. It is attended with a dry skin, a
1 Care must be taken that the ivory.black contains no carbonate of lime, otherwise the nitrate of urea will be decomposed.
CHEMISTRY.
<1 nic
.es.
Sug of
diaUs.
ravenous appotite? and tlie passing oF an enormous cjuan-
of sweet-tasted urine. It is always li^lit coloured
' and of high specific gravity, sometimes as high as 1-050,
and never lower than 1-02, or rather 1-025. It contains
urea, uric acid, and all the usual contents of urine, but in
smaller quantity than usual, on account of the enormous
quantity of urine discharged, amounting sometimes to
twenty-four, or even thirty English pints, in twenty-four
hours. Yet the absolute quantity of these constituents
thrown out of the system in the course of a day is proba¬
bly as great as during health. The characteristics of dia¬
betic urine are the enormous quantity and the sweet taste.
This sweet taste is owing to the presence of a quantity
of sugar, which depends upon the specific gravity of the
urine. Sometimes it amounts to as much as thirty ounces
in twenty-four hours. This enormous discharge of sugar
accounts for the great appetite, the prostration of strength,
and the wasting of the system, which accompany this
disease.
Whether diabetic sugar belongs always to the same spe¬
cies seems doubtful. The writer of this article met with
a case of diabetes some years ago, in which the sugar was
of such a nature, that when the urine was concentrated by
a gentle heat, and then set aside, beautiful crystals of the
sugar were gradually deposited. These crystals were
perfectly white, and in regular four-sided prisms slightly
oblique. They were not altered by exposure to the air.
When the urine containing these crystals was raised to
too high a temperature, the sugar still retained its sweet
taste; but it could no longer be crystallized.
In general diabetic urine does not yield sugar in regu¬
lar crystals. When the urine is cautiously evaporated and
set aside, the sugar is deposited in small irregular grains,
mixed with the usual constituents of urine. If we dry
this sugar between folds of blotting paper, and then digest
it repeatedly in cold alcohol as long as the liquid con¬
tinues to acquire any colour, and finally dissolve it in wa¬
ter and crystallize it again, we obtain the sugar in small
sphericles of a white colour, and composed of a congeries
of needles radiating from a centre. It resembles sugar
of grapes in its appearance, and Chevreul affirms that
it possesses all the characters of that sugar. If this be
true, it cannot be doubted that the diabetic sugar which
formed regular crystals constitutes a different species. It
has been ascertained that diabetic sugar possesses the
capability of undergoing the vinous fermentation, and pro¬
ducing spirits precisely like common sugar and sugar of
grapes.
2. Dropsy.—In cases of dropsy the urine is often load¬
ed with the serum of the blood. It often coagulates when
heated, or at any rate when mixed with an acid.
In jaundice the urine has an orange-yellow colour, and
communicates the same tint to linen. Muriatic acid ren¬
ders such urine green, and thus detects the presence of
picromel.
In inflammatory diseases the urine is scanty, high co¬
loured, and acrid. It deposits no sediment on standing,
but is copiously precipitated by corrosive sublimate. About
the end of inflammatory diseases the urine becomes co¬
pious, and deposits a pink-coloured sediment.
In hysteria the urine is usually limpid and colourless,
t is deficient in urea, but contains a considerable quanti¬
ty of the phosphates.
Blue urine, black urine, and white urine, have been oc¬
casionally observed.
3. Deposits from Urine.—The urine being a liquid se-
Cfe*h ^otn the blood for the purpose of being thrown out
°. i body, and the intention of the secretion being ob¬
viously to keep the blood as nearly as possible in the same
s a!e, it is clear that it will undergo an alteration when-
501
Organic
Bodies.
ever the digestive organs are deranged. That this is the
case every person must perceive who pays any attention
to the secretion. In cases of perfect health the urine de-
posits no sediment. But when the digestive organs have
been deranged by excess either in drink or food, the urine,
though limpid when first voided, speedily becomes turbid’
and deposits a copious sediment. These derangements
are m general but momentary, and, unless the cause be
peisisted in,, do not lead to any material injury to the sys¬
tem. But in cases of habitual intemperance, and also
from other causes that cannot be always appreciated, the
nature of the urine sometimes becomes permanently al¬
tered. In such cases solid matter is deposited in the kid¬
ney (or sometimes in the bladder), which, increasing in
size, becomes a calculus, and gives origin to one of the
most deplorable diseases to which mankind is liable.
When the urine becomes acid, uric acid is precipitated.
I his gives occasion to the formation of uric acid calculi,
the most common species of these concretions. When the
urine becomes alkaline, the quantity of earthy phosphates
in it speedily increases. Hence phosphate of lime, and
sometimes phosphate of magnesia, are apt to be deposited.
I his gives occasion to two other species of calculi, those
composed of phosphate of lime, and those composed of a
mixture of phosphate of lime and phosphate of magnesia,
or of triple phosphate as it is usually termed.
There occur two other species of calculi, the origin of Uric acid
which it is not so easy to explain. One of these is oxalate calculi,
of lime, or mulberry calculus as it is termed in conse¬
quence of some resemblance which such calculi have to a
mulberry. The other, which is very uncommon, is known
by the name of cystic oxide.
Uric acid calculi have usually a brown colour, and are
sometimes smooth and polished on the surface, but much
more frequently covered with little tubercles. They are
composed of concentric coats indicating the period of their
formation. When in powder it dissolves easily in the fix¬
ed alkaline leys, from which it is precipitated in white
powder by all the acids. It is insoluble in water.
Sometimes the uric acid is combined with ammonia, con¬
stituting urate of ammonia calculi. They have a good deal
of the appearance of clay. They are rather uncommon ;
generally exist only in the urinary bladder of very young
persons, and are productive of a very great degree of irri¬
tation.
Phosphate of lime calculi have a pale-brown colour, Phosphate
sometimes almost white, and their surface is so smooth asof limecal-
to appear polished. They are composed of very regular cuh‘
concentric laminae, rather thicker than those of uric acid
calculi, and adhering to each other so slightly as to sepa¬
rate with ease from each other. When in powder this
calculus dissolves easily, without effervescence, in nitric
or muriatic acid. Before the blowpipe it may be fused,
though an intense heat is necessary. The constitution of
the phosphate of lime in calculi is different from that
of apatite or native phosphate ; the former being compos¬
ed of an atom of acid and an atom of lime, while the lat¬
ter consists of an atom of acid united to an atom and a
half of lime.
Calculi composed of the triple phosphates are white, Triple
and resemble chalk. Sometimes they are smooth, and phosphate
have a kind of silky lustre, and appear evidently composedcalculi-
of small prismatic crystals. These calculi are mixtures of
two different salts, which occur in unequal quantities in dif¬
ferent calculi. 1. Ammonia-phosphate of magnesia, a taste¬
less insoluble white matter, which is frequently crystal¬
lized in small prisms. 2. Phosphate of lime. These two
salts are sometimes mixed with uric acid. The first two
salts, when mixed in the requisite proportion, have the pro¬
perty of fusing before the blowpipe; hence the chalky
502
C I I E M I S T R Y.
Organic calculus is often distinguished by the name of fusible cal-
Bodies. culus. In some rare cases calculi occur composed very
nearly of ammonia-phosphate of magnesia, or at least con¬
taining a much greater proportion of that salt than of
phosphate of lime.
When acetic acid is poured upon fusible calculus pre¬
viously reduced to powder, the ammonia-phosphate ot mag¬
nesia is dissolved, and may be' again thrown down unal¬
tered from the filtered solution by the addition of carbo¬
nate of ammonia. Muriatic acid will dissolve the phos¬
phate of lime, which escaped the action of the acetic acid;
and it may be thrown down unaltered by caustic ammonia.
Should the calculus contain also any uric acid, it will re¬
main undissolved after the action of the acids, but may be
readily dissolved by potash ley, and afterwards thrown
down by acetic acid.
Mulberry The mulberry calculus consists of oxalate of lime mix-
calculi. ed with a little phosphate of lime and some uric acid. It
is a hard calculus, commonly of a dark-brown colour, as if
tinned with blood, and having an irregular and tubercu-
lated structure. These calculi are seldom of a large size,
or when they are, the nucleus alone consists of oxalate of
lime, while the outer portion is sometimes uric acid, but
more frequently fusible calculus.
Sometimes oxalate of lime calculi are remarkably smooth
and pale coloured. They are then known by the name of
hemp seed calculi, and would appear to have their origin
in the kidneys.
Cvstic Cystic oxide calculi are very rare, not above ten or
oxide cal- twelve having been hitherto observed. They are small
culi. and oval shaped, have a light-yellow colour, are tianslu-
cent, and not composed of concentric laminae like the
other calculi. They have a peculiar glistening lustre, like
that of a body having a high refractive densitj^. Before
the blowpipe this calculus gives out a peculiarly fetid
smell, quite different from that given out by uric acid, and
not resembling prussic acid.
It dissolves, and combines equally with acids and alka¬
lies, and crystallizes with both. It is precipitated from ni¬
tric acid by alcohol. It does not become red when treated
with nitric acid. It produces no change on vegetable
blues. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether. When
distilled it yields carbonate of ammonia and a heavy fetid
oil, and leaves a very small, black, spongy coal, consisting
chiefly of phosphate of lime. It has been subjected to a
chemical analysis by Dr Prout, who found it composed of
Carbon...., 29-875
Hydrogen  5-125
Azote.. 11-850
Oxygen 53-150
100-000
This is equivalent to
6 atoms carbon 4-5^
6 atoms hydrogen 0-75
1 atom azote T75
8 atoms oxygen 8*00
15
Hence the atomic weight is fifteen, or a multiple of that
number.
Vlternat- It is a very common thing for a calculus, when of con-
i calculi, siderable size, to be composed of various substances alter¬
nating in layers. In such cases uric acid pretty frequent¬
ly constitutes the nucleus, sometimes oxalate of lime,
and sometimes phosphate of lime. Very few calculi occur
having a nucleus of fusible calculus; but this matter is a
very frequent portion of large calculi, and generally con¬
stitutes the outermost layer. It is remarkable, that when
the constitution of calculous patients is broken up by dis¬
ease, the urine usually becomes alkaline, and great quan- Orgajl
tides of triple phosphate, or of fusible phosphate, are de- Eodij
posited ; hence when calculi are extracted from the blad-
ders of such persons after death, the outermost layer is
very frequently a deposit of the chalky matter which con¬
stitutes the substance of fusible calculus.
CHAP. IX. OF THE SKIN.
The skin is a strong thick covering which envelopes the
whole external surface of animals. It consists always of
two layers, namely, the epidermis or scarf-skin, which is on
the outside, and destitute of feeling, and when any portion
of it is rubbed off it is soon replaced; and the cutis, or true
skin, which is much thicker, and composed of a great many
fibres closely interwoven and disposed in different direc¬
tions. Anatomists mention a third substance placed be¬
tween the cuticle and the cutis, to which they have given
the name of rete mucosum.
The epidermis is easily separated from the cutis by ma¬
ceration in hot water. It possesses considerable elasticity.
It is insoluble in water and alcohol. The fixed alkalies
dissolve it completely; as does lime also, though slowly.
Sulphuric and muriatic acids act upon it very slowly, but
nitric acid makes it yellow immediately, deprives it of its
elasticity, and makes it fall to pieces. It consists chiefly
of coagulated or indurated albumen. The following table
exhibits the constituents of the epidermis of the foot, as
determined by John.
Indurated albumen 93 to 95
Mucus, with a trace of animal matter 5
Lactic acid 
Lactate of potash 
Phosphate of potash....
Muriate of potash   \
Sulphate of lime 
Ammoniacal salt 
Phosphate of lime 
Manganese ? and iron . _
Soft fat 
The cutis or true skin is a thick, dense membrane, com¬
posed of interwoven fibres. When sufficiently maceiated
in cold water, most of the foreign matter, such as blood,
mucus, &c. with which it is contaminated, is separated.
When thus purified, it dissolves in concentrated alkaline
leys. Weak acids soften it, render it transparent, and at
last dissolve it. When digested in nitric acid it is partia y
converted into oxalic acid, while azotic gas is disengaged.
Hydrocyanic acid is given out at the same time. When
heated it contracts, and then swells, exhales a fetid odour,
and after burning leaves a dense charcoal difficult to inci¬
nerate. WTien long boiled in water it dissolves, and is
converted into gelatine or glue.
Of Gelatine.
When the solution of the skins of animals in water isChara<
sufficiently concentrated, it is converted, on cooling, into
a transparent jelly. WThen this jelly is dried it ec0™e
hard, semitransparent, and breaks with a glassy fractu •
WThen pure it is white ; but glue, from overheating, has a -
most always a yellow colour. Its taste is insipi , ant
has no smell. , , . i „
W hen thrown into water it swells very much, but a
not dissolve; yet it is converted into the same '
rent tremulous jelly from which it was originally harden
ed. When heat is applied it melts, and becomes wha
common language is known by the name o g ue, ^ ,
common use for fastening pieces of wood to eac j
A very small quantity of dry gelatine converts a co ^
able quantity of water into a jelly. Onepartofgelati
CHEMISTRY.
F.tlC
BIS.
Comp ‘
tion,
isinglass dissolved in a hundred parts of hot water totally
gelatinizes on cooling.
Gelatine, while dry5> may be kept for any length of
time without undergoing alteration; but when dissolv¬
ed in water, or in the gelatinous state, it very soon pu¬
trefies.
When dry gelatine is exposed to heat it whitens, curls
up like horn, then blackens, and is gradually consumed to
a coal. It is by no means very combustible. When dis¬
tilled in a retort it gives out combustible gases, while car¬
bonate of ammonia sublimes, and there pass over into the
receiver a light-brown watery liquid, and a dark-colour¬
ed oily matter of the consistence of tar. There remains
in the retort a shining charcoal, of very difficult incinera¬
tion.
Acids dissolve gelatine with facility, even when diluted,
especially if they be assisted by heat; nor do they seem
to decompose or alter it, provided they be dilute. From
this we must except nitric acid, which occasions the evo¬
lution of azotic gas and deutoxide of azote. A quantity
of oxalic and of malic acids is formed, and an oily matter
appears on the surface of the liquid.
Muriatic acid dissolves gelatine with great ease. The
solution has a brown colour, and always continues strong¬
ly acid, though it has dissolved as much gelatine as it can
take up.
When a current of chlorine gas is passed through an
aqueous solution of gelatine, a white solid matter collects
on the surface, and whitish filaments swim through the
liquid.
Alkalies dissolve gelatine with facility, especially when
assisted by heat, but the solution does not possess the pro¬
perties of soap.
It is insoluble in alcohol (unless when very dilute),
ether, fixed and volatile oils. When a solution of tannin
is dropt into an aqueous solution of gelatine, a copious
white precipitate falls, which gradually forms an elastic
adhesive mass, not unlike vegetable gluten. This pre¬
cipitate is a compound of gelatine and tannin. It soon
dries in the open air, and forms a brittle resinous-like sub¬
stance, insoluble in water, capable of resisting many che¬
mical re-agents, and not susceptible of putrefaction. It
resembles oyer-tanned leather. Leather is a combina¬
tion of tannin and gelatine, or rather of tannin and the
skin of animals. When gelatine is in the gelatinous state,
it does not combine with or precipitate tannin. The tan-
nate of gelatine is soluble in an aqueous solution of ge¬
latine.
Tannin, or the infusion of nutgalls, is one of the most
delicate tests for gelatine. It is not, however, free from
ambiguity, because albumen is precipitated by tannin as
well as gelatine. The same remark applies likewise to
fibrin and the colouring matter of blood, which indeed
might almost be considered as varieties of albumen. But
if a liquid which is not precipitated by a solution of cor-
josive sublimate be precipitated by tannin, we may then
be certain that it contains gelatine.
The other characteristic property of gelatine is its as¬
suming the gelatinous form when a sufficiently concen-
tiated aqueous solution of it is allowed to cool.
Gelatine has been subjected to a chemical analysis by
ay-Lussac and Ihenard, who found its constituents as
tollows:
Carbon 47-881
Hydrogen 7.914
Azote  16-998
Oxygen 27-207
503
T, 100-000
lese ambers approach considerably to
7 atoms carbon 5-25
7 atoms hydrogen 0-875
1 atom azote 1-75
3 atoms oxygen 3-00
Organic
Bodies.
10-875
Hence 10-875, or a multiple of it, is probably the atomic
weight of gelatine.
CHAP. X.—OF THE MUSCLES.
The muscular parts of animals are known in common
language by the name offlesh. They constitute the parts
by the contractions of which living beings are put in mo¬
tion.
Muscular flesh is composed of a great number of fibres
or threads, commonly of a reddish or whitish colour. When
these fibres are freed as much as possible from the blood¬
vessels, nerves, blood, fat, and other foreign matter with
which they are mixed, they consist chiefly of fibrin. The
following table exhibits the result of an analysis of a por¬
tion of muscle thus purified by Berzelius.
1. Solid Matters.
Fibrin, vessels, and nerves 15-8
Cellular matter dissolved by boiling  1-9
17-7
2. Liquid Bodies.
Muriate and lactate of soda  1-80
Albumen and colouring matter of blood... 2-20
Phosphate of soda  0-90
Extract  0-15
Albumen, with phosphate of lime  0-08
Water and loss 77-17
82-3
100
Considerable variety occurs in the appearance, and even
the chemical properties, of the muscles of different ani¬
mals ; but hitherto the subject has been very imperfectly
investigated.
Of Ozmazome.
Ozmazome, so called from its smell, and the mode of
obtaining it, is intimately connected with the muscles of
animals, and is probably nothing else than fibrin altered
in its nature by the heat applied. It may be obtained by
the following process:
Divide the muscle of beef into small fragments, and Prepara-
leave it in contact with twice or thrice its weight of cold tion.
water for an hour or two, taking care to squeeze it occa¬
sionally. Decant off the first portion of water, and add
an additional portion. Repeat the digestion a third time.
These portions of water dissolve the salts, the albumen,
and the ozmazome. Mix them all together, and evapo¬
rate them in a porcelain vessel till the whole albumen has
coagulated and separated. Then filter the liquid, which
will be reduced to a small quantity, and be of a deep co¬
lour. Evaporate it in a verjr gentle heat to the consist¬
ency of a syrup, and digest it in alcohol. The ozmazome
will be dissolved, while the salts will be left behind. If
we evaporate off the alcohol, the ozmazome will remain
behind in a state of tolerable purity.
Its colour is brownish yellow, and it has the taste and Charac-
smell of broth, or rather of beef-tea. It is soluble bothters-
in water and in alcohol. When the aqueous solution
is heated, the ozmazome does not coagulate; nor does
504
CHEMISTRY.
Organic it gelatinize when the hot concentrated solution is al-
Bodies, lowed to cool. When the water is driven off the ozma-
zome remains unchanged in the state of a brown-coloured
matter. . .
The aqueous solution of ozmazome is precipitated by-
infusion of nutgalls, nitrate of mercury, and acetate and
nitrate of lead. When ozmazome is heated, it melts,
swells, and is decomposed, giving out carbonate of ammo¬
nia, and leaving a bulky charcoal, which contains some
carbonate of soda.
A substance very similar to ozmazome is obtained when
the muscles of animals are decomposed by the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid. It is reddish, and tastes
weakly bitter, like over-roasted meat. It is very soluble
in water and alcohol, and is slightly precipitated by acetate
of lead and infusion of nutgalls.
CHAP. XI.~OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
The brain is well known to be the organ of sensation,
and even of motion; for it communicates with every part
of the body which has any function to perform by means
of the nerves; and when the nerve leading to any part is
surrounded with a ligature, that part loses its sensibility,
and the power of performing its proper functions, till the
ligature be withdrawn.
The brain consists of two substances, which differ from
each other somewhat in colour, but which in other re¬
spects seem to be of the same nature. The outermost of
these, from some small resemblance which it has to the
colour of wood ashes, is called the cineritious part; while
the innermost part is called the medullary part. Brain
has a soft feel, not unlike soap. Its texture appears to be
very close; its specific gravity is greater than that of wa¬
ter. When the contact of air is prevented, brain remains
a very long time without undergoing putrefaction; but
Water   80-00
White fatty matter  4-53
Reddish fatty matter    0-70
Albumen  ^‘OO
Ozmazome  1*12
Phosphorus  1*50
Acids, salts, and sulphur  5-15
100-00
Dr John extracted the following substances from the
brain of a calf:
Water 75 to 80
Peculiar albumen of brain 10
Ozmazome 
Fat 
Sulphur, trace   
Phosphates of lime, soda, iron... i ^ jq
Common, salt 
Sulphate of soda? 
Phosphate of magnesia? 
Ammoniacal salt.... 
CHAP. XII. OF BONES.
Properties.
The bones are the most solid parts of animals. Their
texture is sometimes compact, at other times cellular and
porous, according to the situation of the bone. They are
white, of a lamellar texture, and not flexible or softened by
heat. Their specific gravity differs in different parts; that
of adults’ teeth is 2-2727 ; that of children’s teeth 2-0833.
Bone consists essentially of two different substances,
namely, a cartilaginous part, which has the shape and size
of the bone, but is soft and elastic. When dried it be¬
comes translucent, and of the consistence of horn; but by
steeping it in water it becomes again soft and elastic, as
at first. This substance may be obtained by digesting
v i iuii” tunc .t.icui.  , fresh bones in dilute muriatic or acetic acid. The earthy
wheVthe free admission of air is allowed^ it putrefies with part of the bone is dissolved, and the cartilage remains
o-reat rapidity. behind. When cartilage is boiled m water, it gradually
^ It is insoluble in water ; but when triturated with that dissolves, and the solution, when sufficiently concentiated,
liquid in a mortar, it forms a whitish-coloured emulsion, gelatinizes on cooling; hence it would appear that car-
which appears homogeneous, may be passed through a fil- tilage approaches very closely to the nature of
ter, anddoes not allow the matter of brain to precipitate D Arcet has lately proposed this method of treating bones
when left at rest. When this emulsion is heated to 145°, as an excellent one for converting their substance m o a
a white coagulum is formed. The addition of a great nutritive soup. He separates the earthy matter by dilute
quantity of water likewise causes a coagulum to appear, muriatic acid, and then dissolves the cartilage into a soup,
which floats on the surface ; but the water still retains a which, when properly seasoned, is said to be both palat-
milky colour. Sulphuric and nitric acids, when dropt into able and nutritive.
the emulsion, occasion a white coagulum to separate. The The other constituent of bones is the e y 0
same effect is produced by alcohol. This coagulum pos- which they contain, and to which they owe their solidity^.
sesses properties very similar to those of albumen, of which and strength, llus earthy matter consists o ..
properties very
it is probably merely a modification. When dried it be'
comes translucent, and breaks with a vitreous fracture.
When nitric acid is digested on brain, ammonia and
oxalic acid are formed. When brain is kept for a sufficient
length of time exposed to the heat of a vapour-bath, a
quantity of water is driven off, and there remains a brown-
coloured matter, weighing from a fourth to a fifth of the
original quantity of brain employed. Alcohol being re¬
peatedly boiled upon this residuum, dissolves about five
eighths of the whole. When the alcoholic solution cools,
it deposits a yellowish-white substance, composed of bril¬
liant plates. When this matter is kneaded between the
fingers, it assumes the appearance of a ductile paste, which
at 212° becomes soft, and, when the heat is still farther in¬
creased, blackens, exhales empyreumatic and ammoniacal
fumes, and leaves behind it a charry matter. Pure concen¬
trated potash ley dissolves brain, disengaging a great quan¬
tity of ammonia.
Brain, according to the analysis of Vauquelin, is com¬
posed as follows:
ent salts, namely, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime,
and phosphate of magnesia. Berzelius found the consti¬
tuents of ox bones as follows :
Cartilage 33-30
Phosphate of lime 55-35
Fluateoflime  3-00
Carbonate of lime  3-85
Phosphate of magnesia....*..  2-05
Soda, with some common salt..... 2-45
100-00
The constituents of human bones were found by the
same chemist as follows :
Cartilage 33-30.
Soda and common salt  1-20.
Carbonate of lime 11*30.
Phosphate of lime 51-04.
Fluateoflime  2-00.
Phosphate of magnesia   TIfl-
100-00 ioo-oo
CHEMISTR Y.
Horns, nails, hoofs, and scales, are somewhat analogous
to the cartilage of bones; and, like it, by boiling in water,
may at least in part be converted into jelly. &
The membranes, both serous and mucous, and also the
tendons, seem to approach the cutis in their nature. Li¬
gaments are of a much stronger nature; but it is said that
by long boiling they also may be converted into glue.
Bones are liable to caries. In such diseases the phos¬
phate of lime seems to be diminished, as appears from the
following analysis of a carious bone by Lassaigne:
Animal matter  40-5
Carbonate of lime 21*5
Phosphate of lime 38-0
Cochenilin  
Jelly   "!l0-5
Waxy fat  100
Gelatinous mucus 14*0
Shining matter 14.0
Alkaline phosphate 
Alkaline muriate 
Phosphates of lime, iron, and ammonia \
505
Organic
Bodies.
1-5
100-0
100-0
We have now given an account of all the animal sub¬
stances which can be introduced into this article, without
anticipating what will require to be stated under Physio¬
logy. 1o that aiticle we must refer those readers who
wish for an account of those animal functions which ad¬
mit of being elucidated by the application of chemical
principles. There are, however, two animal substances
upon which we have not yet touched, though they are of
too much consequence to be omitted. These, namely,
cantharidin and cochenilin, will constitute the subject of
the two following chapters.
CHAP. XIII. OF CANTHARIDIN'.
By this name the substance in cantharides, or Spanish
flies (tneloe vesicatoTius'), which occasions a blister when
applied to the skin, is distinguished. It may be obtained
by the following process :
Boil cantharides in water till every thing soluble in that
liquor be taken up. Concentrate the solution by evapora¬
tion, and when reduced to a thick syrup, boil it repeated¬
ly in alcohol till that liquid ceases to act upon it. Eva¬
porate the alcoholic solution gently to dryness, put the dry
residue into a phial with sulphuric ether, and agitate the
mixture for a considerable time. At first the ether will
seem to have no effect on it; but after some hours it as¬
sumes a yellow colour. Decant it off, and allow it to eva¬
porate spontaneously in the open air. It deposits small
crystalline plates, mixed with a yellow matter. Alcohol
takes up the yellow matter, but leaves the crystalline
plates. These plates, when dried between folds of blot¬
ting paper, constitute cantharidin in a state of purity.
\ 11 has considerable lustre; it is insoluble in water and
in cold alcohol. Boiling alcohol dissolves it, but lets it
a again in crystals as the solution cools. Ether dissolves
iVL Ut no^ very powerfully. Oils dissolve it readily.
When applied to the skin it acts powerfully as a vesica¬
tory. I he solution of it in oils is equally efficacious.
CHAP. XIV.—OF COCHENILIN.
This name has been given by Dr John to the colouring
matter of the cocheneal, an insect that inhabits different
species of cactus, and which is propagated in Mexico and
some other countries in order to be employed as a dye¬
stuff. According to him the constituents of the cocheneal
'"sect are as follows;
Cochenilin may be obtained pure by the following pro-prpT1„ .
cess: Digest the insect in alcohol as long as it commu- tion.
mcates a red colour to that liquid. When this solution is
left to spontaneous evaporation, it lets fall a crystalline
matter of a fine red colour. Dissolve these crystals in
strong alcohol, and mix the solution with its own bulk of
sulphuric ether. It becomes muddy, and after an inter¬
val of some days cochenilin is deposited at the bottom of
the vessel in the form of a beautiful purplish-red powder.
Cochenilin has a granular appearance, as if it were com-Properties,
posed of crystals. It is not altered by exposure to the
aii. It melts at 122°. When the heat is increased it is
decomposed, yielding inflammable air, a great deal of oil,
and a little acidulous water, but no traces of ammonia, j
It is very soluble in water, but the solution, though
concentrated to the consistency of a syrup, does not crys¬
tallize. It has a fine carmine colour, and its colouring
powers are very considerable. It is soluble also in alco^
hoi, but the solubility diminishes as the strength of the
alcohol increases. It is insoluble in ether. The weak
acids dissolve it. No acid precipitates it when pure, yet
they all produce a sensible change on the solution. At
first it assumes a lively-red colour, which slowly changes
into yellow. Concentrated sulphuric acid destroys and
chars it.^ Muriatic acid decomposes it without charring
it. Nitric acid acts with still greater rapidity, small needle-
formed crystals being formed, which resemble oxalic acid,
but do not precipitate lime water, even when mixed with
ammonia.
The alkalies give the solution of cochenilin a violet co¬
lour, and gradually alter its nature when the colour be¬
comes yellow. Lime water throws down a violet-coloured
precipitate. Barytes and strontian occasion no precipi¬
tate, but produce a similar change of colour. Alumina
has a strong affinity for cochenilin. WThen newly precipi¬
tated alumina is put into an aqueous solution of cocheni¬
lin, the liquid is deprived of its colour, and the alumina
converted into a beautiful lake.
Acetate of lead throws down a violet-coloured precipi¬
tate from the aqueous solution of cochenilin. Nitrated
suboxide of mercury produces a similar effect. The
chloride of tin produces also a violet-coloured precipitate.
Perehloride renders the solution scarlet, but occasions no
precipitate.
Cochenilin is not precipitated by tannin or infusion of4
nutgalls.
From the experiments of Pelletier and Caventou, it ap¬
pears that cochenilin is composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, and that it contains no azote whatever; but
the atomic proportions of these constituents have not hi¬
therto been determined. (l.)
(Caloric, or Heat, will be treated of under the article Heat.)
3 s
VOL. VI.
506
Chemnitz
R.
Chenier.
CHE
CHEMNITZ, or Ciiemnitius, Martin, a famous Lu¬
theran divine, the disciple of Melancthon, was boin at
Britzen, in Brandenburg, in 1522. He was employed in
several important negotiations by the princes of the Lu¬
theran communion, and he died in April 1589. His prin¬
cipal work is Examen Concilii Tridentini, Frankfort, 1585,
in 4 vols. fob and 4to. This work comprises a course of
theology for the use of the Protestant churches. Another
production of Chemnitz, scarcely less celebrated than his
Examination of the Council of Trent, is his on
Indulgences, which was translated from Latin into I rench,
and printed at Geneva in 1599, 8vo. • ^
Chemnitz, or Schemnilz, a circle in the province of
Hither Danube, in Hungary. It extends round the city
of the same name, which is one of the chief mining dis¬
tricts in the Austrian dominions. I he city, with its sub¬
urbs, which are very extensive, contains 1692 houses,
and 20,240 inhabitants, of whom more than 8000 aie em¬
ployed directly or indirectly in the mines There are
eighteen mines in the circle, which yield gold, silver cop-
pel iron, arsenic, and saltpetre, to the amount of two
hundred thousand pounds. Hie city is elevated 2150 feet
above the level of the sea, in a rocky sod, from which the
river Chemnitz rises. It contains four Catholic churches
and one Lutheran, an institution for mineralogy, and two
gymnasiums for Catholics and Lutherans, with six profes¬
sors and a hundred and forty students. Long. 18. 54. E.
Lac HEM NIT z'r>a ^city in the circle of Erzgebirge, of the
kingdom of Saxony, the chief place of a bailiwick or the
same name. It is situated on a plain elevated about nine
hundred and forty feet above the level of the sea on the
rivers Chemnitz and Gablentz. It contains 12,000 inha¬
bitants, who are industriously employed in various branches
of the cotton, linen, and woollen manufacture ; and in t e
trades of brewers, distillers, hatters, and hosiers. About
a mile from the city is the ancient electoral palace oi the
^ CHEMOSIS, a disease of the eyes, proceeding from in¬
flammation, in which the white of the eyes swel s above
the black, and overtops it to such a degree that there ap¬
pears a sort of gap between them. Others, however, de-
fine it differently* , r* t *
CHENIER, Marie Joseph he, was the son of Louis
Chenier, well known as the author of JteWtes H,s o
riqms mr Us Mm,res, and Revolutions de ^"ipue. Otho-
man. He was born in the year 1/64, at Constantinople,
where his father at that time acted as consul-general of
France. At a very early period of life he entered m
the French army; but he soon relinquished the military
profession, and settled at Paris, where he devoted much
of his time to literary pursuits. He commenced his d.a-
matic career by a tragedy, which was acted in 1 /8o, and
was completely unsuccessful. A few years afterwards,
availing himself of the political feelings of the period, he
produced the tragedy of Charles IX., which was received
with vast applause by the party which predominated at
the time. This was followed by La Mart de Galas, and
the republican tragedies of Gracchus and Timoleon. 1 lese
dramas in a great measure owed their popularity to exist¬
ing circumstances, and the author s talent of addressing
himself to the prevailing feelings of the multitude. His
performances, however, were instrumental in procuring
him a seat in the National Convention, and obtained him
the highest theatrical reputation, till he unfortunately
brought forward a tragedy founded on the accession o
Cyrus to the throne of the Medes, a subject which, as it
gave less scope to political allusion than his former pro¬
ductions, and had been previously treated with greater
ability by other writers, failed more completely even than
CHE
the piece in which he first laid claim to the favour of the Chi - I
public. After this failure Chenier appears to have dis-W,,
trusted his dramatic genius, and chiefly employed himself
in translating or imitating the most celebrated produc¬
tions of the Greek and German stage.
Chenier, however, did not confine himself to dramatic
compositions, but cultivated almost every species of poetry
with tolerable success. His productions are chiefly sati¬
rical, lyric, and political. Being engaged in a variety of
literary as well as political quarrels, and being naturally
of a haughty, irritable temper, he was insensibly led to em¬
ploy his talents for poetry and satire on ah who had pro¬
voked his enmity. His works, of this description, accord¬
ingly, are often misapplied, but are distinguished by con¬
siderable gaiety and energy of composition. His lyric
productions, of which he published a collection in 1797,
consist partly of odes imitated from the Poems of Ossian.
Most of his other poems, as his Poeme sur l'Assemble dts
Notables and Dithyrambe sur TAssemblee Nationale, allude
entirely, as their name imports, to ■the political events of
the day.
Chenier also distinguished himself as a prose writer by
his productions in the Mercure de France, and the dis¬
courses which he prepared for the different academies oi
which he was a member, which discourses chiefly turn on
subjects connected with the progress of knowledge m Eu¬
rope, and the literary history of his own country. In con¬
sequence of a task assigned by Bonaparte to the Institute,
of which Chenier was a member, .he undertook to give a his¬
torical and critical account of the most celebrated produc¬
tions, both in prose and verse, which had enriched trench
literature from the years 1788 to 1808. This sketch was
originally read at one of the sittings of the Institute, and
was afterwards published under the title Tableau Histo-
rique de TEtat et des Progres de la Litterature Fran^am
depuis 1789. This work comprehends a notice ot all the
best works which had appeared during that period, from the
lio-ht class of romances to the most important treatises on
morals, politics, and legislation ; and in poetry it embraces
a review from the highest epic to burlesque and moc
heroic. . .
Many of the orations and discourses pronounced by
Chenier in the different political assemblies which were
formed during the existence of the French republic, and
of almost all which he was a member, related to similar
topics,—proposals for legislative measures with regard to
literary works, and the encouragement of arts and systems
of public instruction. Those orations which were truly
political breathed all the violent spirit of the time, and of
the assemblies in which they were delivered. As he took
an active part in the distracted politics of his country, an
was engaged on one side or other in most of the revo u-
tions by which she was at that time agitated, his character
was frequently the object of the blackest calumnies, his
property of confiscation, and his person of P1'oscnPt‘°"-
All this was little favourable to literary improyem •
But when France at length settled under the ahsoHte d
minion of one ruler, by being pree uded from pohtical «i
trigue and discussion, he had ample leisure left for stu
and composition. He continued thus usefully employed,
in a state of comparative tranquillity,. till hi& dea >
happened at Paris on the 10th January 1811.
The character and writings ot ^befor-
ly of the spirit of the times in which he hved. l
mer was marked by turbulence, restlessness, and arn^
tion ; and although some of his poems, as well a ^
recent prose compositions, show that his tas e w
turally that of the school of the French revolution, y
many of his tragedies and literary dmcourses are J ^
gured by that exaggeration of sentiments and ideas,
Che)
CHE
well as that declamatory and inflated style, which the
tone and feelings of the period had introduced or propa-
' gated. \
CHEODLE, a market-town of the hundred of Tot-
monslow, in the county of Stafford. It is situated in the
centre of a district abounding in coal, in consequence of
which several establishments are formed for making cop¬
per, tin, and brass wares. Near the town are the ruins of
a Cistertian abbey, founded in 1167. The inhabitants
amounted in 1811 to 2830, in 1821 to 3862, and in 1831
to 4119. The market is held on Friday.
CHEPSTOW, a market-town of the hundred of Caldi-
cott, in the county of Monmouth. It is built on the river
Wye, over which is a bridge, where the tide rises higher
than at any spot in England. It is a place of consider¬
able trade, but especially for ship timber and oak bark.
It has a market on Saturday, well attended. The views
on the Wye, especially from Piercefield, are very attrac¬
tive, as are the picturesque scenery of the river. Chep¬
stow was formerly walled, and had a strong castle, which
is now in a dilapidated state. The population amounted
in 1811 to 2381, in 1821 to 3008, and in 1831 to 3524.
CHER, a department of France, formed out of the an¬
cient Upper Berri, and a small portion of the Bourbonnois.
It is bounded on the north by the Loiret, on the east by
the Nievre, on the south by the departments of the Allier
and the Creuse, and on the west by those of the Indre and
Loire and Cher. It comprehends 2908 square miles, or
740,152 hectares. The surface presents a level plain,
with no hills, and scarcely an elevation. The soil in the
eastern part, on the banks of the Loire and the Arnon, is
fertile, and in the southern part it is indifferent; in the mid¬
dle a mixture of some good and much bad land, and in the
north many heaths and much poor sandy lands, are to be
seen. About one fifth of the department consists of wood¬
land. The corn of the department, which consists chiefly
of rye, is about equal to the consumption. Some of the
wine is of a moderate quality, and is sent to Paris as infe¬
rior Burgundy; but the greater part is converted into
brandy. Hemp and flax are also produced; and before
the revolution, silk was cultivated successfully. There
are some mines of iron wrought, and indications of silver
are to be seen. I he manufactures are few, and restrict¬
ed to the consumption of the department, with the excep¬
tion of iron, of which about 7000 tons are sent to other
districts. The department is divided into three arron-
dissements, twenty-nine cantons, and 307 communes, and
contains 233,583 inhabitants. The capital is the city of
Bourges.
CHERASCO, a city of Italy, in the province of Coni,
of the kingdom of Sardinia. It is built at the junction of
the rivers Stura and Tanaro. It contains several public
buildings, and 11,160 inhabitants. There are consider¬
able establishments for spinning and weaving silk. The
country around is highly productive of corn and wine.
Long. 7.45. E. Lat. 44. 35. N.
CHERBOURG, an arrondissement of the department
of La Manche, in France. It comprehends 380 square
miles, and is divided into five cantons and seventy-eight
communes, containing 67,565 inhabitants. The capital,
of the same name, is a city in a large bay at the mouth of
the small river Divette. As the only part possessed by
.trance in the Channel, great pains and cost have been
expended within the last twenty years to render the
iaven secure and defensible. It contains 14,315 inha-
itants, who chiefly belong to the naval service, or find
occupation in the various trades with which an arsenal is
naturally surrounded. Besides these, are establishments
or making large mirrors and other glass. It is in long.
1-8. 20. W. and lat. 49. 2.50. N.
CHE
CIIEREM, among the Jews, is used to signify a species
of annihilation. Ihe Hebrew word cherevi signifies pro-
to destroy, exterminate, devote, or anathematize.
CHERIBON, Sheribon, or Tcheribon, a town in the
island of Java, and capital of a principality of the same
name, 190 miles by the coast eastward of Batavia. Thetown
is situated at the head of a deep bay, formed to the south¬
east of I oint Indramayo, and to the westward of which there
is good anchorage in the easterly monsoon. The bay is well
sheltered from the north-west monsoon by a sand bank,
which stretches from the north point of the bay to the
eastward. Smaller vessels run along the bank to within
three fourths of a league from the land. In order to enter
the river, country craft drawing from four to six feet are
obliged to wait for the high tides, on account of the small
bank at the mouth. This was formerly a considerable
military station; and the European town, which contains
many good houses, was well peopled till within a few
yeai s of the British conquest, when a pestilential disorder
carried oft the greater part of the inhabitants; and since
this period the town has been nearly deserted. This
malady was ascribed to a morass, extending many miles
to the eastward of the town, over which the wind blow¬
ing at particular periods of the year, wafts disease and
death.. Others, again, assign as the cause a cold drying
wind, issuing through an opening in the mountains to the
southwaid. I here is a large Chinese village in the vici-
mty.
The surrounding district is remarkably fertile, and pro¬
duces the finest coffee raised in the island, and which is
particularly noted for the smallness of its grain. The other
productions are timber, cotton, yarn, arreca, indigo, sugar,
and some pepper. Edible bird-nests also form a great
article of trade. No less than four sovereigns formerly
resided at Cheribon, to whose ancestors the whole terri¬
tory once belonged; but the splendour of its former
•sovereigns has long passed away. In 1680 the country
came under the protection of the Dutch East India Com¬
pany, to whose servants the chiefs were bound to deliver
the produce of the country at fixed prices. By different
stipulations and treaties the power of the sultans was at
last reduced to an empty name; and small districts were
assigned them for their maintenance, out of which they
were obliged to pay a certain proportion to their masters.
When the British conquered the island, they were all
miserably poor; and an old man, who was the head, had,
by way of distinction, the name of sultan. A new ar¬
rangement was concluded with them, by which, in con¬
sideration of their being secured in the possession of cer¬
tain tracts of land with an annual pension, they consented
that the internal administration of the country should be
exercised by the British. All the oppressive exactions
from the people, either of their produce or their labour,
were at the same time abolished, and a land-tax was im¬
posed, which produced, in 1814, 255,306 rupees. Lon?.
108.35. E. Lat. 6.43. S.
CHERILUS of Samos, a Greek poet, who flourished
479 years b. c. He sung the victory gained by the Athe¬
nians over Xerxes, and was rewarded with a piece of gold
for every verse. His poem had afterwards the honour of
being rehearsed yearly along with the works of Homer.
CHERSO, an island in the Adriatic Sea, belonging to
the Austrian Illyrian province. It is a long island, stretch¬
ing from north to south about thirty-five miles. It con¬
sists of a single range of mountains, formed into a kind of
natural terraces, on which vines and olive trees flourish.
The other parts of the island are covered with bushes of
laurel and mastic, but scarcely any large trees. There is a
scarcity of spring water, and the houses are generally fur¬
nished with cisterns to contain rain water. The whole
508
C H E
Cherson island contains about 7000 inhabitants. The capital, of the
il same name, on the western side of the island, has a cathe-
Cherub. several churches and monasteries, and inToU con-
tained 3570 inhabitants. . .. f
CHERSON, the capital of the province as well as ot tne
circle of the same name in European Russia. It is distant
from Petersburg 1200 miles, and has been built since 17 /8,
on the right bank of theDneiper. It contains many establish¬
ments of a public nature, viz. a well-built fortress, the marine
arsenal, with its docks, storehouses, and ships of wai; a sub¬
urb for the Greeks settled there, and another as quarters
for the military.- It has three churches, a well-built bazar,
and barracks for the sailors of the fleet, lire city contains
1500 private dwellings, and about 12,000 inhabitants
has a great trade in ship-timber and ship-building The
river is too shallow for ships drawing much wafer, and its
depth has so much diminished that vessels cannot now, as
a few years ago, come to the quays. Near to the city is a
monument to the celebrated Potemkin and also one to he
philanthropic Howard. It is in long. 32. 33.13. E. and lat.
46.37.46. N. , . o oc Q
CHERSONESUS, among geographers, the same as a
peninsula, or land almost encompassed by the sea, and on y
joined to the continent by a narrow neck or isthmus. The
word is Greek, from land' and
vTjtfog, island. In ancient geography it was applied to seve¬
ral peninsulas, as the Chersonesus Aurea, Cunbnca Tau-
rica, and Thracica, now^ thought to be Malacca, Jutland,
the Crimea, and Romania. • • t,- r.
CHERUB (plural, Cherubim), an angelic spirit, which
in the celestial hierarchy is placed next to the seraphim.
The term cherub, in Hebrew, is sometimes taken for a calf
or ox. Ezekiel represents the face of the cherub as_ syno¬
nymous with the face of an ox. The word cherub, m Sy¬
riac and Chaldee, signifies to'tiil or plough, which is the
proper work of oxen; Cherub also signifies strong and
powerful. Grotius says that the figures of the cherubim
resembled that of a calf; Bochart likewise thinks that the
cherubim had more likeness to the figure of an ox than to
any thing besides; Spencer is of the same opinion; and
St John, in the Revelation, calls cherubim beasts. Jose¬
phus says that the cherubim were extraordinary creatures,
of a figure unknown to mankind. Clemens Alexandrmus
believes that the Egyptians imitated the cherubim of the
Hebrews in the representations of their sphinxes and othm:
hieroglyphical animals. Indeed all the descriptions which
the Scripture gives us of cherubim differ from one ano¬
ther, but agree in representing them by a figure composed
of various creatures, as a man, an ox, an eagle, and a lion.
Such were the cherubim described by Ezekiel. I hose seen
by Isaiah, and which he called seraphim, had the hguie
of a man with six wings, two of which covered then faces,
and two more covered their feet, while with the two others
they flew. Those which Solomon placed in the temple at
Jerusalem are supposed to have been nearly of the same
form. But those which St John describes in the Revelation
were all eyes before and behind, and had each six wings.
The first was in the form of a lion, the second in that of a
calf, the third in that of a man, and the fourth in that of
an eagle. The figure of the cherubim was not always uni¬
form, since they are variously described as having the
shapes of men, eagles, oxen, lions, and sometimes of a
these put together. Moses likewise calls the symbohea
or hieroglyphical representations which were embroidered
on the veils of the tabernacle, cherubim of costly work.
Such were the symbolical figures which the Egyptians
placed at the gates of their temples, and the images of the
generality of their gods, which were commonly statues com¬
posed of the figures of men and animals combined on me¬
taphorical, or rather allegorical principles.
lorksmre, oetween ' onn;nts
the extremity of the Macclesfield hundred. If the P
were cut off, the figure of Cheshire would approach n^y
to that of an oval. The greatest breadth of J
from north to south is about thirty miles, it ? at
length, from the extremity of the hundred of Wirral, ^
Kiddington Green, to Bntland Edge, on the b 1 ^
Yorkshire, is fifty-eight miles; across the middle pa
C H E
CUES A PEAK Bay, a spacious bay of North America, Chesa;
in the states of Virginia and Maryland. The entrance, Ba:
which is sixteen miles wide, is between Cape Charles and 1]
Cape Henry. The bay enters 190 miles into the land, di-
viding the states above named into two equal parts, called
the eastern and western shores. It varies from seven to
twenty miles in breadth, and the depth of water is gene¬
rally about nine fathoms ; it thus affords ample facilities
for navigation, and for the erection of harbours. 4 he Sus¬
quehanna, Potomac, Rappahannoc,York, and James Rivers,
which are large and navigable, discharge their waters into
this bay.
CHESELDEN, William, an eminent anatomist and
surgeon, who was born at Burrow on the Hill, in the coun¬
ty of Leicester, and descended from an ancient family in
the county of Rutland. He received the rudiments of
his professional education at Leicester, and mairied Debo¬
rah Knight, a citizen’s daughter, by whom he had one
daughter, Williamina Deborah. In 1713 he published
his Anatomy of the Human Body, m one volume 8vo;
and in 1723 a Treatise on the High Operation for the
Stone. He was one of the earliest of his profession who
contributed by bis writings to raise it to its present emi¬
nence. In the beginning of 1736 he was thus honourably
mentioned by Mr Pope: “ As soon as I had sent my last
letter, I received a most kind one from you, expressing
great pain for my late illness at Mr Cheselden s. . I con¬
clude you was eased of that friendly apprehension in a few
days after you had dispatched yours, for mine must have
reached you then. I wondered a little at your query, who
Cheselden was ? It shows that the truest merit does not
travel so far any way as on the wings of poetry; he is the
most noted and most deserving man in the whole profes¬
sion of chirurgery, and has saved the lives of thousands by
his manner of cutting for the stone.” He appears to have
been on terms of the most intimate friendship with Mr
Pope, who frequently, in his letters to Mr Richardson,
talks of dining with Mr Cheselden, who then lived in or
near Queen Square. In February 1737 Mr Cheselden was
appointed surgeon to Chelsea hospital. He died at Bath
on the 11th April 1752, of a disorder arising from drink¬
ing ale after eating hot buns. Finding himself uneasy, he
sent for a physician, who advised vomiting immediately;
and if the advice had been taken it was thought his life
might have been saved. By his own direction he was bu¬
ried at Chelsea. . , , i j c n,,™
CHESHAM, a market-town in the hundred of nmn-
ham, of the county of Buckingham, twenty-eight miles
from London. It is situated in a pleasing vale. I he chiet
employment, besides agriculture, is making bone lace. ie
ma!-ket is held on Wednesday. The popu ation amounted
in 1811 to 1191, in 1821 to 2017, and in 1831 to 5388.
CHESHIRE is divided from Lancashire by the rivers
Mersey and Tame ; from Derbyshire and Staffordshire by
the rivers Goyt and Dane, and a range of hills; and from
Flintshire and Denbighshire in a great measure by he
river Dee and its estuary, a small portion of the tiund
of Broxton lying to the west of this general houn P
The form of this county is singular, being distinguis
by two points projecting, the one into the Irish ,
tween the Mersey and the Dee, which constitutes
hundred of Wirral; and the other running up toward
Yorkshire, between Lancashire and Derbyshire, g
CHESHIRE.
re. the county, however, the length is not forty miles. The
^ projection between the Dee and Mersey is about twenty
miles long and six broad; and that towards Yorkshire
about fifteen miles long, and seldom above three miles
broad.
Cheshire contains one city, which is also the county
town, Chester; seven hundreds; thirteen market-towns,
including Chester, namely, Stockport, Knutsford, Altring-
ham, Congleton, Frodsham, Macclesfield, Malpos, Middle-
wich, Nantwich, Neston, Northwich, Sandbach, and Tar-
porley; and eighty-six parishes. As, however, many of
these parishes are of great extent, and comprise numerous
townships, and more than one chapelry having the privi¬
lege of baptism and sepulture, the number of parishes
and places assessed to the poor’s rates, and other county
and parochial rates, is about 500. This county is in the
province of Canterbury, and diocese of Chester; within
which diocese are comprehended Cheshire, Lancashire,
and part of Yorkshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, West¬
moreland, and Cumberland. It is a county palatine, and
is not included in any of the circuits, having a chief jus¬
tice of its own.
The area of Cheshire comprises about 1200 square
miles, or 670,600 acres, of which a much larger propor¬
tion is in cultivation than in most other English counties ;
there being only 28,600 acres of waste land, commons,
and woods, 18,000 in peat bogs and mosses, and 10,000
in sea-sands, between the estuaries of the Dee and Mer¬
sey : the remainder, 620,000 acres, is in cultivation. The
general character of the surface is flatness; the principal
hills are on the borders of Derbyshire, which are con¬
nected with those of that county and of Staffordshire, and
stretch along the eastern side of the parishes of Astbury,
Prestbury, and Motbram, about twenty-five miles. Near
Frodsham there is a bold promontory overlooking the
Mersey, which is the first of an interrupted ridge of hills
that crosses the county from north to south on its west¬
ern side as far as Malpos. This high ground, after cross¬
ing the elevated district of Delamere Forest, appears again
in the insulated rock of Beeston, which is nearly three
hundred and eighty-six feet in height. The last link on
this chain of hills is that of Broxton. The ground near
Macclesfield is also elevated. With these exceptions,
and that of a low chain of hills stretching from north to
south through the hundred of Wirral, Cheshire is more
uniformly flat than any other county in this part of Eng¬
land.
There is not much variety of soil: sand and clay, with
the one or the other predominating in various proportions,
constitute the soil of nearly the whole of Cheshire. That
part of the county which stretches towards Yorkshire
consists principally of peat-moss, a soil which also prevails
to aless considerable extent near Coppenhall and War-
mincham, and in some parts of the Forest of Delamere;
the greater part of the forest, however, consists of sterile
white sand or gravel. The most prevalent subsoils are
marl, clay, and redgrit rock, or sandstone.
Cheshire, viewed from a height, appears covered with
wood; but this appearance arises from the smallness of
the enclosures, and the great number of large trees in the
hedge-rows; otherwise it is not a well-wooded county.
Its forests, which were formerly extensive, consisted of
those of Delamere, Macclesfield, and Wirral; and the first
contained ten thousand acres, two thousand of which have
been inclosed. The quantity of timber in the hedge-rows
and coppices exceeds the general average of the king-
best, as well as the most common, is oak. In
unham Park, near Altringham, the seat of the Earl of
^ arrington, there are some remarkably large old oaks.
derley Park is equally celebrated for its beech trees.
509
The principal rivers are the Dee, the Weaver, the Cheshin
Dane, and the Tame; the Mersey, though frequently
described as a Cheshire river, seems to us more properly
to belong to Lancashire. The Dee, which rises in Wales,
enters this county near Aldford; from Bangor Brido-e it
is navigable for barges; at Chester Bridge it meets^ the
tideat Chester a ledge of rocks runs across the bed of
the river; from this place to the sea its natural course
forms a broad sandy estuary; but an artificial channel has
been formed at great expense on the south side of the
livei, nearly half way to the sea, which is navigable for
ships of six hundred tons burden. It falls into the Irish
Sea, about fourteen miles north-west of Chester. At the
time when the artificial channel was made, much land was
gained from the tide by embankments, and much has been
subsequently recovered. The Weaver rises in Cheshire,
on Bulkley Heath, and flows entirely through the county,
till it joins the Mersey at Wyton ; from Frodsham Bridge to
vVinsford Bridge, a distance of twenty miles, it is rendered
navigable by means of locks and wears ; the fall is forty-
five feet ten inches, and there are ten locks; the course of
this liver is about thirty-three miles. The Dane rises in
Macclesfield Forest. During the first part of its course it
divides Staffordshire and Cheshire; at Congleton it enters
the latter, and falls into the Weaver at Northwich. Its
course is about twenty-two miles. The character of these
rivers differs much. The Weaver is narrow, deep, and
slow, the Dane is broad, shallow, and swift. The Tame
rises in Yorkshire. During the greater part of its course,
which is only ten miles, it forms the boundary between
Cheshire and Lancashire, and falls into the Mersey near
Stockport.
Cheshire is intersected by the Duke of Bridgewater’s
Canal, the Grand Trunk, the Ellesmere, the Chester and
Nantwich, and the Peake Forest. The first runs through
about twenty miles of the county, entering it to the east
of Ashton, and joining the Mersey at Runcorn. The
Grand Trunk Canal communicates with the Duke of Bridge-
water’s at Preston Brook, and passing by Northwich and
Middlewich, enters Staffordshire near Lawton. There are
four tunnels in the course of this canal through Cheshire,
one of which, near Preston-on-the-Hill, is twelve hundred
and forty-one yards in length, seventeen feet four inches
in height, and thirteen feet six inches in width. The El¬
lesmere Canal joins the Mersey at Whitby, and after pass¬
ing the east end of the hundred of Wirral, and the south¬
east of Broxton, it connects with the Dee and Chester
Canal at Chester. Another branch forms ajunction with
the Chester Canal at Hurleston. The Chester Canal be¬
gins at the Dee on the north of Chester, and passing
through Christleton, Warriton, Hargrave, and to the north
of Beeston Castle, terminates at Nantwich. The Peake
Forest Canal joins the Ashton and Oldham Canal at Ash-
ton-under-Line; it crosses the Tame near Duckinfield,
and passing through Hyde, Marple, and Disley, enters
Derbyshire near Whaley Bridge. Near Marple it is car¬
ried over the Mersey by an aqueduct of three arches, and
a hundred feet in height. In the northern parts of Che¬
shire there are several small lakes called meres.
The mineral productions of this county are coal, copper,
lead, cobalt, and rock-salt. Coal abounds in the north¬
eastern parts, in a district of about ten miles from north
to south. There are also some collieries in the hundred
of Wirral, one of which extends a mile and three fourths
from high-water mark under the river Dee. Copper, lead,
and cobalt, are found at Alderby Edge, and copper in the
Peckforton Hills; but none of these ores are by any
means abundant.
As the rock-salt and the brine-springs of Cheshire are
naturally connected, and are found in the same districts,
510
CHESHIRE.
Cheshire, we shall consider them together. The brine-springs are
'—principally met with in the valley through which the W ea¬
ver and the Wheelock flow; and those from which salt is
at present manufactured are at Lawton, \\ heelock, Lough-
wood, in the townships of Anderton, Bechton, Leftwich,
Middlewich, and in the neighbourhood of Northwich and
Winsford. The brine-springs at Wheelock are at the
depth of sixty yards. The brine is rich, but vaiies in
strength ; the strongest brine-springs are those of Ander¬
ton, while those at Leftwich are the weakest.
The brine-springs of Cheshire were probably known to
the ancient Britons. It is certain that salt made from
them was one of the principal articles of the commerce of
this county before the Norman conquest. The discovery
of the rock-salt, on the other hand, is very recent, not
having been made till 1G70, during a search for coal near
Northwich. Since that period it has been found abun¬
dantly in the townships of Witton, Wincham, and ivlars-
ton. The rock-salt is met with at various depths below
the surface, from twenty-eight to forty-eight yards; some
of the strata are only four feet thick, and otners forty
yards. In the mines near Northwich there are only two
beds of rock-salt; but in other parts three beds have been
found. These beds are divided from one another by strata
of indurated clay or hard flag-stone, in which there are
frequently found pieces of rock-salt. The muriate of soda,
in the great body of the rock-salt, is mixed with a consi¬
derable portion of clay, oxide of iron, and sulphate of limet
In the lower strata the rock-salt is a purer muriate of soda.
The rock-salt is extremely hard, and in many cases re¬
quires to be blasted with gunpowder. The largest mine
at present worked is that of Wilton; its depth is 330 feet,
and its area nearly two acres; the ceiling, which is about
twenty feet high, is supported by pillars fifteen feet thick,
each containing 294 solid yards ot rock-salt. Fifty or sixty
thousand tons of rock-salt are obtained annually from the
pits in the neighbourhood of Northwich, which is the great
seat of the salt trade in this county. One third of the
rock-salf is dissolved in water, and crystallized by evapo¬
ration ; and two thirds are exported in its native state.
By the report of the committee of the House of Com¬
mons on the use of rock-salt in the fisheries, printed May
1817, it appears that the capital embarked in the salt tiade
of Lancashire and Cheshire is about L.600,000; that on
an average of five years previously to the 5th of Api il 1817,
240,000 tons of white salt had been made annually in these
counties; that from 300 to 330 flats and barges are employ- Chesty
ed in conveying the salt; that 267 people are employed in U-y,
the salt mines; that 6500 are employed in the manufacture
of salt; and that 400 tons of iron are consumed annually
in this manufactory.
Quarries of excellent freestone are found at Rumcorn,
Manley, and Great Bebington; limestone occurs only at
Newbold Astbury, millstones at Mowcop Hill, and sand¬
stone fit for glass near Macclesfield. Marl abounds in al¬
most every part of the county.
Landed property is in general very little divided in this
county, there being, according to Mr Holland, fifty noble¬
men and gentlemen who possess in it property of the an¬
nual value of from L.3000 to L. 10,000 a year, and at least
as many others with estates of from L.1Q00 to L.3000 a
year.
With respect to agriculture, Cheshire is almost entire¬
ly a dairy county; and its arable husbandry is neither ex¬
tensive nor of superior character. The principal dairies are
about Nantwich, and in the district between the Dane and
the Weaver; they are found, however, in every part of the
county where the soil consists of clay. The number of
cows kept for the dairy is about 32,000, and the quantity
of cheese annually made is about 11,500 tons. The average
quantity of cheese from each cow annually is estimated
at 300 lbs.; eight quarts of milk, the average daily quantity
yielded by each cow, producing one pound of cheese. In
Lyme Park there is a herd of cattle of the same wild breed
as* those at Chillingham, in Northumberland.
The ground in the vicinity of Frodsham and Altringham
produces abundant crops of excellent potatoes ; and in the
latter parish, where sea mud is used, 100,000 bushels are
generally grown annually.
The cotton manufactures of Lancashire have extended
into the contiguous parts of Cheshire, particularly at Stock-
port. Silk is manufactured at Macclesfield and Congleton,
where there are large silk-mills; hats are made at Stock-
port, white and red lead at Chester, and gunpowder at
Tholwall. Tanneries are very numerous, and on a large
scale, in the middle and north of the county.
In 1803 the poor-rates levied amounted to L.84,991.
In 1815,434 parishes and places paid the sum of L.125,630.
There were no returns from fifty-seven places. In 1829
the poor-rates levied amounted to L.137,886. 19s. The
following is a table of the population, &c. for 1811, 1821,
and 1831.
HOUSES.
YEARS.
1811
1821
1831
41,187
47,094
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
44,502
52,024
250
414
1239
1212
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
16,396
18,120
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
23,043
27,105
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
5063
6799
PERSONS.
Males.
Females.
110,841
132,952
164,152
116,190
137,146
170,258
Total of
Persons.
227,031
270,098
334,410
511
CHESS,
A very ancient and ingenious game, performed by two per¬
sons, with thirty-two pieces of wood or ivory called men,
on a square board divided into sixty-four equal squares,
usually stained black and white alternately. Each player
has sixteen men, those of the one player being usually
black, and those of the other white, in order to distinguish
them.
Of the sixteen men on either side, eight are called
Pieces, and eight Pawns. The eight pieces consist of a
King, a Queen, two Castles or Rooks, two Bishops, and two
Knights.
The men may be thus represented:
King. Queen. Bishop. Knight. Rook. Pawn. -
The following diagram represents the board, with the
men as placed on it when a game is to be played:
Each row of squares running from the bottom to the
top of the board is called a file. Each row of squares
running from side to side is called a rank or line. Four
lines of squares belong to the black men, and four to the
white. A row of squares running obliquely from one side
of the board to the other is called a diagonal. A dia¬
gonal consists either wholly of black squares or wholly of
white.
The board must be so placed between the two players,
that each of them may have a white corner at his right
hand. This manner of placing the board, though not es¬
sential to the game, is invariably observed.
The eight pieces are ranked up on the first line of the
board next each player, according to the following distri¬
bution : The two rooks occupy the two lateral squares
which form the angles of the board ; the two knights occu¬
py the squares next to the rooks; the two bishops are
next to the knights ; and the king and queen occupy each
of them one of the two centre squares of the line, the
queen being upon a square of her own colour.1 It follows,
that when the pieces are properly placed, the white king
will be found occupying the square to the right, and the
black king the square to the left, each of his respective
queen.
The pieces on the king’s side of the line are called the
king’s bishop, the king’s knight, and the king’s rook.
Those on the queen’s side are called the queen’s bishop,
the queen’s knight, and the queen’s rook.
The eight pawns are ranked up on the second line of
squares, and take their denomination from the several
pieces before which they are respectively placed. Thus,
the pawn in the square in front of the king is called the
king’s pawn, the one in front of the queen is called the
queen’s pawn, and so on with the rest, as king’s bishop’s
pawn, queen’s bishop’s pawn, king’s knight’s pawn, queen’s
knight’s pawn, king’s rook’s pawn, queen’s rook’s pawn.
In like manner the squares of the board take their de¬
nomination from the several pieces. The square occupied
by the king at the beginning of the game is called the
king’s square, the one occupied by the queen the queen's
square, and so on. The square immediately in front of
the king’s square is called the king’s second square, the
one in front of his second square is his third square, and
the one in front of his third is his fourth square. The
eight pieces of each of the two players have thus their re¬
spective squares, and second, third, and fourth squares,
exhausting among them the whole sixty-four squares of
the board. For the sake of clearness, however, it is some¬
times convenient to carry the numeration into the adverse
side of the board. Thus, the square in front of the king’s
fourth is sometimes called his fifth square, and so on to the
eighth square, which of course is the adverse king’s square.
The pawn moves straight forward on its own file, one
square at a time, except at first setting off, when, in the
option of the plajrer, it may move two squares at once.
For example, if it be proposed to move the king’s pawn,
which stands on its own square, being the king’s second
square, it may be moved either to the king’s third or to his
fourth square, but afterwards it can be moved forward only
one square at a time.
The pawn, although it moves straight forward, attacks
and captures its adversaries diagonally or obliquely. Thus
suppose a white pawn to be on its king’s fourth square, and
a black pawn to be also on its king’s fourth square, the one
pawn cannot attack and take the other; on the contrary,
the one stops the other in its progress onward. But sup¬
pose the black pawn to be on its queen’s fourth square,
then the white pawn can attack and take the black pawn.
This is done by removing the black pawn from the board,
and advancing the white pawn obliquely, and placing it on
the square left vacant by the removal of the black pawn ;
that is to say, the white pawn is removed from its own
king’s fourth square, and placed on the adverse queen’s
fourth square. It still retains the name of the king’s pawn.
When this pawn has again occasion to move, it goes straight
forward on its new file, unless it should avail itself of ano¬
ther opportunity of making a capture, when it again passes
obliquely to a square in another file. When a pawn has
arrived at the eighth or last square of the file, it loses its
character of a pawn, and may be converted into any piece.
Chess.
1 Sequitur regina colorem.
512
CHESS.
Chess.
except the king, that the player chooses. He is said to
J queen his pawn when he carries it up to the ultimate
^The knight moves in a manner somewhat difficult to be
described. It leaps obliquely over an adjoining square to
one of the next squares, having a colour different from the
colour of the square which it leaves, hor example, e
the king’s knight be on its own square; it may be moved
to the king’s second square, to. the king s bishop s third
square, or to the king’s rook’s third square ; or, supposing
it to be.standing on its king’s fourth square, it may be
moved to the king’s knight’s third square, or to the king s
bishop’s second square, or to the queen s second square,
or to the queen’s bishop’s third square, or to the adveise
queen’s bishop’s fourth square, or to the adverse queen s
third square, or to the adverse king’s bishop s third square.
On turning to the diagram, the reader will be able easily
to follow and understand this description of the knight s
move. It is the only piece that is allowed to move over
The bishop moves diagonally forward or backward any
number of squares at a time, provided the course be open,
by being free of other men. A bishop must necessarily
continue to move over squares of a colour the same with
that on which it was originally placed. The one bishop
always moves upon black diagonals, the other upon w ute.
The rook or castle moves straight forward, straight back¬
ward, or straight across, any number of squares at a time,
provided the intermediate squares be unoccupied by other
men ; that is to say, a rook moves either uponj?/es or upon
lines.
The queen can move either like a rook or like a bishop.
The king can move one square only at a time, and t lat
backwards, or forwards, or sidewise, or obliquely. He
can also, once in the course of a game, make the singu¬
lar move called castling. Castling usually takes place
for the double purpose of removing the king into a more
secure situation, and of bringing a castle more into play;
and it may be done either on the kings side of the board,
or on the queen’s. When it is done on the lung s side,
the king and his rook are simultaneously lifted from their
respective squares, and placed, the king, on his knight s
square, the rook on the bishop’s. W hen it is done oa t ic
queen’s side, the king and the queen’s rook are lifted from
their squares, and placed, the king on the queen s bis lop s
square, the rook on the queen s.
The adverse kings cannot approach each other so as.to
be on conterminous squares. One square at least must in¬
tervene between them. The reason of this obviously is,
that if one king were to come to a square, adjoining that,
occupied by the other, he would be within the lange of
his attack.1 _ .
All the pieces (it is otherwise with the pawns) take. in
the direction in which they move. Ihe manner of taking
is to place the attacking piece on the square of the piece
or pawn captured, the captured piece being removed from
the board. A player, however, is not obliged to take a
piece or pawn under attack and subject to capture. He
may take it or not as he thinks fit.
The principal technical terms made use of in chess¬
playing will now be explained.
Castling.—This has been treated of already.
Check.—When an attack is made upon a king by any
piece or pawn, he is said to be checked. This will be best
understood from a practical illustration. Let your king
be upon his own square, and let your adversary play his
queen to his king’s second square. If there be no piece Chesij
or pawn on any of the squares which separate the king and
queen, your king is directly exposed to the action of the
queen, and is said to be checked by her. The check is to
be got the better of by capturing the queen, if she happen
to be within the range of any of your men, or by inter¬
posing some piece between your king and the attacking
queen, or by moving the king to another square beyond
the scope of her action.
Check by Discovery, or Discovered Check.—This
takes place when the removal of an interposed piece opens
up a check from another piece. For example, let your
king be on his own square, and the adverse queen on her
king’s second square, and let all the intermediate squares
of the file be vacant, except the adverse king’s third, upon
which third square his queen’s bishop happens to be placed.
It is evident that the interposition of this bishop covers
or protects your king from the action of his queen. But
if your adversary should play away his bishop from his
king’s third square, your king would be instantly exposed
to the action of the queen ; and this is called check by dis¬
covery, or discovered check.
Check-mate.—The object of the game is to give check¬
mate. When the king is so assaulted and beset that he
cannot move out of check, nor take the piece or pawn
that checks him, nor interpose any man for his protection,
he is check-mated; and the party giving the check-mate
wins the game.
Stale-mate.—When the king is not in check, but yet
is so circumstanced that he cannot move without going
into check, and when, at the same time, all his men are
either off the board, or in such a situation that none of
them can move, he is said to be stale-mated,. W hen stale¬
mate is given, the game is held to be drawn.
Drawn Game.—A game is said to be drawn, when
neither party can give check-mate to the other. This
happens, ls£, where perpetual check is given to the ad¬
verse king without the possibility of his averting it; 2rf/y,
where the force left on the board is not sufficient to give
check-mate; 'idly, where the force left being sufficient,
the party possessing it is unacquainted wdth the method
of giving check-mate in fifty moves, as required by the
laws ;2 Aithly, where both parties stand on the defensive,
neither of them being inclined to hazard an attack; and,
hthly, where one of the kings is stale-mated.
Doubled Pawn.—A pawn is said to be doubled, when,
by having made a capture, it has passed from its own file
to another file, already possessing a pawrn on some other
square. . ' .
Passed Pawn.—A pawn is said to be passed, wlien
there is no adverse pawn to oppose its march to queen,
nor any adverse pawns on the two adjacent files; .or, it
there be hostile pawns on the adjacent files, when it has
already passed them.
• En Passant.—In explaining the pawn’s moves, it was
stated, that at first setting off a pawn may be played two
squares at once. This statement, however, is subject to
qualification. Suppose your king’s pawn to be upon its
own square, and your adversary to have a pawn on your
queen’s fourth square, it is evident that you cannot play
your king’s pawn two squares without passing over a
square exposed to the action ot your adversary s pawn,
the square so exposed being your kings thud. ow>
your adversary is entitled to arrest, as it were, your pawn
in its passage over that square, and to capture it.
play your pawn from king’s second to kings iourti,
1 In 11 Giuoco Incomparabile Degli Scacchi, this reason is given i
* See Art. xxii. of the Laws.
Non bene convcniunt, nec in una sedc morantur Majestas, et Amor.
c
lifts it up, and moves his own pawn obliquely from your
queen's fourth square to your king’s third; and this ope¬
ration is called taking your pawn en passant. He may
take it, however, or let it alone, just as he likes. J
En Prise.—When a piece or pawn is liable to be
taken by another, it is said to be en prise of that other.
Minor Pieces.—Knights and bishops are called minor
pieces, because they are of less value than the other pieces.
To Gain the Exchange or Difference. When a
player wins his adversary’s rook, in exchange for his own
knight or bishop, he is said to gain the exchange. In the
Edinburgh Che§s Club the expression used is, to gain the
difference.
Gambit.—This is a peculiar opening of a game, where
a player sacrifices a pawn or piece, in order to remove the
adverse king’s pawn from its fourth square, and thus be
the better enabled to make an attack. Examples of it
will be given hereafter, from which its nature will be
much more easily understood than from any general de¬
scription or definition.
Relative Value of the Pieces.
King.—As the king can never be taken, and as the very
existence of the game depends upon him, he can, of course,
have no relative value. But his power both of attack and
defence being considerable, he should be brought forward
to action as soon as the more powerful pieces, particularly
the queen, are off the board. J
Queen.—The queen is the most powerful of all the
pieces, being worth two rooks and a pawn. Towards the
end of a game, when the board has become more open for
the action of the rooks, her relative value is lessened a
little, and she is then worth two rooks only. Properly
speaking, however, this arises not from any diminution of
power upon her part, but from an increase of power on the
part of the rooks.
Rook.—The rook is next in value to the queen, and is
reckoned equal to a minor piece and two pawns, or to five
pawns. A rook increases in power of action as the board
gets clear of other pieces and pawns; and it is the only
piece except the queen that can give check-mate with no
other assistance than its own king.
Bishop;—The bishop is worth more than three pawns,
and less than four. It is reckoned of equal value with a
night. At the beginning of a game the king’s bishop is
more serviceable for attack than the queen’s. Two bishops,
with the assistance of the king, can give check-mate.
Knight. The knight, like the bishop, is worth more
than three pawns, but less than four. It is distinguished
by these two peculiarities: Yst, It is never en prise, of the
piece that it attacks, except when it attacks another
night; and, Srf/y, the piece attacked cannot get the bet¬
ter of the attack by the interposition of a third piece, but
must itself move to another square. Two knights, with
e assistance of the king, cannot give check-mate. A
knight and bishop can.
It is usual with writers on chess to give a great many
general instructions as to the mode of opening and con-
ucting a game; but as such general instructions are of
•* e 01 no practical use, we shall withhold them entirely,
m order to make room for a few examples of the game, by
gomg over which with the aid of a board and men, the
ei* er will become much better acquainted with chess-
playmg, than if he were to peruse whole volumes of gene¬
ral observations. °
The following are the laws usually observed in this
country in playing the game:
1. The chess-board must be placed in such a manner
that each player may have a white square corner on his
right hand. If the board be improperly placed, and the
mistake not discovered till after four moves have been
played on each side, it must remain as it is till the end of
the game.
2. If the pieces or pawns be improperly placed, the
player who first perceives it may insist on the mistake's
being rectified, provided four moves on each side have
not been played.
3. If a player begin a game without having all his pieces,
and if he do not perceive it until the fourth move has been
played, he must finish the game without the pieces or
pawns which he has forgotten.
4. When the game is played even, the players must
draw lots for the first move; after the first game the move
belongs alternately to each player.1
5. The player who gives odds has always the advan¬
tage of the move ; except, of course, in those games where
the move is also given to the inferior player; such, for ex¬
ample, as the pawn and move, &c.
6. When a player has touched a piece he must move
it. N. R. If a piece be not placed exactly in the
centie of its square, or if it should fall, the player must
say J'adoube in placing it properly, else his adversary
may compel him to play it.
i. As long as a player holds a piece, he is at liberty to
play it where he chooses; but when he has let it go, he
cannot recal his move.
8. If a player touch one of his adversary’s pieces with¬
out saying' J’adoube, he may be compelled to take it; if
the piece cannot be taken, the player must move his king ;
and if neither the piece nor the king can be moved, no
penalty shall be inflicted.
9- Ifa player should, by mistake, play one of his adver¬
sary’s pieces instead of his own, his adversary may com¬
pel him either to take it, if it can be taken, to replace it
where it was, or to let it remain where he played it.
_ 19. If a player take one of his adversary’s pieces with a
piece that cannot take it without a false move, his ad¬
versary may compel him either to take it with any other
piece, or to play the piece which he has touched.
11. If a player take one of his pieces with another of
his own, his adversary may oblige him to play either of
the two pieces.
12. If a player make a false move, his adversary may
oblige him to let the piece remain where he played it; or
to play it to some other square; or to replace the piece
where it previously w^as, and to play the king instead of it.
13. If a player should play two successive moves, it is
in his adversary’s power to oblige him to put back the
second move ; or, if he choose it, he may insist on continu¬
ing the game, as if only one move had been played.
14. A pawn that is pushed two squares may be taken
en passant, by the adversary’s pawn.2
15. The king cannot castle : 1st, If he has moved ; 2dly,
if he be in check ; Sdly, if any of the squares over which
he moves in castling be occupied by or under the power
of one of his adversary’s pieces; and, bthly, if the rook
has moved. A player who castles in either of these
1 In Germany he who wins the game has the advantage of playing first the next game.
2 This is not the case in Italy; a pawn is allowed to pass en prise, which is called passar battaglia.
514
C H E S S.
Chess.
cases must put back the move; and his adversary has the
option of compelling him to play either the king 01 the
rook with which he intended to castle.
IG. If a player touch one of his pieces which cannot be
moved without placing his king in check, he must play his
king ; and if the king cannot move, no penalty is to be in-
fllC17.d Whenever a player attacks his adversary s king, he
must say check; and if he forget to say it, the adversary
needs not move his king, or take notice of the check; and
if the player who did not say check, should, on the next
move, attack the queen, or any of his adversary s pieces,
and say check, the player whose king is in check may put
back his last move! and, instead of it, remove his king, or
cover the check. , , .
18 If the king have been in check during two or more
moves, and it be not possible to ascertain how it happen-
ed, he whose king is in check may, as soon as he per¬
ceives it, put back his last move, and remove his king, or
cover the check. * . . . . ,
19. If a player say check without giving check, and
his adversary should in consequence ^
touch any piece to cover the check, and should afterwards
perceive rilat he is not in check, he may put back his last
move, provided his opponent have not already played his
20. If a player has moved previously to perceiving a
false move, or any other mistake which his adversary may
have committed, he can no longer insist on the Pena y •
he should have noticed the mistake before he moved or
even touched a piece. , • .
21. When a player has pushed a pawn to queen, he is at
liberty to make a second queen, a third rook, or any other
piece^which he may deem more usetul for his attack or
22. At the end of a game, when a player remains with
a rook and a bishop against a rook, with both bishops, or
with a knight and bishop, against the king, &c. if he ca -
not check-mate his adversary m fifty moves, the game shall
be considered as a drawn game.
But if a player engage to check-mate his adveisaiy wit
a marked pawn, or with any particular piece, the number
of moves is then unlimited. ,
23. If the king be stale-mated, the game is a drawn game.
Explanation of the Abbreviated Terms made use of in the
Notation of the Games.
K. signifies King or King s. ^
Q. ... Queen or Queen’s
R. ... Rook or Rook’s.
B. ... Bishop or Bishop’s.
Kt. ... Knight or Knight’s.
P. ... Pawn or Pawn’s.
Sq. ... Square.
Adv. ... Adverse or Adversary s.
Chg. ... Checking.
First Game
Of the match between the London and Edinburgh Chess
Clubs. White represents the Edinburgh side, black the
London.
White.
7. Q. B. to adv. K. Kt.
4th sq.
8. Q. B. to K. R. 4th sq.
9. K. B. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
10. Q. R. P* takes B.
11. Q. Kt. to Q. 2d sq.
12. P. to Q. Kt. 4th sq.
13. Q. B. takes Kt.
14. Q. Kt. to Q. B. 4th sq.
15. K. Kt. to K. R. 4th sq.
16. K. Kt. P. two sqrs.
17. K. Kt. takes Kt.
18. K. castles with K. R.
19. K. R. P. one sq.
20. Kt. takes B.
21. K. B. P. one sq.
22. K. to K. Kt. 2d sq.
23. K. R. to K. B. 2d sq
24. Q. to K. 3d sq.
25. K. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
26. Q. R. to K. sq.
27. Q. to K. 2d sq.
28. Q. to K. 3d sq.
29. R. to K. R. 2d sq.
30. K. R. P. takes P.
31. K. takes R.
32. K. takes Q.
33. R. to Q. R. sq.
34. K. to K. 2d sq.
35. K. to K. 3d sq.
31. Q. takes Q. chg.
32. R. takes R.
33. R. to adv. K. R. 3d sq.
chg.
34. R. to adv. K. R. 2d sq.
chg.
35. K. to adv. K. R. 3d sq.
chg.
The game was here declared to be drawn.
As this game happened to be drawn, we shall give a
variation of it, in order to make it terminate with a check¬
mate. Supposing white to have played, for its 26th move,
K. R. P. one square, instead of Q. R. to K. sq. the follow¬
ing would probably have been the train of moves :
26° K. R. P. one sq. 26. K. R. takes K. Kt. r.
cbg- ^ ,
B. P. takes R. 27. Q. takes Q. chg.
to his Kt. 2d. 28. R. takes K. R. chg.
to his R. sq. 29. Q. to ad. K. R. 3d dig.
to his Kt. sq. 30. Q. to ad. K. Kt. 2d sq.
to ad. K. R. 2d sq. giving check-mate.
27. K.
28. K.
29. K.
30. K.
White.
1. K. P. two squares.
2. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
3. Q. B. P. one sq.
4. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
5. Q. P. one sq.
6. Q. to K. 2d sq.
Black.
1. K. P. two squares.
2. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
3. Q. to K. 2d sq.
4. Q. P. one sq.
5. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
6. King castles.
Second Game-
1. K. P. two squares.
2. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
3. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
4. K. R P- one sq.
5. Q. B. P. one sq.
6. Q. P. one sq.
7. Q. B. to K. 3d sq.
8. K. Kt. P. two squares.
9. K. Kt. to K. R. 4th sq.
10. K. Kt. takes Q. B.
11. K. R. P- one sq.
12. K. B. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
13. Q. R. P. two sqrs.
14. K. R. P. one sq.
15. K. Kt. P. one sq.
16. K. R. takes P.
17. K. R. to adv. K. R. sq.
chg.
-{From Greco.)
1. K. P. two squares.
2. Q. P. one sq. ^
3. Q. B. to adv. K. Kt. 4t!i
sq.
4. Q. B. to K. R- 4th sq.
5. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq*
6. K. B. to K. 2d sq.
7. K. castles.
8. Q. B. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
9. Q. B. P. one sq.
10. K. R. P- takes K. Kt.
11. Q. Kt. P. two sqrs.
12. Q. R. P. two sqrs.
13. Q. Kt. P. one sq.
14. P. takes K. R- R
15. K. Kt. to adv. K. w-
4th sq.
16. K. Kt. takes Q- o*
17. K. takes K. R*
Black. Chi
7. K. R. P. one sq. ,
8. Q. B. to K. 3d sq.
9. B. takes B.
10. Q. Kt. to Q. B. 3d sq.
11. Q. to K. 3d sq.
12. K. B. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
13. Q. takes B.
14. Q. to K. 3d sq.
15. Q. Kt. to K. 2d sq.
16. Kt. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
17. K. B. P. takes Kt.
18. K. R. to adv. K. B. 4th
sq.
19. Q. R. to K. B. sq.
20. Q. R. P. takes Kt.
21. Q. to K. B. 3d sq.
22. Q. B. P. one sq.
23. P. to Q. Kt. 4th sq.
24. K. R. P. one sq.
25. Q. to K. Kt. 4th sq.
26. K. to K. R. 2d sq.
27. R. to K. R. sq.
28. K. to K. Kt. sq.
29. K. R. P- takes P.
30. 11. takes K. B. P. chg.
C H E S S.
White- Black.
IB. Q. to ad. K. R. 4th sq. 18. K. to K. Kt. sq.
ehg.
19. K. Kt. P. one sq. 19. K. R. to K. sq.
20. Q. to adv. K. R. 2d sq. 20. K. to K. B. sq.
ehg.
21. Q- to adv. K. R. sq. giving check-mate.
Third Game.
This is an example of the king’s gambit. It is from Phi-
lidor, and is his seventh back-game on the first gam¬
bit.
515
1. K. P. two squares.
2. K. B. P. two sqrs.
3. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
4. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
, 5. K. R. P. two sqrs.
6. Q. P. two sqrs.
7. Q. B. P. one sq.
8. Q. to K. 2d sq.
9. K. B. takes Q. B.
10. K. P. one sq.
11. Q. P. takes P.
12. K. Kt. P. one sq.
13. K. Kt. P. takes P.
14. Q. takes P.
15. Q, Kt. to Q. 2d sq.
16. Q- Kt. P. two sqrs.
17. Q. Kt. to K. 4th sq.
18. B. to K. 3d sq.
19. B. to ad. Q. B. 4th sq.
20. Q. R. P. two sqrs.
21. Q. R. P. one sq.
22. P. takes B.
23. Kt. to ad. Q. 3d sq. chg.
24. Q, R. to Q. Kt. sq.
25. Kt. takes Q. Kt. P.
26. Q. R. P. one sq.
27. R. takes Kt.
28. K. R. to K. R. 2d sq.
29. K. R. to Q. Kt. 2d sq.
30. Q. takes Q. B. P.
1. K. P. two squares.
2. K. P. takes K. B. P.
3. K. Kt. P. two sqrs.
4. K. B. to K. Kt. 2d sq.
5. K. R. P. one sq.
6. Q. P. one sq.
7. Q. B. P. one sq.
8. Q. B. to K. 3d.
9. K. B. P. takes B.
10. Q. P. takes K. P.
11. Q. Kt. to Q. 2d sq.
12. K. Kt. P. one sq.
13. K. Kt. P. takes Kt.
14. Q. to K. 2d sq.
15. K. castles with Q. R.
16. K. R. P. one sq.
17. Q. Kt. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
18. K. Kt. to K. R. 3d sq.
19. Q. to Q. B. 2d sq.
20. K. B. to its own sq.
21. B. takes B.
22. Q. Kt. to Q. 2d sq.
23. K. to Q. Kt. sq.
24. Q. Kt. takes P. at Q. B.
4th sq.
25. Q. Kt. takes Kt.
26. K. to Q. R. sq.
27. Q. to Q. B. sq.
28. Q. R. to Q.’s 2d sq.
29. K. R. to K. R. 2d sq.
30. Q. takes Q.
31. Q. R. to ad. Q. Kt. sq. giving check-mate.
Fourth Game.
10.
11.
12.
This is an example of Cunningham’s gambit.
K. P. two sqrs.
K. B. P. two sqrs.
K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
K. B. to Q. B. 4 sq.
K, Kt. P. one sq.
K. castles.
K. to K. R. sq.
K. B. takes K. B. P. chg.
Kt. to ad. K. 4th sq. chg.
and discovering check
from R.
Q. to K. Kt. 4th sq. chg. 10. K. takes Kt.
Q. to ad. K. B.4th sq.chg. 11. K. to his Q. 3d sq
Q. to ad. Q. 4th sq. giving check-mate.
Fifth Game.
This is an example of Salvio’s gambit
1. K. P. two sqrs.
2. K. P. takes K. B. P.
3. K. B. to K. 2d sq.
4. K. B. to ad. K. R. 4 chg.
5. P. takes P.
6. K. P. takes ad. K. R. P.
7. K. B. to K. 2d sq.
8. K. takes B.
9. K. to his 3d sq.
6. K.
7. K.
8. Q.
9. Q.
10. K.
11. K.
12. K.
13. K.
14. Q.
White.
to his B.’s sq.
B. takes K. B. P. chg.
P. two sqrs.
to K. 2d sq.
R. P. takes K. Kt.
to his B.’s 2d.
takes P.
Kt. to ad. Q. B. 3d. sq
chg.
K. sq. giving check-mate.
Black.
6. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
7. K. to Q. sq.
8. K. Kt. takes K. P.
9. K. Kt. to*ad. K. Kt. 3d
sq. chg.
10. Q. takes K. R. chg.
11. P. takes P. chg.
12. Q. takes Q. B.
13. Kt. or P. takes K. Kt.
life*
to ad.
Sixth Game.
This is an example of the Muzio gambit. This mode of
opening a game is at present very much practised among
the leading chess-players in London.
1. K. P. two sqrs.
2. K. B. P. two sqrs.
3. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
4. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
5. King castles.
6. Q. takes P.
7. K. P. one sq.
8. Q. P. one sq.
9. Q. B. to Q. 2d sq.
10. Q. Kt. to B. 3d sq.
11. Q. R. to K. sq.
12. K. to his R.’s sq.
13. Q. to ad. K. R.’s 4 sq.
14. K. B. takes P.
15. Kt. takes P.
16. Q. B. to Q. Kt. 4th.
17. B. takes Kt.
L K. P. two sqrs.
2. K. B. P. two sqrs.
3. K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
L K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
K. Kt. to adv. K. 4th sq.
1. K. P. two sqrs.
2. K. P. takes P.
3. K. Kt. P. two sqrs.
4. K. Kt. P. one sq.
5. Q. to ad. K. R. 4th sq.
chg.
chg.
1,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Seventh Game.
This is an example of Damiano's gambit.
K. P. two sq.
K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
K. Kt. takes K. P.
Q. to ad.K. R.4th sq.chg.
Q. takes K. P. chg.
K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq. chg.
Q. toad. Q. B. 4th sq.chg.
Q. P. two sqrs. chg.
K. R. P. two sqrs.
Q. to ad. K. B. 2d sq. chg,
K. R. P. takes P. giving check-mate.
1. K. P. two sq.
2. K. B. P. one sq.
3. K. B. P. takes K. Kt.
4. K. to his 2d sq.
5. K. to K. B. 2d sq.
6. K. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
7. K. to K. R. 3d sq.
8. K. Kt. P. two sqrs.
9. K. to K. Kt. 2d sq.
10. K. to K. R. 3d sq.
Eighth Game.
We shall conclude our examples by giving the fifth and last
game of the match between the London and Edinburgh
Chess Clubs. It is one of the most singular and inte-
Chess.
1. K. P. two sqrs.
2. P. takes P.
3. K. Kt. P. two sqrs.
4. K. Kt. P. one sq.
5. P. takes Kt.
6. Q. to K. B. 3d sq.
7. Q. takes K. P.
8. K. B. to K. R. 3d sq.
9. K. Kt. to K. 2d sq.
10. Q. B. P. one sq.
11. Q. to Q. B. 4th sq. chg.
12. Q. P. two sqrs.
13. Q. to her 3d sq.
14. P. takes B.
15. Q. Kt. to B. 3d sq.
16. Q. to K. Kt. 3d, offering
an exchange of Queens.
17. Ifhe should take Q. with
Q., you give him check-mate by playing Kt. to ad.
K. B. 3d sq.; taking B. with Kt. would be bad,
therefore he plays B. to K. 3d sq.
18. Q. to K. B. 3d. 18. Kt. takes B.
19. Kt. to ad. Q. B. 2d. chg. 19. K. to Q. 2d sq.
20. Kt. takes B. 20. P. takes Kt.
21. Q. takes Q. Kt. P. chg. 21. K. to Q. 3.
22. You may draw the game by constantly checking, and
keeping adv. K. to Q. 2d or Q. 3d sq., neither of
which squares he can quit without losing his knight,
by which he would have the worst of the game. If
not satisfied with a drawn game, you may at your
22d move play Q. B. P. two squares, having an
excellent game. It would take up too much space
for us to continue the analysis.
516
Chess.
C H ESS.
resting games on record. It is an example of what is
called the “ Queen’s Pawn Two” Game. The white
men represent Edinburgh, the black London.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
- 29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52
White.
K. P. two sqrs.
K. Kt. to K. B. 3d sq.
Q. P. two sqrs.
Kt. takes Kt.
Q. takes P.
K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
Q. to adv. Q. 4th sq.
Kt. to Q. B. 3d sq.
Q. B. to Q. 2d sq. 9-
K. B. to adv. Q. Kt. 4th 10.
sq.
Q. to Q. B. 4th sq.
K. castles with K. R.
Q. to Q. 3d sq.
Q. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
Kt. takes B.
Kt. to Q. B. 3d sq.
B. to adv. K. Kt. 4th
Q. Kt. P. one sq.
B. to Q. B. sq.
K. R. P. takes Q.
, P. takes Kt.
Q. R. to Q. Kt. sq.
, K. R. to Q. sq.
, Q. R. to Q. Kt. 3d sq
, K. B. P. one sq.
. P. takes P.
. P. to K. Kt. 4th sq.
. B. to K. B. 4th sq.
B. takes Q. P. 29.
Q. R. to Q. R. 3d sq. 30.
B. to adv. Q. B. 2d sq. 31.
K. R. to adv. Q. sq. chg. 32.
R. to ad. Q. B. sq. 33.
34
35,
36
37
38
39
K. to K. R. 2d sq.
K. to K. R. 3d sq.
B. to K. R. 2d sq.
P. to K. B. 4th sq.
P. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
Q. R. to K. 3d sq.
P. to adv. K. Kt. 4th sq. 40.
K. to K. Kt. 4th sq. 41.
K. to K. B. 3d sq. 42.
K. to K. 4th sq. 43.
R. to adv. Q. B. 2d sq. chg. 44.
K. to ad. K. 4th sq. 45.
K. to adv. K. B. 3d sq. 46.
K. takes K. Kt. P. 47.
R. to adv. K. Kt. 2d sq. 48.
chg.
K. to adv. K. R. 3d sq. 49.
Q. R. to adv. K. 3d sq. 50.
K. R. to adv. K. It. 2d 51.
sq. chg.
Q. R. to adv. K. Kt. 3d 52.
sq. chg.
Black.
1. K. P. two sqrs.
2. Q. Kt. to Q. B. 3d sq.
3. Q. Kt. takes P.
4. P. takes Kt.
5. K. Kt. to K. 2d sq.
6. Kt. to Q. B. 3d sq.
7. Q. to K. B. 3d sq.
8. K. B. to ad. Q. Kt. 4th
sq.
Q. P. one sq.
Q. B. to Q. 2d sq.
11. K. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
12. K. castles with K. It.
13. Kt. to K. 4th sq.
14. B. takes B.
15. Q. B. P. one sq.
16. Kt. to adv. Q. B. 4 sq.
sq. 17. Q. to K. Kt. 3d sq.
18. K. B. P. one sq.
19. Q. takes Q.
20. B. to adv. Q. 4th sq.
21. B. takes Kt.
22. Q. Kt. P. one sq.
23. Q. R. to K. sq.
24. B. to Q. R. 4th sq.
25. K. B. P. one sq.
26. Q. R. to adv. K. 2d sq.
27. R. takes Q. B. P.
28. R. takes P. at ad. Q. B.
4th sq.
K. R. to K. sq.
K. R. P one sq.
K. R. to K. 2d sq.
K. to K. R. 2d sq.
Q. R. to adv. Q. B. sq.
chg.
K. R. to adv. K. sq.
R. to adv. K. R. sq. chg.
B. to adv. Q. B. 3d sq.
B. to adv. Q. 2d sq.
B. to Q. It. 4th sq.
Q. R. to adv. Q. B.2d sq.
K. R. takes B. chg.
K. R. P. one sq. chg.
K. R. to adv. K. B. 2d
sq. chg.
K. Kt. P. one sq.
K. to K. Kt. sq.
Q. R. to Q. B. 4th sq.
chg.
Q. R. takes P. chg.
R. to K. B. sq.
K. to K. R. sq.
White. Black.
53. Q. R. takes Q. B. P. 53. Q. R. to Q. B. 4th sq.
54. Q. R. to adv. K. B. 3d sq. 54. K. to K. sq.
chg.
55. P. to adv. K. Kt. 3d sq. 55. Q. R. to adv. Q. B. 3d sq.
56. P. to K. Kt. 4th sq. 56. B. to K. B. sq. chg.
57. Q. R. takes B. chg. 57. K. takes R.
58. P. to adv. K. Kt. 2d sq. 58. K. to K. B. 2d sq.
chg.
69. R. to adv. K. R. sq. 59. R. to Q. B. 3d sq. chg.
60. K. to adv. K. R. 2d sq.
At this point the London Club resigned the game and
lost the match.
It is stated in the report of the match by the Edinburgh
committee, that the match, which was played by corre¬
spondence, was begun on the 23d of April 1824, and finish¬
ed on the 31st of July 1828. The first and third games
were drawn, the fourth was won by the London Club,
and the second and fifth were won by the Edinburgh Club.
METHODS OF GIVING CHECK-MATE.
1. TFi(/t a Rook and King against a King.
Situation of the Pieces.
King at adv. King’s 4th sq. King at his second sq.
King’s Rook at its own sq.
Cht
"'"‘YV
1. R. to ad. K. It. 2d sq.
chg.
2. K. to ad. K. 3d sq.
3. R. to ad. K. Kt. 2d sq.
4. K. to ad. Q. 3d sq.
5. K. to ad. Q. B. 3d sq.
6. K. to ad. Q. Kt. 3d sq.
1. K. to his sq.
2. K. to his Q. sq.
3. K. to Q. B. sq.
4. K. to Q. Kt. sq.
5. K. to Q. R. sq.
6. K. to Q. Kt. sq.
2. K. to Q. R. 2d sq.
3. K. to Q. R. sq.
4. K. to Q. R. 2d sq.
5. K. to Q. R. sq.
6. K. to Q. R. 2d sq.
7. R. to ad. K. Kt. sq. giving check-mate
2. With two Bishops and a King against a King.
Situation of the Pieces.
King at ad. Q. Kt. 4th sq. King at Q. Kt.’s sq.
K. B. at ad. K. B. 4th sq.
Q. B. at ad. King’s 2d sq.
1. Q. B. to ad. Q. 3d sq. 1. K. to Q. Kt. 2d sq.
chg.
2. K. B. to ad. Q. 2d sq.
3. K. B. to ad. Q. B. sq.
4. K. to ad. Q. B. 3d sq.
5. K. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq.
6. K. B. to ad. K. Kt. 2d
sq. chg.
7. Q. B. to ad. Q. B. 4th sq. giving check-mate.
3. With a Bishop, Knight, and King, against a King.
This is perhaps the most difficult check-mate, and, it
may also be added, the most beautiful.
Situation of the Pieces.
B. to adv. Q. Kt. 4th sq.
Q. R. to K. B. 4th sq.
K. to K. Kt. sq.
K. to K. B. sq.
King at ad. K. B. 3d sq.
K. B. at ad. K. B. 4th sq.
Kt. at ad. K. Kt. 4th sq.
1. Kt. to ad. K. B. 2d sq.
chg.
2. B. to K. 4th sq.
3. B. to ad. K. R. 2d sq.
4. Kt. to advK. 4th sq.
King at K. R.’s sq.1
1. K. to K. Kt. sq.
2. K. to K. B. sq.
3. K. to his own sq.
> The king cannot be check-mated at this corner of the board. He must be forced over to a corner square, subject to the action of
the bishop.
White.
First Defence.
CHESS.
4. K. to
5. K. to
6. K. to
7. K. to
8. K. to
5. Kt. to ad. Q. 2d sq. chg.
6. K. to ad. K. 3d sq.
7. K. to ad. Q. 3d sq.
8. B. to ad. K. Kt. 3d sq.
• chg.
9. Kt. to ad. Q. B. 4th sq. 9. K. to
10. B. to ad. K. B. 2d sq. 10. K. to
11. Kt. to ad. Q. Kt. 2d sq. 11. K. to
chg.
12. K. to ad. Q. B. 3d sq. 12. K. to
13. K. to ad. Q. Kt. 3d 13. K. to
14. B. to ad. K. 3d sq. chg. 14. K. to
15. Kt. to ad. Q. B. 4th. 15. K. to
16. B. to ad. Q.’s 2d sq. 16. K. to
17. Kt. to ad. Q. R. 3d sq. 17. K. to
chg.
18. B. to ad. Q. B. 3d sq. giving check-mate.
Second Defence.
Black.
K. B. sq.
his own sq.
Q.’s sq.
his own sq.1
Q.’s sq.
Q. B. sq.
Q. sq.
Q. B. sq.
Q. Kt. sq.
Q. B. sq.
Q. Kt. sq.
Q. R.’s sq.
Q. Kt. sq.
Q. R. sq.
5. K. to ad. K. 3d sq.
6. Kt. to ad. Q. 2d sq.
7. B. to Q. 3d sq.
8. B. to ad. Q. Kt. 4th sq.
9. Kt. to ad. K. 4th sq.
10. Kt. to Q. B. 4th sq.
11. K. to ad. Q. 3d sq.
12. Kt. to ad. Q. R. 4th.
13. Kt. to ad. Q. Kt. 2d sq.
chg.
14. K. to ad. Q. B. 3d sq.
15. Kt. to ad. Q. 3d sq.
16. K. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq.
17. B. to Q. B. 4th sq.
18. Kt. to ad. Q. B. sq. chg.
4. K. to Q.
5. K. to Q.
6. K. to Q.
7. K. to Q.
8. K. to Q.
9. K. to Q.
10. K. to Q.
11. K. to Q.
12. K. to Q.
13. K. to Q.
14,
15
K. to Q.
K. to Q.
16. K. to Q.
17. K. to Q.
18. K. to Q
sq.
B. 2d sq.
B. 3d sq.
B. 2d sq.
sq.
B. 2d sq.
sq.
B. sq.
sq.
B. sq.
Kt. sq.
R. 2d sq.
R. sq.
R. 2d sq.
R. sq.
19. B. to ad. R. 4th sq. giving check-mate,
4. mt/i a Queen and King against a Rook and King.
Situation of the Pieces.
King at ad. K. B. 3d sq.
Queen at ad. K. sq.
1. Q. to K. 4th sq. chg.
2. Q. to ad. Q. R. sq. chg.
3. Q. to ad. K. sq.2
King at K. R. 2d sq.
Rook at K. Kt. 2d sq.
Black.
5. K. to K. R. 2d sq.3
6. K. to K. Kt. sq.
7. K. to K. R. 2d sq.
8. K. to K. Kt. sq.
9. K. to K. B. sq.
White.
5. Q. to ad. Q. B. sq. chg.
6. Q. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq.
chg.
7. Q. to ad. Q. Kt. sq. chg.
8. Q. to K. R. 2d sq. chg.
9. Q. takes R. chg. ^ 0
10. Q. to ad K. Kt. 2d sq. chg. 10. K. to his own sq.
It. Q. to ad. K. 2d sq. giving check-mate.
o. With a Rook, Bishop, and King, against a Rook and
King.
Situation of the Pieces.
K. at ad. K. 3d sq. K. at his sq.
R. at Q B. sq. R. at Q. 2d sq.
B. at ad. K. 4th sq.
1. R. to ad. Q. B. sq. chg.
2. R. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq.
3. R. to ad. Q. Kt. 2d sq.
4. R. to ad. K. Kt. 2d sq.
1. R. to Q. sq.
2. R. to ad. Q. 2d sq.
3. R. to ad. Q. sq.
1. K. to R. sq. or to Kt. sq.
2. K. to K. R. 2d sq.
•\r p QA x . 3. If he should play K. to
K. R. 3d, you play Q. to ad. K. B. sq. and at your
neit move you gain his Rook. ^
U he should play his R. to your K. Kt. 4th, you play Q.
Rook KT,R-/th,S<I- ,ch“ki"g> gain the
4 Qtv he ^la^s R- t0 ad- K- Kt. 3d.
5 ft0 ^ s/F chS- 4. K. to K. Kt. sq.
5. Q. to Q. B. 4th sq. chg. 5. K. to K. R. sq. or to K.
7’ O 5‘4?1 Sq‘ chS- 6* K-^ Kt. sq.
ft n !akej R* chS- 7- K. to K. B. sq?
If lJ\t0iad' 9.Kt glving check-mate.
had, at his third move, played R. to your K. Kt.
ci, you wou d have checked with your Q. at K. 4th
sq. gaming the Rook.
Yo IT be 3‘ t0 ad- K- Kt. sq.
• Q- to ad. Q. 2d sq. chg. 4. K. to K. R. sq.
First Defence.
c r> , , t» «i 4. K. to K. B. sq.
5. R. o ad. K. R. 2d sq. 5. R. to ad. K. Kt. sq.
’ Rkt T,'Q'B'2d ft i6'If he were t0 p'ay K- •<
Kt. sq. you would check with R. at ad. Q B so
driving l„s K. to K. R. 2d; then check with R. It
ad. K. It. sq.; then, when he moved his K. to K. Kt
3d sq. you would check with Rook at ad. K. Kt. so.'
gaining his Rook. To avoid this consequence he plays
7 Tt ori f tj o i R. to K. Kt. 3d sq. chg.
7. B. to ad. K. B. 3d sq. 7. K. to Kt. sq. *
8. R. to ad. Q. B. sq. chg. 8. K. to K. K. 2d sq.
y. it. to ad. K. R. sq. giving check-mate.
Second Defence.
k -q , tt- tt' n i 4. R. to ad. K. B. sq.
’ ’ tT^T3^t’ 3(? Sq‘ lie were t0 P^y K. to
K. 13. sq., he would ultimately be check-mated, as
shown below. At present he plays
an* i^oi B. to ad. K. B. 3d sq.
6. B. to ad. Q. 3d sq. * " . , . 'i
7. B. to ad. K. 4th sq.
8. R. to ad. K. 2d sq. chg.
9. R. to ad. Q. 2d sq.
6. R. to ad. K. 3d sq. che
7. R. to ad. K. B. 3d sq.
8. K. to K. B. sq.
9. K. to K. Kt. sq.
10. K. to K. B. sq.
11. K. to his sq.
12. K. to K. B. sq.
10. R. to ad. K. Kt. 2d sq,
chg.
11. R. to K. Kt. 4th sq.
12. B. to K. B. 4th sq. LU ±v>
13. B. to ad. Q. 3d sq., or to 13. K. to his sq.
ad. K. R. 3d sq. chg.
14. R. to ad. K. Kt. sq. chg. 14. R. interposes,
io. R. takes R. giving check-mate.
Supposing him to have played differently at his fifth mov
of the second defence, he would still have bee;
check-mated. Thus,
6. R. to K. Kt. 4th sq.
7. R. to Q. B. 4th sq.
8. B. to K. R. 4th sq.
9. B. to ad. K. B. 3d sq.
10. B. to ad. K. 4th sq.
11. R. to K. R. 4th sq
12. R. to ad. K. R.sq. giving check-mate.
5. K. to K. B. sq.
6. K. to his own sq.
7. R. to ad. Q. sq.
8. K. to K. B. sq.
9. R. to ad. K. sq. chg.
10. K. to K. Kt. sq.
11. K. to K. B. sq.
2 The Sq- he would have been check-mated in fewer moves.
Moves. therpfvJk now in IjreciscIJ the same situation as at first, with this difference, that Black has rr, ...
3 If he had^p^s ^ the T/T °f the move from thereto The BlackT TheSe
P ed his Hook, you would have given him check-mate by playing Queen to King’s Rook’s 3d sq.
518
Chess.
CHESS.
Method of Playing a King and Pa wn against a King.
Situation.
White-
King at his 4th sq.
Pawn at ad. King’s 4th sq.
1. K. to Q. 4th sq.
2. K. to ad. Q. 4th sq.
3. P. to ad. K. 3d sq. chg.
4. K. to ad. K. 4th sq
Black.
King at his 3d sq.
1. K. to his 2d sq.
2. K. to Q. 2d sq.
3. K. to his 2d sq.
to au. iv. .4. 4. If he were to play King
to his Queen’s square, he would lose the game, as
shown below ; therefore he plays K. to his sq.
5. K. to ad. Q. 3d sq. 5 K. to Q- sq.
6. If you push the Pawn, he will play King to Ins own
square, and then you must either play your King to
adv. King’s third square, giving stale-mate, or play
your King away from the support of the 1 awn; in
either of which cases the game will be drawn.
If he had played differently at his fourth move he would
have lost the game.
5. K. to ad. Q. 3d sq.
G. P. to ad. K. 2d sq.
7. K. to ad. Q. 2d sq
Thus,
4. K. to Q. sq.
5. K. to his sq.
G. K. to K. B. 2d sq.
7. K. where he may.
8. P. to ad. King’s sq. becoming a Queen
Example of a Smothered Mate.
Situation of the Pieces.
K. at Q. Kt. sq.
K. at K. R. sq. K. R. at its own sq.
Q. at ad. K. B. 3d sq. Q. R. at Q. sq.
Kt. at ad. Q. 4th sq. Q* R* I • at Q. IK 2d sq.
K. R. P- at K. R. 2d sq. Q* Kt- P. at Q. Kt. 2d sq
1. Q. to ad. K. 4th sq. chg. 1. K. to Q. R. sq.
2. Kt. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq. chg. 2. K. to Q. Kt. sq.
3. Kt. to ad. Q. R. 3d sq. chg. 3. K. to Q. it. sq.
4. Q. to ad. Q. Kt. sq. chg. 4. Q. R. takes Q.
5. Kt. to ad. Q. B. 2d sq. giving check-mate.
The following curious problem was suggested by a near rela¬
tive of one of our most illustrious naval heroes :
Situation.
K. at K. B. 4th sq. K. at Q. Kt. sq.
Q. at ad. K. B. 2d sq. P- at Q. B. 2d sq.
K. R. at Q. B. 4th sq. P- at Q. B. 3d sq.
Q. R. at Q. R. 4th sq. P- at Q. B. 4th sq.
K. B. at ad. K. B. 4th sq. P. at Q. R. 2d sq.
Q. B. at ad. K. B. 3d sq. P. at Q. R. 3d sq.
Q. Kt. P. at Q. Kt. 3d sq. P. at Q. R. 4th sq.
White engages to check-mate Black with the Knights
Pawn in eleven moves, without taking any of the black
pawns.
It may be done in ten moves, thus :
1. Q. to ad. K. sq. chg. 1. K. to Q. Kt. 2d sq.
2. Q. to ad. Q. B. sq. chg. 2. K. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
3. K. B. to Q. 3d sq. 3. K. to Q. Kt. 4th sq.
4 Q. B. to K. R. 4th sq. 4. K. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
5. Q. B, to K. B. 2d sq. 5. K. to Q. Kt. 4th sq.
6. Q. R. to Q. R. 3d sq. G. K. to Q. Kt. 3d sq.
7. K. It. to K. 4th sq. 7. P. to ad. Q. R. 4th sq.
being his only move.
8. Q. to ad. Q. Kt. sq. chg. 8. K. to Q. R. 4th, his only
move.
9. Q. B. to K. 3d sq. 9. P. to ad. Q. B. 4th sq. his
only move.
10. P. to Q. Kt. 4th sq. giving check-mate.
If Black had played otherwise at his sixth move, check- Ch«
mate would have given in nine moves, thus:
White. Black.
6. P. to ad. Q. It. 4th sq.
7. Q. to ad. Q. Kt. sq. chg. 7. K. to Q. R. 4th sq.
8. K. It. to K. 4th sq. 8. P. to ad. Q. B. 4th sq.
being his only move.
9. P. to Q. Kt. 4th sq. giving check-mate.
Sarasin has an express treatise on the different oninions
as to the origin of the word schacchi, whence the French
echecs and our chess is formed. Menage is also very full
on the same head. Leunclavius supposes it to come from
mooches, famous Turkish robbers; P. Sirmond from the
German schache, theft, and that again from calculus. He
takes chess to be the same with the ludus latrunculorum
of the Romans, but erroneously. This opinion is counte¬
nanced by Vossius and Salmasius, who derive the word
from calculus, as used for latrunculus. G. Tolosanus de¬
rives it from the Hebrew search, volavit, and mat, mor-
tuus ; whence check and check-mate. Fabricius says a cele¬
brated Persian astronomer, one Schatrenscha, invented
the game of chess, and gave it his own name, which it
still bears in that country. Nicod derives it from schecque,
or xeque, a Moorish word for lord, king, and prince. Bo-
chart adds that scach is originally Persian ; and that scach-
mat in that language signifies the king is dead, fhe opi¬
nion of Nicod and Bochart, which is likewise that of ben-
verius, appears the most probable.
With regard to the origin of the game of chess we are
much in the dark. Though it came to us from the Sara¬
cens, it is by no means probable that they were the origi¬
nal inventors of it. According to some, it was invented
by the celebrated Grecian hero Diomedes. Others say
that two Grecian brothers, Ledo and Tyrrheno, were the
inventors ; and that being much pressed with hunger, they
sought to alleviate the pain by this amusement. Accou-
ins to Mr Irwin, it is a game of Chinese invention. Dur¬
ing his residence in India he found that a tradition of this
nature existed among the Brahmins, with whom he fre¬
quently played the game. But according to Sir \Vilham
Jones, this game is of Hindoo invention. “ If evidence
were required to prove this fact,” says he,1 “ we may be
satisfied with the testimony of the Persians,_ who, though
as much inclined as other nations to appropriate the inge¬
nious inventions of a foreign people, unanimously agree
that the game was imported from the west of India m the
sixth century of our era. It seems to have been immemo-
rially known in Hindostan by the name of Cheturanga,i.e.
the four angas, or members of any army; which are these,
elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers; and in tn
sense the word is frequently used by epic poets in their
description of real armies. By a natural corruption o the
pure Sanscrit word, it was changed by the old l£*s a
into Chetrang; but the Arabs, who soon after took posse
sion of their country, had neither the initial nor final
ter of that word in their alphabet, and consequently a
it further into Shetranj, which found its way Fesent J .
the modern Persian, and at length into the dialects o
dia, where the true derivation of the name is known only
the learned. Thus has a very significant word in t
cred language of the Brahmins been trfnsfo1 ^ed ^fl bv
cessive changes into axidrez, scacchi, echecs, a ’2
a whimsical concurrence of circumstances, has gi
to the English word check, and even a name to
^The"game'of chess lias been generally practisedby.be
1 Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. mem. 9.
CHE
ss greatest warriors and generals; and some have even sup¬
posed that it was necessary for a military man to be well
ter- skilled in this game. It is a game which has something
r**' in it peculiarly interesting. We read that Tamerlane was
a great chess-player, and was engaged in a game during
the very time of the decisive battle with Bajazet the
Turkish emperor, who was defeated and taken prisoner.
It is also related of A1 Amin, the caliph of Bagdad, that
he was engaged at chess with his freedman Kuthar at the
time when A1 Mamun’s forces wrere carrying on the siege
of that city with so much vigour that it was on the point
of being carried by assault. In a battle between the
French and English in 1117, an English knight having
seized the bridle of Louis le Gros, and crying to his com¬
rades, “ The king is taken! ” the king struck him to the
ground with his sword, saying, “ Ne s^ais-tu pas qu’aux
echecs on ne prend pas le roi ?” Dr Hyde quotes an
Arabic history of the Saracens, in which the caliph is said
to have cried out, when warned of his danger, “ Let me
alone, for I see check-mate against Kuthar !” We are told
that Charles I. was at chess when news were brought of
the final intention of the Scotch to give him up to the Eng¬
lish ; but so little was he disturbed by this alarming intelli¬
gence, that he continued his game with the utmost com¬
posure, so that no person could have known that the let¬
ter he received had given him information of any thing
remarkable. King John was playing at chess when the
deputies from Rouen came to acquaint him that their city
was besieged by Philip Augustus ; but he would not hear
them until he had finished his game.
The following remarkable anecdote we have from Dr
Robertson in his history of Charles Y. John Frederic,
elector of Saxony, having been taken prisoner by Charles,
was condemned to death. The decree was intimated to
him while at chess with Ernest of Brunswick, his fellow
prisoner. After a short pause, and making some reflec¬
tion on the irregularity and injustice of the emperor’s pro¬
ceedings, he turned to his antagonist, whom he challenged
to finish the game. He played with his usual ingenuity
and attention; and having beat Ernest, expressed all the
satisfaction that is commonly felt on gaining such victo¬
ries. He was not, however, put to death, but set at li¬
berty after five years’ confinement.
Chess seems to have been in vogue at the court of
Queen Elizabeth. Sir Walter Raleigh used to say that
he did not wish to live longer than he could play at chess.
Sir Charles Blount, afterwards Earl of Devonshire, having
distinguished himself at a tilt, received from that princess
a present of a chess-queen of gold enamelled, which he
tied round his arm with a crimson riband. This favour
from the queen produced a duel betwixt him and the
Earl of Essex.
Charles XII. of Sweden was fond of the game ; but he
was not a successful player, in consequence of his making
the king take too active a share in the contest. To this
day a chess-king who advances too boldly into the fight
is called Charles XII.
In the Chronicle of thq Moorish Kings of Granada we
CHEST, in commerce, a kind of measure, containing
an uncertain quantity of several commodities. A chest of
sugar, for instance, contains from ten to fifteen hundred¬
weight ; a chest of glass, from two hundred to three hun¬
dred feet; a chest of Castille soap, from two and a half to
three hundredweight; a chest of indigo, from one and a
naif to two hundredweight, five score to the hundred.
CHESTER, a city, the capital of the county of the
same name, in the hundred of Broxton. It is situated on
CHE 519
find it related, that in 1396 IVIehemed Baiba seized upon Chess
the crown in prejudice of his elder brother, and passed II
his life in one continual round of disasters. His wars Chester,
with Castille were invariably unsuccessful; and his death
was occasioned by a poisoned vest. Finding his case des¬
perate, he dispatched an officer to the fort of Salabreno to
put his brother Juzuf to death, lest that prince’s adherents
should form any obstacle to his son’s succession. The al-
cade found the prince playing at chess with an alfaqui or
priest. Juzut begged hard for two hours’ respite, which
was denied him; at last, with great reluctance, the offi¬
cer permitted him to finish the game; but before it was
finished a messenger arrived with the news of the death
of Mehemed, and the unanimous election of Juzuf to the
crown.
We have a curious anecdote of Ferrand, Count of Flan¬
ders, who, having been accustomed to amuse himself at
chess with his wife, and being constantly beaten by her,
a mutual hatred took place, which came to such a height,
that when the count was taken prisoner at the battle of
Bovines, she suffered him to remain a long time in prison,
though she could easily have procured his release.
Two Persians had engaged in such deep play, that the
whole fortune of one of them was gained by his opponent.
He who played the white was the ruined man ; and, made
desperate by his loss, offered his favourite wife as his last
stake. The game was carried on until he would have
been check-mated by his adversary next move. The lady,
who had observed the game from a window above, cried
out to her husband to sacrifice his castle and save his wife.
The game of chess has undergone considerable varia¬
tions since it was first invented. We have it on good
authority, that among the eastern nations the piece now
called the queen was formerly called the vizir or king’s mi¬
nister, and that the powers of the queen herself were but
very small. The chess-boards used by Tamerlane were
larger, and contained many more squares, than those at
present in use. Carrera invented two new pieces to be
added to the eight commonly in use. One of these, which
he calls Campione, is placed between the king’s knight
and castle ; the other, named Centaur, between the queen’s
knight and castle, has the move of the bishop and knight
united. This invention, however, did not survive its au¬
thor. In another of this kind the two additional pieces
are called the centurion and decurion ; the former situated
between the king and his bishop, in its move the same
with that of the queen, but only for two squares ; the lat¬
ter moves as the bishop, but only one square at a time.
This, like the former, died with its inventor. The chess¬
board of Tamerlane was a parallelogram, having eleven
squares one way and twelve the other. In the Memoirs
of the late Marshal Keith, we find it related that he in¬
vented an amusement something similar to that of chess,
with which the king of Prussia was highly entertained.
Several thousand small statues were cast by a founder;
and these were ranged opposite to each other as if they
had been drawn up in an army, making the different
movements with them as in real service in the field.
the river Dee, over which is a fine bridge of twelve arches.
The buildings are very antique, and the fronts of them have
wooden galleries projecting towards the street, under and
on which is a dry promenade in all weather. The cathe¬
dral has no particular attraction, but the chapter-house is
an object of great admiration. The see of the bishop ex¬
tends over Cheshire and Lancashire, and a part of West¬
moreland, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, with two parishes
in Denbighshire and five in Flintshire. The ancient walls
520 CHE
Chester are in a good state of preservation, and afford a pleasing
II promenade of nearly two miles in length. At Chester a
Chevreau. large pa;r was formerly held, to which the manufacturers
of linen brought their goods from Ireland. Of late some
cotton manufactories have been established. Ihe city is
governed by a mayor, recorder, twenty-four aldermen, and
forty common eouncilmen. Its shipping trade is inconsi¬
derable. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 17,302, in
1821 to 19,949, and in 1831 to 21,363.
Chester, a county of the state of Pennsylvania, west
of Delaware county, and south-west of Philadelphia. It
is about forty-five miles in length by thirty in breadth.
Chester is also the name of a number of towns and villages
of inferior note in the United States of America.
CHESTERFIELD, a market-town of the hundred of
Scarsdale, in the county of Derby, 150 miles from Lon¬
don, on a hill between two small rivers. It communicates,
by means of a recent canal, with the river Trent. It has
some manufactories of hosiery and of silk, and some spin¬
ning of cotton. The family of Stanhope derives the title
of Earl from this town. The inhabitants amounted in
1811 to 4476, in 1821 to 5077, and in 1831 to 10,688.
Chesterfield, Earl of. See Stanhope.
CHEVAL-de-Frise, a large piece of timber, pierced,
and traversed with wooden pikes, and five or six feet
long, armed or pointed with iron. The term is French,
and properly signifies a Friseland horse, this term having
been applied either from some conceived analogy between
the appearance of the shaggy horses of the country and
that of the instrument, or because it was first invented in
Friseland. Chevaux-de-frise are Osed to defend a pas¬
sage, stop a breach, or secure the avenues of a camp,
against both horse and foot. They are sometimes also
mounted on wheels with artificial fires, to roll down in
an assault. Chevaux-de-frise were first used at the siege
of Groningen in 1658.
CHEVALERj in the manege, is said of a horse when,
in passing upon a walk or trot, his off fore-leg crosses or
overlaps the near fore-leg every second motion.
CHEVALIER, a French term, ordinarily signifying a
knight. The word is formed from the French cheval, a
horse, and the barbarous Latin cavallus. It is used in
heraldry to signify any cavalier or horseman armed at all
points, and is the same as the Romans called cataphractus
eques.
CHEVAUX-de-Frise. See Cheval-de-Frise.
CHEVIOT, or Tiviot Hills, run from north to south
through Northumberland and Cumberland, and formerly
constituted the borders or boundaries between England
and Scotland, where many a bloody battle was fought be¬
tween the two nations, one of which is recorded in the
ballad of Chevy Chase. These hills are the first land dis¬
covered by sailors in coming to Scotland from the east.
CHEVREAU, Urban, a learned writer, born at Lou-
dun in 1613. He distinguished himself in his youth by
his knowledge of the belles-lettres, and became secretary
of state to Queen Christina of Sweden. Several German
princes invited him to their courts ; and Charles Louis,
the elector palatine, retained him under the title of coun¬
sellor. After the death of that prince he returned to
France, and became preceptor to the Duke of Maine. At
length retiring to Loudun, he died there in 1701, aged
eighty-eight. He was the author of a variety of works,
amongst which may be mentioned, 1. Considerations For-
tuites, and De la Tranquillite dFsprit, Paris, 1642, 8vo;
2, FEcole du Sage, or Le Characters des Vertus et des
Vices, Paris, 1664, 12mo ; 3. Lettres, Paris, 1642, 8vo; 4.
Scanderheg, 1644, 2 vols. 8vo; 5. Hermiogene, a romance
in two parts, 1648, 8vo ; 6. Tableau de la Fortune, Paris,
1651, 4to; 7. Poesies, 1656, 8vo ; 8. Histone du Monde,
CHE
Paris, 1686, 2 vols. 4to. Chevreau has been accused of Che
having taken his history without acknowledgment from il
the Theatrum Universum of Christian Mathias; but the
charge has not been substantiated. 'W"Y
CHEYNE, Dr George, a physician of great learning
and abilities, born in Scotland in 1671, and educated at
Edinburgh under Dr Pitcairn. He died at Bath in
1742, aged seventy-two. He wrote several treatises that
were well received; particularly an Essay on Health and
Long Life, and the English Malady, ora Treatise of Ner¬
vous Diseases; both the result of his own experience.
Fie is to be ranked among those physicians who have ac¬
counted for the operations of medicines, and the morbid
alterations which take place in the human body, upon me¬
chanical principles. A spirit of piety and of benevolence,
and an ardent zeal for the interests of virtue, are predo¬
minant throughout his writings; and he also displays an
amiable candour and ingeniousness which led him to re¬
tract with readiness whatever appeared to him to be cen¬
surable in his works. Some of the metaphysical notions
which he introduced into his writings may perhaps be
thought fanciful and ill-grounded; but an agreeable viva¬
city enlivens his productions, which also exhibit much open¬
ness and frankness, and in general very great perspicuity.
CHIABRERA, Gabriel, esteemed the Pindar of Ita¬
ly, was born at Savona, in the republic or state of Genoa,
in 1552, and went to study at Rome. The Italian princes
and Urban VIII. gave him public marks of their esteem.
He wrote a great number of poems ; but his lyric verses
are the most admired. He died at Savona in 1638, aged
eighty-six. The productions of Chiabrera may be thus
classed: 1. Four epic poems, entitled La Gotiade o delle
guerre de Goti, 15 cantos in ottava rima, Venice, 1583;
La Firenze, also in 15 cantos (in verso sciolto), Florence,
1615 ; FAmedeida, 23 cantos, in ottava rima, Genoa, 1620;
and 11 Ruggiero, 10 cantos, in verso sciolto, Genoa, 1653.
2. Less extensive poems entitled Poemetti, Florence, 1598,
4to. 3. A tragedy entitled Erminia, Genoa, 1622, 12mo.
4. Several pastoral comedies, or Favole Bascareccie; as,
Alcippo, Genoa, 1604 ; Gelopea, Venice, 1607; Meganira,
Florence, 1608. 5. Some musical dramas and other dra¬
matic compositions. 6. Several pieces formerly inedited,
which appeared towards the close of last century, entitled
Alcune Poesie di Gabriele Chiabrera, non mai prima d’ora
pubblicate, Genoa, 1794, 8vo.
CHIAPA, an intendancy of Mexico, is bounded on the
north by Tabasco, on the north-east by Yucatan, on the
west by Oaxaca and Vera Cruz, and on the south by So-
conusco. This province, lying alike contiguous to Mexico
and the central states, was claimed by both; but the
option being given to the inhabitants, Chiapa declared its
wish to join the Mexican union, while the district of So-
conusco adhered to the central federation. The climate
of this intendancy is hot and moist; but there are large
tracts of mountainous country covered with forests ol
cedar, cypress, pine, and walnut trees. In the lower re¬
gions there are also extensive wmods, in which the Ameri¬
can lion, the ounce, the wild boar, parrots of great beauty,
and numbers of serpents, abound. Goats, sheep, and pigs
of the European breed have greatly multiplied in this in¬
tendancy, and its horses are so highly esteemed that colts
are sent to Mexico. The chief productions are cotton,
cocoa, maize, cochineal, honey, and aromatic gums.
Chiapa contains one city, one town, and an immense
number of villages, with about 128,000 inhabitants, of
whom a great number are Indians. Near the borders of
Yucatan, the vestiges of a considerable Indian capital
were accidentally discovered about the middle of the last
century. They stand in the midst of a fertile and salu¬
brious tract of country, but which is almost entirely depo-
CHI
ipa pulated. The hieroglyphics, emblems, and architectural
remains, are of a highly interesting kind. The former are
ica said by a learned Spaniard to resemble the Egyptian,
cana Chiapa nos Espagnos, or Ciudad Real, the capital of
the intendancy, and an episcopal city, is situated in the
plain of Gueizacattan, about 130 leagues north-west of
the city of Guatimala. It contains only one parish, that
of the cathedral; but there are four convents, a nunnery,
a church dedicated to Our Lady of Charity, two other
chapels without the walls, and five for the Indians. It is
a place of some trade. The inhabitants are about 4000
in number. Long. 94. 16. W. Lat. 16. 35. N.
Chiapa dos Indos, the largest place in the whole pro¬
vince, and a very ancient vjjlage, is advantageously situ¬
ated in a valley near the banks of the river Tabasco. The
inhabitants are chiefly Indians, but they are reported to
be rich; and a great quantity of sugar is raised in the
district. The heat is excessive during the day, but the
nights are cool. This place enjoys many privileges, and
is rising into importance. The inhabitants are about 15,000
in number. Long. 93. 53. W. Lat. 17. 5. N.
CHIARAMONTE, a town of the intendancy of Sa-
ragosa, in the island of Sicily. It is in a healthy situ¬
ation, on the top of a mountain, has good buildings, and
contains 7000 inhabitants, who cultivate extensive vine¬
yards.
CHIARI, Joseph, a celebrated Italian painter, was the
disciple of Carlo Maratti, and adorned the churches and
palaces of Rome with a great number of fine paintings.
He died of apoplexy in 1727, aged seventy-three.
CHIARO Scuro. See Claro Obscuro.
CHIAVARI, a city of Italy, in the Sardinian province
of Genoa. It is situated in the Bay of Rapallo, where the
Sturla empties itself into the sea. It contains 7680 inha¬
bitants, who subsist by the fisheries, and by the cultivation
of wine, oil, and silk.
CHIAVENNA, a market-town of Italy, in the Austrian
delegation of Sondrio. It is situated on the river Maira,
where two roads over the Alps meet. It contains about
2800 inhabitants, who chiefly depend for subsistence on
the silk trade. Long. 9. 16. E. Lat. 46. 15. N.
CHIAUSI, among the Turks, officers employed in exe¬
cuting the viziers, pashas, and other great men. The
orders for this purpose are sent by the grand signior
wrapped up in a black cloth; on the reception of which
the chiausi immediately perform their office.
CHICA Nayakana Hully, a large square town of
Hindustan, in the province of Mysore, strongly fortified
with mud walls and cavaliers at the angles. In the
centre is a square citadel fortified in a similar manner.
The town contains about six hundred houses, eighty of
which are occupied by Brahmins. The houses are at pre¬
sent very mean and ruinous, and do not nearly occupy tire
whole space within the walls. There is a garden which
belongs to the government in great disorder, the appear¬
ance of which is destroyed by two banyan trees loaded with
large bats, which the people will not disturb. There wras
formerly a large suburb to the south of the town, which
about sixty years ago was destroyed by an invasion of the
Mahrattas. It was again plundered by a Mahratta leader
on his way to join Lord Cornwallis; and when the inha¬
bitants withdrew, they were enticed back by promises of
protection, and were put to the torture in order to extort
a discovery of their hidden treasures. During the remain¬
der of Tippoo’s reign the town continued to languish. It
possesses a small manufacture of coarse cotton cloth, and
has also a weekly fair, at which their goods, and the pro¬
duce of the numerous palm gardens in the neighbourhood,
are sold. Many of the inhabitants act as carriers, and
transport goods to different places. The name signifies
VOL. VI.
C II I 521
the town of the little chief, which was given to it by the Chicha-
Polygars, who fortified it three hundred years ago. cotta.
CHICHACOTTA, a town of Northern Hindustan, in „ II
the province of Bootan, not far from Cooch Bahar, in C^ief-
Bengal. It was taken in 1772 from the Booteas, who
defended it with great obstinacy; but with all their per¬
sonal courage they could not long contend with match¬
locks, sabres, and bows, against musketry and cannon. It
was restored at the conclusion of the war, and now con¬
stitutes the frontier between Bootan and Bengal.
CHICANE, or Chicanery, in Law, an abuse ofjudicial
proceeding, tending to delay the cause, to puzzle the judge,
or to impose upon the parties.
CHICHAS, a province of Bolivia, in the department of
Potosi, in South America. It is an elevated district, and
hence the climate is cold. Some parts of it, however,
enjoy a milder temperature, and accordingly the vegeta¬
tion is more abundant and varied. Grain and wine are in
such situations produced in considerable quantities ; but
this province derives its chief importance from its silver
mines, which have obtained celebrity on account of the
richness and abundance of their ores. The value of some
of these, however, is considerably lessened by being situ¬
ated in a barren and unproductive region, where water is
scarce.
CHICHESTER, a city, the capital of the county of
Sussex. It is a well-built town, consisting of four princi¬
pal streets, in the form of a cross, which are broad, well
paved, and handsome, and to which formerly four gates
corresponded. The situation is fine, in a fertile country
at the foot of the South Down range of hills, which afford
shelter from the north and east winds; and the small
river Levant washes it on all sides except the north.
The cathedral has nothing remarkable except a beautiful
spire three hundred feet in height. The see comprehends
the whole county of Sussex except twenty-two parishes,
which are peculiars. The haven is about a mile from the
city. The fishermen catch excellent lobsters, and espe¬
cially abundance of prawns. The city is governed by a
mayor, recorder, and thirty-eight common-council men,
from whom four aldermen are chosen as justices of the
peace. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 6425, in 1821
to 7362, and in 1831 to 8270.
CHICKLANA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Andalusia. It is most delightfully situated, on the river
Sante Pteri; and being but twelve miles from Cadiz, and
accessible either by land or by water, it is the place of
resort where the richer merchants have their country re¬
sidences. It contains about 8000 inhabitants, and some
very beautiful public and private buildings. The hills
that surround it abound with mines and springs of sulphu¬
rous impregnation, which are administered for many com¬
plaints. The field of Barrosa is about one mile from it,
and the object of the army who fought the gallant battle
there was to drive the French from the town, and there¬
by raise the siege of Cadiz.
CHICKOORY, a large and respectable town of Hin¬
dustan, in the territory of the Poonah Mahrattas. It has
an extensive bazar, and is pleasantly situated near a
rivulet. It has a manufactory of cloth, chiefly for the
dress of the country people, and is forty-five miles S.S.W.
from Merritch. Long. 74. 50. E. Lat. 16. 23. N.
CHIEF, a term signifying the head or principal part of
a thing or person. Thus we say, the chief of a party, the
chief of a family, and the like. The word is formed of the
French chef, head, from the Greek jcspaAjj, caput, head,
though Menage derives it from the Indian capo, formed
from the Latin caput.
Chief, in Heraldry, is that which occupies all the up¬
per part of the escutcheon from side to side, and repre-
3 u
C H 1
sents a man’s head. The phrase in chief, imports some¬
thing borne in the chief part or top of the escutcheon.
CHIEFTAIN denotes the captain or chief of any class,
family, or sept of men. Thus the chieftains or chiefs of
the Highland clans were the patriarchal and feudal heads
and captains of their respective clans or septs.
CHIERI, a city of Italy, in the province of Turin, and
kingdom of Sardinia. It is well built, and contains several
churches, monasteries, and nunneries, with 10,100 inha¬
bitants, who are employed in manulacturing cotton, silk,
and linen goods. It is a great mart for raw silk. Long.
7. 40. E. Eat. 44. 53. N.
CHIETI, or Civita di Chieti, a city of Italy, the
capital of the Neapolitan province Abruzzo Citeriore. It
is situated near Pescara, on an elevated spot, commanding
a fine prospect over the Adriatic. It is surrounded with
walls, has a cathedral and twelve churches, and many reli¬
gious and charitable institutions. It contains 12,600 inha¬
bitants, who carry on a considerable trade in wine, oil,
and other productions of the soil. Long. 14.43. E. Lat.
42. 42. N.
CHIGI, Fabio, or Pope Alexander VII. was born at
Sienna in 1599. His family finding him a hopeful youth,
sent him early to Rome, where he soon formed a friend¬
ship with the Marquis Pallavicini, who recommended him
so effectually to Pope Urban VIII. as to procure for him
the post of inquisitor at Malta. He was sent as vice-le¬
gate to Ferrara, and afterwards as nuncio into Germany,
where he had an opportunity of displaying his intriguing
genius; for he was mediator at Munster, in the long con¬
ference held there in order to conclude a peace with Spain.
Cardinal Mazarin cherished some resentment against
Chigi, who was soon afterwards made cardinal and secre¬
tary of state by Innocent X.; but this resentment was sa¬
crificed to political views. In 1665, when a pope was to
be chosen, Cardinal Sacchetti, Mazarin s great, friend,
finding it impossible for him to compass St Peter’s chair,
by reason of the powerful opposition made by the Spanish
faction, desired Cardinal Mazarin to consent to Chigi’s
exaltation. His request was granted, and Chigi was
elected pope by the votes of all the sixty-four cardinals
who were in the conclave; a unanimity of which there
C H I
are but few instances in the election of popes. There isChihuj
a volume of his poems extant. He was extremely fond of ||
stately buildings ; and the grand plan of the college Della
Sapienza, which he finished, and adorned with a fine library,
remains a proof of his taste in architecture. He died in
1667.
CHIHUAHUA, a district of Mexico, in the intendancy
of Durango, is bounded on the east by Cohahuila, on the
south by Durango, and on the west by Sinaloa and Sonora.
It contains several gold and silver mines, but being situated
in an elevated region, it suffers from want of water.
Chihuahua, the capital of the above province, is situ¬
ated on a small branch of the Conchos, 180 miles north¬
west of Mexico. This town is of an oblong rectangular
form, and contains several elegant churches, three mis¬
sions, a town-house, and other public edifices. There are
at Chihuahua fifteen mines, thirteen of which are of gold,
one of silver, and another of copper. About a mile to
the south of the town is a large aqueduct, which con¬
veys the water round it to the east, into the main stream
below the town, at the centre of which is a reservoir,
whence the water is conducted by pipes to the different
parts of the city. The principal church of this place is
considered as the most superb in New Spain. I he popu¬
lation amounts to about 11,000. Long. 107. 30. W. Lat.
29. N.
CHILBLAIN (pernio), in Medicine, a tumour affecting
the feet and hands, accompanied with an inflammation,
pains, and sometimes an ulcer, in which case it takes the
denomination of chaps on the hands, and of kibes on the
heels. Chilblain is compounded of drill and Main ; that
is, a blain or sore contracted by cold. Pernio is the
Latin name adopted by physicians, and is derived by Vos-
sius from perna, a gammon of bacon, on account of some
fancied resemblance. Chap alludes to gap, both in sound
and appearance. Kibes, in Welch kibws, may be derived
from the German kerben, to cut; the skin when broken ap¬
pearing like a cut.
CHILDERMAS-Day, or Innocents Day, an anniver¬
sary held by the church of England on the 28th of De¬
cember, in commemoration of the children of Bethlehem
massacred by order of Flerod.
CHILI.
The republic of Chili is situated on the western coast
of South America, between the Cordillera of the Andes
Bounda- and the Pacific Ocean. On its eastern side the lofty chain
ries. of the Andes separates it from the Argentine republic,
while the ocean forms its western boundary. lo the north
its boundary is formed by the river Salado in the desert of
Atacama, the northern part of which country is alone in¬
habited. On the south Chili is bounded by the river Bio¬
bio, which separates it from a fine country, inhabited by
the Araucanian Indians. There are, however, other ter¬
ritorial possessions of importance, which form an integral
part of the Chilian republic, although not contiguous to
that part which has been already alluded to, but somewhat
insulated. The province or rather fortress of Valdivia,
which is situated on the coast of the Pacific, in the Arau¬
canian country, is principally valuable on account of its
excellent harbour for shipping, and its admirable military
position. To the south of the Araucanian country are
situated the archipelago or islands of Chiloe, about eighty
in number, and producing many valuable articles of con¬
sumption and export. The beautiful and fertile island of
La Mocha is situated on the Araucanian coast; those of
Quiriquina and Santa Maria, near Conception, and the two
islands of Juan Fernandez, lie much farther to the north,
but at a greater distance from the coast.
The territory of Chili, therefore, independent of its de-Exter.
tached possessions, extends from 25° Sty to 37° 25' of
south latitude, and from 69° 40' to 74° of west longitude;
and its superficies may be estimated at about 23,000 square
leagues. The country which formerly constituted a part of
Chili extends from the Biobio to the 42d degree of south
latitude, and is inhabited by the Araucanian, Clinches, and
Pluilliches Indians. This country was at one period held in
military possession by the Spaniards, who constructed nu¬
merous forts, and some large and opulent cities ; but they
were at length driven from the country by the ol
the natives, and no traces now remain of these establish¬
ments. The archipelago of Chiloe commences where tns
territory ends, being only separated from it by an arm o
the sea, and extends to 44° south latitude. . , r
The colossal chain of the Cordillera of the Andes, which Moun-
separates the Chilian from the Argentine provinces, runs
in nearly a parallel direction with the coast of the Paci c
Ocean, the breadth of the intervening country varying
from 80 to 200 miles. The greatest elevation of these
mountains cannot exceed 17,000 feet above the leve o
U'
CHILL
the ocean, as snow can only be seen during the whole year
i in one or two very limited stations, except where shelter¬
ed by situation from the influence of the direct rays of the
sun. In the southern hemisphere, the same laws do not
appear to determine the line of perpetual snow as in the
northern; for observation proves that this line is much
higher in the corresponding latitudes of the former. On
the other hand, an idea of its least elevation may be form¬
ed from the observations of the writer, who has traversed
this chain in four different latitudes, and carefully mea¬
sured the height of the passes by means of barometrical
observations. He found the eastern or metalliferous range,
called Paramillo de Uspallata, which separates the exten¬
sive valley of Uspallata from the plains of Mendoza, to pos¬
sess an elevation of from 9500 to 10,000 feet; and the Cum-
bre, or central ridge, intervening between the valleys of the
rivers Mendoza and Aconcagua, on the Uspallata road, to
be 12,532 feet, the intervening valley of Uspallata being
6141 feet. By the Pass of the Portillo two lofty ridges
are also crossed, the one named El Portillo, of 14,360;
and the other El Portillo de los Peuquenes, of 13,310 feet
in height. From these the road leads into the valley of the
river Maypu, and the elevation of the intervening valley
of theTenuvan is 7530 feet. Between these two routes is
situated the lofty mountain of Tupungato, in latitude 33°
24' south, and nearly between the cities of Mendoza and
Santiago. It seems to be the highest of this part of the
Andes, as it is the first of the Chilian Andes which be¬
comes visible on the road from Buenos Ayres. In favour¬
able weather, about sunset, it is visible from the plaza of San
Luis de la Punta, distant eighty-two leagues east of Men¬
doza, and having an elevation above the sea of 2417 feet.
Although during certain periods of the year no snow is vi¬
sible on its summit from Mendoza, yet snow is known to
exist there at all seasons, as the supplies for the use of the
Mendozinos is derived from that source. To the south of
the passes of the Portillo and Peuquenes is situated the
volcanic mountain of Peuquenes or Maypu, which has ex¬
perienced a number of eruptions of ashes since the earth¬
quake of 1822. To the south of the volcano is situated
the Pass of the Cruz de Piedra, which unites with the
preceding in the valley of the Maypu. Farther south a
route little frequented unites the valleys of the rivers
Diamante and Cachapoal; and to the south of this is found
the volcano of Peteroa. The Pass of the Damas, to the
south of this volcano, is situated between the valley of
the river Atuel on the east, and that of the river Tingui-
ririca on the west, which issues from the mountains at
San Fernando. The highest lands traversed by this route
are El Llano de los Morros, of 11,651, and El Llano de los
Choicos, of 10,172 feet of elevation. The route by the
Planchon joins the preceding on the eastern side, at the
Atuel, and descends to Curico in Chili, by the valleys of
the rivers Claro and Teno. Its highest part, the Planchon,
although from an accidental circumstance it was not mea¬
sured, cannot exceed 10,000 feet in height, if an opinion
inay be formed from the comparative state of its vegetation.
Ihe celebrated mountain El Descabezado, or Blauquillo,
m 35° south latitude, wras visible at some distance to the
south of the Planchon, but no traces of snow could be seen.
On the summit of this mountain there is an extensive plain
of six miles diameter, with a deep lake in the centre, sup¬
posed to be an extinct volcano ; likewise a variety of fossil
shells—an occurrence by no means uncommon at this
great elevation, as similar fossil remains have been found in
abundance at the Puente del Inga, on the Uspallata route
to Chili, at an elevation of 8654 feet above the sea. Pro-
ceedingsouthwardfrom these points, the passes of the Andes
become more frequent and accessible, and less elevated,
until they reach the Straits of Magellan. On the north-
523
west side of the Pass of the Cumbre, on the Uspallata route, Chili,
is situated a mountain, called the Volcan de Aconcagua, to v—
the north of which are the passes of Los Patos and Puta-
endo, so celebrated as the route by which General San
Martin conveyed his army across the Andes for the libe¬
ration of Chili. There are only two well-known and fre¬
quented passes across the Andes to Chili north of this
place; the one being a communication between the city
of San Juan and Coquimbo and the other from La Rioja to
Coquimbo and Copiapo.
In the Chilian territory which intervenes between the
Cordillera of the Andes and the Pacific there are found
various parallel mountainous ranges, but of much less ele¬
vation. These are evidently offsets from the principal
chain, as the lines of communication can easily be traced
in many places. In the latitude of the capital of Chili,
Santiago, and the port of Valparaiso, the intervening lon¬
gitudinal ridges are three in number, which decrease in
height as they approach the ocean ; namely, La Cuesta
del Prado, 2543; La Cuesta de Zapata, 1850; and La Cuesta
de Valparaiso, 1261 feet; the intervening valleys of Sant¬
iago, Curicavi, and Casa Blanca, being 1700, 1560, and
743 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean.
All these ranges of mountains are intersected in many
places by valleys, which run nearly east and west, and
convey the waters of the numerous streams which flow
from the Cordillera, and intervening country, towards the
ocean. These valleys, and the still more spacious and ex¬
tensive ones which intervene between the parallel moun¬
tainous ridges, constitute the parts of the country which
are best suited for the purposes of agriculture, and conse¬
quently contain the principal population. In the northern
provinces, however, rivers and streams for the purposes of
irrigation are essential to the existence of agriculture and
population, as it rains so seldom and so sparingly that no
useful produce can otherwise be obtained.
The rivers of Chili are numerous, but, with few excep-Rivers,
tions, of small size, as they run only from the Andes to the
PacifiCf and have therefore a very limited course. They
are rapid in their course, until they reach the level coun¬
try. In the early months of spring and summer they swell
considerably, from the melting of the snows; and their
daily increase and decrease is easily calculated by the in¬
habitants, according to the distance of the place from the
snowy summits whence originate the cause of increase
during the days when the sun’s rays are powerful. The
principal rivers are, the Biobio, which forms the southern
boundary; it is about two miles broad at its mouth, and
is navigable for rafts and small craft as high as Nacimiento,
and on it are conveyed to Conception the valuable produc¬
tions of its banks. The Itata, also of considerable size,
traverses the provinces of Conception and a tract of coun¬
try abounding in corn and wine. The Maule is navigable
for small vessels, and runs through a rich and fertile
country, abounding in cattle and excellent timber, espe¬
cially roble and lingui. The harbour at its mouth is ca¬
pacious and well sheltered, but does not admit vessels
drawing more than eleven feet of water, owing to a bar of
sand crossing the mouth of the river. The Teno and Lon-
tue unite below Curico to form the Mataquita, and divide
the provinces of Maule and Colchagua; which last is bound¬
ed on the north by the Cachapoal, and the latter receives
the Tinguiririca below San Fernando. The banks of all
these rivers, as well as the Maypu, abound in valuable
timber. The Maypu bounds the province of Rancagua to
the north ; and its waters, by means of a canal, irrigate the
extensive plains of Maypu, which lie between the river and
the capital, and formed the Scene of the celebrated battle
which sealed the liberties of Chili. The Aconcagua, unit¬
ed to the Futaenda, runs to the north of Santiago, through
524
Chili.
Lakes.
Hot
springs.
Soil.
C H ]
the fertile valleys of Aconcagua and Quillota, and enters
tlie sea at Concon, to the north of Valparaiso. The other
rivers to the north are inconsiderable in size and importance.
The principal ones are, the Chuapa, Limari, Coquimbo, and
Guasco, which drain an extent of country 190 miles in
length and 70 in breadth ; but the first is the only one of
any magnitude, and divides the northern from the middle
provinces. The rivers which traverse the country ot the
Araucanians are numerous, and some of them are navi¬
gable for large vessels. The principal are, the Cauten,
Token, Callacalla, Bueno, and Sinfondo.
The principal lakes of Chili are those of Aculeu and
Bucalemn, in the province of Rancagua. The scenery
which surrounds the former is extremely beautiful and
picturesque ; and it is covered by multitudes of swans, fla¬
mingos, and other water-fowl. The lakes of Bucalemu are
formed by the sea overflowing the low lands during the
tempestuous weather ot winter. Ihis wrater evaporates
during the summer, leaving great quantities of fine-grain¬
ed salt, which forms an important article of commerce,
and a valuable revenue to the owners. Near San Fer¬
nando is the beautiful lake of Taguatagua, whose banks
are well wooded, and contain some small islands. In the
Araucanian country are the large lakes of Osorno, Huan-
aco, Lauquen, and Nahuelguapi. Ihe latter is eighty miles
in circumference, contains an island, and gives origin to a
river of the same name, which falls into the Patagonian Sea.
The Lauquen contains in its centre a beautiful conical-
shaped hill, and is the source of the river Token.
Near the village of Colina, in the province of Santiago,
and in a ravine of the Andes, hot springs are found, which
are much frequented for bathing; the water being chaly¬
beate. The baths of Cauquenes, in the province of Ilanca-
gua, are situated in a deep ravine of the Andes, near the
origin of the river Cachapoal. There are four principal
springs of hot water, in which the temperature is 100° and
upwards. These are much frequented for bathing in sum¬
mer, by persons afflicted with rheumatic and syphilitic af¬
fections, to whom they prove extremely useful. Same are
sulphureous, others saline ; some are tepid, others extreme¬
ly cold ; and all are within a short distance of each other.
The soil of Chili is move fertile in the valleys of the
Andes and middle districts than on the plains or in the ma¬
ritime provinces, owing to the great quantities of fine soil
carried down by the melting of the snows on the lofty
summits of the Andes. In such places the soil is more
friable, and of a dark-yellowish hue. In the maritime dis¬
tricts the soil is more tenacious, consisting of a large pro¬
portion of clay of a brownish-red colour, intermixed in
some places writh marl and marine substances. In the pro¬
vince of Copiapo it is in many places covered by saline in¬
crustations, and thereby rendered less suitable for vegeta¬
tion. In the province of Quillota, where irrigation may not
be practicable, the low hills which cove/ a great part of
its extent are stony, and have a surface of hard red clay,
produced by the decomposition ot hornblende, and only
support a few shrubs, but produce abundance of quiscos
and cardones. The fertility of the soil ot Chili has in many
respects been much overrated, as no means are had re¬
course to to maintain its original fecundity. Those places
which, from the nature of the ground and supplies of wa¬
ter, are susceptible of irrigation, are fertilized by the fine
soil brought down by the rivers on the melting of the snow,
and deposited on the irrigated ground. The great utility
of this practice has been exemplified in the province of
Santiago, where the valleys of the Mapocho, Colina, La
Lampa, and particularly the plains of Maypu, which ex¬
tends about twenty-four miles between Santiago and May¬
pu, are now rendered fertile and productive by means of a
canal commenced at the latter river, which carries ample
L I.
supplies of water along the base of the mountains to the chi
river Mapocho, and supplies abundance to irrigate the ex- w-y
tensive plains to the west. Similar works will undoubted¬
ly be undertaken in other districts, with equally beneficial
results.
The climate Of Chili is one of the finest and most salu-ciima
brious in the world. It varies somewhat according to situa¬
tion and elevation, but rarely approaches either extreme.
The configuration of the Andes forming an elevated wall,
which separates the western from the eastern side of this
part of South America, has a powerful influence on the cli¬
mate of Chili, and gives a direction to the prevailing winds
of that country. During the summer months a southerly
wind prevails along the west side of the Cordillera. It is
accompanied by a clear sky, and gradually diminishes in
force as it proceeds northward along the coast of Chili and
Peru. In May, however, when the sun approaches the
tropic of Cancer, these winds cease, and are followed by
northerly winds, accompanied with rain and stormy wea- •
ther, and occasional gales, which again cease in October,
and give way to the south winds. The rain falls in great¬
est abundance and most frequently in the south of Chili,
and sometimes continues for six or seven months; in the
central provinces it lasts from four to five months; and
in the northern the showers are much less frequent, and
rain falls in smaller quantities. The climate of the mari¬
time parts of Chili is milder and less variable than in the
interior, being less subject to the extremes of heat and
cold. January and February are the hottest months, the ther¬
mometer during that period occasionally rising to 90° and
959 in the shade. The range of temperature, however, near
the coast, in summer, is from 70° to 85° ; the greatest heat
being about ten o’clock in the day, when it is moderated by
the south wind which then commences. On the approach
of evening, likewise, a cool and refreshing bree'ze arises,
and renders the night agreeable. June and July are the
coldest months of winter; but even in these, unless during
rain, the air does not feel very chilly. Ihe average num¬
ber of rainy days in the latitude ot Valparaiso is about
twenty, but during some seasons they are more numerous,
being from forty to fifty. Such prove the most unhealthy,
and are least productive to the husbandman.
From August to November the weather is mild and
agreeable, and the atmosphere is generally hazy during
the mornings, especially after a wet season ; but these fogs
are usually dissipated by the sun about noon. No show
ever falls on the sea-coast, and rarely in the interior, at an
elevation of less than 800 feet. When snow does fall, it is
soon dissipated by the sun’s rays, from every place of less
elevation than from 5000 to 6000 feet; and the more
parts of the Cordillera of the Andes are generally covered
with snow from the end of May to November, when it is
speedily dissipated by the powerful rays of the sun. In
March no snow is found, except at a great elevation, and
in very sheltered places. It rarely freezes near the coast,
but in the interior ice is formed during the winter nights,
of the thickness of a quarter or half an inch, but it is
usually melted in the forenoon. During the winter months
the rains are frequently accompanied with storms of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail. The lightning is very vivid, and
the thunder, reverberating in the numerous deep valleys,
is verjr grand and terrific. During the summer evenings
thunder and lightning are not uncommon in that part o
the country which skirts the base of the Andes.
Chili, possessing so very fine and equable a climate, is
remarkably healthy, and few countries possess a gre^er
exemption from infectious and dangerous diseases. 116
prevailing complaints are those which depend on impro¬
per food, or inattention to the state of the digestive or¬
gans. The chavalonga, a kind of inflammatoiy fever, oc
Eart
quai
C II I L I.
525
casionally prevails, and proves fatal, unless very actively in the years 1773, 1796, and 1819. On the last occasion Chili
treated. Rheumatism is a common complaint, and is prin- not a single house was left standing. After some minor '  
cipally owing to imprudence and irregularity. Vaccine shocks, which destroyed the cathedral of La Merced the
inoculation has been very generally introduced, the inha- principal one, which overthrew the town, took place on the
bitants having a great dread of the small-pox, which for- 11th April 1819, between eight and nine in the morning
merly committed much havoc among them. It was preceded by a noise like distant thunder. That of
The frequency of earthquakes m Chili forms a very 1822 has been already alluded to; and the latest earth-
important di aw back on the many advantages arising from quake in Chili, of which we have any notice, occurred in
its delicious climate and productive soil. These occur- September 1829, about two o’clock in the afternoon. Lit-
rences are occasionally so seveie, that they give rise to tie injury was done by it either to Coquimbo or Santiago,
serious loss of both life and property. Ihe former, how- but it was more severely felt at Valparaiso and the other
ever, is less fiequent than might be expected, as the inha- places on the coast. As a security against any risk from
bitants are well prepared for such occurrences, and the future earthquakes, one of the principal British merchants
form of their houses, courts, stieets, and gardens, is adapt- resident in Valparaiso procured materials from the United
ed to facilitate their escape on such occasions. Strangers, States, and erected a spacious and commodious house, the
on first experiencing shocks of an earthquake, are scarcely skeleton of which is formed of beams so united and fasten-
sensible of them ; but fuithei experience renders them as ed together that it could not under any circumstances fall
acute and discerning as the natives, wdio from early life to pieces. This example is well worthy of imitation on
are so habitually accustomed to them, that they are fully the part of the Chilenos.
alive to the slightest movement of the earth, or to its In connection with earthquakes may be noticed the nu- Volcanoes,
precursors. Earthquakes sometimes take place without merous volcanoes which are found throughout the range
any warning; but more frequently their approach is indi- of the Andes dividing Chili from the Argentine republic,
cated by a loud rumbling noise, resembling that of distant They are principally situated on or in the vicinity of the
thunder, the rushing of subterranean waters, or the passing central ridge, and the inhabitants are so distant as rarely to
of a heavy carriage or waggon over a causeway. When experience any inconvenience from their eruptions. There
these are noticed, or the slightest movement of the earth are, however, some which present themselves at a consi-
takes place, all the inhabitants rush out into the streets, derable distance from this line, but are believed to have a
courts, and other open places, in the utmost dismay and connection with the main chain. Of these, a small one is
terror, with loud lamentations, beating their breasts, fall- situated at the mouth of the river Rapel; while another,
ing on their knees, and calling on the saints to save and near Villarica, in the country of the Araucanians, is always
protect them. At first they seem as if bereft of reason, in a state of activity, and may be seen at the distance of a
and altogether forget that by their ow n exertions'they may hundred and fifty miles. It is isolated, its summit covered
accomplish much of what they vainly solicit from superna- with snow, and its base, of fourteen miles in circumference,
tural agency. Even the lower animals instinctively par- clothed with luxuriant forests. The Cerro del Diamante
ticipate in the universal alarm ; they utter mournful cries, forms another offset on the eastern side of the Andes. It
running to and fro in search of a place of security ; and the is also isolated, and situated on an extensive plain about
mules have been observed, during the movements of the eighty or a hundred miles from Peteroa; but it has been
earth, to spread out their legs to prevent them from fall- long in a state of inactivity, as is shown by the state of ve-
ing. The natives distinguish two kinds of shocks. Those gelation in its crater. The most remarkable volcanic erup-
called tremblores are a kind of horizontal oscillations or tion on record in Chili w'as that of Peteroa, which took
rapid vibrations of the earth, which are seldom dangerous ; place on the 3d December 1730, when a new crater was
they are very irregular, yet frequent in their recurrence formed, and a large portion of the mountain being sepa-
both by day and night. The terremotos are of more rare rated, a part of it fell into the river Lontue, obstructed its
occurrence, but at the same time more serious in their ef- course, and gave rise to the formation of an extensive lake,
fects. In these the motion is much more violent; the earth which still exists. The volcano of Maypu, which for
is coifvulsed, heaving up and down as if something beneath many years had been in a state of quiescence, had fre-
was struggling to escape. It is on such occasions that the quent eruptions after the earthquake of 1822. In the time
greatest mischief is done, by the formation of rents or of Molina it was calculated that about fourteen volcanoes
fissures in the earth, while numerous buildings and other were in a state of activity, but at the present time there
edifices are overthrown or injured. Mr Miers gives a.gra- is no reason to believe that nearly so many are in this state,
pine description of the earthquake of 1822, all the phe- The quadrupeds indigenous to Chili are not very nu-Animals,
nomena of which he witnessed. This earthquake took merous. The most ferocious is the or or Ame-
place about half past ten o’clock on the evening of the 19th rican lion. It inhabits the recesses and valleys of the An-
November 1822, and was severely felt, not only over the des, and is sometimes forced down by cold and hunger
whole of Chili, but also in the Cordillera of the Andes, into the open country during the winter season, when it
and in the provinces of Mendoza and San Luis. The shock generally does much mischief to the farmers. It is about
was very violent, continuing during tw o minutes, and, five feet long, and of a gray ash colour, with yellow spots,
after an interval of three minutes, it was again repeated and proves very destructive to horses and young foals. It
for one minute. avoids dwelling-houses, and will not attack a man. It is
Hie earthquakes which have proved severe and destruc- hunted witli dogs ; and when embayed against a rock or
tive in Chili are rather numerous. The first on record took precipice, will place itself on the defensive, but may be
place in the southern provinces in 1520 ; the second, which easily noosed by the lasso. When an opportunity offers,
happened on 13th May 1647, ruined great part of Santiago; this animal will climb with agility a lofty tree, where it may
and similar results followed that of the 15th March 1657. be easily shot. In such situations the puma has been ob-
The city of Conception has been twice destroyed by earth- served to shed tears, as if to deprecate the ire of its pur-
quakes, namely, on 18th June 1730, and on 26th May 1751. suers, who seldom show it any mercy. Its skin, on being
Ihe statement of Molina is incorrect, that the provinces of tanned, is made igto boots and shoes. The gua?ia£os and vi-
Copiapo and Coquimbo have been exempt from these ter- cimasare similar to those described in the article Bolivia,
rible visitations. The city of Copiapo was for some time and are abundant all over the Andes, between Chili and
visited by them about once every twenty-three years, as Mendoza; but the former are much more numerous on the
526 C H ]
Chili, eastern or Mendoza side, where they are less molested, and
have a more extended country to roam over. On the
mountains which surround the spacious valley of the river
Atuel, they may be seen in different groups to the num¬
ber of 400 or 500, and are on some occasions beguiled by
the Pehuenche Indians into places nearly surrounded by
precipices, and are there slaughtered in great numbers for
food. The chilihueque or Chili sheep was formerly used as
a beast of burden, but has now given place to the mule. It
is six feet long and four feet high ; its wool is long and soft,
of various colours, ot a superior quality, and used in making
the finest articles. The chinchilla abounds in the northern
provinces, and is hunted by dogs trained for the puipose.
The animals of this species are sometimes taken in consi¬
derable numbers for the sake of their valuable furs, which
form an important article of export. They are sold in the
country at the rate of six rials (or three shillings) the
dozen. The chingwe or zoriho, and the biscachas, of the
Pampas of Buenos Ayres, also abound in Chili, and pos¬
sess similar habits and peculiarities. To these may be
added various kinds of armadillos, the porcupine, beavers,
wild cats, the great wood mouse, weasels, and water rats.
The Pacific Ocean abounds with a variety of cetacese and
phocae.
The birds of Chili are numerous. Among these the
manque or condor is the largest and most powerful. Its
body is muscular, with black plumage, except the back,
which, as well as the wings, is white. Its wings, when
stretched out, measure, from the apex of the one to that
of the other, from twelve to fifteen feet. Its head is nearly
bald, being covered only by a thin down. Round its neck
hangs a pendulous collar like a tippet, ot short white fea¬
thers. Its beak is slightly hooked, about four or five
inches long, and so sharp and strong as to pierce a
bull’s hide. It is so powerful, that, in the breeding sea¬
son, it carries off sheep, goats, and even young calves, to
feed its young. Theyota, a large species ot vulture, is in¬
dolent in its habits, and devours carrion and reptiles, per¬
forming the office of a scavenger. The tharu or eagle is
frequent in Chili; but it only takes its prey by stratagem.
The pequen, or burrowing owl, is also very frequent, and
may generally be seen in company with another at the
openings of its subterranean abode. The cheuque or Ame¬
rican ostrich is also found in the south of Chili; but it is
less abundant than on the eastern side of the Andes.
It is very distinct from the African ostrich. Its eggs
are numerous and very good eating; and its feathers are
in extensive use with the Indians for plumes and other
ornaments. There are three kinds of parrots, only one
of which is a permanent resident. It is green and blue,
as large as a pigeon, and very destructive to the crops of
corn when not carefully watched. The penguin is fre¬
quent along the coast of Chili, as are also various kinds of
wild geese and other marine birds. The beautiful flamingo,
so called from its flame-colour, abounds on all the lakes ;
with a great variety of other aquatic birds, among which are
swans, wild ducks, the pillu or crane, and the thage or peli¬
can, as large as a turkey, to the lower jaw of which is append¬
ed a large and extensive membrane, which it fills with fish.
These membranes are converted by the natives into tobac¬
co pouches and lanterns. Several kinds of partridges are
found in great numbers, and, with the torcazas or wood-
pigeons, and the zorzales or ortolans, are much used as an
article of food. The thili or chili is a species of thrush, which
appears to have given name to the country. It has a sweet
and loud song, but cannot bear confinement. The notes
of the thenca, another species of thrush, are very sweet,
and so varied, that this bird can imitate the singing of al¬
most every other. It dies in a state of captivity. The cwrew
and the loijca are other similar species, and, with the
[ L I.
xilguero, a kind of goldfinch, are all much prized for the Chi]
melody of their notes. There are three species ofpigdas or ’w-vy
humming birds in Chili, with very brilliant colours. They
sleep during the winter suspended from the branches of
trees, and are then easily taken. The smallest of these
weighs only about two grains. Besides these birds, many
of which are peculiar to the country, there are great num¬
bers of others common in Europe, as the falcon, kite,
gulls, herons, plovers, and the like.
The fishes in the Pacific, and in the rivers and lakes of
Chili, are very numerous, seventy-six species of the for¬
mer being esculent. Among these may be enumerated
the robalo, weighing about eight pounds, which is dried
and smoked by the Chiloese Indians for sale ; the corvino,
with the lisa and the pez el rey or king’s fish, which are
all caught in abundance, and are valued as articles of diet.
Besides these, there are great numbers of other marine
tribes of acknowledged value and utility, such as the cod,
whiting, sole, turbot, mackerel, mullet, shad, pilchard, an¬
chovy, bonito, tunny, sword-fish, skate, torpedo, ray, elec¬
tric eel, conger, and a variety of others. Some of these
are so abundant that they enter the rivers in large shoals,
when the Indians kill them with their lances. In some
places they are caught in great quantities by means of
wears or palisades formed on the shore, within which they
enter at high water, and are left on its retiring. Cod are
very abundant near the island of Juan Fernandez and on
the coast of Valparaiso at certain seasons, where they
are caught in great numbers. The Chilenos, however,
have as yet paid very little attention to this valuable and
lucrative branch of industry, which has hitherto been pur¬
sued only to the extent of supplying the immediate wants
of the community. The fresh-water fish which abound in
the rivers and lakes are very numerous, and are principally
as follow : A species of lisa, trout, the cauqui, the malche,
the yuli, the cumarca, and the bagre, all of which are used
as food. Eels are abundant in the southern and Indian
provinces. The testaceae and crustaceae are very nume¬
rous and abundant, such as oysters, escallops, muscles,
cockles, crabs, craw-fish, cuttle-fish, and the like. The
chorros, a species of shell-fish, very abundant near Talca-
huano, are very much prized as an article of food, and are
exported in considerable quantities. 1 hey are found at the
bottom of the harbour and neighbouring coast. The cu-
chayuyo, a nondescript species of alcyonium, one of those
tribes of marine animals which approach ne-arest in their
characters to the vegetable creation, is collected in great
quantities on the shores of the Pacific, and, being dried, is
extensively used as an article of food by the inhabitants
during Lent, from the idea of its being a marine vege¬
table. It is toasted on the embers before cooking, and
being stewed or fried with butter, is very palatable and
nourishing.
There are few reptiles in Chili; only one snake, about
three feet long, which is quite harmless; a land and wa¬
ter lizard, frogs, toads, and two species of turtle, the one
inhabiting the sea, and the other the fresh-water lakes.
Among the insects of Chili are the chrysomela, found in
the province of Maule. They are strung into necklaces
and other ornaments, and preserve their beauty and bril¬
liancy for a long time. Beetles and grasshoppers are very
plentiful; the former are very destructive to the leguminuse
plants. The glow-worm and lantern-fly also abound. _ Ihe
butterflies are very numerous and beautiful. A species o
caterpillar, similar in habits to the silk-worm, is found be¬
tween the rivers Rapel and Mataquita, and forms cocoons
composed of a beautiful silk, which has not yet been ap
plied to any use. Besides these, there are bees, a water
fly having the smell of musk, ants, spiders, and scorpions.
The varied elevation of the different parts of Chi i, an
CHILI.
ci
the abundance or scarcity of moisture, materially influence
the aspect of the country, and give rise to great diversity
in the vegetable productions which beautify and enrich
it. Those trees and other vegetables which flourish at
one extremity of Chili are almost entirely unknown at
the other; and those which first meet the eye of the tra¬
veller, descending from the bare and lofty summits of
the Andes, may be sought for in vain on the coast of
the Pacific. On the coast at Conception, in 37° south
latitude, the eye is delighted with a rich and luxuriant
foliage ; at Valparaiso, in 33°, the hills are thinly clad with
stunted brushwood and a scanty supply of grass, and the
ground appears starved and naked ; at Coquimbo, in 30°,
the prickly pear tribes, and a scanty supply of a grey or
purple wiry grass, appear; and at Guasco, in 27°, there
are no traces of vegetation, the hills and plains being co¬
vered with sand, and nothing green appearing, except
where a stream of water changes the scene. " To the
north of Copiapo, which is the most northerly province of
Chili, is situated the desert of Atacama, which is almost
entirely devoid of vegetation, and continues so, in proceed¬
ing northward, except at Cobija, and the' various isolated
places on the Peruvian coast where vegetation is practi¬
cable. Ihe provinces of Copiapo and Coquimbo have a
dry and sterile aspect, excepting at those places where
streams of running water gladden the eye, and by means
of irrigation give rise to the interesting contrast of sterility
with fertile and luxuriant fields. In these provinces, and
more especially at Copiapo, the rains are so slight, and of
such rare occurrence, that their influence on vegetation is
very transient; but they suffice to give life and vigour to
a considerable number of beautiful annual and bulbous
plants, the existence of which, however, is exceedingly
ephemeral, as they speedily disappear on the dissipation of
the moisture by the scorching rays of the sun. The cactus
tribes, in great variety and abundance, seem to reign tri¬
umphant over all the other vegetable productions of these
provinces. In some places, and more especially in rocky
and stony districts, they cover large tracts of ground, and
assume the appearance of a forest; the columnar species,
variously branched, growing often to the height of from
thirty to forty feet. The air-plants, in considerable variety,
also abound in these arid places. A variety of shrubs
likewise appear, more especially in the province of Co¬
quimbo ; but only two trees are natives of these provinces,
the carbon, with very hard and heavy wood, which is used
in smelting copper ; and another called talguea.
The contrast of such scenery with that which charac¬
terizes the country around the river Biobio, at the south¬
ern extremity of Chili, is very remarkable. There the
rains are very heavy, and fall at short intervals during six
or seven months, and consequently the verdure is general,
and the vegetation most luxuriant. From this part of the
country the most valuable kinds of timber are procured
for the consumption of the rest of Chili and Peru. Of
those which most abound are the roble, laurel, quelo, avel-
lano, lingui, canelo, litri, and others. The Chili pine
abounds in the interior, especially in the Araucanian coun¬
try. Its fruit, the penon, is a favourite article of food ; and
the tree itself is held in high veneration by many, from the
circumstance of its branches being so arranged as to form
a series of crosses. The white and red cedars abound in '
the islands of Chiloe, and constitute an extensive article
of commerce. Many of the trees found near the Biobio
ai'e peculiar to that part of the country, but others ex¬
tend themselves much farther to the northward. Thus the
roble and laurel are found near San Fernando, and the litri
and canelo as far north as the river Chuapa. But besides
these, in the central provinces are found a variety of
others not less interesting and valuable, yet in greater
abundance in the southern than in the northern districts.
In the latter they are not only less frequent, but less lux¬
uriant, except in the shady valleys of the Andes. On
descending from the Cordillera of the Andes, at an ele¬
vation of about 600Q feet, the first shrubs and trees ap¬
pear ; but between 4000 and 5000 feet they become much
more numerous, varied, and luxuriant, and form a broad
belt or forest of evergreens, which is continuous until these
valleys merge into the open country. Of those which appear
on the sides of the hills are various kinds of lun, molle,
boldo, quilliai, peumo, llilen, litri, and others; and in the
moist places of the valleys are found the maqui, mayten,
patagua, bellota, canelo, and a variety of myrtles and fuch¬
sias. In those places where the soil is thin and unfitted
for other trees, the stately quisco, or Peruvian torch-
thistle, the cardones, the espino, and the algdroba, make
their appearance, and diversify the scene. A consider¬
able number of these trees are found throughout the val?
leys and plains as far as the Pacific; receiving some ad¬
ditional species in the maritime district, more especially
the glilla or Chili palm, which, however, does not extend
farther south than the river Maule.
The smaller vegetable productions are so numerous,
varied, and interesting, as to afford a boundless field of
inquiry to the scientific observer. The hedges are cover¬
ed with the crimson creeper and the twining loasa ; while
the passion-flower, the cogul, and a variety of other creep¬
ers and twining plants, present themselves in thickets and
shady places. The beautiful is cultivated in
the gardens, delighting the eye with its gorgeous flowers,
and filling the air with its delicious perfumes. The rapa-
cieus parasites are not wanting in this country, for various
kinds of kin&ral fix their roots on old and feeble trees, and
hasten their decay by exhausting their juices; while the
cavellos de angel, or angel’s hair, performs a similar office,
but in a different way, its slender and thread-like branches
twining around the devoted tree, and impeding the free
circulation of its nutrient juices.
The vegetable productions of Chili contribute material¬
ly to the wealth and comfort of its inhabitants, by yielding
them numerous articles of the first necessity. Thus the
roble, laurel, lingui, quelo, canelo, litri, and many others,
afford excellent timber for building ships, houses, and other
purposes. The espino, carbon, and cardones, form excel¬
lent fuel where such is most required. The glilla, or
small cocoa-nut tree, produces a fruit nearly as large as a
walnut, growing in large pendent branches; and the nuts
are very numerous, there being some hundreds in each
cluster. They resemble the large cocoa-nut in miniature,
being covered by a fibrous coat and hard shell, and hav¬
ing within the kernel, when fresh, an agreeable, cooling,
milky juice. A sweet juice, somewhat like honey, which
is much prized, is also obtained by incisions into its trunk
at certain seasons; but this operation is injurious to the
palm. The avellano, a species of hazel-nut, is abundant
and much used, but is inferior to the true hazel-nut. The
litri, at certain seasons, and especially in spring, exhales a
poisonous effluvium, which is only known by its effects on
those who sleep or lie down under its shade, producing
eruptions and painful swellings. The bark of the quiliai
has a highly detergent quality ; and when bruised and in¬
fused in water it is much used in cleansing and removing
oily matter from cotton, linen, silk, and especially woollen
fabrics. It is also used in washing the head, from an idea
of its giving the hair a darker hue and a finer lustre. Its
wood is so hard and tough that it is much used to form
stirrups. The fruit of the peumo is much prized as an article
of food when previously steeped in a ley of wood-ashes,
to remove an essential oil. The fruits of the molle and
maqui are fermented by the Indians to form intoxicating
527
Chili.
528
Chili.
Geology.
CHILI.
liquors; and from a species of willow is obtained, by tapping,
a juice which, when fermented, gives an agreeable beve¬
rage, preferred by many to wine. It also produces vine¬
gar. Under the glilla a species of mirasol is found, from
which exudes a resinous substance like pure oiiental in¬
cense, which is much prized by the natives, and used in
their church festivals. I lie jarilla distils from its sur¬
face a fragrant balsam in great abundance, which is much
used in the cure of wounds. The infusion of the leaves
of the culen is a common and favourite beverage, being
stomachic and' anthelmintic. The maglia, or potato, is
found native in many parts of Chili. Its roots in the wild
state are small and of a bitter taste, and are greedily de¬
voured by the chinchillas. They improve greatly in qua¬
lity by cultivation. The lucurna, which is the same as the
mericuri of the llanos of Varinas, is cultivated at Coquim-
bo, where its fruit is much prized: it is about the size
of a large pear, of a sweet and rather insipid taste, and
contains*^in its centre a large kernel. The cherimoya has
also been cultivated, but does not come to perfection, the
climate of Chili being too cold to bring it to maturity.
So little progress has yet been made in the investiga¬
tion of the geological structure of the Cordillera of the
Andes, and the other mountains of Chili, that but a very
imperfect idea can be given of its natuie. The central
chain of the Cordillera is principally composed of pri¬
mitive formations, but in many places contains rocks of
volcanic origin. The declivities on the western side
abound in porphyritic rocks, and are generally much steep¬
er and more abrupt, and the valleys narrower and more
precipitous, than on the eastern or Mendoza side, where
the valleys are much more spacious, more gradual in their
descent, and, from the want of moisture, more deficient
in trees and vegetable productions, than on the Chili side.
At Las Pomas, on the eastern descent from the Pass of
the Portillo, is a mountain composed entirely of pumice
rock, containing small crystals of obsidian. It is much
employed in forming filtering-stones for the use of the
inhabitants of Mendoza, and for exportation to Chili.
Springs of bitumen or mineral tar are found in various
placed on the eastern side, and gypsum in great abun¬
dance in many situations ; lime-stone in Quillota and other
places, and coal near the Bay of Conception. Organic
remains, especially of shells, have been found in great
abundance in the Andes, at an elevation above the ocean
of from 9000 to about 14,000 feet. In the maritime pro¬
vinces on the coast of the Pacific, organic remains are also
found in various places, and in great abundance, particu¬
larly between the mouths of the rivers Maypu and Buca-
lemu, where the hills are low and the country undulating.
These consist of extensive strata of indurated clay, which
formation is dark, hard, of a shining fracture, and runs
continuously along the coast as far as Conception. The
strata are situated on a brownish sandstone, which extends
as far as the cuesta of Valparaiso, consisting of sienitic gra¬
nite, and forms the northern offset of the three secondary
mountain ranges which branch off from the Cordillera by
the cuesta of Chacabuco, and form the three ridges in¬
tervening between Santiago and Valparaiso. Similar or¬
ganic deposits are found near the mouth of the river Acon¬
cagua, and on the coast farther north. In making some
excavations in this neighbourhood, several human skele¬
tons were discovered in a good state of preservation, inter¬
mixed with the shells. The ground was too hard to ad¬
mit of complete skeletons being procured, even although
in good preservation. In the valley above Coquimbo, half
a mile wide, parallel roads resembling those of Glen Roy
in Scotland are found, indicating the previous existence
of an extensive collection of water at different levels above
the ocean, of from 300 to 400 feet.
The mineral productions of Chili are very numerous, and Chi,
many of them of great value and utility ; but its produce in t
the precious metals has nevertheless been somewhat over-Minei
rated. Many of the richest mines cannot be worked underre¬
present circumstances. The desert country to the north of
Copiapo does not permit the working of the rich mines
of gold, silver, and copper at Chaco Cajo, and other parts
of that country, as these districts are altogether destitute
of water and the other necessaries of life. In that part of the
country there are also rock-salt and fine statuary marble.
To the north of this, in the province of Atacama, are mines
of nitre, which have recently been explored ; and the pro¬
duce of this substance has been conveyed in considerable
quantities from the port of Cobija to Europe. In the coun¬
try between the Biobio and archipelago of Chiloe are nume¬
rous and rich mines ; but none of them has been worked
since the natives recovered possession of that country. The
gold mines in the intermediate provinces are at Copiapo,
Guasco, Coquimbo, Peteroa, La Ligua, liltil, Putaenda,
Alo-ue, Huilli-patagua, and other places. These were for¬
merly worked to a great extent, but have been less attend¬
ed to than formerly, since the commencement of the revo¬
lution. The richest mines of silver are in the provinces of
Copiapo, Coquimbo, and feantiago. In these the Siher is
generally found combined with sulphur, arsenic, lead, and
other mineral substances; but a few years ago, a rich vein of
silver was discovered at Coquimbo of great value, the silver
being in the metallic form, and very abundant. Unfortu¬
nately, however, the hopes of the discoverers were disap¬
pointed on finding it to be of very limited extent. The sil-
ver mines of San Pedro Jsolasco5 on the south side of the
river Maypu, are valuable ; but although they have been
worked of late years by an Englishman, they have not been
so productive as to remunerate the proprietor. They are
situated near the summit of a very lofty mountain. 1 he ore
is extracted with difficulty from the hard roex in which it
is contained, and requires to be carried on mules a distance
of from twelve to fifteen miles, to the banks of the river
Maypu, where it is reduced by amalgamation. The cop¬
per mines are much more numerous and valuable than
any of the others, and afford the staple mineral product of
Chili. They occur between the 24th and 36th degrees
of south latitude ; but are principally confined to the pro¬
vinces of Coquimbo and Copiapo. The copper ore is as¬
sociated with sulphur and arsenic, which are separated
by smelting. But it is only such mines as contain ore that
yields one half of its weight of pure metal that are work¬
ed About a thousand of these mines were worked m
the time of Molina; but since that period, owing to the vi¬
cissitudes in the political and commercial condition of the
country, the number worked has varied considerably. U
late years, however, owing to the improved commercia
practices, this branch of industry has received an increas¬
ed impulse. The rich and famous copper mine of Tayen,
in the Araucanian country, has long been unwrought.
Mines of quicksilver are stated to exist m Coquimbo, lo-
piapo, and Limaches. Formerly they were prohibited rom
being worked, and we do not hear of their having been
opened since the restriction was removed. Mines of lead,
iron, antimony, and tin, are also found in Chili; but non
of them is applied to any useful purpose at the present ay.
The secondary range of the Andes, situated on the eas -
ern side of the Cordillera, which now belongs to the Ar¬
gentine republic, and is called the Uspallata range, is y
far the most productive in mineral treasures, and contain
the celebrated silver mines of Uspallata and ^ania,in ’
besides many others in the same range. In the abo
tract is situated the alum mine of Guandacol, where
useful production may be had in great abundance. n
the alum earth is united with soda instead of potassa.
C H
( . Although the mineral riches of Chili are considerable, yet
there is no extensive mining district, and no mine in that
Mil).;- country capable of being worked upon a large scale to any
advantage ; a circumstance which clearly evinces the false
basis on which were formed the mining associations for
Chili established in England during 1825, The mines are
mostly situated in remote parts of the mountains, of difficult
access, where fuel and water are scarce; and great expense
is often incurred in transporting the ores, and the requisite
supplies of fuel and other necessaries. The extent and rich¬
ness of these mines, which are generally apart from each
other, are rarely such as to warrant those expensive opera¬
tions and that superintendence which are requisite in min¬
ing on a large.scale. The Chilenos are dexterous in their
own mode of working the mines; and render them more
productive than if the improved mode was adopted. They
are also very expert in following the course of a vein, but
are quite ignorant of the principles which ought to guide
them. The openings are generally made on the sides of
the hills, and vertical shafts are seldom formed. The
passages are inclined, and often very devious in their di¬
rection, being seldom more than four feet in height and
the same in breadth, and sometimes still more contracted,
along which none but the Chilenos, accustomed to it from
early life, could convey the ores and utensils. Where the
lodes become vertical, they ascend and descend by means
of rude ladders formed of poles and sticks tied together
by strips of hide. Sometimes, from the abundance of ore,
these passages expand into chambers; but this-is gene¬
rally a bad omen, as it indicates the farther impoverish¬
ment of the vein. The rocks are generally blasted with
gunpowder, in which operation the workmen are very
expert; and this article, and also mercury, were formerly
provided for them at a fixed, equitable, and moderate price
by the Spanish authorities, often with a loss to the state,
but on purpose to insure supplies and prevent monopo¬
lies. Under similar auspices were formed, in all the min¬
ing districts, bancos de rescate, or banks of exchange for
gold and silver in a state of purity, by whom it was stamp¬
ed according to its value; no private person being allow-
ed to engage in this business under the risk of confisca¬
tion. Ihe system now pursued is somewhat different.
The proprietor of the mine, or miner, attends to the details
and the smelting of the ores, and has a farm in the vici¬
nity, from which many of the requisite necessaries are
obtained, these proprietors seldom work the mines sole¬
ly by means of their own capital, but*1 are associated with
i capitalists engaged in commerce, who advance the requi¬
site funds and supplies, and receive the copper at a fixed
i price. On the cessation of the Spanish authority, when
this practice was introduced, great advantage was often
taken of the miners by these capitalists, who are called ha-
oilitadores; but competition, and the influence of foreign¬
ers, have put these transactions on a juster footing, and the
ininer can now carry on his operations under much more
favourable circumstances, the value of the copper being
enhanced, and the necessary expenses diminished. The
profits of mining, although supposed to be greater than
that of agriculture, are by no means so, but rather less,
owing to the greater uncertainty of the results, and the
frequent failures which occur. The miner, who usually
occupies a small farm, has a smelting-house, and the other
requisites, near his dwelling, to which the ore is brought
by mules. The habililador is entitled by an established
regulation to charge 45 dollars per month, sixteen being
or wages, and twenty-nine for the food and clothing of two
workmen; ten being given to the baretero or principal work-
roan, and six to the apire, who is merely a carrier of the
ore‘ The number of gold mines worked in Chili is small,
as they are not found to be so productive as those of silver,
VOL. VI.
1 ^ 529
and still less so than those of copper. Gold is also obtained Chili.
y washing the sand or soil of various rivers and streams
in many parts of Chili, which is performed by people onLavaderos*
their own resources alone. Each washing is on a small
scale, but the aggregate washings produce a considerable
quantity of gold. This is a less expensive process than
mining. 1 he principal lavaderos are those of Tilth, Asien-
to, Viejo, and Dormida. The mountain range wdiere they
are situated is composed of sienitic rock, containing horn¬
blende in a state of decomposition, producing an alluvial soil,
in which the fragments of gold are imbedded. The wash¬
ers exercise much ingenuity in separating the gold from
the accompanying extraneous matter; and the gold they
o itain is finer than the piha, being twenty-four carats fine,
while the latter is only twenty-two. Silver mines have also
been worked to a considerable extent in Chili. The ore
is found sometimes in limestone, and often with quartz
and calcareous spar. In some silver mines the veins branch
oh in a variety of directions, each of which is followed bv
the miners if sufficiently productive. Silver mines are
now, however, worked to a much smaller extent than for¬
merly, as they are found to be less profitable investments
than copper mines. The gold and silver ores are ground
to fine powder by a large circular stone of from four to six
feet m diameter, revolving on its circumference by means
of some ingenious contrivances, and running water is ge¬
nerally the moving power: the ore is kept moist, which
aids its trituration. When the miner is obliged to carry his
ore to the grinding mill of another, he pays four dollars
(sixteen shillings) for each caxon of 5000 lbs. weight of ore,
oi sixteen mules loads. This operation requires two or
three days. To the gold so reduced to a fine mud, quick¬
silver is added, and tne trituration is continued, a small
stream of water circulating through the trough. The wa-
tei being allowed to trickle off by a small run, is receiv¬
ed in long wooden channels covered with coarse cloth,
which catches such portion of gold and amalgam as may
pass over on the water, carrying off all the extraneous mat¬
ter ; the amalgam is then exposed to heat’ in suitable ves¬
sels, the quicksilver distilled off, and the gold obtained in a
state of purity. The silver is reduced to powder by similar
means, uud by the previous use of ingenios or stamping
mills. When the ore is ground dry, it is sifted in a circular
cylinder, the fine particles passing through, and the coarse
escaping at one end. T he fine powder is then placed on a
laige platform, in heaps of half a caxon, and to each are
added two quintals of salt and dry mule or horse dung, and
the whole is well incorporated for two or three days, when
quicksilver is added, being squeezed out of a soft goat’s skin
bag, from which it issues in form of a shower of minute glo¬
bules. The quantity used is in proportion to the richness
of the ores; for silver from ten to twenty lbs. are required
for each heap, but less for gold. The masses are then re¬
peatedly kneaded by the feet, being moistened by water.
This process requires eight or ten days in summer when
aided by the heat of the sun, and three weeks in winter.
They judge by a minute examination of a portion of the
mass if it be sufficiently amalgamated, and the whole is then
carried to a washing place, the first part of which is a square
reservoir of brick plastered with lime, having a hollow¬
ed hide apron suspended by four corners in the centre,
into which the mass is placed and kneaded, a small stream
of water passing through the reservoir, and escaping by a
narrow gutter into a second reservoir. By kneading in the
water, the saline, earthy, and vegetable matters pass off,
while the heavy parts fall into the hollow of the hide.
The gutters communicate in succession with four or five
other reservoirs, decreasing in size, each with a hide apron
and reservoir in the form of an inverted cone; and from
all these the amalgam is at length collected and put into
3 x
530
Chili.
CHILL
Agricul¬
ture.
a woollen bag in the form of a cone, with the apex down¬
wards; the superfluous mercury is then expressed by heavy
weights. The amalgam is next formed into cones, and ex¬
posed to a sufficient heat, so as to distil over the meicury.
The smelting and refining of copper, as practised in Chili,
is neither very scientific nor economical. Ihe smelting is
performed in a furnace like a lime-kiln, covered at top with
a sort of dome, open on one side, and terminating in a chim-
ney. The copper ore, broken to small pieces, is placed in
alternate layers with fuel till the furnace is filled. It is
kindled,’and kept burning at an intense heat by two bel¬
lows moved by a water-wheel, or by the hand, the tubes of
which are formed of the hollow stem of the torch-thistle.
When ore is melted, after twenty-four hours it is allowed
to run out by a low orifice, which had been previously
closed. The metal, while hot, is cooled in water, and
scraped to remove impurities. It is then again melted in
refining furnaces, and drawn off into moulds twenty feet
long, twelve wide, and four thick, in which state it is ex¬
ported. The pieces thus formed weigh from 140 to 220
lbs. each. ’ . .
The lands of Chili were originally divided at the con¬
quest into 360 portions; but they have since been much
subdivided, in accordance with the Spanish law of descent,
which is favourable to the division of property. The level
parts of the country and the valleys susceptible of culti¬
vation and irrigation are considerably less extensive than
the hilly and uneven parts, which can only be used for the
breeding and rearing of cattle ; an occupation which is cai-
ried on to a great extent, and is very profitable under good
management and during favourable seasons. After the
commencement of the rains in May or June, the whole
country becomes covered with a rich coating of verdure,
which “affords to the flocks and herds an abundance of
excellent pasture. In November, when the rains have
ceased, the vegetation becomes parched and less plentiful,
excepting in shady places; and the cattle aie pi in ci pally
fed on the large thistle (Ct/nara Cardunculus), which was
introduced from Spain, and is extensively cultivated for
this purpose on the best and richest lands, and much re¬
lished by the cattle. On these thistles becoming scarce
in February and March, when the country assumes a
parched and barren aspect, the cattle are turned loose on
the stubble and fields, and, after a while, can in general
only obtain a precarious and scanty subsistence, which often
obliges them to eat portions of the green bushes or ever¬
greens, and dried leaves of trees, lluring some very diy
seasons, so great is the want of food for cattle, that a con¬
siderable mortality takes place among them, as the inhabi¬
tants have no practical knowledge of the mode of provid¬
ing and storing up food for them against periods of scar¬
city. These evils are less felt in the southern than in the
middle provinces, from the greater abundance of moisture.
When cattle are required for slaughter at these seasons,
they are fed in the irrigated-fields which exist in different
well-watered valleys. September is the time when they
are usually collected together at \X\e rodeos; then stock is
taken, the young are marked, the tithes are put aside, and
those destined for sale or slaughter are selected and set
apart for these purposes. This period is usually one of
great festivity and enjoyment, as the neighbouring vaqueros
assemble to assist each other in collecting the cattle from
those places to which they may have strayed ; and for this
arduous undertaking they are well protected by the large
boots, stirrups, and other expedients which they employ to
save them from injury in the thickets. I he most interest¬
ing and amusing part of their duties is after the cattle are
collected in the inclosure or corral, when they use their
lassos in catching and separating the cattle, an employ¬
ment in which they evince great dexterity. The evenings
at such times are devoted to amusements of various kinds, chi
in which all classes of the community then present parti-
cipate. The management of such estates is not expensive,
as the number of people requisite to take care of the cat¬
tle is not great. A calculation has been made, that a breed¬
ing estate capable of maintaining from 5000 to 6000 head
of cattle of all ages may be kept up at an expense of from
500 to 1000 dollars yearly, and will afford an annual in¬
crease of about 1000 head, which, at the former price of
eight dollars each, would give 8000, and, at the increased
price of fifteen dollars each, about 15,000 dollars of an¬
nual revenue to the proprietor.
Horned cattle are used either for immediate consump¬
tion, or to prepare charqui for home or foreign consump¬
tion. They have a very imperfect mode of slaughtering
cattle, and the beef is not so savoury as when killed by
the improved practice introduced by foreigners. It sells at
about threepence per pound at present, formerly at half
that price. At Valparaiso great quantities are salted for
the use of the shipping. When formed into charqui it re¬
quires no salt, as at Buenos Ayres, and is easily dried, ibis
is much used in Chili, is exported to Peru in bales, and is
easily preserved in dry places. The fleshy parts only are
used for charqui, the fat and suet being removed for do¬
mestic purposes, and to form tallow. 1 he latter is prepa¬
red by beating to express the fat, and is packed in hide
bags. It was formerly exported to Peru, but is now prin¬
cipally consumed in the country in the manufacture of
soap and candles. Its value is from seven to twelve shil¬
lings per quintal. Hides were formerly only one dollar
each, but they have now risen to three dollars and up¬
wards, at which price they are purchased in large quan¬
tities and sent to England.
The horse, the ass, horned cattle, sheep, goats, dogs,
and cats, all of which have been introduced by the Spa¬
niards, have in general improved in size and in other re¬
spects. The horses are excellent, well trained, and pre¬
pared for the saddle. They are sure-footed, from being
accustomed to stony and rocky ground; and those that
are inured to the mountains will carry their riders with
safety over places where one unaccustomed to such scenes
could not venture to travel on foot. Good riding horses
for travelling may be bought at from ten to seventeen dol¬
lars (L.2 to L.4) each; those Employed for agricultural and
other ordinary purposes are cheaper; and prime steady
horses may be had for from forty to a hundred dollars (L.8
to L.20.) The Chilenos are all expert and dexterous
horsemen, passing a great part of their time on horse¬
back, and all using the Spanish bit, by means of which
they have a complete command of their horses. Ihe ass
has greatly improved, having become larger and stronger
than usual, but it is little used; numbers run wild in the
mountains, and are sometimes hunted for their skins.
Mules are numerous, active, strong, and sure-footed, anil
are much employed in the mining districts to transport
the ores, and in traversing the mountains, and carrying
loads, merchandise, and^occasionally passengers. Horneh
cattle have been much improved; but their quality am
value depend greatly upon the richness of the pasture
on which they are fed. Sheep are plentiful, and are said to
be equal in quality to those of Spain; but they arc ong
legged, long backed, and have small bodies, and are shorn
only once a year. The wool is coarse and l°ngj an "
all manufactured in the country into coarse clothing,
fleece which formerly sold for one shilling, is ^°'v
shillings. Mutton is poor and expensive, being abou
pence per pound. Sheep bring from two to three
each. Pigs or swine -are not very abundant, altnoug
favourite article of food. 4 he inhabitants are a
ly supplied with hams and bacon from the Chiloe ’
C H
where the pigs run wild, live upon nuts, and require no
fj care or trouble.
The system almost universally followed in Chili with re¬
gard to the agricultural population, is of so servile and de¬
grading a description, that it produces the worst and most
debasing effects on their industrious and moral condition ;
and until a better system is introduced, and becomes ge¬
neral, the great agricultural resources of this beautiful and
fertile country cannbt be fully developed, and the inhabi¬
tants will be unable to take that station in society for which
nature seems to have destined them. The peasantry are,
with few exceptions, kept in a state of vassalage and de¬
pendence on their landlords, which effectually prevents
their accumulating capital, or in any way contributing to
liberate themselves from the galling servitude under which
they labour. There are no leases for occupants of land,
and tenants may be ejected from their farms at the end
of each year, at the will of the proprietor. The average
amount of rent paid for lands producing wheat is twelve
dollars per quadra, or about twelve shillings an acre. In
some instances, however, it is as high as twenty dollars per
quadra. When the crops are cut and removed, the proprie¬
tor claims and exercises the right of allowing his cattle to
graze at full liberty over the fields of his tenants, and even
their little gardens or other inclosures enjoy no exemp¬
tion from these intrusions; so that every thing is devoured
and lost, unless it has been previously secured. The land¬
lords have also a right to their personal services at plea¬
sure for a period of about four months annually during the
time of ploughing, sowing, and harvest, and also at the ro¬
deos, and on other occasions ; and for all these labours they
receive no remuneration. They are in general so poor that
they are wholly dependent on their landlords for the means
of carrying on their farming; receiving from him seed,
which is paid at the harvest by a double quantity of grain,
and hiring his oxen to plough the land, three yoke being
required to plough five quadras, or twenty-four acres ; and
for this they pay about thirty fanegas of wheat. The pea¬
sants also hire the landlord’s mares to tread out the corn,
for which they pay five per cent, of the quantity of wheat
obtained. Besides, the tenant is often under the necessity
of selling all his wheat on the ground, at one half or two
thirds of its real value. From these causes, he is enabled
to retain, for the support of himself and his family, only
from five to fxheen fanegas out of three hundred, which on
an average five quadras will generally yield. The necessary
wants of the tenant, howover, are few and easily satisfied;
his dwelling-place is very indifferent, and has few conveni¬
ences ; and he has no inducement to improve its condition.
Such a state of things has induced many of these people to
emigrate to the opposite side of the Cordillera, where they
are better treated, and where, with a little care and indus-
try, they may in a few years become small proprietors.
A group of such persons was seen in 1827, by the writer
of this article, located at Chilecito, or Little Chili, a beau¬
tiful tract of country about a hundred miles south of Men¬
doza, situated between two copious streams running pa¬
rallel with the neighbouring Andes, and affording ample
means of irrigation ; they all appeared contented and pros¬
perous. There is, however, some prospect that in Chili
a general improvement will ere long take place in their
condition, owing to the increase of intelligence, the aug¬
mented value of property, and the increasing population.
Ine law which regulates the division of heritable property
is extremely just and expedient, and entailed estates are
scarcely known.
The price of labour in Chili, although nominally less, is,
>u proportion to the work done, greater than in Great Bri-
Lui; the average daily wages, without food, being about
three rials, or one shilling and sixpence, while an Eng-
I L I.
lishman will there earn a dollar, or four shillings. The
monthly wages of farm servants, miners, &c. is four dol¬
lars, or sixteen shillings, with food, which consists of
a mess composed (dfnjoles or French beans, pumpkins,
grata or fat, cayenne pepper, and water, all boiled up to¬
gether so as to form a thick niess. With this each has
about three ounces of bread, and sometimes to supper a
little beef or mutton, but no drink of any kind. To those
who are thus fed, about two rials, or one shilling, is paid
daily ; but three rials are given to those who provide their
own food. Formerly there were about sixty holidays in
the year, besides Sundays; but a few years ago they were
legally reduced to eleven. The hours of labour are from
sunrise to sunset throughout the year, with two hours of
rest during the heat of thfr day.
The culture of wheat and barley is very general, espe-
cially in the southern provinces; and the agricultural prac¬
tices employed are extremely simple. The ploughs are of a
very primitive form, witli only one handle, and are drawn by
two oxen ; and furrows are formed of three or four inches
deep, and five apart. I he ground is then harrowed by
passing over it brandies of trees and thorny shrubs loaded
with stones. The first ploughing is at the commencement of
the rainy season ; the soil is then allowed to soften, and is
afterwards again ploughed and harrowed,and sown by hand-
scatterings threeto a quadra (seven and a half
bushels to four acres), and covered by means of the shrub¬
by harrows. Wheat and barley are reaped by an iron
sickle, and conveyed to the era or thrashing ground on
rude sledges made of hide. The era is a circular inclosure
made of staves; of from twenty to thirty feet in diameter.
The grain being collected in the centre of this inclosure,
and some persons stationed there to throw it gradually to
the circumference, about fifty mares are introduced, and
driven round the circle at a rapid pace, until the whole is
trodden out. In this way from 300 to fanegas (94 to
156 quarters) of wheat may be thrashed in one day. It is
then collected in a heap on the windward side of the era,
and winnowed by throwing it into the air with rude wooden
forks, the wind separating the chaff from the grain. As
there is no rain at this season, the grain is usualiv allowed
to He in the open air for sale, and, if unsold, is not housed
before March. In wet and moist seasons the wheat is liable
to be blighted, principally by the rust, the smut being rare¬
ly seen in Chili.
The average produce of wheat in the middle provinces is
about twelve fold, but the extremes are six and twenty fold.
In the southern provinces the average is somewhat greater;
but the statements which have been given of the immense
produce of grain in Chili are quite unfounded, unless in
new and virgin land, which is not now very abundant in
that country. In such lands from one hundred to two
hundred fold may be obtained. The land, however, is in
a few years exhausted by the constant succession of wheat
crops, as no use is made of manure, or rotation of crops;
the only means employed to fertilize the soil being to allow
the fields to remain fallow once every four or five years.
The average price of wheat is from four to seven rials
(from two shillings to three and sixpence) per fanega, or
two and a half bushels. During bad years it is as high
as five dollars, and on some occasions twelve dollars, per
fanega. The most correct estimates of the quantity of wheat
grown in Chili give 210,000 fanegas for the southern pro¬
vinces, between the rivers Biobio and Maule, 160,000 from
the rivers Maule to Maypu, 255,000 between the rivers
Maypu and Chuapa, and 25,000 in the provinces north
of the river Chuapa ; total amount, 655,000 fanegas. Of
this, about 200,000 fanegas were formerly exported an¬
nually from Conception and Valparaiso to Peru; but none
was exported during the four years ending 1825, owing
531
Chili.
532 c H :
Chili, to the deficiency of the crops. The quantity supposed to
be consumed in Chili does not exceed 450,000 fanegas,
which gives, according to the supposed population, only
about one and a half bushel for each person, being scarcely
a fifth part of the proportion consumed in England, or one
third of the consumption of Paris. I he Chileno peasants
use little bread, but consume maize, French beans, pota¬
toes, pumpkins, and other vegetables and fruits.
Two kinds of wheat are cultivated; the one, tngo bianco,
or white wheat, having a round, plump, farinaceous grain,
and affording excellent flour; the other, trigo candial, or
red and bearded wheat, having little farina, the corculum
hard and transparent, and enveloped in a thin covering.
The latter kind has a sweet taste, is easily made into
bread, and is preferred by the poor as the most econonn
cal. The mills-used in this country are very simple in
their mechanism, and not expensive in their erection 01
working, and are always driven by water. A stone of
five feet diameter will revolve ninety times in a minute,
and grind two and a half bushels in an hour; loi giinding
wheat, one twelfth of the white and one eighth of the red
is paid, the latter requiring longer time to grind. A flour
mill, on the most approved principles, was established about
twelve years ago by Mr Miers at Concon, near the mouth of
the river Aconcagua, and continued in active operation
during some years; but it was at length given up, in con¬
sequence of a legal dispute about the ground, on which it
stood. More recently, an extensive establishment of the
same kind has been formed by Messrs Lillyvalch and Bur¬
den, near Conception, which has proved exceedingly pros¬
perous. In the country every family makes its own bread,
bakers being only found in the towns, where, however,
they have no shops, but send round their bread in hide
panniers on horses or mules. Maize is extensively culti¬
vated, and constitutes an important article of food.
The fruits cultivated in Chili are generally those which
are most abundant in Europe. Little attention is paid to
their culture, consequently some of them are of inferior
quality, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries,
strawberries, &c.; but oranges, grapes, figs, walnuts, and
almonds, are of better quality. Melons and water melons
are excellent, and very cheap. Walputs and almonds are
the only fruits exported to Peru. The principal vege¬
tables raised in Chili are frijoles (French beans), pump¬
kins, and potatoes, which constitute the principal food of
the peasantry. The potato is a native of the country,
and, when cultivated, is of excellent quality. Near the
towns other vegetables are cultivated, such as peas, aspa¬
ragus, cauliflowers, and cabbages; and the frijoles, and a
kind of bean called garbanzas, are reared for exportation
to Peru.
Grapes are extensively cultivated, principally in the val¬
leys of the Andes, and are of good quality when pro¬
perly treated. In.general, however, they are injured by
too plentiful supplies of water from irrigation, which con¬
siderably increases the quantity, but deteriorates the qua¬
lity". The best wine is prepared in the province ot Con¬
ception; it is sent for sale to Santiago and Valparaiso, and
is the only wine in Chili which is kept in casks. Some of
the proprietors have endeavoured to make better wine in
other parts of the country; and General Lastra has suc¬
ceeded in producing an excellent imitation of champagne.
The wine in common use is made in earthen jars holding
from sixty to a hundred gallons, the inside of which is
lined with mineral pitch brought from Cooraco, on the
Mendoza side of the Cordillera. The must, or juice of the
grape, having been expressed in the reservoir, is removed
from the well into these jars or tinajas, with about one tenth
part of cocida or must boiled down to two thirds of its
bulk. This admixture is used to prevent the wine becom-
: l i.
ing sour, as the people have no knowledge of the expe- Chilf
dient of separating the wine from the lees by racking. This
cocida has an empyreumatic taste, and gives the wine with
which it is mixed an unpleasant flavour; but it is much
relished by the common people, and is drank in great
quantities at their puiperias on Sundays and holidays. A
considerable quantity is consumed while undergoing the
process of fermentation, which is then called sancochado ^
or chicha, and is very exhilarating. Red wine is obtained
from the same grapes by mixing some powdered gypsum,
which has been burned, with the bruised husks, and allow¬
ing them t@ ferment for several days ; a juice then exudes
mixed with the must, which gives the wine a red colour
and an astringent taste; it is called Carlon or Catalonian
wine. After the fermentation is over, the mouths of the
jars are closely covered over with a baked earthen cover,
luted over with gypsum, or a compost of clay and horse-
dung. These remain closed till the wine is sold, or the
time of making brandy arrives. All the jars are emptied
before the next vintage, so that no old wines are to be found
in the country.
Brandy or aguardiente is made from these wines, or from
the fermented husks and other refuse of the grapes, as well
as other fruits, such as peaches, all of which are thrown
into the receptacle to ferment with powdered gypsum.
The apparatus for distilling is extremely simple and pri¬
mitive. The spirit, before being sold, is usually impregnat¬
ed with the flavour of aniseed, which is much relished by
the natives. The vines are planted at nine feet distant
from each other, so that each quadra has 3000 vines, and
eight quadras will give 22,000 vines, yielding IflOOarrobas
(12,000 gallons) of wine, which, at three dollars per ar-
roba, gives 4800 dollars, or L.960. From the refuse 500
arrobas (4000 gallons) of aguardiente will be procured,
which, at 11 dollars the arroba, will yield 5500 dollars,
or L.l 100. A vineyard of this size will require about sixty
jars in the bodega or wine store, containing about 5000
gallons.
Hemp is cultivated, and is prepared as usual by steeping
and beating. It is of excellent quality, and might be cul¬
tivated to a great extent if in demand. A rope manufac¬
tory might be an advantageous undertaking it judiciously
managed. A rude kind of cordage is made, which is only
suitable for laying cables and for other ordinary purposes.
Flax, although the soil and climate is favourable to itsgrowth,
has not been cultivated, as there is no demand for it. An
unsuccessful attempt was made near Peteroa to cultivate
and manufacture sugar, with which Chili was formerly
supplied from Peru, and more recently from Brazil and
the East and West Indies.
The principal fuel used in the middle provinces is the
wood of the espino, algaroba, laurels, llilei\ &c. I he two
former are made into charcoal, and are much used in
the houses during winter; for the brasero or chaffing-disn,
which is in general use, is considered injurious to the
health. For cooking, the espino is sold at six rials (three
shillings) for each mule load, measuring about 9860 cu¬
bic inches, and weighing 320 lbs. In the northern pro¬
vinces wood is so scarce that, besides the tree called car¬
bon, they have no other fuel except the quisco or term
Peruvianus, and other columnar cactuses, in a state o
decay, the old stems of which may be seen divested o
every thing excepting the hard parenchyma in.the onn
of a tube of from two to four inches in diameter, an a
quarter of an inch thick. It is reticulated like a networ ,
but its substance is so hard that it resembles bone, an
it is sometimes used in building. Close to the Bay
Conception coal in considerable quantity is obtaine ,
twelve shillings per ton. It is very bituminous, an
readily, but is not suitable for smiths’ forges, for wine
CHILI.
Ma« -c
turq
from England, sold at Valparaiso at L.7. 16s. the chaldron,
is preferred. The expense of transporting coal from Con¬
ception is so great as to equal that brought from England.
Salt is obtained from the province of Maule, and is import¬
ed in large slabs from Peru. It is also formed in large lakes
of sea water near the shore, which, when evaporated by the
heat of the sun, leave it in large quantities.
Soap is made in considerable quantities, but many fami¬
lies prepare it for their own use. There are no large manu¬
factories of this article. The fat of the goat is preferred.
The ley is obtained from wood ashes, collected from the
houses, or procured by burning wood in woody districts.
Six fanegas of these ashes are boiled with half a fanega of
shell lime, and, when separated, boiled with seven arrobas
(175 lbs.) of fat, to which some salt is added to separate the
waste ley and give it hardness. There are many tanneries
in Chili on a small scale. The bark used for sole leather and
oxhides is the lingui ; for cow hides and sheep skins, the
bark of the peumo; and for morocco and tanned kid, the
roots of the panke. But all these are inferior in quality
to oak bark, and the tanning is so imperfectly performed,
that the leather produced is of an inferior quality, and is
principally used for shoes by the poorer inhabitants. In
the mining districts, and more especially at Coquimbo, a
considerable number of copper vessels are made for home
consumption and exportation ; but the establishments for
this manufacture being only on a small scale, they are made
in a rude and unfinished manner. The principal articles of
this description are paylas or large copper pans, for boil¬
ing must and other articles; but they are very rude in
their structure, and are sold at the rate of from Is. 6d. to
2s. per pound.
Conn :ce. While under the dominion of Spain, external commerce
was confined to that country, Peru, and Buenos Ayres ; and
the nature and value of this commerce may be estimated
from the returns of one year. About the beginning of the
present century, twenty-three vessels, each of 600 tons
burden, were employed in the trade with Peru, to which
they conveyed wheat, wine, fruits, preserves, pulse, dried
beef, cheese, leather, tallow, cordage, timber, and copper ;
and received in return silver, iron, cloth, linen, cotton,
earthenware, sugar, cocoa, idee, tobacco, oil, and various
European productions. The value of the exports amount¬
ed to 700,000, and that of the imports to 500,000 dollars.
Chili sent to Buenos Ayres linen and woollen fabrics, partly
of home manufacture, ponchos, sugar, snuff, wine, and bran¬
dy, and received in return yerba or Paraguay tea, wax, and
negro slaves. Their exports to Spain were gold to the va¬
lue of 656,000, and silver to the amount of 244,000 dollars,
some hides, and vicuna wool; and their imports were prin¬
cipally European goods to the amount of about a million
of dollars. The home traffic was considerable, and consist¬
ed principally of the coarse fabrics of the country. They
received from the Chiloe islands valuable timber, woollen
fabrics, dried hams, and pilchards ; and traded extensive¬
ly with the Araucanian Indians, who received from Chili
edged tools, toys, wines, and spirits, and gave in exchange
horses, horned cattle, and sometimes children. Previously
to the commencement of the revolution, a contraband trade
to some extent was carried on along the coast of Chili and
Peru by British and American vessels ; but it ceased after
that period, when the ports were thrown open to the ships
of all nations. The consequence has been, that since then
the commerce of Chili has to a certain extent assumed a
new direction, and been greatly augmented. The want
of the requisite official documents on this occasion prevents
our giving a comprehensive view of the subsequent exter¬
nal commerce of Chili. The following tables, however, will
afford a correct view of the commerce with Great Britain
during the period of six years ending with 1827.
533
The official valueof imports into Great Britain from Chili
during six years, was L.275,171. 9s. 5d. and consisted of the
following articles:
Quantities Quantities entered for
imported, home consumption.
Cocoa nuts  518,021 lbs. 113 lbs.
Copper unwrought 28,955 cwt. 844|- cwt.
Cortex Peruvianus 37,559 lbs. 36,813 lbs.
Indigo 89,775 lbs. 21,799 lbs.
Tin  3,420 cwt.
Number of hides un tanned 37,355 22,944
Weight of do. 31,765 cwt. 21,799 cwt.
Number of seal-skins... ...11,716 16,715
During the same period the official and declared values
of the exports from Great Britain to Chili were as follows :
Official value of British and Irish produce
and manufactures L.3,274,662 9 10
Do. do. of foreign and colonial merchan¬
dize   161,670 5 8
Chili.
Total L.3,436,332 15 6
Declared value of British and Irish produce and manu¬
factures during six years, L.2,652,737. 2s. 7d.
The articles of export from Great Britain to Chili dur¬
ing the above period were the following:
British and Irish Produce and Manufactures.
Apparel, military and slops, declared value, L.33,118.
16s. 9d.
Arms and ammunition, declared value, L.16,397. 6s.
Cotton entered by yards, 33,291,008 yards.
Cotton hosiery and small wares, declared value, L.140,308.
Earthenware of all sorts, 1,502,229 pieces.
Glass of all sorts, declared value, L.32,258. 8s.
Hardware and cutlery, 10,554 cwt. 7 lbs.
Number of hats of all sorts, 54,322.
Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, 2369 tons, 10
cwt. 15 lbs.
Leather and saddlery, declared value, L.34,198. 14s.
Linen entered by the yard, 2,529,314 yards.
Do. do. at value, L.3406.
Silk manufactures, declared value, L.53,307.
Woollens entered by the piece, 93,148 pieces.
Do. do. hy the yard, 253,006 yards.
Do. do. at value, L.2907. 10s.
All other articles, declared value, L. 134,986. 2s. 2d.
Foreign and Colonial Merchandise.
Cochineal, 3075 lbs.
Corn, viz. wheat and flour, 5027 cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs.
Cotton of India, 889 pieces.
Cotton ofEurope, entered by square yards, 31,018^ square
yards.
Do. do. by value, L.2,308. 16s.
Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, 60 tons 9 cwt. 2
qrs. 2 lbs.
Linen entered by the piece, 298£ pieces.
Do. do. by the ell, 16,614 ells.
Quicksilver, 135,591 lbs.
Silk manufactures ofEurope, 2385 lbs. 11 oz.
Spices, including pepper, 30,529 lbs.
Spirits, brandy and Geneva, 18,395 gallons.
Do. rum, 110,181 gallons.
Tobacco, 306,397 lbs.
Wines, 36,487 gallons.
Woollens entered by the piece, 5389 pieces.
Do. do. by the yard, 2447^ yards.
All other articles, declared value, L.8911. 9s. 7d.
The commerce of the United States of North America
with Chili during the year ending 30th September 1830
was as follows:—
534
CHILL
Chili.
L. x.
L.36,517 15
183,143
124,079
12
4
Dollars.
Value of Imports from Chili,....182,588
Value of exports to Chili, do¬
mestic produce 915,718
Do. do. foreign produce 620,396
Total value of exports 1,536,114 L.307,222 16 0
The principal articles of export from Chili to Great
Britain, the United States, and India, are the precious
metals in considerable quantities from Valparaiso, the
principal port, and from Coquimbo, Guafeco, and Copiapo.
From the latter ports large shipments of copper are made,
and hides from Valparaiso. The most important exports
from Conception are timber, wheat, flour, and the fruits of
the country, principally to Peru. A considerable trade in
country produce is also carried on from the provinces of
Conception and Maule, to supply the wants of Coquimbo,
Guasco, and other parts of the northern provinces. This
traffic is principally carried on by small vessels built at the
Puerto de la Constitution, at the mouth of the river Maule.
All foreign manufactures are imported into Chili at Val¬
paraiso, whence the other parts of the country are sup¬
plied. By far the most important are from Britain, and
consist of all descriptions of cotton, linen, woollen, and
silk manufactures, hats, iron, hardware, cutlery, &c. From
France are received silks, perfumery, dresses, occasion¬
ally wines, &c.; from the United States they principally
receive flour, cottons, furniture, tobacco, &c.; and from
Germany, linens, &c. The annual number of vessels
from Liverpool to Valparaiso may be from 18 to 25, and
the average value of the cargo of each from L.50,000 to
L.60,000 sterling. The import duties on foreign produce
and manufactures are about 40 per cent.; that is, a value
is put by the custom-house officer appointed for the pur¬
pose, from which 20 per cent, is deducted, and the duties
are charged on the residue at the rate of 27 per cent.;
but a citizen of Chili receives a further deduction of 10
per cent, on the net amount. From this general rate,
however, there are some exceptions. Thus, the duties
upon all kinds of silk goods, iron, and some of Urn pro¬
ductions of the neighbouring republics, are only 15 per
cent.; while furniture, shoes, ready-made clothes, and ar¬
ticles which interfere with the industry of the country,
pay 40 per cent. The articles, also, which come under
the estanco or excise department are charged at a differ¬
ent rate, and are under different management. These are,
spirits, one dollar per gallon; wine, six rials per gallon, or
two dollars per dozen if in bottle ; tea, one dollar per lb.;
and the principal excised article, tobacco, is still subject
to an arbitrary duty, or to be entirely prohibited if the
estanco does not choose to buy it. The duties known by
the name of estanco were originally farmed by a private
company, but they are now in the hands of the government.
Machinery, books, musical instruments, fire-arms, &c. are
free of duty.
The export duties on gold are six per cent.; on silver,
four rials per merk; hides, one dollar per quintal; and
there is an alcabala duty of six per cent, on the sale of
all produce and property of every kind in the country
which has not previously paid an import duty.
The transit duty on goods landed at Valparaiso, and
reshipped, is three per cent.; but it is in agitation to
form Valparaiso into a free port for the reception of all
foreign commodities, and to build extensive warehouses
in one of the ravines or quebradas for their reception.
The improved system of commerce which has been
adopted in Chili since the revolution, and more especially
at Coquimbo, in relation to the copper produced there,
has been productive of the best consequences, and affords
ample evidence of the great advantages of free trade. By
opening the markets to the free competition of the whole C£
world, the price of copper has been greatly increased, and V-
the cost of its production considerably reduced by the
diminution in price of all articles necessary to the miners.
An idea of the difference in these matters before and after
the revolution may be formed from the following table:—
Former Price. Price in 1821,
Dollars. Dollars.
Copper per quintal of 100 Spanish lbs. 6|- to 7 12 to 13
* Steel, do  ;  50 16
* Iron, do    25 8
* Wheat perfanega, lbs..  5 24
* Beans, do.  6 5
* Jerked beef, per quintal of 100 lbs. 10 7 to
* Grassa, or soft fat, per botica of
50 lbs    8 6 to 6$
* Wine and spirits..,.  No change.
Fine cloth, per yard  23 12
* Coarse cloth, per do  5 3
Printed cotton cloth, per do  18 to 24 2| to 3
Velveteens, do  26
Crockery, per crete.... . — 150 40
Hardware 300 100
Glass   200 100
The articles marked * are used in the mines.
Besides the advantages above stated the miners have
others equally beneficial. Formerly they obtained all their
requisites for mining, such as iron, steel, food and cloth¬
ing, from the city of Coquimbo, wLich was made the en¬
trepot for all the mining districts; but now these articles
are conveyed to them at a trifling expense by the ships
which are loaded with their copper. Indeed the advan¬
tages which have arisen from the removal of all the pre¬
vious protections, restrictions, and monopolies, have been
most obvious and remarkable. The capitalists settled in
Coquimbo, who possess sufficient funds and good mercan¬
tile connections, are enabled to carry on a lucrative com¬
merce. Goods for the supply of Chili come from England
and India to Valparaiso ; and a considerable part of the re¬
turns are made in copper from Coquimbo, which the mer¬
chant is enabled to supply with regularity at a fixed rate, in
consequence of his connection with the miners. By these
means all parties are benefited, and the Chilenos are sup¬
plied with every article they require at the cheapest pos¬
sible rate. More capital has been invested in this import¬
ant branch of industry, and many new mines have in conse¬
quence been opened. The authorities of Chili have hitherto
refrained from all interference in these matters ; and while
they continue to do so, its prosperity will be unretarded.
Copper may be considered as the staple commodity of
this country, and many hundred copper mines are worke ,
especially in the northern provinces. In 1821 the annual
average produce of this article was estimated at about
60,000 quintals, each of 100 Spanish lbs. Since that tiriie
the annual amount has varied from 90,000 to 1 >
quintals; but 140,000 may now be considered as the ave¬
rage annual produce. The copper is principally exporte
to Calcutta, some of it to China, and the remainder to the
United States, Great Britain, and other parts of Europe.
The annual produce of the precious metals in Chm be¬
fore the revolution was 5212 merks of gold and 2 , o
silver, value 1,000,000 dollars ; while the whole produce o
South America in these articles was 38,317 me£ks
and 3,460.840 of silver, giving a total value of 3~,U» >
dollars. The amount during 1817, the first year afte
the revolution, was 4509 merks of gold and 64, / o
ver, value 1,161,283 dollars. This year was unusual y
productive, as much confiscated Spanish property
coined, and large quantities were remitted to u P
In 1821 the amount of silver exported was estimate
0 H
A[\i. 20,000 merks of silver, since which time the annual ave-
rage has diminished considerably. In 1823 it was 2236
merks of gold, and 5870 of silver, value 367,658 dollars;
and in 1824, 686 merks of gold and 1874 of silver, value
133,094 dollars. Subsequently the revenue from the mint
has diminished so much as to he scarcely sufficient to de¬
fray the expenses of that establishment. This diminution
in the produce of the mines of gold and silver has been
owing to the withdrawal of much capital from this branch
of industry; the patriots, on becoming masters of the
country, having sequestrated much of the wealth and pro¬
perty of the opulent Spaniards, who were principally en¬
gaged in this branch of industry. From some of the
most opulent of these from 100,000 to 400,000 dollars in
money and property were taken; and it is believed that in
the interval between the battles of Chacabuco and May-
pu, no less than five millions of dollars were obtained in
this way, and about three millions soon afterwards. Others,
to avoid a similar fate, took the precaution to bury or
otherwise conceal their money, which was consequently
withdrawn from mining and other undertakings. The fail¬
ure of the crops in Chili, from 1820 to 1823 inclusive, also
greatly diminished the mining operations during these four
years. Formerly, by the Spanish laws, all private trade in
gold and silver was illegal, and every one was obliged,
under severe penalties, to carry his gold and silver to the
mint, to be coined or stamped. Such regulations could
be easily enforced during the Spanish regime ; but since
Chili became independent, so many avenues have been
opened to illicit commerce, that a contraband trade in
these articles has been carried on to a considerable extent,
the difference in the profits being so great as to cover all
the risks of being detected; so that, with the exception of
comparatively small sums which are sent to the mint, per¬
haps often to cover other transactions, very little bullion
finds its way to that establishment, and it will not in all
probability return to its former course until the duties im¬
posed are greatly reduced. It has been calculated that of
late from one or two billions of dollars have been annually
exported from Coquimbo.
The commercial intercourse of the various parts of
Chili with each other, and with the Argentine provinces,
is carried on by means of mules. They carry loads of
from six to twelve arrobas, a hundred and fifty to three
hundred pounds each. They travel in large troops, and
with many spare mules. A piara of eight mules is intrust¬
ed to each peon, and they travel from twelve to fifteen
leagues per day. Their hire from Santiago to Valparaiso,
thirty leagues, is from twelve to thirteen rials (three shil¬
lings to five shillings) each; and about five or six dollars
to Mendoza, on the east side of the Andes, a hundred
leagues distant. In summer the roads from Santiago to
Valparaiso and to Talca admit of large waggons being em¬
ployed in the transport of goods. These waggons are
heavy and clumsy, and formed entirely of wood : they
™’ry a ton weight of goods, and are drawn by six oxen.
heir hire from the port to the capital is from twenty to
t irty-five dollars each (L.4 to L.7), and they require
rem six to twelve days to perform the journey. An ex-
ee ent road was formed many years ago between these
tu° ptaces, under the auspices of Don Ambrosio O’Hig-
gins; but it has been allowed to fall very much into decay,
sa that during the violent rains it is often impassable, espe-
c*a y at the rivers, which have no bridges. Indeed all
>e loads in Chili are quite neglected, although abundant
materials for their formation or repair are everywhere
ound, and large sums are exacted by the government as
o° -duties on all goods. Except in the large towns, the
Jjy bridges to be found are in the mountainous districts.
£ puentes de cimbra, or swinging bridge, formed of wicker
ILI. 535
and canes, with two thick ropes of bullocks’ hides twisted Chili,
in four stiahds, are stretched across the river by means of
windlasses, and attached to stakes of red thorn tree on
each side. These are crossed by a platform six feet wide,
made of the tough black coligua cane, which is used by the
Indians for lances. About four or five feet above are placed
the suspension hide ropes, fastened to the tops of the stakes
on each side, and these are connected to the platform
every few feet by means of strips of hide. Its vibra¬
tory motion is very disagreeable to those who are unac¬
customed to it, but it may be passed with safety, even by
loaded mules and light carriages. During violent gusts of
wind it is sometimes overturned, and requires much exer¬
tion to replace it. I he lasso bridge crossing the river
Maypu measures 250 feet, and is broad enough for a light
carriage. The restrictive system in relation to water
communication by the coast, so long pursued by the Spa¬
niards in order to prevent contraband trade, has been very
little relaxed since the country became independent. In
1826 there were only seven ports which could be entered
as puertos rayados, namely, Copiapo, Coquimbo, Guasco,
Valparaiso, Maule, Conception, and Valdivia ; and to pass
from the one to the other requires a license from the
custom-house at Coquimbo, Valparaiso, or Conception,
which places alone are open to foreign commercial ship¬
ping. In consequence of these regulations the coasting
trade in Chili by boats and small vessels has hardly exist¬
ed. Some relaxation, however, in these regulations has
at length taken place, and small vessels for this purpose
are built in the Maule, yet to so limited an extent, and
at so great an expense, that a ton of coal may be carried
from England to Coquimbo, in English ships, even cheaper
than from Conception.
I he revenue ot Chili, under proper and efficient manage- Revenue,
ment, is quite sufficient to provide for all the wants of the
state; and during the six years after the country was
wrested from the Spaniards, notwithstanding the nume¬
rous abuses which then existed in its collection and ex¬
penditure, it not only enabled the government to defray
all the expenses of the army and marine employed in the
work of liberation, but contributed principally to the for¬
mation and equipment of the army which carried the war
into Peru ; but during some of the subsequent years,
when in a state of peace and tranquillity, the manage¬
ment of the revenue fell into the hands of those who
seemed to have been much less scrupulous, for the ex¬
penditure greatly exceeded the income. More recently,
efficient measures have been adopted to remedy abuses, and
to regulate the collection and expenditure of the revenue ;
hut as yet the previous embarrassments have not been so
far remedied as to enable the government to pay either
the interest or principal of the loan of one million sterling,
contracted for in London in 1822. But recently a docu¬
ment has appeared from the finance department, indicating
that this debt will be speedily recognized and liquidated.
In 1818, the year following the battle of Chacabuco,
the revenue of Chili, ordinary and extraordinary, was
1,530,915 dollars ; in 1819, 1,752,127 dollars ; and in 1824
it was estimated at 1,176,531 dollars, although it actually
amounted to 2,030,000 dollars, and consisted of the fol¬
lowing items: Dollars.
Customs 1,000,000
Excise  44,000
Stamps  20,000
Tithes and papal bulls  310,000
Estanco of tobacco..".  400,000
Duties on roads, Canal of Maypu, &c  62,000
Rents of confiscated church property  200,000
L.407,200= 2,036,000
536
CHILI.
Chili.
The public expenditure during the same year was as
follows?S8ai 72
Army and navy cr^
Finance and home department 
Ordinary and extraordinary expenses  300,000
L.499,505=2,497,525
Documentary evidence is at present wanting to give a
correct view of the amount of income and expendituie
during the subsequent years; but there is sufficient evi¬
dence of its having greatly improved ol late.
The estanco or monopoly of certain articles of consump¬
tion was granted to an association who^ engaged to pay
the interest of the loan ; but, as they failed to do so, a
compromise took place, and government became respon¬
sible for the loan, on which no interest has been paid
since the year 1824. The odious impost ol the cdcabcila
has not yet been abolished as in other parts oi South
America, although a proposal was made by the landhold¬
ers to raise 200,000 dollars in lieu of it. Stamps are re¬
quired for receipts and legal proceedings; but they are not
oppressive. The income oi the mint lor some yeuis has
not paid its own expenses. The tithes are farmed out,
and give rise to a good deal of speculation. Duties on
traffic by the various roads are still exacted, and are very
productive, yet no attention has been paid to keep the
roads in order, although in many places almost impassable.
The duties on the lands watered by the Canal of Maypu
have greatly increased, in consequence of a large portion
of the extensive plain oi Maypu having been brought into
cultivation by means of irrigation.
Constitu- The constitution of Chili, since it was first promulgated
non. in 1818, has undergone several important alterations, which
experience has dictated, and the altered condition ot the
people demanded. Ballot has at length been introduced
into their elections, but has been attended with injurious
consequences, as experience has proved that the general
state of ignorance and demoralization of the community
unfits them for the legitimate exercise of so valuable a
privilege, and makes them the ready dupes of designing
and ambitious men.
Language. The language used in Chili is good, and contains few of
those provincialisms so general in Spain and some parts
of South America; that used by the Araucanians and all
the Indians south of Chili and Buenos Ayres is extremely
copious, and affords abundant scope for the display of the
native eloquence of these tribes. Its roots have very little
analogy with those of any other nation.
Education. Less has been done in Chili for the general diffusion of
education than in some other parts of the new South Ame¬
rican states, especially the Argentine and Colombian re¬
publics. Nothing indeed has yet been done by the autho¬
rities to render primary education accessible to the great
body of the people; and hence they are generally igno¬
rant, superstitious, idle, and vicious. Naturally of a mild
and amiable disposition, and highly susceptible of improve¬
ment, they are humble and submissive to their too often
oppressive and despotic superiors. Soon after the coun¬
try was liberated from the Spaniards, General O’Higgins
endeavoured to establish schools, but found no one disposed
to assist him. In 1821 Mr Thomson, who left Edinburgh
for the purpose of promoting education in South America,
established two Lancasterian schools at Santiago, but met
with considerable opposition from bigoted and interested
persons: the schools made considerable progress while he
remained, but on his departure they were discontinued.
About this time a clergyman, attempting to interfere in the
education of a young lady, was tried by order of the govern¬
ment, and banished the country. A few years afterwards
a seminary of education for young men was established in
Santiago under the auspices of an accomplished Spaniard, a
Dr Joaquin de Mora, who was very successful in his en- \—-vv
deavours to introduce an improved systeni of education.
Two years ago he left Chili for Lima, owing to some poli¬
tical cause; but the seminary he established has gone on
in a prosperous state under his successor. The example
shown by this establishment has had such pleasing results
on the inhabitants, that various other seminaries of educa¬
tion have been established under the name of colleges. At
the Institute about 400 youths are educated at the public
expense, and here the candidates for holy orders are exa¬
mined and licensed. No university has yet been established
in Chili. In nothing, however, has the improvement in
education been more apparent than in that pi females, who
were formerly so much neglected, that often young ladies
of old and respectable families were unable either to read
or write. Now education has become quite universal among
them, and three or four excellent seminaries for young
ladies are in full operation in the capital. Ihe principal
of these, the college of Madame Versin, a French lady,
contains about seventy or eighty pupils, wno aie taught
Spanish grammar, French, music, drawing, &c. &c. In going
to and from these seminaries, the young ladies, by regu¬
lation of the government, always wear bonnets and gloves,
and enjoy a degree of personal liberty which was wholly
denied to their parents when young, unmarried females
having never before been permitted to go out of doors with¬
out being accompanied by their mothers, or some other
guardian. As yet no general measure for the diffusion of
education among the people has been adopted; neither
has any' effort been made to introduce the blessings of edu¬
cation among the Araucanians and other neighbouring In¬
dians, whose high mental powers peculiarly fit them for its
reception.. A few of the Araucanian youths have been edu¬
cated at the public seminaries at Santiago, and their impor¬
tance has in consequence been augmented on their return
to their native country. One of these, the second son of
the Cazique Benancio, was destined by his father to suc¬
ceed him as the head of his tribe, from being by his educa¬
tion better fitted to exercise that charge than hisoldest bro¬
ther, who was uneducated. A taste for reading and literary ,
pursuits does not yet exist to any extent in Chili, ihe
press has hitherto been principally occupied in publishing
newspapers and political pamphlets; but periodicals on
education, statistics, &c. have occasionally appeared, prin¬
cipally under the auspices of foreigners. The liberty ot the
press is merely nominal, public opinion being not yet suf¬
ficiently powerful to support any publication or periodical
in opposition to the party in power. Offences against the
press are determined by the verdict of a jury, which has
already been very useful in d few instances ; but in genera
the people are not yet sufficiently enlightened to under¬
stand the utility of this institution, and to use it properly.
There is a public library in the capital, but being pimci
pally filled with old ecclesiastical works, and containing
few modern books, it is of little value to the pu ic.
The established religion of Chili has always been theliel.
Roman Catholic; and there are two bishoprics, the one
of Santiago, the other of Conception, their respective ju¬
risdictions being defined by the river Maule, the latte
including Valdivia and the islands ot Chdoe. live
tic orders were established, the Dominicans, Franciscan ,
Augustines, those of Mercy, and St John of God. ine
Jesuits were established there in 1593, and exeiciae
influence; but they were ejected from thence, as ,
from all the Spanish American dominions, by the ceie
ed decree of the king of Spain. Since the commencemen^
of the revolution, the church establishments o •
fallen greatly from their pristine importance an
ber; but the clergy are still powerful, and po»
CHILI.
537
ihili. valuable property, territorial as well as movable. Their
monastic establishments in the southern provinces have
been almost all destroyed in the late wars: and in the
northern provinces, as at Coquimbo, they have been con¬
verted into schools, hospitals, and other public institutions.
It is only in the middle provinces where they continue to
exist to any extent, especially in the capital, where there
are still six convents of monks.and seven of nuns, each
containing from 12 to 112 inmates. Means have been
taken to reduce their numbers, and no person can now
take the veil as a nun, or become a professed friar, before
the age of twenty-five. The secularization of a consider¬
able number of the monks or regular clergy took place
during a visit to Chili from the pope’s nuncio, who was
likewise instrumerital in reducing the number of feast days,
exclusive of Sundays, from the previous number of sixty to
eleven. He was afterwards found to be implicated in some
political views inimical to the interests of the country, and
was ordered by the government to return to Europe. Du¬
ring the administration of O’Higgins, a sequestration of the
church property took place, to the amount, as is stated, of
5,000,000 dollars. Some parts have since been sold, or
otherwise disposed of, and the rents of the property,
amounting to about 200,000 dollars, have been annually
appropriated to the use of the state. In 1829, however,
the church property was restored to the clergy by the
authorities, but somewhat diminished in value and extent.
Formerly the convents were crowded with youth and chil¬
dren, training for the service of the altar ; but now very few
are to be seen within their walls under middle age. The
secular clergy are still numerous, and are paid an annual
salary from the tithe fund, although only about a fourth
part of its former amount.
The influence of the clergy is still very great. They
have all along, during the revolution, kept up their con¬
nection with Rome, and for some years maintained an
agent there. The only bishop they had was that of Sant¬
iago; but he was so determined a royalist, and so intriguing,
that he was first banished to Mendoza, afterwards, to Mi-
lipilli, and eventually, being found incorrigible, was sent to
Europe. More recently, two natives of Chili, Vicuna and
Cienfuegos, have been appointed by the pope to the sees
of Santiago and Conception. Of late years, various im¬
provements have taken place in the religious opinions of
the people, especially of the more intelligent and educated
classes; yet the great mass of the community, being kept
in a state of ignorance, are as submissive to the clergy as
formerly. Toleration does not as yet legally exist; but
foreigners are not much molested on account of their re¬
ligion. The principal deviation has been, the permitting of
the British residents to erect Protestant cemeteries at the
capital and at Valparaiso. Formerly the dead bodies of fo¬
reigners were denied admission into the burying-grounds ;
and, to prevent violation, their relatives were obliged to
deposit them under the protection of the forts of Santa
Lucia at Santiago, and of St Antonio at Valparaiso. The
difference of religion has long been a serious obstacle to
the formation of matrimonial alliances between natives and
foreigners. During the last congress of Chili a strenuous
effort was made to establish toleration by law. On this
topic the discussions were interesting and protracted, and
the cause of religious freedom was advocated with great
zeal and ability by a clergyman named Navarro ; but the
measure, though supported by a strong party, was reject¬
ed, on the plea that the public mind was not yet quite
prepared for the change contemplated, and that their con¬
stituents would be displeased. The more intelligent part
of the population, however, is in favour of the measure,
and fully aware of its advantages. These proceedings,
however, will undoubtedly lead to its adoption a few years
VOL. VI.
Chili.
hence ; and the agitation of the question will greatly tend
to pave the wray for the change.
The inhabitants of Chili are a fine and well-made racelnhabit-
of people, generally with fair complexions, being the de-ants-
scendants of the Spaniards and other Europeans who have
settled in ’the country, and variously intermixed with the
native tribes. They all possess the black eyes and black
hair so characteristic of the Spaniards. Their colour
does not seem to be much influenced by the heat of the
climate; but the people of the northern provinces, as at
Guasco, are fairer, and generally handsomer, than those in
the middle and southern provinces. South of the Maule
they differ considerably, and partake a good deal of the
aspect and character of the Promaucian Indians, some
little communities of which may still be seen in several
parts of that district. To the north of that river scarcely
any distinct communities of Indians are to be found, all
being intermixed and amalgamated with the Creole popu¬
lation. The Maulinos are of a darker complexion, have
less beard, eyes more separated, and a lower forehead, than
the others; and in their habits they are more ferocious,
thievish, and unsettled. The Araucanians are a very dis¬
tinct people, and have only an admixture of European
blood from the number of Spanish prisoners who became
resident among them. They have large and broad coun¬
tenances, and small, black, penetrating eyes. They natu¬
rally possess much intelligence, are firm, brave, and pa¬
triotic, as they have proved by their efforts in defence
of their country and liberties against the power of Spain
since the middle of the sixteenth century. They live
in small communities, have fixed habitations, cultivate the
soil, and live principally upon the fruits of their labours.
Their civil and domestic institutions are numerous and
highly interesting; but their intercourse with their Chris¬
tian neighbours has tended considerably to demoralize
them. Their numbers are not exactly known, but from
the most authentic information they are estimated at from
80,000 to 100,000.
The negro population of Chili has never been nume¬
rous, and the slaves have always been employed for do¬
mestic purposes, and treated with much kindness, the
laws of the country, throughout all Spanish America, being
very favourable to them. In 1811, a law w as enacted, de¬
claring free after that period all children of slaves born
in Chili; and in consequence of this, and other measures
of the same tendency, the number of slaves was so far
diminished, that in 1825 the. legislature considered it ex¬
pedient to abolish slavery altogether Since that time no
slave has existed in the country, and the negro and mu¬
latto population is by no means considerable.
The Creoles are extremely amiable and prepossessing
in their appearance ; they possess a natural suavity of man¬
ners, and equality of temper, which conciliate the good
will of others ; and they are kind and hospitable to stran¬
gers. They are distinguished, however, by many vices
and defects ; but these seem less owing to their natural dis¬
positions, than to the pernicious institutions of their coun¬
try, political, civil, and ecclesiastical. The influence of the
clergy, and the practices attendant on their exclusive reli¬
gion, have been most injurious to the morals and welfare of
the people; and the abject debasement in which the Chi¬
lian peasantry are held by their landlords and superiors
have combined to produce the same results. Their indi¬
vidual and national character has been variously estimated
by those who have Jrad the best means of judging; and
all seem to agree that they are more deceitful and cunning,
and less deserving of confidence, than the Argentine po¬
pulation, who live under a superior and more equitable
system, and enjoy a much greater share of individual
independence and security. Some beneficial improve-
3 Y
538
CHILI.
Chili.
ments, however, are even now in progress; and as they in¬
crease in knowledge and experience these defects in their
character will be gradually corrected and removed, f ,ey
are a brave and gallant people, and have often distin¬
guished themselves by their intrepidity in the war of in¬
dependence both by sea and land. The females possess
fine features and very elegant figures, and are most agree¬
able and prepossessing in their manners. They have in
general proved exemplary and faithful wives to those Eng¬
lishmen and other foreigners who have formed matrimonial
relations with them; but the bigotry of the clergy has
hitherto thrown a serious obstacle in the way of the for¬
mation of such connections, by requiring of all the Protes¬
tants a previous conformity with the Catholic religion.
There have as yet been only two or three exceptions to
this rule, which is much and grievously complained of
by all who are interested, and cannot long be continued.
The ladies are now much better educated than formerly,
and are gay and agreeable in society; they are fond of
amusement, and especially of music and dancing, in which
they excel.
There is in Chili a numerous, respectable, and influential
aristocracy, who engross nearly all the power and autho¬
rity ; and the lower classes are as yet too ignorant, vicious,
and disunited, to possess much influence in society. T.he
latter are fond of amusements, gambling, horse-racing, dan¬
cing, and drinking chicha and other exhilarating liquors in
\X\qix pulpevius. These practices tend considei ably to de¬
moralize them and diminish their industry. I he criminal
laws are in many instances administered with little equality
or impartiality, and wealth but too often enables the of¬
fender to commit crime with impunity. Under such a sys¬
tem it is only surprising that the people are not more fre¬
quently guilty of acts of plunder and violence. In their
domestic relations they are generally kind and good-hu¬
moured, but the law renders the wife too independent of
her husband, and has enabled her, in some instances, to
take advantage of her privileges to his manifest injury.
The children are reared in such a manner as to be very
dutiful, obedient, and affectionate to their parents.
The ladies now dress very much in the English and
French style, but they only use bonnets when on horse¬
back or travelling, merely covering their head vyith a shawl
on going out. They are very careful of their beautiful
black hair, which they dress and ornament with much
taste and simplicity. The female peasantry use a rebozo
made of coarse woollen cloth. In attending mass and other
church ceremonies, all the females,even the poorest,appear
in black dresses, which in the upper classes are covered by
the mantilla. The dress of the peasantry is almost entire¬
ly of their own manufacture, being principally made by the
females, who are very industrious. They, as well as the
women of the Araucanian Indians, spin their thread with
a very simple apparatus, dye it -with a variety of native ve¬
getable and mineral productions, and weave it into a coarse
woollen fabric called bayeta, wdiich forms their principal
article of clothing. Many of the Indian women make very
fine and exquisitely coloured ponchos, some having been
sold for 100 dollars. The general dress of the Chilian fe¬
male is a loose cotton slip, covered with a loose woollen
dress, reaching from the shoulders to the feet, and con¬
stituting all their clothing. The men have a close shirt
or jacket of blue woollen cloth, fitting close to the body,
with cotton drawers reaching to the middle of the legs,
and over them breeches open at the knees, and held up
by a broad woollen belt or sash round the loins, under
which are secured their knives inclosed in a sheath, and
their tobacco pouch. On their legs they wear woollen
hoze, open at the feet, and so long as to reach half up
the thigh, and be doubled back to the ancles: these
are fastened under the knee by coloured tape. They all Chili
use large and heavy spurs, with enormous rowels, which ''—'■yv
make a great noise when they walk. They wear woollen
caps of different colours, or hats made of straw or palm
leaves. The Maulinos and Araucanians wear a conical
woollen hat without a rim; and many of the latter have
merely a woollen band round the head. rlhe latter also
wear a large woollen cloth fastened round the loins, in the
form of a petticoat. All use poncho, w’hich is useful not
only during the day, but in the night time, and, when pro¬
perly made, throws off the rain. The richer peasantry are
better dressed, wearing cotton stockings and better shoes;
and they display their wealth by the riches and ornaments
of their horse accoutrements and saddlery, many parts of
which are decorated with massive silvdf, especially their
stirrups and spurs. Their saddlery and horse furniture are
often expensive and valuable, and serve them for beds dur¬
ing the night-time.
There has as yet been no systematic emigration from Immig
Europe to Chili, although strong inducements exist. A don-
considerable number of persons, however, have found their
way thither, and, when sober and industrious, have in ge¬
neral been very successful, particularly good artificers in
wood and iron, who find plenty of employment and good
wages : a protecting duty of forty per cent, on all articles
manufactured in Chili affords them great encouragement.
Few agricultural establishments have as yet been formed
in Chili under the auspices of Europeans; but these, and va¬
rious other useful establishments, might be formed with
the best prospect of success ; and, if conducted with pru¬
dence and circumspection, could not fail to prosper under
the protection of the government, which is disposed to fa¬
vour such undertakings. There still, however, exist strong
prejudices among the population, especially in the agricul¬
tural districts, which might at first somewhat retard their
progress, but will at length be overcome by time and expe¬
rience. Nine years of residence renders any stranger a
citizen of the republic, and marriage with a native imme¬
diately. Should agricultural emigration take place from
Europe, the most eligible situations for settlement would
be the southern provinces and islands near Conception,
which in soil and climate are best suited for agriculture.
Chili has been long politically divided into three juris- Politic:
dictions, each composed of its respective provinces, which divisioi
are as follow:—
Square Miles.
Copiapo 18,750
^ Coquimbo 13,300
'Quillota  4,600
Aconcagua  4,400
Santiago  3,830
Melipilli  850
Ilancagua  3,830
Colchagua  4,400
. Maule  3,750
f Chilian  2,200
I Itata  1,800
j Here  3,250
LPuchacay  2,000
Northern.
Central.
Southern.
Inhabitants.
10,000
20,000
40,000
60,000
90,000
20,000
70,000
80,000
50,000
20,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
Total 66,960 560,000
Miller divides Chili into the following provinces: Co¬
quimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, Colchagua, Maule, Con¬
ception, Valdivia, and Chiloe, and assigns to it a popula¬
tion of 1,200,000 souls, which is considered at present as
about the real amount of the inhabitants.
The principal cities and towns are Santiago, the capi a , * ^’s
which is ninety miles distant from Valparaiso, and containsp
in the city and suburbs about 70,000 souls; and Va pa-
raiso, the port, which contains about 20,000. Its unpor
CHILI.
hili*
ance as a commercial station depends more upon its cen¬
tral position and vicinity to the capital and the most po¬
pulous districts, than on its properties as a harbour for ship¬
ping. It is secure in the summer season while the south
winds prevail, but much exposed to the north winds and
storms of winter, which frequently drive the ships from
their anchors, and ashore on the beach and rocks : the
limited extent of ground on which it is situated is also a
great impediment to its increase. Conception or Penco,
distant 480 miles south of Santiago, is an excellent place
fora large commercial city, being surrounded on all sides
by a rich, fertile, and productive country; and in its
vicinity is one of the finest and most secure harbours in
Chili. This place, and the surrounding country, although
formerly so opulent and prosperous, has since the com¬
mencement of the revolution, owing to the civil dissen¬
sions, the incursions of the neighbouring Indians, and the
depredations of several outlaws and their followers, been
reduced greatly in the number of its inhabitants, and
brought to the utmost degree of poverty and destitution ;
but after a few years of peace and tranquillity, it will soon
rapidly increase in wealth and population. Coquimbo, si¬
tuated a few miles inland from the capacious bay of that
name, which affords safe and commodious anchorage for
shipping, contains 8000 inhabitants, and, being situated in
the heart of the mining country, seems destined to become
a place of great commercial importance. Quillota has 8000
inhabitants; and higher up, in the valley of Aconcagua, are
the towns of San Felipe and Santa Rosa, each having 5000
inhabitants, and containing an industrious and thriving
agricultural population. Peteroa, Illapel, Guasco, and Co-
piapo, situated farther to the north, are chiefly mining dis¬
tricts; while Rancagua, San Fernando, Curico, Talca, Chil¬
ian, Yumbel, and others, situated at the base of the moun¬
tains in proceeding southwards towards the Biobio, are
principally agricultural; but owing to the disturbed state
of the country of late years, the prosperity and population
of these districts, especially those farthest south, have con¬
siderably diminished. Besides the harbours and bays for
shipping already mentioned, there are on the coast various
others of importance. The Bay of Pichidungue, near the
eslero of Quilimavi, although small, is one of the best. Be¬
fore the revolution it was the resort of French, English,
and Irish vessels, which carried on a contraband trade
with the people, in violation of the rigid colonial laws of
Spain. The harbour of Valdivia is the best and most ca¬
pacious in Chili, and will be of great value when the ad¬
joining country becomes more civilized. Besides these,
there are various other good ports and safe anchorages on
the coast, such as Copiapo, Guasco, Quintero, Puerto de
la Constitution, at the mouth of the Maule ; San Vicente
and Talcahuano, near Conception, and a variety of good
harbours in the archipelago of Chiloe. In the Araucanian
country there are good harbours, and several of the rivers
are navigable to a distance from their mouths. To de¬
fend the southern frontiers from the Araucanian Indians,
a number of forts have been erected on both sides of the
river Biobio and elsewhere. Those now existing are Tu-
capel, on the river Laxa; Los Angeles, Puren, and Santa
Barbara, on the north side of El Nacimiento; and Puen,
on the south side of the Biobio. Talcahuano is naturally
a strong position, and capable of being made impregnable
by fortifications. Valparaiso Bay is defended by several
batteries, but is incapable of making a successful resistance
to a large force. The fortifications of Valdivia and San
Carlos, in Chiloe, are the most extensive and formidable
belonging to the republic, by which means alone the for¬
mer could be retained in the midst of warlike neighbours.
I he earliest accounts we have of Chili are derived from
the Peruvian annals, which extend only to the middle of
539
the fifteenth century. Its inhabitants were then nume¬
rous, consisting of a number of distinct tribes independent
of one another, but belonging to the same nation, and
speaking nearly the same language. About the year 1450
the Peruvians, under the Inca Yupanqui, invaded Chili
with a large army, having previously made extensive pre¬
parations to insure success, and formed an excellent road
from Peru along the longitudinal valleys which are found
on the eastern side of the central ridge or Cordillera of
the Andes, as far south as the Maule, in lat. 34. 50. S.
This road, in an excellent state of preservation, may be
distinctly traced at the present day from Potosi to the
valley of Uspallata near Mendoza, and even farther south,
from these roads the Peruvian troops descended into
Chili by the various passes across the central ridge, and
easily possessed themselves of the whole country north of
the Rapel, formed by the junction of the rivers Cachapoal
and linguiririca ; but after passing that river they came
into collision with the more warlike nation of the Pro-
maucians, who, after a long and obstinate battle of several
days continuance, defeated and drove them back. The
Rapel was therefore made the boundary of the conquest.
The Peruvians retired without interfering further with
the internal state of their conquered possessions in Chili
than by annexing them to the Peruvian empire, and im¬
posing an annual tribute of gold.
In 1535, Chili was invaded by the Spaniards and Peru¬
vians ; but the greater part of their army was lost in cross¬
ing the Ancles during winter, and the remainder was well
received and hospitably treated by the people of the north
of Chili. Their progress, however, was arrested by the
energetic Promaucians. In 1540, the Spaniards again in¬
vaded Chili; but the natives having had experience of
their cruelty and oppression, made a resolute resistance,
and for some years a war continued, which desolated and
laid waste the country ; but they were at length over¬
come, and subjected to the sway of the invaders. Having
conciliated the warlike Promaucians, the Spaniards, joined
by many of this tribe, proceeded southward, and in 1550
founded the city of Conception on the banks of the river
Biobio. The warlike Araucanian Indians, alarmed at the
near approach of these intruders, immediately commenced
a sanguinary war, which lasted, with scarcely any inter¬
ruption, for a period of ninety years, during which period
they performed numerous deeds of great heroism and self-
devotion, with a constancy and patriotism unparalleled in
the history of nations, and with results the most satisfac¬
tory to themselves. During these numerous and sangui¬
nary battles, in which enormous loss of life was suffered
on both sides, on some occasions whole armies of Spa¬
niards, and on others of Araucanians, having been annihi¬
lated almost to a man, the Spaniards built many fortresses
and large cities ; but the greater part of these were taken
or retaken at great cost of life, until the intruders were
finally driven from the country, when the forts were all
razed to the ground. In 1641 peace was at length con¬
cluded between the Spaniards and Araucanians, after a
continuous and sanguinary war of ninety years; all the
prisoners on both sides were liberated, commerce was
established, and industry and agriculture flourished. Peace
was maintained inviolate until 1647, when war again broke
out, and was carried on for ten years with the same energy
as on previous occasions.
In the early part of the seventeenth century a rebellion
took place in the archipelago of Chiloe, but was speedily
allayed by the employment of mild means. From 1707 to
1717 the French possessed the external commerce of Chili,
whose ports were filled with French ships, which carried
off great quantities of gold and silver. Many of the French
then settled in Chili, and have left numerous descendants.
Chili.
CHILL
The Spaniards took advantage of the peace with Arauca-
nia to form establishments in that country; but those who
had been permitted to reside in the country for the protec¬
tion of the missionaries abused their privileges, and rouse
the Indians to renew hostilities in 1723 under Vilumil a,
who formed the resolution of driving the Spaniards woolly
out of Chili. An extensive scheme was laid for this pur¬
pose, but failed from the deficient support afforded him
bv his more distant coadjutors. The missionaries were
allowed to retire unmolested, and the Spaniards were
driven from all their forts and possessions; and the war
was at length terminated by the peace of Negrete, when
all the grievances complained of were redressed.
In 1742, 1753, and subsequently, a number of the prin¬
cipal cities and towns in Chili were founded and built by
the Spanish governors ; and an attempt was made by Cmn-
sao-a to oblige the Araucanians to live in cities and towns,
and to allow the introduction of many other innovations ;
At first the Indians evaded these measures by indirect
means, but finding them inadequate, they at length had
recourse to arms, under the command of Curignancu. I re-
viously the Spaniards had sent materials in great abun¬
dance for the prosecution of their plans, but these fell into
the hands of the Indians. During the war which ensued
the Spaniards formed an alliance with the Pehuenche In¬
dians, who were defeated by the Araucanians, and ever
afterwards became their faithful friends and allies against
the Spaniards. The war continued at a great expense of
life and treasure until 1773, when a permanent peace was
concluded, by which the Araucanians obtained the right
of having a resident minister for their country at Santiago,
and the treaties of Quillin and Negrete were confirmed by
mutual consent.
The possession of Chili has cost more blood and trea¬
sure to Spain than all their other settlements in America
put together. The Araucanians, with a comparatively small
territory, and inferior in numbers as well as in means of
warfare, had by their indissoluble union, their sagacious
counsels, their unvarying attachment to their native land,
and their indomitable courage and intrepidity, successful¬
ly defended their country for upwards of three hundred
years against all the power and resources of Spain.
The history of this nation, viewed in connection with
their domestic, civil, and political institutions, cleaily
evinces that they possess a much higher degree of intel¬
lect, and greater energy of character, than any of the othei
aboriginal nations of America. ^
The revolution of Chili commenced on 18th July 1810,
in consequence of measures taken by Don Alvaiez de
Jonte, who had been sent from Buenos Ayres for that
purpose. The Spanish governor was deposed, and a junta
of seven of the principal citizens formed on the 18th of
September. They still acknowledged the sovereignty of
Spain, kept up their communication with Lima, and ao-
stained from displacing the Spaniards employed in the
public service, none of whom were molested. All classes
of the Chilenos concurred in these measures, the more
influential carrying with them the support and approval
of the people. In April 1811, when engaged in the elec¬
tion of members to congress, an attempt was made by Co¬
lonel Figeroa to upset the new government; but, although
he was favoured and supported by many Spaniards, the
attempt failed, and he lost his life. The congress met in
June 1811, and pursued very liberal measures, endeavour¬
ing to correct abuses, and to make many reforms in the civil
and ecclesiastical establishments. Liberty of commerce
and of the press was established. A manufactory of arms
and a college of artillery were formed ; and this was the
first legislature in South America which adopted efficient
measures gradually to terminate slavery, by declaring all
children born of slaves from that period free. While these Chili
judicious measures were in progress, the destinies of Chili
assumed a new aspect, in consequence of the measures
pursued by the Carreras, three brothers of a very respect¬
able family. They were men of talent, but licentious ; and,
by their popular and conciliatory manners, acquired a
great sway over the army and people, and, under the
influence of a congress not constituted in proportion to
the population of the different parts of the country, they
assumed the authority, and dissolved the congress on 26th
December 1811. A new junta was formed, having at its
head the elder Carrera; but the policy they pursued was
so injurious to the general interests, that much discontent
and division wmre created. In this state of affairs the
viceroy of Peru sent from Lima troops, who landed neat
Talcahuano early in 1813, and, by the connivance of the
Spaniards, and others in authority there and at Concep¬
tion, obtained possession of these places, which served as
a basis for their subsequent operations. The news of their
landing and advance to the Maule roused the Chilenos,
and induced them to settle their differences, and to unite in
defence of their country. An army of six thousand men
was raised, and marched under the elder Carrera to meet
the enemy, whom they surprised and defeated at Ferbas
Buenas on the 31st of March ; but, instead of following up
their successes, they engaged in plundering, and allowed
the Spaniards to recover from their surprise, and to occupy
a favourable position at San Carlos, ninety miles distant;
from which, after an obstinate and bloody action, they were
obliged to retire to Chilian, where, reinforced by the gar¬
risons of Conception and lalcahuano, they fortified them¬
selves, and were afterwards besieged, ihe patriots after
some time obtained the possession of the town, but the
Spaniards defended themselves in the citadel until the
weather obliged their adversaries to raise the siege. Vari¬
ous actions afterwards took place, but without any import¬
ant consequences. rIhe Spaniards, however, by the influ¬
ence of the missionaries, and the irregularities of the pa¬
triot soldiers, prevailed on the Araucanian Indians, and a
(Treat number of the peasantry of the southern provinces, to
assist them. The arbitrary and vicious system pursued by
the Carreras produced the most injurious consequences to
the country and to the cause of liberty. At length the
three brothers were displaced, and the eldest, on his way
to the capital, was taken prisoner by the Spaniards;
but Colonel O’Higgins, who was ably supported by Mac-
kenna, assumed the command of the army, which he had
merited by his previous valour and good conduct. Ihe
royalists were strengthened by reinforcements from Lima
under General Gainza ; yet no active operations took place
until 29th March 1814, when Gainza vigorously attacked
Mackenna, but was repulsed. On this Gainza attempte .
to turn the patriot force, and proceed towards the capita ;
so, crossing the Maule, he attacked and took lalca, atter
an obstinate defence by its inhabitants. _ On hearing this
news the junta was dissolved at Santiago, and Lastra
appointed supreme director. He sent a small division
under Blanco Ciceron, to meet the enemy ; but it wf de¬
feated at Cancharayada by the royalist vanguard. OHig-
ains with his army pursued- Gainza, crossed the Marne
during the night, and by day-light had taken up an ex¬
cellent position, commanding the roads to Santiago c
Chilian, the latter being the royalist centre of res0^e ’
so that Gainza was obliged to shut himself up in •
By the intervention of the British naval commander tiu -
yar, a treaty of mediation was concluded on oth Maj,
tween Gainza and O’Higgins, in which the former engaged
to embark in two months with all his troops for Fer ,
to leave the fortifications then in his possession as lie ^
them; at the same time consenting that the state ot
C H
should be recognized by the viceroy, and deputies sent to
the congress of Spain. Hostages were given on both
sides to secure the fulfilment of this compact. The Car¬
reras having been set at liberty at the celebration of this
treaty, they renewed their intrigues in the capital, and
on 23d August succeeded in deposing the supreme di¬
rector Lastra. The junta was again constituted ; but
discontent and dissensions arising, O’Higgins was called
on to aid the malcontents; and when the two parties
were about to engage they were interrupted by a courier
from the royalist general, informing them that the viceroy
had refused to ratify the treaty, and that the only mode to
obtain forgiveness was to yield at discretion. Gainza was
superseded by Osorio, who arrived with reinforcements
from Peru, and appeared^ in a short time within fifty
leagues of the capital with an army of 4000 men. On
this momentous occasion, O’Higgins magnanimously gave
in to the pretensions of his rival Carrera, and placed him¬
self and his forces under the command of the latter, in or¬
der to repel the common enemy; but want of discipline,
disorganization, and desertion, weakened exceedingly the
patriot army. O'Higgins attacked the royalists on the
banks of the river Caehapoal, with 900 men, but was de¬
feated, and took refuge with the remains of his followers
in the city of Rancagua, where he prepared to defend him¬
self to the last extremity. On the 1st of October 1814,
the royalists commenced an attack, which lasted thirty-six
hours. No quarter being given on either side, the Spa¬
niards were at length about to retire, when, perceiving that
Carrera and his followers kept aloof, and took no part in
the contest, they made a last and desperate assault, and at
length penetrated into the square. Here, O’Higgins, with
only 200 men, made a desperate resistance ; and when the
greater part of his followers were killed or wounded, he
placed himself at the head of the remainder, and cut his
way through the middle of the Spaniards. This daring en¬
terprise made such an impression on the royalists that the
patriots were not pursued, but retired unmolested to the
capital. Carrera, at the head of 1500 men, after commit¬
ting great excesses, abandoned the capital without resist¬
ance, and, with 600 of his followers, crossed the Andes to
Mendoza. O’Higgins emigrated to the same place with
about 1400 persons, among whom were many ladies of dis¬
tinction, who passed the Cordilleras on foot. They were
all well received at Mendoza by General San Martin, and
very few of them returned to their native country until
after the battle of Chacabuco in 1817. Osorio, having
taken possession of the capital, and assumed the office of
captain-general, issued an amnesty, which induced many
of the patriots to surrender themselves; but it was after¬
wards violated, and many of the principal citizens were
arrested and imprisoned, their property confiscated, and
numbers of them banished to the island of Juan Fernan¬
dez, where they underwent great hardships from the pri¬
vations to which they were subjected, and the extortions
of the governor of the island, and the Spaniards in the
capital. Osorio was succeeded by General Marco, who
was equally cruel and arbitrary ; and during the two years
and four months of their command, the principal families
of Chili were covered with mourning. The oppression of
the community was general, and the country was reduced
to the utmost distress. ’ The spirit of freedom, however,
was not extinguished in Chili, but was sustained by the
guerilla parties of Rodriguez, Freyre, and Neiva, who by
tieir activity and enterprise kept the Spaniards in a con¬
stant state of alarm. Meanwhile an army was forming in
Mendoza for the liberation of Chili.
General San Martin having become governor of the pro-
yinces of Cuyo, fixed his head-quarters at Mendoza, and
immediately commenced with unceasing vigour to raise
I L I.
and organize an army to oppose the Spanish forces in
Chili, and finally to invade it. Although in military talents
he was ably met, yet he was infinitely superior to his op¬
ponents in his powers of strategy, by means of which he
kept them in comparative ignorance of his proceedings
and movements, while he himself possessed complete
knowledge of their proceedings. The organization of his
army reflects the highest credit on his talents and indus¬
try. He commenced with 180 recruits, and afterwards
received 650 troops from Buenos Ayres, which in two
years he increased to an army of 4000 regular troops, well
disciplined, and tolerably well clothed and armed, besides
a considerable number of unarmed militia. His popular
and conciliatory manners gained him the support and con¬
fidence of these provinces, and insured him the love and
devotion of his officers and men. With forces so inferior
he did not hesitate to attempt the liberation of Chili,
where the royalist forces opposed to him consisted of
7613 regular troops and 800 militia. By the ingenious
stratagems he employed in deceiving his opponents, he
succeeded in dividing them so as to attack them in detail.
T.0 accomplish this object, he persuaded the royalists that
he intended to cross the Andes by different passes from
that which he had actually fixed upon. To impress them
with the belief that he intended crossing by the pass of
the Planchon to the south, he had a grand and formal
conference with the chiefs of the Pehuenche Indians
to the south of Mendoza, who were in communication
with those of Chili, some of whom, as he anticipated, com¬
municated the result of his supposed intentions to General
Marco. The consequence was, that the latter stationed
the greater part of his forces in the province of Maule;
and, to keep up the illusion, San Martin stationed guerilla
parties at all the passes. His expedients to deceive his
enemies did not stop here; for on leaving Mendoza with
his army, on the 17th January 1817, he first marched to
the south in the direction of the Planchon, but in the
night retrograded by another route, and having crossed
the first chain of mountains to reach the valley of Uspal-
lata, he, instead of following the ordinary road to Chili by
the valley of the Aconcagua, selected the difficult and un¬
frequented route of Los Patos and Putaenda, having five
successive ridges or Cordilleras to cross, as the least sus¬
pected route, and at length accomplished his object, after
encountering great difficulties and hardships. The army
which passed amounted to 4000 regular troops and 1300
militia, with artificers to repair the roads, to convey twelve
pieces of artillery, and to take care of the spare horses
and mules. They were provisioned for fifteen days. Of
10,881 horses and mules employed, only 4800 reached
Chili. The advance of the army came in contact with the
royalist piquets on the 7th February, and drove them
back with some loss; next day a rencounter of cavalry had
similar results. Afterwards the patriot army debouched
from the defiles of the mountains into the valley of Pu¬
taenda, and established themselves in the towns of Santa
Rosa and Aconcagua. The Spanish army of 4000 men
under Maroto concentrated on the heights of Chacabuco,
on the high road to the capital. The two armies bivou¬
acked in sight of each other on the 10th, and on the 12th
a decisive battle was fought, in which the patriots were
at first repulsed with considerable loss ; but having re¬
newed the attack by a charge of cavalry, they changed
the fortune of the day, and routed and dispersed the
royalists, who left 600 dead on the field. On the 14th
of February the patriots entered Santiago in triumph)
General Marco and 3600 royalists were taken prisoners,
500 royalists embarked at Valparaiso, and the remainder
retired to Talcahuano.
San Martin was elected supreme director of Chili; but
541
Chili.
C II I L I.
having declined the honour, it was conferred upon General
O'Higgins. A division of the army under Colonel Las
Heras was sent to follow up the royalists, who had retir¬
ed towards Conception; but, too much elated with their
previous good fortune, they did not pursue their advan¬
tage with that celerity and vigour which was expected;
consequently General Ordonez, who commanded the ic-
mains of the x'oyalist army, was able to retire to the
strong position of Talcahuano, near Conception, which he
fortified, and augmented his force by collecting the scat¬
tered garrisons. In the mean time San Martin pioceeded
to Buenos Ayres to solicit reinforcements and the means
of prosecuting the war in Peru. During his absence
the supreme director O’Higgins left the capital for Con¬
ception, to command the army which had invested ialca-
huano, his forces having been augmented by two regi¬
ments of Chilenos.
The fortification of Talcahuano did not prevent the gal¬
lant patriots under Las Heras from attempting to carry it
by storm, on the 1st December 1817 ; but alter fighting
with great valour, they were repulsed by the royalists,
with a severe loss in killed and wounded. San Martin re¬
turned from Buenos Ayres in April, and established his
head-quarters at Las Tablas, near \alparaiso, where his
army amounted to 5000 men, while that of O Higgins in
the south was 3000. Reinforcements of troops having
reached Lima from Spain, the viceroy Pezuela sent from
Callao, under the command of his son-in-law Osorio, a con¬
siderable force of infantry and cavalry, with twelve pieces
of cannon, in all 3600 men, which, landing at Talcahuano,
united with the garrison under Ordonez, and some recruits
raised in the provinces, and formed an army of 6000 men, at
the head of which he advanced towards the capital of Chili.
At this time O'Higgins and Las Heras fell back on lalea
with their division, and San Martin advanced with his army
to meet them, which he effected at San Fernando on the
15th of March. The patriot army now consisted of 7000
infantry, 1500 cavalry, thirty-three field-pieces, and two
howitzers.
Ignorant of the movements and superior numbers of
his opponents, Osorio crossed the river Maule, and was
proceeding towards Santiago, when, on the 18th March, his
vanguard came up with an advanced party of the patriots
at Quechereguas, where the former was worsted. Osorio
countermanded his march with precipitation, and was fol¬
lowed by San Martin, whose object was to interpose his
forces between the royalists and the ford of the Maule,
by a lateral movement. On the morning of the 19th, both
armies crossed the river Lircay nearly at the same time,
but at a distance from each other of about four miles, and
continued their march over five leagues of open country, in
nearly parallel columns, which were gradually approach¬
ing to each other. The patriots advanced with the great¬
est order and regularity. The royalists, in some confu¬
sion, accelerated their march, and reached the outskirts
of the city of Talca, where, among inclosed fields, they
stationed themselves an hour before sunset. I he patriots
took up their position on the plain of Cancharayada, but
not without some skirmishing, in consequence of a charge
made by a regiment of Chilian cavalry, whose impetuosity
led them into a dangerous and difficult situation, where
they were repulsed by the royalists, but retreated in good
order, under the protection of the Chilian artillery, after
sustaining some loss.
San Martin intended to attack the royalists on the fol¬
lowing day. His masterly manoeuvres on the 19th placed
the latter in a critical situation, and offered them little
prospect of success in risking a battle; while, on the other
hand, the army was exposed to imminent danger in attempt¬
ing to cross the river Maule at the difficult ford distant
about five leagues from Talca. In these circumstances, Ch:
Osorio is reported to have become unnerved; but his se- ^
cond in command, Ordonez, acted with much courage;
he consulted with some of his best officers, and assumed
the responsibility of planning and directing measures for
an immediate attack on the patriots. Some Spanish corps
in columns, in the darkness of the night, unexpectedly
attacked the patriots. The advanced piquets of the pa¬
triots were dispersed or taken prisoners ; and an irregular
fire was opened from their line, which, on O’Higgins being
wounded, became panic-struck, and, with the exception
of the right wing, fled in great confusion. The disper¬
sion of the left and centre was complete, and the artil¬
lery was abandoned ; 3000 infantry under Las Heras were
also thrown into disorder, but to a less extent; but their
chief, with the bravery and presence of mind which charac¬
terized him, kept two thirds of them united, and, under
a heavy fire, restored the remainder to order, so as to re¬
tire with his division in excellent order along with the Chi¬
lian artillery. Only two guns of the Buenos Ayrean artil¬
lery were saved by the exertions of Captain Miller. San
Martin halted at San Fernando until joined by Las Heras,
where he reviewed the division and set out for the capital,
where the disastrous news created great consternation.
The effect of the news on the inhabitants was, indeed,
lamentable, and many of them gave themselves up to de¬
spair, or hurried away to the Cordillera to cioss over to the
opposite side, dreading the cruelty and vengeance of the
royalists. Even the sub-delegado lost his presence of
mind, and every thing was in confusion until the gallant
Rodriguez placed himself at the head of affairs, and re¬
stored some degree of order. He obliged the function¬
aries to resume their duties, stopt the emigration, raised
recruits, provided quarters for the fugitives, and took a
public and solemn oath not to abandon his country under
such circumstances. His example was followed by many
others, and confidence was still more restored on the ar¬
rival of O’Higgins and San Martin, who took vigorous
measures to oppose the enemy on the plains of Maypu.
The royalists, however, were much less active than had
been anticipated, and, contented with the plunder, did not
follow the fugitives above two miles; nor did they match
on the capital until seventeen days afterwards, an interval
which was actively employed in re-organizing the army,
now encamped about two leagues from the capital, an
consisting of about 6500 men, including militia.
On the morning of the 5th April 1818, the royalist army,
6000 strong, appeared advancing towards Santiago by the
road from the ford of the Maypu, on which San Martin
had moved a little to the right, to preserve his commu¬
nication with Valparaiso. At eleven, a. m., both armies
were formed nearly parallel to each other, and a brisk
cannonade took place between them. Two battaaons o
patriots charged the royalists vigorously, but were repo ¬
sed with considerable loss. Two battalions of Spaniards
then advanced in column; but, while deploying, they were
charged and routed by the patriot reserve under Uum-
tana, which was supported by the two battalions wiic
had previously been repulsed, and succeeded in interposing
between the royalist line and the reserve in the rear. At
same time, a charge of patriot cavalry made an impres¬
sion on the left of the royalists ; and in less than an
the Spaniards gave way on all sides. About 2000 roy
were slain, and 3600 made prisoners of war; while t
loss of the patriots was upwards of 1000 in killed a
wounded. Ordonez made a desperate but fruitless strug
gle at La Hacienda de Espejo, about a league in the rea •
Osorio, however, had previously made his escape
about 100 followers, with whom he reached lalcahu
with much difficulty by cross-roads. The joy w ic i P
' C H
vaded the capital and the whole of Chili, on the intelli-
^ gence of this signal and decisive victory, was extreme •
and the emigrants all speedily returned. San Martin’
however, still intent on carrying on the war against the
royalists, with all the zeal and vigour possible, immediate¬
ly proceeded to Buenos Ayres, where he arrived in a few
days, to conceit the necessary measures to augment the
army and carry on their operations, and‘was received with
the utmost enthusiasm. Strenuous efforts were made in
Chili to form a naval force, in order to clear the Pacific of
the Spanish ships of war, and obtain the command of those
seas; and a gallant but unsuccessful attempt was made to
take, by boarding, the Spanish frigate Esmeralda, then
blockading Valparaiso. The number of ships of war was
speedily increased, and a squadron of four ships, under
Blanco Ciceron, sailed on the 9th December 1818, in order
to intercept the expedition from Spain, under the guidance
of the frigate Maria Isabel. They were discovered at
Talcahuano, where the frigate and the greater part of the
transports were taken, and only a small number of the
soldiers escaped on shore. Ihe squadron soon returned
to Valparaiso with their prizes, where they were received
with much joy and exultation. Soon afterwards Lord Coch¬
rane arrived from England, assumed the command of the
squadron, immediately commenced carrying on the war
with great vigour, and made a gallant but unsuccessful
attack on the enemy’s shipping at Callao ; after which, he
continued with his squadron to range the coast of Peru,
and to attack and molest the royalists wherever he could
come in contact with them.
Osorio, with the few troops who escaped with him from
Maypu, took refuge in the fort of Talcahuano, and remained
there until September, when he departed for Callao, leav¬
ing Sanchez in command of that place. A force under
Balcarce was sent against him, which obliged him to retire
with considerable loss to Valdivia, with only 900 men. He
entered into terms with the Araucanians, who assisted him.
A formidable party of freebooters was formed under the no¬
torious Benavides, which laid waste the surrounding coun¬
try, and committed numerous atrocities and cruelties of
the most appalling kind. His followers consisted of Spa¬
niards and deserters of the worst character, and they were
ably assisted by the Araucanians, who were equally ini¬
mical to all the w'hites.
On 12th September 1819 Lord Cochrane left Valparaiso
with six ships of war and two fire-ships, but failed in his
attempts to destroy the Spanish ships at Callao. He, how-
cvei, earned on an active warfare along the Peruvian coast,
with much injury to the royalists. Early in 1820, Cochrane,
with a small reinforcement of troops, obtained at Talca¬
huano deceived the enemy at Valdivia, landed his troops
an sailors, though inferior in numbers to his opponents,
and with great gallantry carried by storm one battery after
another, until the whole were taken. The royalists lost a
considerable number in killed and prisoners, and the re¬
mainder escaped among the Araucanians. The capture of
usp ace deprived the royalists of their finest and most se¬
cure harbour in the Pacific, and cut off the resources of
enavides in carrying on his cruel and rapacious warfare
gamstthe people of Chili. The history of this extraordi-
f;ran very remarkable. He was at one time shot
r crimes, but recovered, and became an active parti-
fcn l°a iT^art;*n t^le cause of independence ; but, of-
dph ^, reyre> one ^ ^ie patriot officers, he soon disap-
16 and resumed his former occupations, carrying on
carr S'° ati^ war’ potting to death all his prisoners, and
Chiffi ”re anti svv°rd throughout the southern parts of
cf ne e.Was defeated at Conception, and proposed terms
rpnm C?’i •the proceedings were in progress he
Ve ns depredations. He fitted out a corsair, and at
I L I.
first gave no quarter to his prisoners ; he also captured
several British and North American vessels. While he
pretended to yield to the authorities at Conception in the
end of 1821, he secretly embarked in a launch, with the
intention of joining a division of the royalists; but having
landed for supplies of water, he was discovered and made
prisoner on 1st February 1822, and executed in the most
ignominious manner on the 23d at Santiago. After the
capture of Valdivia, Cochrane made an attack on Chiloe,
but was successfully resisted by the governor Quintanilla!
ihe unwearied exertions of San Martin and the autho¬
rities of Chili at length enabled them to prepare and em¬
bark the liberating army of Peru, which sailed on the 21st
August 1820, amounting in all to 4500 men, with twelve
pieces of cannon. The operations of this army eventually
Jed to the emancipation of Peru from the yoke of Spain
On the 5th November, Lord Cochrane, with his officers,
180 sailors, and 100 marines, boarded in the night-time the
Spanish frigate Esmeralda, lying under the guns of Cal-
iao, and carried her out in the most gallant manner.
While the army and naval force of Chili were liberating
. e country was governed by the supreme director
U Higgins, appointed in 1818. He convoked a provincial
convention in 1822; but some of the members of the con¬
vention and of the executive so far exceeded their powers
as to cause great waste and misapplication of the revenue
and patronage of the state, effectually to disgust the com-
munity, and to cause a general rising of the inhabitants
in, the capital and provinces in January 1823. On this
O’Higgins retired, but without any personal blame ; he
only incurred the displeasure created by the iniquitie’s of
his ministers; and he has since lived in retirement on his
estate in Peru, respected and beloved by all who know
him.
On his retiring the congress assembled, and Freyre was
elected director of the republic; but although a brave
and gallant commander, he was inferior as a politician to his
predecessor. Ihe first measure of his government was the
expedition to Chiloe, formerly mentioned, which failed. On
the termination of the war in Peru, and surrender of Callao,
it was understood that Bolivar proposed forming an expe¬
dition against the Chiloe islands, so as to have the glory
of terminating the war of independence in South America,
that being the only place in America then possessed by
the Spaniards; but he was anticipated by Freyre, who sail¬
ed for these islands from Valdivia on the 2d January 1826,
with 4000 troops, and a squadron of six vessels of war,
under the command of Admiral Blanco, Lord Cochrane
having previously left the country. They landed and took
pome batteries ; and Quintanilla, at the head of'3000 royal¬
ists, bravely defended the country, until he was at length
obliged to capitulate; and then the Spanish flag ceased
to be displayed in South America. Soon afterwards
Freyre renounced the responsible situation which he held,
and gave place to General Pinto, a man of talent, cultivated
mind, and liberal sentiments. Under the enlightened ad¬
ministration of the latter the country has prospered, and
the former abuses, tyranny, and local oppressions, have in a
great measure disappeared ; while reforms have been intro¬
duced into the various departments of the state, and con¬
siderable reductions effected in the public expenditure, but
not without great opposition. The squadron, augmented
between 1818 and 1825 by the capture from the enemy of
six frigates, three brigs of war, and five smaller vessels,
were all sold, excepting the brig of war Aquiles. During
this time the value of property has been doubled in some
places, and great improvement made in the capital, port,
and other places.
On the final surrender of the Chiloe islands, the govern¬
ment of them was intrusted to Colonel Aldunate, who
543
Chili.
544
CHILL
Chili.
took the most efficient means to conciliate the good will
of the Chilotes, who from long habit had become ex reme-
ly hostile to the patriotic cause. He abolished the a
bala and other oppressive impositions ; refu1^ the ^
of iustice, which had become exceedingly venal , and en
couraged agriculture, manufactures, and the exports from
these islands, which had been interrupted dm mg the wa .
While thus employed an insurrection broke out against
S headed by Fuentes, one of his officers, and aided
bv some of his troops ; and the governor was seized and
sent to Chili. Fuentes assuming the government, undid
all the salutary measures of his predecessor, and oppiess-
ed the peoplewith heavy taxes to pay his troops. An
expedition was sent from Chili to reduce this insurrection
in which they at length succeeded. Fuentes was taken
prisoner, and afterwards committed suicide.
Having completed the term of his government, Pinto
retired in the latter end of 1829, and a general election
bavin0- taken place of president and vice-president of the
republic, Pinto was again chosen president by an absolute
majority, but Prieto and Tagle only obtained each a respec-
tive majority as vice-president. It was therefore the duty of
the senate ind congress to select one of the two to fill that
office • but in doing so they violated the constitution so fai
that another candidate was brought forward, who had be¬
fore been in the minority ; and this person, named Vicu ,
was elected as vice-president, to the exclusion of the other
two. This occurrence created so very serious an imp es
sion on public opinion, that Pinto, who had in some respects
been instrumental in the election of Vicuna, resigned the
presidency, at the same time acknowledging the irregu a-
rity of Vicuna’s election, and retired to Coquimbo. 1
country soon became politically divided between two par¬
ties called Pipioles and Pducones; the former, consisting of
the liberal party, including the democrat,c or lowur
with some men of talent to direct them ; the laUei, of the
aristocracy, or persons of property, who had previously
been divided into three distinct parties, each having sepa¬
rate interests and objects. The Estanqueros, or the for¬
mer proprietors of the monopoly called the estanco, foimed
one with Portales, Gauderillas, and Benavente at then
head; the O’Higgins party, headed by Prieto and 1 o-
driguez; and the Pelucon party, principally consisting of
landed proprietors and capitalists, and including all those
most friendly to Spain. This accounts in some degree for
the part taken in the subsequent disputes by the various
chiefs. Freyre placed himself at the head of the Pipioles,
and Prieto at that of the Pducones. Troops were collect¬
ed under each of these leaders, and an engagement took
place at Ochagavia, on the plains of Maypu, in which
considerable loss was sustained by both parties. A treaty
of reconciliation was entered into, but afterwards broken.
In a congress of deputies from all the provinces, lag e
was elected president, and Ovalle vice-president. These
measures, however, did not suffice to tranquillize the
country ; and the Pipioles and Pelucones soon afterwaids
re-assembled their adherents in the neighbourhood of
the capital; the former, who were the most numerous,
being commanded by Lastra, who was seconded by Yiel,
Tupper, and Rondisoni, all foreign officers m the sei-
vice of Chili. When on the eve of a general engage¬
ment, a proposal was made to adjust their differences y
mutual agreement. Lastra and Viel, the commander and
second iii command of the Pipioks, were invited to meet
the heads of the other party at their own head-quarters.
They did so; but the violating their pledges, took
them prisoners, on which their followers dispersed, tie
Cl:
greater part retiring to Valparaiso, where they were join¬
ed by Freyre, who ‘had refused to acknowledge the exist¬
ing authorities. Had he collected all the adherents of the
Pipioles at that place, as recommended by 1 upper, they
would have greatly exceeded the number of their oppo¬
nents • but Freyre pursued a different course, which proved
most disastrous to his party. His troops were embarked
in small vessels; some were lost, others taken by the Pe¬
lucones, and the remainder reached Conception in a very
forlorn condition. Freyre passed some time in going to
Coquimbo, before appearing at Conception, where his
army was joined by Viel, who had escaped from confine¬
ment. The opposing armies of Freyre and Prieto met
near Cancharayada on the 17th, that of the former being
1700 the latter 2200 men. An action took place, in which
Freyre was defeated, with the loss of 300 men and six
officers killed, among whom were the gallant Colonel 1 up¬
per, and Captain Bell of the navy. Viel, who had scarcely
taken any part in the action, escaped with 200 men, and
with difficulty reached Coquimbo, where he afterwards
surrendered on terms, and was banished to 1 eru. Iton-
disoni went to Europe. , . , ,
Left without opponents, the Pelucon party obtained the
entire ascendency in Chili, and have since ruled the coun¬
try. Prieto was elected president, and still retains the
supreme authority, Portales being vice-president. They
are supported by the Estanquero party, and the principal
proprietors ; but the other party are gradually acquiring
influence, as intelligence and improvement advance. The
present gdvernment have greatly strengthened their influ¬
ence by conciliating the good will of the clergy, to whom
the; have restored the greater part of the church property
formerly confiscated by the government. Ihe army s
likewise in a very complete and efficient state, being well
paid and clothed with all the requisite equipjnts,and in
an excellent state of discipline. It consists of 3000 regu
lar troops, and an equal number of militia, all of whom are
efficient; and although many of them were formerly of ffie
Pipiole party, they have been so we 1 treated by the pre
sent government that they may be depended upon.
The Pincheyras, consisting of several brothers, for some
years emulated the deeds of the notorious Benavides, al¬
lied themselves with the Indians, and having secured *a
retreats in the Cordillera of the Andes, between the terri¬
tories of the Pehuenches and Araucamans and being
joined by numbers of the worst characters m Chilk car^
lied on a war of plunder and rapine in Chili and the so
ern Argentine provinces, especially Mendoza; im e
one occasion they were so daring as to ^ Z
of the Cachapoal and Maypu, and levy contnbuttms
the inhabitants. An expedition was hrtely se s’
them, which succeeded m killing one of the two vm g
brothers, and in defeating his followers. -Che lema'mng
brother yielded himself up on receiving ernns, and is ^
with Bulnes, the governor of Conception. H
quents have been punished acc0l t1inSonntrv. while the
and tranquillity is restored all over the count y, ^
most favourable prospect now presents ts js
prosperity to Chili, which, as has een j ^ • ^ut a
die Italy of South America, and
good and permanent government, and > countries
and freedom, to form one of the most desirable
111 Molina’s^History of Chili ; Hall’s Vo^e^rjM^;
fic; Miers’ Travels in Chdi; Merrmrs of Gemra^ ^
JCampaigns and Cruizes in \ enezuela, JSeiv ^
the Pacific Ocean.
CHI
Chiliad CHILIAD, an assemblage of several things ranged by
|| thousands. The word is formed from the Greek y/X/ac
hilling- a thousand. ‘ ’
CHILIAGON, in Geometry, a regular plane figure of
a thousand sides and angles. Though the imagination
cannot form the idea of such a figure, yet we may have a
very clear notion of it in the mind, and can easily demon¬
strate that the sum of all its angles is equal to 1996 right
angles; for the internal angles of every plane figure are
equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has
sides, except the four which are about the centre of the
figure, and hence it may be resolved into as many triangles
as it has sides.
CHILLAN, a province and town in the south of Chile.
The province is fifty-five miles long from east to west, and
forty broad from north to south, and contains about 2200
square miles of superficies. It extends from the summit of
the Andes on the east, to the province of Itata, which se¬
parates it from the Pacific Ocean. It is watered by a num¬
ber of streams, the Nuble, Cato, Chilian, Dinguillin, Dani-
calguin, and Guilliayo, which flow from the Cordillera, and
unite to form the Itata river. It is a small but very fer¬
tile province, consisting of mountain ranges to the east,
and beautiful and well-watered plains and valleys to the'
west. The town of Chilian was built on the margin of the
same river, but it has been frequently inundated by the
water of the Chilian, and it was levelled with the dust by
an earthquake in 1751, but subsequently rebuilt in its
present situation. Before the revolution, the town and
province were more populous than at present, as the revo¬
lutionary war and frequent incursions of the unsubdued
Araucanian Indians have greatly diminished the extent
of cultivation and the number of inhabitants in the pro¬
vince. Its^ present population may be estimated at 30,000.
CHILKA, a lake in Hindustan, at the north-eastern ex¬
tremity of the Northern Circars, which province it separates
towards the sea from that of Cuttack. It extends about
thirty-five miles in length by ten or twelve in breadth,
and appears to have originated in a breach of the sea over
a flat and sandy shore. The border of sand, about a mile
broad, by which it is separated from the sea, is not visible,
so that the lake has the appearance of a deep bay. It is
very shallow, and contains several inhabited islands. On the
north-west it is bounded by a ridge of mountains, which
forms a continuation of those which extend from the Ma-
hanuddy to the Godavery river, and inclose the Northern
Circars towards the continent. It is forty miles south-west
of Cuttack.
CHILLAMBARAM Pagoda. This pagoda is situat¬
ed on the sea-coast of the Carnatic, eight miles south of
Porto Novo, and 120 south-south-west of Madras, and is
held in high veneration by the Hindus. The whole struc¬
ture extends 1332 feet by 936, and is entered by a lofty
gateway under a pyramid 122 feet high, built of enor¬
mous stones, forty feet long and more than five feet square,
and all covered with plates of copper adorned with a va¬
riety of figures neatly executed. In 1781 Sir Eyre Coote
made an unsuccessful attack on a garrison in this pagoda
belonging to Hyder, who was defeated a few days after
with great loss. _ Long. 79. 52. E. Eat. 11. 27. N.
CHILLICOI HE, a post town, and capital of Ross coun-
y, Ohio, on the western bank of the Scioto, forty-five miles
m a right line from its mouth. It is pleasantly situated
on the borders of an elevated and fertile plain, regularly
md out, the streets crossing each other at right angles.
is town is a flourishing place, and contains several ele¬
gant public buildings. In its vicinity there are a number
o valuable mills. The population amounts to nearly 6000.
Long. 82. 57. W. Lat. 39. 18. N.
CHILLINGWORTH, William, an eminent divine of
VOL. VI.
C H I
the church of England, was born at Oxford in 1602, and
educated at the same place. Being of a very quick genius,
he early made great proficiency in his studies ; and he be¬
came an expert mathematician, as well as an able divine
and a respectable poet. As study and conversation at
the university turned much upon the controversy between
the church of England and that of Rome, on account of the
king s marriage with Henriette, daughter of Henry IV.
king of France, Mr Chillingworth was induced to aban¬
don the church of England and to embrace the Roman
Catholic religion. Dr Laud, then bishop of London, hear¬
ing of his conversion, and being greatly concerned at it,
wrote Mr Chillingworth; and as the latter in reply ex¬
pressed much candour and impartialitv, the prelate conti¬
nued to correspond with him. This set Mr Chillingworth
upon a new inquiry; and the result was, that he at leno-th
determined to return to his former religion. In 1634 he
wrote a confutation of the arguments which had induced
him to join the communion of the church of Rome ; but, at
the same time, he spoke freely to his friends of all the dif¬
ficulties which had occurred to him ; a circumstance which
gave rise to a groundless report that he had turned Ca¬
tholic a second time, and then Protestant again. His re¬
turn to the communion of the church of England made a
great noise, and engaged him in several disputes with per¬
sons of the Catholic persuasion. But in 1635 he engaged
in a work which gave him a better opportunity of confutino-
the principles of the church of Rome, and of vindicating
the Protestant religion. This was, The Religion of Pro¬
testants a safe way to Salvation. About the same time Sir
Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great seal, offered
him preferment; but Mr Chillingworth refused to accept
it on account of his scruples with regard to the subscrip¬
tion of the thirty-nine articles. At last, however, he sur¬
mounted these scruples; and being promoted to the chan¬
cellorship of the church of Sarum, with the prebend of
Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed to it, he complied
with the usual subscription. Mr Chillingworth was zeal¬
ously attached to the royal party; and, in August 1643,
he was present in Charles’s army at the siege of Glouces¬
ter, where he suggested and directed the construction of
certain engines for assaulting the town. Soon afterwards,
having accompanied Lord Hopton, general of the king’s
forces in the west, to Arundel Castle, in Sussex, he was
there taken prisoner by the parliamentary forces under the
command of Sir William Waller, who obliged the castle
to surrender. But his illness increasing, he was conveyed
to Chichester, where, after a short sickness, he died in
1644. His character has been delineated by Anthony
Wood, by Archbishop Tillotson, and, with his usual feli¬
city of discrimination, by Lord Clarendon. There is a col¬
lection of his theological and controversial pieces, com¬
prised in a folio volume, of which the tenth edition ap¬
peared in 1742.
CHILLIS, or Khillis, an ancient town of Syria, in the
pashalic of Aleppo, situated at the foot of Mount Tauris.
Coins are sometimes found there, and are the only remains
of antiquity which it possesses. It has fifteen mosques and
large bazars, and is a noted mart for cotton. It is fifteen
miles north of Aleppo.
CHILO, one of the seven sages of Greece, and of the
ephori of Sparta, the place of his birth, flourished about
556 years before Christ. He was accustomed to say that
there were three things very difficult—to keep a secret,
to know how best to employ time, and to suffer injuries
without murmuring. According to Pliny, it was he who
caused the short sentence, Know thyself to be inscribed
in letters of gold on the temple of Delphos. It is said that
he died of joy while embracing his son, who had been
crowned as victor at the Olympic games.
3 z
546
C H I
Chiltem
CHILOE. See Chile. .
i, CHILTERN, a chain of chalky hills forming the soutli-
Chimney. ern part of Buckinghamshire, the northern part of the
  county being distinguished by the name of the Vale. Ihe
air on these heights is extremely healthful. 1 he soil, thoug
stony, produces good crops of wheat and barley; and in
many places it is covered with thick woods, among which
are great quantities of beech. Chiltern is also applied to
the hilly parts of Berkshire, and is believed to have the
same meaning in some other counties. Hence the iun-
dreds situated in those parts are denominated the Clnltein
^Chiltern Hundreds, Stewards of. Of the hundreds
into which many of the English counties were divided by
Kino- Alfred for their better government, the jurisdiction
was^originally vested in peculiar courts; but it came af¬
terwards to be devolved on the county courts, and so it
remains at present, excepting with regard to some, as the
Chilterns, which have by privilege been annexed to the
crown. The latter having still their own courts, a stewaiu
of these courts is appointed by the chancellor of the ex¬
chequer, with a salary of twenty shillings, and all fees
and perquisites belonging to the office; and this is deem¬
ed an appointment of sufficient profit to vacate a seat in
PaCHIMERA, in fabulous history, a celebrated monster,
sprung from Echidna and Typhon. It had three heads,
namely, that of a lion, that of a goat, and that of a dragon,
and continually vomited forth flames. The fore parts of its
body were those of a lion, the middle was that of a goat,
and the hinder parts were those of a dragon. It generally
lived in Lycia about the reign of debates, by whose orders
Bellerophon, mounted on the horse Pegasus, overcame it.
This fabulous tradition is explained by the recollection that
there was in Lycia a burning mountain, whose top was the
resort of lions, on account of its desolate wilderness ; while
the middle, which was fruitful, was covered with goats ;
and the marshy ground at the bottom abounded with ser¬
pents. Bellerophon is said to have conquered the chi-
msera, because he destroyed the wild beasts on that moun¬
tain, and rendered it habitable. Plutarch says, that it was
the captain of some pirates who adorned their ships with
the images of a.lion, a goat, and a diagon.. ,
By a chimcera, among the philosophers, is understood a
mere creature of the imagination, composed of such con¬
tradictions and absurdities as cannot possibly anywhere
exist except in the fancy.
CHIMBORAZO, a mountain of Columbia, in the pio-
vince of Quito. It is the most elevated summit of the
Andes, rising to the height of 20,100 feet above the level
of the sea, and to about 2500 feet from the top downwards
covered with perpetual snow. At certain seasons of the
year it presents a magnificent spectacle when seen from
the shores of the Pacific Ocean. After the long winter
rains, the atmosphere becomes remarkably clear ; anti
through this transparent medium its enormous snowy
summit is seen projected upon the deep azure of the
equatorial sky. The view is in the highest degree impos¬
ing and sublime. Humboldt and Bonpland ascended this
mountain in 1802, to the height of 19,300 feet by barome¬
trical measurement, a greater height than was ever before
attained by man. .
CHIMES of a clock, a kind of periodical music, pro¬
duced at equal intervals of time, by means of a particular
apparatus added to a clock.
CHIMNEY, in Architecture, a particular part of a house
where the fire is made, having a tube or funnel to cany
off the smoke. The word chimney comes from the French
cheminee, and that from the Latin caminata, a chamber
in which is a chimney; while caminata, again, is derived
CHI
from caminus, and that from the Greek xa/z/roj, chimney, Chimney
from xa/w, uro, I burn. >
It is usually supposed that chimneys are of modern in¬
vention, and that the ancients made use only of stoves 5
but Octavio Ferrari endeavours to prove that chimneys
were in use among the ancients. To this end he cites the
authority of Virgil,
Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumant,
and that of Appian, who says, that of those persons pro¬
scribed by the triumvirate, some hid themselves in wells
and common sewers, and some on the tops of houses and
in chimneys (zocffrwih/s iwfwsop/cfc/, fumaria sub tecto positaj ;
while Aristophanes, in one of his comedies, introduces his
old man, Polycleon, shut up in a chamber, whence he en¬
deavours to make his escape by the chimney. ,
Chimneys, however, are, in Professor Beckmann s opi¬
nion, of comparatively modern origin ; and in order to
show the ground upon which he comes to this conclusion,
we shall lay before our readers some observations from his
elaborate dissertation on this subject.
When the triumviri, says Appian, caused those who had
been proscribed by them to be sought for by the military,
some of them, in order to avoid the bloody hands of their
persecutors, hid themselves in wells, and others, as Ferra-
rius translates the words, in fumaria sub tecto, qua scilicet
fumus e tecto evolvitur. The true translation, however, in
Beckmann's opinion, is fumosa ccenacula. The principal
persons of Rome endeavoured to conceal themselves in
the smoky apartments of the upper story under the roof,
which, in general, were inhabited only by poor people;
and this seems to be confirmed by what Juvenal express¬
ly says, Harus venit in ccenacula miles.^
Those passages of the ancients which speak of smoke
risino- up from houses, have w ith equal impropriety been
supposed to allude to chimneys, as if the smoke could
not make its way through doors and windows. Seneca
says, “ Last evening I had some friends, with me, and on
that account a stronger smoke was raised ; not such a
smoke, however, as bursts forth from the kitchens of the
great, and which alarms the watchmen, but such an one as
signifies that guests have arrived.” Those whose judgments
are not already warped by prejudice, will undoubtedly
find the true sense of these words to be, that the smoke
forced its way through the kitchen windows. Had the
houses been built with chimney funnels, one cannot con¬
ceive why the watchmen should have been alarmed when
they observed a stronger smoke than usual arising from
them ; but as the kitchens had no convenience of that na¬
ture,'an apprehension of fire, when extraordinary enter¬
tainments were to be provided in the houses of the nc
for large companies, seems to have been well founded,
and on such occasions people appointed for that purpose
were stationed in the neighbourhood, to be constantly on
the watch, and to be ready to extinguish the flames n
case a fire should happen. There are to foun
Roman authors many other passages of a simflar kina,
which it is hardly necessary to mention, such as that
Virgil,
Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumant;
and the following words of Plautus, descriptive of a miser:
Quin divum atque hominum clamat continuo fidem,
Suam rem periisse, seque eradicarier,
De suo tigillo fumus si qua exit foras.
The passage of Aristophanes above alluded t0>
and which, according to the usual translation, seem^ ^
fer to a common chimney, may, especially ^
sider the illustration of the scholiasts, be explained y
simple hole in the roof, as Reiske has supposed; and
C H I M N E Y.
limney.
547
2feF* ‘OPwUcMhlTok ^"^0 br'fng ™Te wood ort fetch fra^kbcens^giv?
Tf,„r • j t ^ lng him thus to understand that the fire was fitter for burn-
It has been said that the instances of chimneys re- ing perfumes than to produce heat. Anacharsis, the Scv-
maining among the ruins ot ancient buddings are few, and thian philosopher, though displeased with many of the
that the rules given by Vitruvius for building them are Grecian customs, praised the Greeks, because they shut
obscure r but it appears hat there exists no remains of out the smoke, and brought only fire into their houses
ancient chimneys, and that \ itruvius gives no rules, either We are informed by Lampridius, that the extravagam
obscure or perspicuous, for budding what, in the modern Heliogabalus caused to be burned in such stoves Indian
spices, and costly perfumes, instead of wood. It is also
worthy of notice, that coals were found in some of the
apartments of Herculaneum, but neither stoves nor chim¬
neys.
It is well known to every scholar, that the useful arts
~     £ X — ~ ~ 7 ^ ^ vrAicii/) 111 LI 1C 1I1UULCI 11
acceptation of the word, deserves the name of a chimney.
The ancient mason-work still to be found in Italy
does not determine the question. Of the walls of towns,
temples, amphitheatres, baths, aqueducts, and bridges,
there are some, though very imperfect remains, in which
chimneys cannot be expected; but of common dwelling- of life were invented in the East f an d a the e lm
houses none are to be seen, except at Herculaneum, and manners, and furniture of eastern nations, have remaTn-’
diere no traces of chimneys have yet been d.scovered. ed from time immemorial almost unchanged. In Perl
The pa,nings and pieces of sculpture wh,chare preserved which Sir William Jones seems to have considered a
afford ash tie mformation, for nothing can be pence,ved m the original country of mankind, the methods employed
them which bears the smallest resemblance to a modern by the inhabitants for warming themselves have a great
chimney. f . . . . „ t . lesemblance to those employed by the ancient Greeks and
If there were no funnels in the houses of the ancients Romans for the same purpose. According to Ue la Vide
to carry off the smoke, the directions given by Columella the Persians make fires in their apartments, not in chim-’
to make kitchens so high that the roof should not catch neys as we do, but in stoves in the earth, which thev cTll
fire were of he utmost importance. An accident of the tennor. These stoves consist of a square or round hole
kind, which the author seems to have apprehended had two spans or a little more in depth, and in shape not un-
almost happened at Beneventum, when the landlord who like an Italian cask. That this hole may throw out heat
entertained Maecenas and his company was making a sooner, and with more strength, there is placed in it an
strons- fire in order to p-et some birds the snnner rnnef-od iVrvr. xi..   • . , . , . . .
strong fire in order to get some birds the sooner roasted
Ubi sedulus hospes
Paene arsit, macros dutn turdos versat in igne;
Nam vaga per veterem dilapso flamma culinam
Vulcano summum properabat lambere tectam.
iron vessel of the same size, which is eithef filled with
burning coals, or a fire of wood and other inflammable sub¬
stances is made in it. When this is done, they place over
the hole or stove a wooden top, like a small low table, and
sPread above it a large coverlet quilted with cotton, which
Had there been chimneys in the Roman houses, Vitruvius hangs down on all sides to the floor. This covering con-
certainly would not have failed to describe their construe- denses the heat, and causes it to warm the whole apart-
tion, which is sometimes attended with considerable diffi- ment. The people who eat or converse there, and some
culties, and which is intimately connected with the regu- who sleep in it, lie down on the floor upon the carpet,
lation of the plan of the whole edifice. He does not, how- and lean with their shoulders against the wall, on square
ever, say a word on the subject; neither does Julius Pollux, cushions, upon which they sometimes also sit; for the ien-
who has collected with great care the Greek names of nor is constructed in a place equally distant from the walls
every part of a dwelling-house ; and Grapaldus, who in on both sides. Those who are not very cold put their feet
later times made a collection of the Latin terms, has not only under the table or covering; but those who require
given a Latin word expressive of a modern chimney. more heat may put their hands under it, or creep under it
Caminus, as far as we have been able to learn, signified altogether. By these means the stove diffuses over the
first a chemical or metallurgic furnace, in which a cruci- whole body, without causing uneasiness to the head, so
ble was placed for melting and refining metals; secondly, penetrating and agreeable a warmth, that I never ex'pe-
a smith’s forge; and, thirdly, a hearth on which portable rienced any thing more pleasant. Those, however, who
stoves or fire-pans were placed for warming the apartment, require less heat let the coverlet hang down on their side
In all these, however, there appears no trace of a chim- to the floor, and enjoy without any inconvenience from the
ney. Herodotus relates, that a king of Libya, when one stove the moderately-heated air of the apartment. They
of his servants asked for his wages, offered him in jest the have a method also" of stirring up or blowing the fire when
sun, which at that time shone into the house through an necessary, by means of a small pipe united with the ten-
opening in the roof, under which the fire was perhaps made nor or stove under the earth, and made to project above
in the middle of the edifice. If such a hole must be call- the floor as high as is judged necessary ; so that, when a
ed a chimney, our author admits that chimneys were in person blows into it, the wind, having no other vent, acts
use among the ancients, especially in their kitchens; but immediately upon the fire like a pair of bellows. When
it is obvious that such chimneys bore no resemblance to there is no longer occasion to use this stove, both holes,
ours, through which the sun could not dart his rays upon that is to say, the mouth of the stove and that of the pipe
the floor of any apartment. which conveys the air to it, are closed up by a flat stone
However imperfect may be the information which can made for that purpose. Scarcely any appearance of them
be collected from the Greek and Roman authors respect- is then to be perceived, nor do they occasion inconve-
mg the manner in which the ancients warmed their apart- nience, especially in a country where it is always custo-
ments, it nevertheless shows that they commonly used for mary to cover the floor with a carpet, and where the walls
that purpose a large fire-pan or portable stove, in which are plastered. In many parts these ovens are used to
they kindled wood, and, when the wood was well lighted, cook victuals, by kettles placed over them. They are em-
carried it into the room, or perhaps they filled it with burn- ployed also to bake bread ; and for this purpose they
ing coals. When Alexander the Great was entertained are covered with a large broad metal plate, on which the
by a friend in winter, as the weather was cold and raw, a cake is laid; but if the bread is thick and requires more
small fire basin was brought into the apartment to warm it. heat, it is put into the stove itself. (See History of Invent.
. — . e —   —   ;; > -
Ane prince, observing the size of the vessel, and that it n. 88.)
548
Chimney
II
China.
CHI
Beckmann further observes, that the oldest account of
chimneys is to be found in an inscription at Venice, wine i
relates, that, in the year 1347, a great many chimneys
were thrown down by an earthquake. It would appear,
however, that in some places they had been in use for a
considerable time before that period; and De Gataris, in
his history of Padua, relates, that Francesco de Carraio,
lord of Padua, came to Rome in 1368, and finding no chim-
China.
CHI
neys in the inn where he lodged, because at that time fire Chimney
was kindled in a hall in the middle of the floor, he caused 11
two chimneys like those which had long been used at Pa¬
dua to be constructed by masons and carpenters, whom
he had brought along with him. Over these chimneys,
the first which had ever been seen at Rome, he affixed his
arms, and these still remained in the time of De Gataris,
who died of the plague in 1405.
CHINA.
The conterminous empires of Russia and China occupy
between them about one fifth part of the habitable globe,
in pretty nearly equal portions ; but the population of the
latter is about four times greater than that of the forrner,
even after including its recent annexation of 1 oland. We
can easily trace the boundaries and mark the extreme li¬
mits of these two great empires, by parallels of latitude and
meridional lines of longitude ; but when we come to re¬
duce them to square miles, or speak of their contents in
acres, the mind is bewildered by the magnitude of the
numbers required to express them, and forms but an in¬
distinct idea of their superficial extent. For this reason
we shall content ourselves by merely tracing the boun-
Eounda- ^Thefrontier of China on the side of Russia, including
ries.
every part of Tartary under its immediate protection,
and from which it derives a tribute, is as follows : Com¬
mencing at the north-eastern extremity, where the LJda
falls into the sea of Otchotsk, in the 55th parallel of north¬
ern latitude, it stretches west and west-south-west along
the limits of the Tungousi Tartars, the Duounan Moun¬
tains, and along the Kerlon, which divides it from the Rus¬
sian province of Nertchinsk, till it meets the 50th parallel.
It then continues along that parallel from 111 to 0
east longitude, separated from Tobolsk and Irchutsk by the
Sawansk, the Altai, and the Bercha Mountains. On this
line, and about the 106th meridian, on the river Selinga,
are situated the two frontier trading towns of Kiackta and
Mai-mai-tchin, the only two points in the long contermi¬
nous line of boundary where Russians and Chinese have
any communication. From hence, descending south along
the Kirghis Tartars, Western Toorkistaun, and Little liu-
bet, it is terminated in this direction by the Hindu Coosh ;
and, turning to the south-east along the Himalaya ^ _0U1]
tains, Bootan, Assam, the Burman empire, and lunqum, it
again skirts the sea in the parallel of 21°, as far to the
eastward as 123°, or, including Corea, to 130°, and near the
Uda, from whence we set out, to 143° of east longitude.
Yet in all this extent of frontier, which cannot be less
than 10,000 geographical miles, the Chinese territory has
hitherto preserved itself so invulnerable, and even inac¬
cessible to foreigners, that not a Russian, a Turcoman, an
Afo-haun, a Hindu, Burman, or Tunquinese, by land, nor
a European nor an American, among the numbers that
annually proceed to Canton for the purposes ol tiacle,
have at any time been able to transgress any part of this
most extensive boundary, without the knowledge and pei-
mission of its vigilant and jealous government; aided,
however, by a moral barrier, of itself perhaps insuperable,
namely, the impossibility of communication, owing to the
total ignorance which prevails, from the highest to the low¬
est of the people, of every language but their own, and the
unaccountable ignorance of other nations ol their language.
A singular instance may here be mentioned of the invio¬
lability of the frontier, notwithstanding the perseverance
of the individual who attempted it, owing to the unwea¬
ried vigilance of the government. Mr Manning, an Eng¬
lish gentleman of property and education, went to Canton
many years ago, with the view of proceeding into the in¬
terior of China, and of domesticating himself for some
time among the people. On his arrival there, he adopted
the Chinese dress, suffered his beard to grow, and sedu¬
lously applied himself to the study of the language, both
written and spoken. Wben the time approached that his
appearance, manners, and language were considered to be
sufficiently Chinese to escape detection, it was communi¬
cated to him, by a sort of demi-official message, that his
intentions were known, and that it would be in vain for
him to make the attempt, as measures had been taken to
make it impossible for him to enter the Chinese territo¬
ries beyond the limits of the English factory.. He alleged
that his views were innocent, that he was simply an in¬
dividual, urged solely by curiosity and a desire to mix
among the people, and to witness the happy condition of
this far-famed nation, and wholly unconnected with any
political, commercial, or religious views ; and he particu¬
larly urged that he was no missionary of any kind, as those
of that character had of late given uneasiness to the go¬
vernment. But he urged his suit in vain. He next tried
Cochin-China, but with no better success,—the same
kind of political jealousy prevailing in that country as m
China. Determined, however, not to be thwarted in his
object, he proceeded to Calcutta, travelled to the northern
frontier of Bengal, found means to penetrate through Boo¬
tan to Lassa in Thibet, and was on the point of realizing
his long deferred hope by a journey along the laitar fron¬
tier to the capital of China, when he was detected by t e
Chinese authorities, and ordered immediately to quit the
country—so utterly impossible is it to deceive this watch¬
ful government. With regard to their own people, the
laws are strict and remarkably severe against any one who
shall secretly or fraudulently pass the barrier; and it any
individual communicate with foreign nations beyond the
boundaries, the penalty is death by strangulation.
This interdiction of intercourse with a people who have EnonMU
nothing in common with the rest ot the world, will ac' c^ncernin
count for the total ignorance which so long prevailed, anatheorigjd
the little knowledge we yet possess, respecting this singu- ftheCd
lar and original people ; for that they are an original andIiese.
unmixed race we conceive no reasonable doubt can he en¬
tertained, though a different hypothesis has been held by
learned and ingenious men. By De Guignes and Ireret,
arguing from the communications of the Jesuits, they were
supposed to be derived from a colony of Egyptians; by
the earlier Jesuits they were set down as a tribe ot ne
Jews ; and by Sir William Jones as the descendants ot tne
Cshantrya or Military Caste of Hindus, called Chinas,
“ who,” say the Pundits, “ abandoned the ordinances ot tne
Veda, and lived in a state of degradation.” With subrms-
sion to such high authorities, we should as soon ttunK o
deriving the trunk of a tree from its branches, as the peo¬
ple of China from any of these. That they are not gyP
tians, the ingenious Pauw has most clearly and sa is
torily demonstrated, by proving that, in no one i
c h ;
ina. does there, or ever did there, exist one single resemblance.
As little similarity is there between them and the Hin¬
dus: no two people, indeed, could possibly differ more
than they do in their physical and moral character, in
their language, and in their political and religious institu¬
tions. The colour of the Hindu is ebon black or a deep
bronze, that of a Chinese a sickly white, or pale yellow,
like that of a faded leaf, or the root of rhubarb ; the fea¬
tures of a Hindu are regular and placid, those of a Chi¬
nese wild, irregular, constant only in the oblique and elon¬
gated eye, and the broad root of the nose; the Hindus
are slaves and martyrs to religious ordinances, the Chi¬
nese have superstitions enough, but, strictly speaking, no
religious prejudices ; the Hindus are divided into castes,
the Chinese know of no such division; the historical records
of China go far beyond the time that these supposed Chinas
of Sir William Jones peopled the country, the Hindus
have not a page of history; the language of Hindustan is
alphabetic, that of China a transition from the hierogly¬
phic to the symbolic, and there is not the slightest ana¬
logy in the colloquial languages of the two countries. But
Sir William Jones had a theory to support, which made
him overlook many inconsistencies; and he had no know¬
ledge of the Chinese language. The name of Chinas seems
to have caught him ; a name, however, utterly unknown to
the Chinese themselves. The madman who, in the third
century before Christ, is accused of burning all their books,
but who conquered the revolted provinces, and re-united
them to the empire, endeavoured to give to China the
name of his own dynasty, Tsin, which might have been
known to the Hindus, and through them to the Arabs,
from whom Europeans had their Sina and China; but
this dynasty, if we take Sir William Jones’s dates, reign¬
ed a full thousand years subsequently to the supposed emi¬
gration of the Chinas. The most ancient name for China,
which is still in use, is Tien-sha, under heaven, or inferior
only to heaven ; but the most common appellation is
Tchung-quo, the middle kingdom : and here it may be pro¬
per to observe, that this name is not given, as the French
missionaries would lead us to suppose, from a notion
among this people that China is placed on the middle of
the earth s square surface, but from the circumstance of
the emperor Tching-whang having fixed his court at Lo-
yang, in the province of Ho-nan, when he gave to this
capital the name of Chung-quo, the middle of the king¬
dom, which, in fact, is nearly the truth ; and this name wras
afterwards transferred to the whole empire.
Dr Marshman has set the question, as to any similarity
between the Sanscrit and Chinese languages, completely
at rest. The priests of Buddh, who were permitted to en¬
ter China in the first century of the Christian era, endea¬
voured, with their religion, to introduce the Sanscrit alpha¬
bet, or series of sounds represented by the Devanagari
character; and this series being placed at the head of
Canghe s Dictionary, induced Dr Marshman to suppose
that there might be some connection between the Chinese
and the Sanscrit languages. Had he, however, read the
preface to that dictionary, he would have seen that the
compilers announce it as a system brought from the West,
which the learned of China could never be prevailed on to
adopt. This Hindu series of alphabetic sounds did not,
however, mislead him; he was fully aware that a pure,
unchangeable, monosyllabic language could not arise out
of a polysyllabic one; that a language which admitted of
uo change from its original monosyllabic root, but retain¬
ed it in its primitive form, whether employed as a noun, a
verb, or a participle, could not have been derived from an¬
other language whose dhatoos or roots, by a complicated
uiechanism, assumed a hundred different shapes; nay,
whose inflections, in some instances, are so numerous, as
[ N A. 549
to produce more than a thousand modifications of an idea China,
from one radical word. In addition to all this, when he re-
fleeted that there were in the Sanscrit alphabet four or five
sounds which the organs of a Chinese could not by any
possibility enumerate, he found it utterly incompatible to
associate the two languages together, and was confirmed
in his idea by the test of facts. He took the Ramayuna,
which is supposed to be the most ancient poetry in the
Sanscrit language, and the Shee-king of the Chinese. In
ten pages of the former, containing four hundred and fifty-
nine words, he found only thirteen monosyllables, and of
these thirteen, seven do not occur in the Shee, nor are any
two of them used to express the same idea in both lan¬
guages. He next took four pages of the Mahabharu, in the
Bengalee dialect, containing two hundred and sixty-five
words, in which he found only seven monosyllables, and
of these, three only were Chinese.
Proceeding in the same manner, he proves, what was
scarcely necessary, that there exists not the most distant
resemblance between the Chinese and the Hebrew lan¬
guages. In examining the speech of Judah to Joseph, in
the Jlth chapter of Genesis, he finds it to contain two
hundred and six words, in which there occur sixteen mo¬
nosyllables ; but of these, seven only are Chinese words.
In Abraham s intercession for Sodom, out of two hundred
and thirty vyords, ten only are monosyllables, and of these,
four are Chinese. Again, in the maledictory prophecy of
Noah, relative to his grandson Canaan, in twenty-six words
there is but one monosyllable. • It would be most absurd,
therefore, to conclude that the Chinese derived their lan¬
guage from the Hebrew, w’hen one wmrd only occurs out
of twenty-nine, as in tbe first example, one out of fifty,
as in the second, or one in twenty-six, as in the third;
and he thinks it more rational to infer, that as it is neither
derived from the Sanscrit nor the Hebrew, it is an original
language invented by themselves. Neither is there any
resemblance to be found in the manners, customs, physi¬
cal character, or religious creeds, of the two people. There
are, in fact, a colony of Jews in China, whose entrance can
be traced beyond the Christian era; who use the Hebrew
language ; who abstain from swine’s flesh, the great article
of Chinese food ; use circumcision, and celebrate the pass-
over, neither of which the Chinese know anything about;
and it may, therefore, fairly be concluded that they are
neither Jews, Hindus, nor Egyptians, but an original peo¬
ple, who have kept themselves more unmixed with other
nations than any people existing on the face of the earth.
(Barrow’s Travels in China ; Marsh man’s Claris Sinica.')
Pauw, and some other writers, are of opinion that they Probable
proceeded originally from the heights of Tartary. It is, origin,
in fact, obvious enough that the Tartars and Chinese are
one and the same race; and the only question seems to
be, whether the latter, guided by the mountain-streams,
descended from the bleak and barren elevations of Tar¬
tary, which, bulging out of the general surface of the earth,
have been compared with the boss of a shield, to the fertile
plains and temperate climate of China; or, whether the
former are swarms sent off by an over-abundant popula¬
tion, and driven into the mountains. The former suppo¬
sition will be regarded, perhaps, as the more probable of
the two. In all the institutions which the change from a
pastoral to an agricultural state would necessarily require,
the ancient manners and customs of the Hyperborean
Scythians, as described by Herodotus, are still discernible
among the Chinese. A Chinese city is nothing more
than a Tartar camp, surrounded by mounds of eartb, to
preserve themselves and cattle from the depredations of
neighbouring tribes, and the nocturnal attacks of wolves
and other wild beasts ; and a Chinese habitation, the Tartar
tent, with its sweeping roof supported by poles, excepting
550
CHINA.
China, that the Chinese have Cased their walls with brick, and
tiled the roofs of their houses. When the famous barba¬
rian Gengis-khan made an irruption into the fertile plains
of China, and took possession of a Chinese city, his sol¬
diers immediately set about pulling down the tour walls
of the houses, leaving the overhanging roofs supported on
the wooden columns, by which they were converted into
excellent tents for themselves and horses. Yet such is
the facility with which Chinese and Tartars amalgamate,
that although this celebrated barbarian could neither read
nor write any language, he listened to the advice of the
conquered, became sensible of the change of situation in
which he found himself, did every thing he could to re¬
pair the errors he had committed, and both he and his
successors left good names behind them in the annals of
the country. In like manner, the present Mantchoo Tar¬
tars, who lived in tents, and subsisted on their cattle and
by hunting, immediately accommodated themselves to
the manners, the customs, and the institutions of China,
preserving nothing of their own, not even their religion,
and scarcely a vestige of ancient superstitions, that does
not coincide with those of the Chinese—one of the most
singular of which is, their agreement in the birth of man
and of the serpent-woman, and the universal use and es¬
timation of the ancient Scythian emblem of the dragon.
Next to the Chinese, the Turks seem to have preserved
most of the character and customs of tlm ancient Scy¬
thians from whom they sprung; and the Turks are Tar¬
tars. Some German author has pointed out a similarity
between the Turks and Chinese in seventeen different
customs; he might have extended the parallel to more
than twice that number. (Recherches sur les Chinois, par
M. de Pauw.)
It has long been objected in Europe against the au¬
thenticity of the early part of Chinese history, that it
abounds with absurd fictions and irreconcilable contra¬
dictions, and that it sets up a chronology and cosmogony
at variance with the sacred writings, and the generally
received opinions of mankind. This, however, is not the
fact with regard to Chinese history in its pure and origi¬
nal state, divested of the reveries of Fo or Buddh, which
the priests of this sect imported with their religion, and
found means to propagate among the vulgar. The Hindu
periods of the creation and destruction of the universe,—
the miraculous conceptions, and all the absurd stories of
gods, demi-gods, and heroes, are scouted by the learned of
China. The period they assign for the commencement
of their civilization is perfectly consistent with the time
when, according to holy writ, the great catastrophe befel
the earth ; and though they are unable to establish the
truth of the early part of it by any concurring contempo¬
raneous histories of other countries, yet neither can any
extraneous authority be produced to contradict theirs ;
the probability, therefore, of the truth or falsehood must
rest on the internal evidence of their own history, and the
manner in which that history has been compiled, preserv¬
ed, and handed down to posterity.
We may take it for granted, that when the Emperor
Kaung-hee summoned to Pekin the most learned men of
the empire, for the purpose of translating into the Mant¬
choo language an abridged history of China, from the ear¬
liest times, those annals only were consulted which were
considered as most authentic, namely, those which are
compiled and published by the college of Han-lin. Pere
Mailla was one of those missionaries who viewed the
Chinese less through the eye of prejudice than most of
the Jesuits. He was employed by the emperor in mak¬
ing a survey of the empire, which cost him and his col¬
leagues the labour of ten years ; he passed forty-five years
of his life in the country, and generally about the court,
Antiquity
and his¬
tory.
during which time he made himself perfectly acquainted Chin;
with the Mantchoo and the Chinese languages. When,
therefore, Kaung-hee undertook the laudable design of
giving to his Mantchoo subjects an authenticated history
of China in their own language, Pere Mailla conceived
the idea of proceeding pari passu with a translation of
the same work into French ; and having lived to complete
this Herculean labour, it was published at Paris, after
many difficulties and delays, by the Abbe Grozier, in
fourteen large quarto volumes, under the title of Histoire
Generale de la Chine.
The history of China commences, in fact, at a period
not much more than 3000 years before the birth of Christ,
by describing the little horde from which the Chinese
had their origin, to be in as barbarous and savage a state
as can well be imagined; roving among the forests of
Shen-see, just at the foot of the Tartar Mountains, with¬
out houses, without any clothing but the skins of ani¬
mals, without fire to dress their victuals, and subsisting on
the spoils of the chase, on roots and insects. Their chief,
of the name of Yoo-tsou-she, induced them to settle on
this spot, and they made themselves huts of the boughs
of trees. Under the next chief, Swee-gin-shee, the grand
discovery of fire was effected by the accidental friction of
two pieces of dry wood. He taught the people to look
up to Tien, the great creating, preserving, and destroying
power ; and he invented a method of registering time and
events, by making certain knots on thongs or cords twist¬
ed out of the bark of trees. Next to him followed Fo-
hee, who separated the people into classes or tribes, giv¬
ing to each a particular name ; discovered iron; appoint¬
ed certain days to show their gratitude to heaven, by of¬
fering the first fruits of the earth ; and invented the Ye-hing
or Koua, which superseded the knotted cords. Fo-hee
reigned 115 years, and his tomb is shown at Tchin-choo,
in the province of Shen-see, at this day. His successor,
Chin-nong, invented the plough; and from that moment
the civilization of China proceeds by rapid but progressive
steps.
As the early history of every ancient people is more or
less vitiated by fable, we ought not to be more fastidious
or less indulgent towards the marvellous in that of China,
than we are towards Egyptian, Greek, or Roman history.
The main facts may be true, though the details are in¬
correct; and though the accidental discovery of fire may
not have happened under Swee-gin-shee, yet it proba¬
bly was first communicated by the friction of two sticks,
which at this day is a common method among almost all
savages of producing fire. Nor is it perhaps strictly cor¬
rect that Fo-hee made the accidental discovery of iron, by
having burnt a quantity of wood on a brown earth, anymore
than that the Phoenicians discovered the mode of making
glass by burning green wood on sand ; yet there is nothing
improbable, either in the one or the other, that these
two processes first led to the discovery of both. And if
it be objected against the history, that the reign of a
hundred and fifteen years exceeds the usual period of hu¬
man existence, it should be recollected, at the same time,
that such an instance is as nothing, when compared with
those contemporaneous ones recorded in biblical history.
Thus, also, considerable allowances are to be deducted
from the scientific discoveries of Chin-nong in botany,
when we read of his having in one day discovered no less
than seventy different species of plants that weie o a
poisonous nature, and seventy others that were antic o es
against their baneful effects. .
The next sovereign, Hoang-tee, was an usurper,
during his reign the Chinese are stated to have made a
very rapid progress in the arts and conveniences ot civi¬
lized life ; and'to his lady, See-ling-shee, is ascribed t
CHINA.
honour of having first observed the silk produced by the
' worms, of unravelling their coccoons, and working the fine
filaments into a web of cloth. The tomb of Hoang-tee is
also kept up to this day in the province of Shen-see.
From these few recorded facts, out of a multitude stat¬
ed by Chinese historians, we think it may be inferred
that, at a very distant period, and at the earliest dawn of
civilization, a small horde of Tartars, descending from
their elevated regions, seated.themselves on the plains of
Shen-see, at the foot of the mountains; and, under the
guidance of a succession of intelligent chiefs, changed the
pastoral and venatorial life for one more stationary, and
at length became cultivators of the soil, and spread them¬
selves over the fine fertile region now known by the name
of China. {Hist. Gen. de la Chine, par P. Mailla.)
Aui nti- Some doubts have been entertained with regard to the
cititbeirauthenticity of that jjart of Chinese history which re-
hislF ex-kites to the reign of the first three sovereigns, Fo-hee,
ani: Ji Chin-nong, and Hoang-tee, which is supposed to have
been contained in a book called San-fen ; and of the five
following reigns, ending with the joint government of Yao
and Chun, as detailed in another work named the Ou-tien.
Of the first of these works the Chinese avow that nothing
is known ; and all that remained of the second was an im¬
perfect fragment preserved by being inserted at the head of
one of their most ancient and valued books, called the Shoo-
king, of which we have a translation, or rather a bad para¬
phrase, by Pere Gaubil. This fragment relates chiefly to
the reign of Yao and Chun. The rest of the Shoo-king
contains an abridged history of the empire, from the joint
reign of these two sovereigns down to the time of Confu¬
cius, being a compilation by this celebrated sage. The
authenticity of the Shoo-king must, however, depend on
two circumstances; first, whether it is the same that was
composed by Confucius; and, secondly, whether the ma¬
terials which this sage possessed were authentic. If he
really had copies of the San-fen and Ou-tien, the Shoo-king
may fairly be classed with the history of Herodotus, with
whom Confucius was contemporary,—the Chinese histo¬
rian having the additional advantage of previous written
records. But, admitting this to have been the case, there
is still an awkward and suspicious chasm in the history of
, China, the cause of which draws largely on our faith. The
Emperor Che-whang-tee, of the dynasty of Tsin, after re¬
ducing, as we before observed, the refractory provinces,
conceived the mad scheme of destroying all the writings
of the empire, under the idea of commencing a new set of
annals with his own reign, in order that posterity might
consider him as the founder of the empire. Some sixty
years after this barbarous decree had been carried into
execution, his successor, desirous, as far as might be pos¬
sible, to repair the injury, held out great rewards to those
who could produce any part of the annals of the empire,
more especially the hundred chapters of the Shoo-king.
After some time, a copy of the Shoo-king was procured
in this manner. All ancient writings, and those of Con¬
fucius in particular, were comprised in short sentences,
forming a kind of poetry, not unlike the Proverbs of Solo-
nion ; and they were in the memory of most persons then,
as they are now, who had any pretensions to literature;
but sixty years having been suffered to elapse before any
encouragement was held forth for the revival of letters,
wost of those who had known the Shoo-king were either
dead, or so old as to have lost the recollection of it. At
ength, however, a man named Foo-seng, of the age of
ninety and upwards, was discovered, who, in earlier life,
could repeat the whole of the Shoo-king by heart. To
this man the historiographers of the empire were sent;
ut he was unable to write, and his articulation was so im-
peifect, that the parts of it which he recollected could
only be obtained through the medium of his daughter,
who, having received the words from her father, repeated
them to the historians. In this way they proceeded until
twenty-nine of the books or sections of the Shoo-king had
been committed to writing, which Foo-seng had compre¬
hended in twenty-five ; but here they were compelled to
stop, the infirmities of Foo-seng not allowing him to pro¬
ceed. A document thus obtained did not pass for genu¬
ine among the learned ; yet all were eager to procure co¬
pies of it, in order to compare such passages as each might
recollect to have heard their fathers repeat. The early an¬
nals of China, however, do not rest solely on this record.
Half a century after this, a prince of Loo, in pulling down
an old building (some say the house in which Confucius
lived), to erect on its site a temple in honour of that philo¬
sopher, discovered in one of the walls an imperfect copy of
the Shoo-king, with two other works of Confucius. They
were much devoured by the worms, and written in a cha¬
racter which had gone out of use. The learned men were
assembled to collate this newly discovered copy with that
taken from Foo-seng’s recollection, and it is said that they
did not materially differ, except in the division into chap¬
ters. They therefore proceeded in deciphering the remain- >
ing part of the characters, and, after much time and labour,
obtained twenty-nine complete articles, in addition to the
twenty-nine recollected by Foo-seng, making the fifty-
eight chapters of which the Shoo-king at the present day
is composed. J
I he story is told by Chinese writers with some varia¬
tions ; but it is a common saying, that “ both the ancient
and modern Shoo-king were taken from the wall of a
house.” According to some, the old man Foo-seng hid a
copy of the book within the wall of his house, and, to avoid
the rigour of the persecution that was carried on against
men of letters, put out his own eyes and affected idiotism.
The whole story, however, is not very consistent, and
it has been conjectured that it was invented as a salvo
to the mortified vanity of the Chinese, who were unable
to make out a connected series of annals from a high an-
tiquity; and that, in fact, Confucius was the first regular
historian of the empire, and probably the person who first
led them on rapidly to a state of civilization. One thing
at least is perfectly well ascertained; no writings of any
description prior to those ascribed to Confucius exist in
China. Where the Shoo-king terminated, Confucius com¬
menced his own annals, called the Tckun-iou, which carried
down the history of the empire to his own time ; and of
this work a copy had been secreted by one of the histo¬
riographers. Many other manuscripts were from time to
time brought in, from which were selected all that be¬
longed to the history of the empire, by a commission, of
which Tse-ma-tsin was placed at the head ; after his death
his son Tse-ma-tsien completed this great work, which is
still extant, about a century before the Christian era, and
its author is considered and known by the name of the Re¬
storer of History. From that period to the present time
there seems to be no reason to doubt the authenticity of
Chinese history, or to accuse it of undue partiality. The
history of a dynasty is not made public from authority,
until that dynasty has ceased to reign; and it does not
appear that any injustice is done or attempted by the suc¬
ceeding dynasty. Some of the atrocities of Gengis-khan
are related on his first incursion into China, but ample
justice is done to him and to his successors ; and the pre¬
sent Tartar dynasty, in publishing the annals of that of
Ming, whom they displaced, does not appear to have done
it any violent injustice. This event occurred under the
eye of several European missionaries then resident in the
capital; and, by their concurring testimonies, the affairs
of the empire were left, as the Chinese state, to priests,
551
China.
552
CHINA.
China.
and eunuchs, and jugglers; and it is favourable to the
character of the college of Han-lin, that, for the sake o
accuracy, the history of the dynasty of Ming was re¬
tarded for some time, by the Chinese members refusing
to allow the Tartar race, then on the throne, the title
of imperial, until the last remaining prince of the fa¬
mily of Ming should be extinct; but the lartars insisted
on dating the commencement of their own dynasty from
the day they were in possession of Pekin, to which at
length the Chinese members were reluctantly compelled
to assent. In the instance of Gengis-khan they were
most successful. The name of this marauder does not
appear in the list of Chinese emperors, nor those of the
two next in succession, Ogdai-khan and Menko-khan,
though their exploits are amply detailed in Chinese his¬
tory. The Mongoo dynasty commences only with f^ub-
lai-khan, who was not declared emperor till the death of
the last remaining branch of the family of Song. Then
account of these Tartars is probably very correct, t hey
had neither treasure to pay their troops, nor magazines
of provisions for their subsistence. They lived by the
chase and by plunder, driving before them large herds
of cattle, whose flesh served them for food when other
supplies failed, and their skins for clothing. They put to
death men, women, and children, without compunction,
plundering the towns and villages through which they
passed, and carrying off the young women ; and when the
Chinese took up a strong position in the passes of the
mountains, it was the practice of Gengis-khan to seize all
the old men, women, and children of the neighbouung
country, and drive them forward at the head of his army,
and thus, approaching the Chinese under cover of their
own friends and relations, succeed in coming upon them
without their being able to strike a single blow; and it is
added, that, had it not been for the remonstrances of a
Chinese who had united his fortunes to those of the inva¬
ders, Gengis-khan had determined to put to death all the
agriculturists, for ploughing up the ground, and destroying
the grass on which his numerous cavalry was to be sub-
sisted*
As their history relates solely to the internal events and
transactions of the empire, and as their policy has been
to exclude all communication with foreign nations, we
have no means of verifying the facts that are related , but
it is in favour of their accuracy to find a fact recoided in^
the progress of a revolution brought about by a change of
dynasty, which is also related by an European traveller,
who was himself a party in the transaction, and who is
worthy of implicit credit in all that he states to have fallen
under his own knowledge and observation. Marco 1 olo
states, that Sian-foo was taken by the Mon goo s after a
siege of three years, chiefly by means of machines made
by his father and uncle, which hurled stones of three hun¬
dred pounds in weight; and it is recorded in the history
of China, that the city of Siang-yang held out against the
troops of Kublai-khan for four years, but was at length
reduced by means of certain machines for hurling stones
of an extraordinary weight, constructed by one Alihaga,
who had travelled to China from the westein countries.
Another instance of the fidelity of the Chinese histo¬
rians is affirmed by the faithful traveller Marco I olo. It
is recorded that Kublai-khan' adopted the Chinese man¬
ners and customs, and gave encouragement to the aits and
sciences, commerce and manufactures; that he opened
the ports of China to all foreigners; that he sent embas¬
sies and expeditions to almost every part of the world, and
received tribute from the sovereigns of Pung-kia-la^Ben-
gal), Soo-ma-ta-la (Sumatra), and Mal-la-kia (Malacca);
subdued Corea, but failed in his expedition against Ja¬
pan, or, as they call it, Ge-pun-quo, the kingdom of the
rising sun; all of which will be found related in Marco Ch:
Polo, whose accuracy in relating what was told him ap- j
pears in another Chinese book called Fo-quo-kee, a history
of the kingdom of Fo, giving an account of the temples of
India, visited by a Ho-chang or priest in the fourth cen¬
tury, in which, among other things, is noticed the yells
and musical strains made by invisible spirits in the great
desert of Sha-moo, to frighten and bewilder the traveller;
a fable repeated by Marco Polo, in speaking of the same
desert, nine hundred years afterwards. {Hist. Gen.; Mor¬
rison’s Dictionary ; Marco Polo.)
But whether the ancient history of China be true orGova
false—whether Yao or Chun were real or fictitious perso-men.
nages, and Confucius the real author of the religious, mo¬
ral, and political maxims ascribed to these sovereigns,
the Chinese at least entertain no doubts on the subject;
and on these maxims are all their institutions founded, as
we find them existing at the present day. In all these in¬
stitutions may be discovered the traces of a primeval state
of society. The leading features of the government still
wear the stamp of the first rude attempts to restrain sa¬
vage man within the pale of social life ; paternal solicitude
and protection on the part of the chief, obedience and
service on that of the people. The same principles which
their history states to have regulated the pastoral tribes
of Fo-hee on the plains of Shen-see, four thousand years^
ago, actuate the measures of the Chinese government of
the present day. A few modifications ol the ancient pa¬
triarchal system have served to convert tribes of hunters
and shepherds into a nation of agriculturists, and to keep
them so; for of all governments which the history of the
world has made known, none has had that permanency
and stability which China has enjoyed. Fike other go¬
vernments, the machine may occasionally have been en¬
larged ; a few wheels may have been added, its move¬
ments sometimes disturbed, its operations impeded, and
a spring or a wheel injured or destroyed; but the da¬
mage has soon been repaired, and without altering or im¬
proving the principles of the construction.^ Rebellion, re¬
volution, and foreign conquest, have occasionally removed
old families from, and placed new ones on, the vacant
throne, and for a moment disturbed the movements of
the machine; but a little time has generally restored the
usual harmony of its operations. It becomes, therefore,
an object of interest to inquire, on what principles, and ny
what practice, the largest mass of population which in
any age or country has been united under one govern¬
ment, has been kept together in one bond of union, for a
period of time extending far beyond that at which the
history of the earliest European nations may be said to
commence. It has assuredly not been owing to the su¬
perior virtues of its princes, for China has had its Neios
and Caligulas as well as Rome; nor to the superior vir¬
tues of the people, for Chinese morality consists more in
profession than in practice ; and yet the affectation o su
perior virtues in the one, and of moral sentiment in ie
other, has gone far in giving support to the systeI1! °
government, and securing the permanency of the anci
institutions of the country. > ,
Ancient usage, universally appealed to, is almost t
only rule of conduct, and the only limitation or contro
prescribed to the executive authority vested in the m •
narch. The public voice is never heard, ^.ut t^ie ?U
opinion is sedulously courted by the sovereign, ana ™ *
veyed to every part of the empire through the m
of the Pekin Gazette. This vehicle of imperial panegyric
is published daily ; it is sent forth into all the piovin .
and read in all the public taverns and tea-houses,
one of the most powerful engines of state ; and ‘ ,
of this paper would explain the nature of the gov
CHINA.
better than all the moral maxims of antiquity on which it
J is supposed to be founded. Through it are all the mea¬
sures of the government, or rather of the sovereign, com¬
municated to the public. If he fasts or feasts, promotes
or degrades, levies or remits taxes, feeds the hungry,
clothes the naked, rewards virtue or punishes vice, or, in
short, whatever laudable action he may perform, it is an¬
nounced in this state paper, with the motives and the rea¬
sons that may have given rise to it. Every sentence of
death, with an abstract of the charges and the trial, and
every mitigation of punishment, are also published in this
Gazette. There is now published in Canton an English
Gazette or Register, which contains translations of all the
most interesting and important notices extracted from
the Pekin Gazette, and other matters connected with the
commerce, the manufactures and products, of this most
extensive empiie, a publication which, if it should go on
as it commenced, will throw more light on this extraordi¬
nary people than has been afforded by any of the writings
of foreigners.
The grand leading principle of this patriarchal govern¬
ment is to place the sovereign at as great a distance from
the people, and as far removed from mortality, as human
invention could suggest. They not only style him the
Son of Heaven, but believe him to be of heavenly de¬
scent , and this superstitious notion appeared in a man¬
ner sufficiently remarkable, by the obstacles thrown in the
way of the present Mantchoo dynasty, on account of their
family not being able to trace their descent farther back
than eight generations; a defect of ancient origin which
was considered by the Chinese as a great reproach.
Kaung-hee, aware of their prejudices, caused the genea-
l°gy °f the Tartar family to be published in the Gazette.
It stated that “ the daughter of heaven, descending on
the borders of the Lake Poulkouri, at the foot of the
White Mountain, and eating some red fruit that grows
there, conceived, and bore a son, partaking of her nature,
and endowed with wisdom, strength, and beauty; that the
people chose him for their sovereign; and that from him
were descended the present Son of Heaven, who filled the
throne of China.” And this explanation wiped away the
reproach, and fully satisfied the subjects of the “ celestial
empire.
In the capacity of sovereign, the Emperor of China is
supposed to sustain two distinct characters. The first
is that of a high priest, in which he, and he alone, me¬
diates and intercedes with heaven for all the sins and mis¬
deeds of his people. In this character he only can offi¬
ciate at solemn feasts, when heaven is to be propitiated
by suitable oblations. He alone has the merit of all the
prosperity that the empire enjoys ; but he also affects to
consider public calamity as the consequence of some act
committed, or some duty neglected by him. When, there-
ore, insurrections, famines, earthquakes, or inundations,
afflict the people, he affects the deepest humility, appears
m t ie meanest dress, strips the palace of its ornaments,
an suspends all the court amusements ; but even in this
s ate of humiliation he is held up as the peculiar object of
neaven s attention, whether it be to punish or to bless.
f<f!wC°nC* c^aracter as sovereign of the empire is that
16 rather and mother of his people.” In this character
j is supposed that his subjects bear the same relation to
Jffl t lat he stands in towards Tien or heaven. His mi-
tn\i^rS i°r ma§‘stral'es execute his will, and are supposed
e placed as agents between him and the people, in the
ame manner as heaven has its agents to regulate the di-
em6] eCiees on earth; but all power, honour, offices, and
ouments, emanate from him alone, and are revocable
vid P easure: prerogative is undefined and undi-
c , unrestrained by any written law, and checked only
VOL. vi. J
by ancient custom, stronger even than law. “ Heaven ”
says Confucius, “ has not two sons, earth has not two
vings, a family has not two masters, sovereign power has
not two directors—one God, one emperor,” not for China
alone, but for all the earth, the rest of the sovereigns
being considered as his vassals. This doctrine was boldly
avowed on the occasion of Lord Amherst’s embassy, when
the ceremony of prostration was demanded, not as a mere
ceremonjq but as the sign and seal of vassalage, and on
this ground was of course resisted.
This self-created universal autocrat is not only the foun-
tain of al] honour in his wide dominions, but of all mercy,
lie is held upon all occasions as the mediator for his peo-
p-e, stepping in between the sentence of the law and the
execution of it, and with a fatherly tenderness remitting
a cei am portion of the punishment which the law awards,
and which the magistrate has no power to dispense with. If
a magistrate instructs the people, it is in the name of the
emperor; if he flogs them for a misdemeanour, he remits
a certain number of blows as the emperor’s grace; he or¬
ders his ministers to attend at all times to the complaints
o the people ; and, that none may be denied access to the
chief magistrate of the district, a gong or drum is sus¬
pended at the outer gate of his dwelling,—but woe be to
nm who ventures to sound it without substantial reason •
the emperors grace would not save him from at least a
c ozcn strokes of the bamboo. Navarette says that the
judges drum at Nankin is covered with the hide of an
e rpiaiit, and the drum-stick, a huge piece of timber, is
slung by strong ropes from the roof of the house. This
poor Jesuit had a ready credulity to receive all for truth
w hich the Chinese told him.
The name of the sovereign, however, rarely appears
but in an amiable light; the people hear of him only as
distributing rewards, punishing oppression, relieving the
distresses of the poor, opening the public magazines in
times of scarcity, and remitting all taxes where the state
o the treasury will afford it. Thus it appears, that Kien-
iung, having received a report from the board of reve¬
nue that a balance remained in the treasury of seventy
millions of ounces of silver, issued an edict, by which he
exempted all his people from one year’s taxes. This is all
vdy good, and so is the whole theory of this arbitrary ^o-
vernment, as delivered in the following rescript, which The
minister of Timour-khan put into the hands of this sove¬
reign ; indeed, were the practice but conformable with it,
we might call it truly Utopian. 1. Study with eager at¬
tention the will of heaven. 2. Be careful to tread in the
steps of your ancestors, and to imitate their virtues. 3.
Cease not to show your respect and gratitude to the au¬
gust parents who gave you birth. 4. Watch over your
people with a fatherly fondness. 5. In the exercise of
sovereign power preserve an upright heart and an elevated
soul. 6. Be moderate in your pleasures. 7. Drink little
wine. 8. Do not lavish your treasures. 9. Extend your
benefits to men of merit. 10. Make your justice formi¬
dable to criminals. 11. Drive from your presence knaves
and flatterers. 12. Cherish upright and sincere men, and
receive with temper their wdse remonstrances. 13. Study
the character of those you employ, and proportion their
employments to their talents. 14. Regulate your time to
your occupations, so that they may suit each other. 15.
Let not a day pass without studying the maxims of the
ancients. And he concludes by observing, that by put¬
ting in piactice these fiiteen precepts, he would secure to
himself a happy reign, and to his people prosperity and
the blessings of peace.
In Kaung-hee s declaration on the appointment of his
successor, a short time previous to his death, he observes,
that “ tne true way for a sovereign to perform his essen-
4 A
554
CHINA.
China.
tial duty towards heaven and the memory of his ances¬
tors, is to procure for his people peace and plenty; to
make his own happiness consist in the happiness or t ic
people, and his own heart the heart of the whole state ;
and he adds, “ although since I have occupied the throne,
I cannot say that I have succeeded in changing the bad
customs, and reforming the morals of my people ; althoug i
I may not have been fortunate enough to give plenty to
every family, or the necessaries of life to every individual;
yet I may venture to assert, that during my long reign I
have had no other view than to procure for the empire a
tne aeam ui nu uuc -   . . r .
never ventured upon any useless expense to be defrayed
from the public treasury; it is the blood of the people.
I have drawn nothing from it that was not necessary for
the subsistence of the army, and for relieving the calami¬
ties of famine,” &c. . „ ^ r _
The ancient and established maxims of filial piety, foim,
however, the grand basis of the Chinese government.
Every son is supposed to hold the same relation to his fa¬
ther that the people do to the sovereign ; and the same
unnatural and unwarrantable power which is given to the
father over his children could not consistently be with¬
held from the emperor. No wickedness or unnatural treat¬
ment can, on the part of the parent, relieve a son ropi his
duties. The merit of every good action performed by the
son is ascribed to the education given to him by the fa¬
ther, but the son bears his own disgrace. < In like man¬
ner, the sovereign receives the whole merit of the coun¬
try’s prosperity, but his ministers incur the disgrace of all
its misfortunes. To be consistent in thus placing the young
and vigorous at the mercy of the old and feeble, the em¬
peror affects to pay the same homage and obedience to his
mother that are due from children towards their parents.
The effect of this state morality, destructive of all real
sentiment, is that of rendering every man a slave to some
other, and establishing a system of tyranny, which descends
in an uninterrupted chain from the emperor down to the
meanest peasant. But this is not the worst: every man
distrusts his neighbour; because every man is known to
assume a character that does not belong to him, and co
stantly to act the hypocrite in public.
The iealousy and suspicion which prevails, frotn the so¬
vereign on the throne to the lowest of the magistrates,
evince how little they trust to the fine maxims of morali¬
ty, by which, it is pretended, the throne is supported and
the happiness of the people secured. No magistrate, for
instance, can hold an employment in a district where he
has relations; he cannot marry in that district; he cannot
purchase lands in it: if his father or his mother should
die, he must immediately resign his employment, to tultil
the duties which a son owes to his parents, and which
cease not with life ; and, at all events, he is removed at
the end of three years. No two relations within the fourth
degree can sit together at the same board. In each of the
six boards which sit in Pekin , there is a censor, who has
no deliberative voice, but listens to their discussions, makes
his remarks, and, like our speaker in the House of Com¬
mons, keeps them in order, refers to precedents, and the
like. He is supposed to be the confidential servant of the
sovereign, whom he informs of what is going on> and what
are the sentiments of the several members, i ‘iese S1X
censors maybe considered as imperial spies, and they toim
an extraordinary board called Too-tche-yuen, whose chief
business is that of dispatching their visitors or sub-censors
to all parts of the empire, to examine into and report upon
tlie conduct of the several officers, and to discover whe¬
ther, hoy and what abuses are alleged against them; and,
to complete the system of espionage, persons are invited Chij
to send up informations against the officers of government,Y
all of which are registered in this extraordinary tribunal.
In this precarious situation, a magistrate may consider
himself fortunate if he escapes the shafts of private malice,
or retires from office without having incurred disgrace, or
some more serious punishment, for the commission of some
fault, or the dereliction of some duty; for, where the of¬
fices of state are open to the lowest of the people, when
possessed of the requisite qualifications, the candidates for
employment become so numerous, thate'very ti ifling fault
is laid hold of to create a vacancy; and these frequent re¬
movals and degradations fall in precisely with the system
of the government, which is to break down all connection
between the officers and the people, and to turn the respect
and veneration of the latter exclusively to thesoveieign. On
the same principle, it is supposed that the extortions and
malversations of officers high in the government are fre¬
quently winked at, until, at a proper season, the hand of
power lays hold of the treasure corruptly obtained, and gets
rid, in a legal manner, of the whole family of the delinquent.
It is true, a magistrate in China is tried by his brother
magistrates; but when the sovereign is the accuser, as is
generally the case where an officer of state is the accused,
the result is pretty certain. I he favourite and principal
adviser of the late Kien-lung was brought to trial by
the present emperor, Kia-king, on charges of the most
frivolous nature, as that of having walked through the mid¬
dle gate, which is alone reserved for the emperor, having
a pearl in his possession larger than any belonging to the
imperial family, &c.; but the object was answered; he
was condemned to death, his whole property, which was
immense, confiscated, and all his relations dismissed from
their employments, and banished into Tartar}'-. We may
form a tolerably correct opinion of the manner in which
the criminal courts administer justice in cases wherein tie
emperor is personally concerned, from the trials that took
place in consequence of the attempt that was not long ago
made to assassinate Kia -king. He announces to the pub ic
a revolt, takes blame to himself, abuses, his ministers for
their negligence, to which he ascribes his misfortune, and
ends his proclamation in a strain of self-reproach and great
hypocritical humility. As the greater part of the handful
of rebels who attempted to storm the palace were killed
in the act, and the rest that were taken put to death, some
by beheading, others by a slow and lingering process, some
hacked and" mutilated in the public market-place, and
others “ cut into ten thousand pieces, it might be sup¬
posed that here the business ended. No such thing. 11 e
emperor, in his proclamation, denounces a particular sect,
which once caused a revolt in four provinces, that ook
eight years to subdue; hence the country m?Slstrates;
make amends for the carelessness of the ministers, perse
cuted all sects, and, among others, the thnst.ans. On
of the magistrates had the courage to send to tne capita
a spirited remonstrance, in which he stated that many ^
nocent persons had been brought to trial, tortured, and su
fared death ; that numbers wef^unJust ^un-
ed from court to court, after being put to the torture^
der pretence of preparation for trial; and the y ^
finally liberated, without trial, after their ent
stroyed and their property wasted. 1 ie w . .
exhibits a melancholy picture of abuses in the admims ^
tion of the criminal jurisprudence of this supposed vi
and humane nation. inducted by
The administration of the government is conductea y
six departments, to each of which there is a pre
a certain number of members, forming so ma y
similar to those of our admiralty and « boa^;
and the six presidents form.a distinct board of t
C H
ia. which, with certain princes of the blood, may be called
the extraordinary council of the state. Each board sends
out its appropriate officers to every part of the empire,
with and from whom it has to correspond and receive re-
poi ts; abstiacts of which, and of all its proceedings, are
daily laid before the emperor by one of the co-laos or pre¬
sidents, whom he generally selects as his favourite and con¬
fidential minister and adviser. The respective duties of
these boards are so interwoven with the laws of the em¬
pire, that a brief view of the laws will best explain the
nature of the executive governments. (Grozier and Du
Halde s Hist' of ( hiiicty ISIam, suv les Chinois / IVIacartney's
Journal; Staunton’s Authentic Account of an Embassy, &c.;
Barrow’s Travels in China.)
When Pauw observed that China was governed by the
whip and the bamboo, he was not aware of the theoretical
application of these instruments, especially the latter, to
the whole code of civil and criminal law. The remark was
not meant to extend beyond the practical application of
these machines to the human body, which, it must be
owned, are effectual aids towards the establishment of a
strict police, and that they are freely enough administered
in keeping the peace among the lower orders; but their
use in this way is by no means so extensive as is generally
supposed, and as the letter of the law would seem to im¬
ply. This great empire may, notwithstanding, be aptly
enough compared to a great school, of which the magis¬
trates are the masters, and the people the scholars. The
bamboo is the ferula, and care is taken that the child shall
not be spoiled by sparing the rod. The bamboo, however,
is not used merely for flogging the people. In the funda¬
mental laws of the empire it forms the scale by which all
punishments aie supposed to be proportioned to the crimes
committed, and which are carefully’ dealt out by weight
and measure; and here also we recognize the work of an
ancient people in a rude state of society. In a small fa¬
mily,^ or a community consisting of a certain number of
families, it may just be possible to “adapt the penalties of
the law’s in a just proportion to the crimes against which
they are denounced;” but the continuance of such a sys¬
tem in an overgrown commonwealth affords no proof of
refined or extensive notions of jurisprudence. Punishment,
as an example to deter others from the commission of
crimes, wouM seem, indeed, to be less the object of Chi¬
nese legislation than that of satisfying the claims of rigid
justice; to wipe off a certain degree of crime by the inflic¬
tion of a proportionate degree of suffering.
The code of laws called the Leu-lee has undergone se¬
veral changes by different dynasties, but the principle of
the laws has remained the same. This book is to China
what Burns s Justice is in England, and is familiar to all
who have any pretensions to literature. “ The magistrates
and the people,” says the Emperor Sun-chee, “ look up
with awe and submission to the justice of these institu¬
tions.” An European will regard them with different feel¬
ings. The frequency and the severity of corporal punish¬
ments, it literally inflicted, would be shocking and disgust¬
ing, but, as Sir G. Staunton has observed, “ there are so
many grounds of mitigation, so many exceptions in favour
o particular classes, and in consideration of peculiar cir-
cumstances, that the penal system, in fact, almost entirely
a andons that part of its outward and apparent character.”
e same observation will apply to the penalty of death,
w mh appears to be affixed to crimes whose enormity are
not such as would be deemed worthy of this extreme of
punishment in the most sanguinary code of Europe; for
i we are to judge from the very small comparative num*
er of criminals that are annually executed, one of twm
none usions must necessarily be drawn ; either that capital
onces are very rare, or that the laws are very lenient.
1 N A.
Pere Amiot says, that in 1784 the list of criminals under China,
sentence of death, and ratified by the emperor, amounted
to 1348 persons, which, he observes, was considered to be
unusually great. It is about one in 108,000, at which rate
not more than 160 would suffer annually in the whole po¬
pulation of Great Britain and Ireland.
The number of blows to be inflicted with the bamboo
mayr not only be considered as the measure or scale of
crimes, but as regulating also the mode or practice of pu¬
nishment. I he letter of the law, severe as it may appear
to be in denunciation, is more lenient in execution. Thus,
ten blows of nominal punishment are practically reduced
to four, and 100 to 40; and, in many cases, these blows
are redeemable by fine.
This bamboo, that makes so conspicuous a figure in the
Chinese code, is limited by law to two sizes; the larger
5 feet 8 inches in length, 2f inches broad, and 2 inches
thick, weighing 2-| pounds; the smaller the same length,
2 inches broad, and 14 thick, weight about 1^- pound.
The cangue, or more properly the Ida, is a wooden col-
lai for the neck, 3 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches broad, weigh¬
ing, in ordinary cases, 33 pounds.
The iron chain,, by which all criminals are confined, is
7 feet long, weighing GS pounds; besides which they use
wooden handcuffs and iron fetters.
\ ai ious kinds of torture of the hands, feet, ancles, &c.
aie made use of to extort evidence or confession; but it
is not permitted to put the question by torture to those
who belong to any of the eight privileged classes, in con¬
sideration of the respect due to their character; nor to
those, who have attained their seventieth year, in consi¬
deration of their advanced age ; nor to those who have not
exceeded their fifteenth year, out of indulgence to their
tender youth ; nor, lastly, to those who labour under any
permanent disease or infirmity, out of commiseration for
their situation and sufferings. The eight privileged orders
spring out of, 1. imperial blood and connections; 2. long
service; 3. illustrious actions; 4. extraordinary wisdom ;
5. great abilities; 6. zeal and assiduity; 7. nobility of
the first, second, and third rank; 8. birth; all of which,
excepting the first, seventh, and eighth, have not, in fact,
any existence. Their chief privilege consists in not being
liable to be tried for any offence, without a specification of
the crime being laid before the emperor, and his express
commands issued for that purpose.
There are five degrees of punishment.
The first degree is a moderate correction inflicted with
the lesser bamboo, “ in order that the transgressor of the
law may entertain a sense of shame for his past, and re¬
ceive a salutary admonition with respect to his future con¬
duct.” This correction extends from ten to fifty blows ;
the first, in practice, reduced to four by the emperor’s
grace; the last never exceeds twenty blows.
The second class of punishments extends from sixty to
a hundred blows, of which from twenty to forty are ac¬
tually inflicted.
The third division is that of temporary banishment to
any distance not exceeding 500 lee (about 150 miles),
“ with the view of affording opportunity of repentance and
amendment;” and it extends from one to three years’ ba¬
nishment.
The fourth degree of punishment is that of perpetual
banishment, which is reserved for the more considerable
offences, and extends to the distance of 2000, and even
3000 lee, with 100 blow’s of the bamboo.
The fifth and ultimate punishment which the laws or¬
dain is death, either by strangulation or decollation.
At the head of the code are placed ten offences of a
treasonable nature:—1. Rebellion, defined an attempt to
violate the divine order of things on earth; 2. Disloyalty,
556
CHINA.
China.
an attempt to destroy the imperial palaces, temples, or
tombs ; 3. Desertion to a foreign power; 4. Parricide, or
the murder of parents, uncle, aunt, grandfather, or grand¬
mother • 5. Massacre, or the murder of three or more per¬
sons in one family ; 6. Sacrilege, or stealing from the tem¬
ples any sacred article, or any thing in the immediate use
of the sovereign ; 7. Impiety, or negligence and disrespect
of parents ; 8. Discord in families, or a breach ot the legal
or natural ties, founded on connections by blood ™
riaee; 9. Insurrection against the magistrates; 10. In¬
cest, or cohabitation of persons related in any of the de¬
crees to which marriage is prohibited. And these crimes
are stated to be placed at the head of the code, from their
beino- of so heinous a kind, that, when the offence is capital,
it is exempted from the benefit of any act of general pardon,
and that the people may learn to dread and avoid them.
Offences committed by officers of government, which,
in ordinary cases, are punishable by the bamboo, are corn-
mutable for fine or degradation, according to the number
of blows to which they are nominally liable. Thus, if pub¬
licly offending, instead of sixty blows, they forfeit a year s
salary • and instead of a hundred, lose four degrees of rank,
and are removed from their situation. If the offence be
of a private nature, the punishment is doubled. Ihe only
male descendant of parents or grand-parents, who are aged
and infirm men. if his age exceeds seventy, and youths
under sixteen, are entitled to the indulgence of commut¬
ing the punishment awarded by law. Women, too, may
have the sentence of banishment remitted, on payment of
a fine; and when convicted of offences punishable with
the bamboo, “ they are permitted to retain a single upper
garment while the punishment is inflicted, except m cases
of adultery, when they shall be allowed the lower garment
The following table exhibits a scale of pecuniary re¬
demption, in cases not legally excluded from the benefit
of general acts of grace and pardon. They are not neces¬
sarily redeemable; but, by edict of Kien-lung, may be made
so upon petition.
There is every reason to believe that these pecuniary
commutations of banishments bring considerable sums into
Chj. j
Hank of the Party offending.
Sentence.
An officer above the 4th rank '
 of the 4th rank 
 of the 5th or 6th rank
 of the 7th or any in- ,
ferior rank, or a doctor of li¬
terature 
A graduate or licentiate 
A private individual  
An officer above the 4th rank '
 of the 4th rank 
 of the 5th or 6 th rank
of the 7th or any in-
Pecuni-
ary Com¬
muta¬
tion .
Death by
strangula¬
tion pr de¬
collation.
ferior rank, or a doctor of li¬
terature  
A graduate or licentiate 
A private individual    
An officer above the 4th rank
  of the 4th rank 
 of the 5th or 6 th rank
of the 7 th or any in¬
ferior rank, or a doctor of li¬
terature  
A graduate or licentiate 
A private individual.
Perpetual
banishment.
Temporary
banishment,
or blows
with the
bamboo.
Oz. of Silv.
12,000
5000
4000
2500
2000
1200
7200
3000
2400
1500
1200
720
4800
2000
1600
1000
800
480
the treasury. .
The Ta-tsing-leu-lee embraces an epitome of the whole
system of government, and of civil and criminal jurispru¬
dence. Besides the introductory part, which contains a
general view of the laws, the code consists of six princi¬
pal divisions, corresponding with the six supreme boards
or departments by which the general administration ot the
empire is conducted. Thus, the first division of the code
relates to that part of the civil law which falls under the
cognizance of the Lee-pou, or the department which ex-
amines candidates for employment, and nominates to &p-
pointments, subject to the approbation of the emperoi.
This division consists of two chapters ; the first defining
the duties and regulating the offices of the seveial magis¬
trates, the rule of hereditary succession, and the penalties
attached to malversation. The second book relates chief¬
ly to the conduct of the provincial magistrates. Tire ca¬
pital offences classed under this division are, great officers
of state presuming to confer appointments by their own
authority, and without the sanction of the emperor; undue
solicitation of hereditary honours; all cabals and state in-
trigues among the officers of government; collusion be¬
tween the provincial magistrates and the officers of the
court; addressing the emperor in favour of any great of¬
ficer of state, which is construed into a treasonable com¬
bination, subversive of legitimate government; destroying
edicts or seals of office ; all of which, however, fall within
the class of redeemable punishments, which are not exclud¬
ed from any general act of grace or pardon.
The second division of the code relates to the fiscal laws,
which are placed under the cognizance of the Hoo-pou, or
financial department. They are various, and relate, I. io
the enrolment of the people, personal service, levying ot
taxes, punishment of persons deserting their families, care
of the aged and infirm. 2. The law of holding, mort-
o-aging, selling, &c. lands and tenements. 3. Regulations
respecting marriages and divorces. 4. Respecting public
property, the coinage, the revenue, the public stores. .
Duties and customs, smuggling, false manifests, &c. •
Private property, the law of usury, of trusts, o.c. •
regulations concerning sales and markets; monopolizing
and fraudulent traders; false weights, measures, and scales;
manufactures not conformable to the fixed.standard, •
The section concerning marriages and divorces is Proug
under this division of the code for no other reason, i wou
seem, than to regulate the descent and distribution of p -
perty. The law allows seven justifiable causes of d^e -
1. Barrenness; 2. lasciviousness; 3. neglect of her
band’s parents; 4. talkativeness; 5 thievish F0?^8’
6. envious and jealous temper; 7. inveterate infirmity.
But, in spite of any or all these causes, a vv ife Cc
divorced if she can plead any of the three pase® ’ ' . 2
ing mourned three years for her husband s parents
her husband having become rich since the im
marriage; 3. the wife having no parents living
heThe Le-pou, or board of rites and ceremonies, takes ^
nizance of all offences committed under the tfnr^ and
I of the code, which is subdivided into two section ,
relates, 1. To the sacred rites ; the adrainistration ot ^
prescribed ritual; the care ot altars, sacied _ ’iead-
the tombs ; unlicensed forms of worship ; magicians ,iea
ers of sects; and teachers of false doctrines. •
cellaneous observances respecting the palaces, A.
ror, his equipage, and furniture; to the
and days of ceremony; sumptuary laws rJlat've es;
and habitations ; celestial observations and appca
regulations for funerals and country festivals.
hina.
-y-<.
C H I
The fourth division contains the laws by which the mi-
' litary are governed, the direction and superintendence of
which are placed under the department of state called the
Ping-pou. It consists of five sections. The first relates
to the protection of the palace, and of course to the per¬
son of the emperor; the duties of the imperial guards •
examination of passports, &c. The second is entitled the
government of the army, and may be considered as the
mutiny act, or articles of war, of China. Every neglect
of duty, disobedience of orders, and want of discipline;
fraud, embezzlement, desertion, are punished with extreme
severity; and many of the offences herein specified are
capital. The third section relates to the protection of the
frontier, a most important consideration with this suspi¬
cious government; the fourth prescribes regulations re¬
specting the horses and cattle belonging to the army; the
fifth for the expresses and government posts, the post-
horses, messengers, and horses employed in the convey¬
ance of dispatches. J
The fifth division contains the code of criminal law ad¬
ministered by the Hing-pou or criminal tribunal, which
supplies the judges or assessors to all the other depart¬
ments. It consists of eleven sections. The first, entitled
robbery ayid theft, awards punishments for every species of
lobbeiy or theft that could well be devised; extortin0-
property by threats; obtaining it under false pretences ;
kidnapping and selling free persons as slaves ; disturbing
graves, Arc. . dhe second relates to homicide, and may be
considered as a most singular, if not successful, attempt
to discriminate the exact proportion of guilt, for the same
offence, in different persons, or different degrees of of¬
fence in the same person, according to the situation and
cii cumstances of the offending parties. In every case of
preconcerted homicide, the original contriver is condemn¬
ed to die by decapitation, the accessaries by strangula¬
tion ; accessaries to the intention, but not to the fact,
are punishable with one hundred blows and perpetual
banishment. Those who murder, with intent to rob, are
beheaded, without distinction between principals and ac¬
cessaries. Parricide subjects all parties to suffer death by
a slow and painful execution ; the attempt to commit par-
licide is death by decapitation. . Slaves attempting to
murder, or actually murdering their masters, are liable to
the same punishment. A husband may kill his wife if
caugnt in the act of adultery, and also her paramour; and
a thief may be put to death if taken in the act of robbing
a house ; but, in either case, it w'ould be murder if put to
deatu after being seized. 'Ihe preparing of poisons, and
rearing of venomous animals, are capital offences. Practi-
tioneis of physic, or barbers (for they have no surgeons),
. 0 puncture with the needle, giving drugs, or perform¬
ing operations contrary to the established rules and prac¬
tice, and thereby killing the patient, are guilty of homi¬
cide ; but, if proved to have been merely an error in judg¬
ment, the offence is redeemable by fine, but the doctor
and the barber must quit their professions for ever; if the
medicines, however, were given intentionally to kill or in-
juie the patient, the practitioner must suffer death by deca¬
pitation. All persons guilty of killing in an affray, though
without any express or implied design to kill, whether the
lowbe given with the hand or the foot, with a metal weapon
or instrument of any kind, shall suffer death by strangula-
lon. There is. a clause, however, by which any person
1 lnS another in play, by error, or purely by accident,
may be permitted to redeem himself from the punish¬
ment of killing or wounding in an affray, by the payment
0 a fine to the family of the deceased person; but the
c^.se uf pure accident is very carefully defined and exem-
P 1 cd. It must be one “ of which no sufficient previous
warning could be given, either directly, by the perception
N A.
of sight and hearing, or indirectly, by the inferences drawn
trom judgment and reflection.”
. ^ tlie third section, entitled “ quarrelling and fmht-
ing, there is a minute and circumstantial detail of blows
given under every conceivable case and situation, and in
every possible relation in which the parties could stand
towards each other. It fixes the periods of responsibility
tor the consequences of a wound; it awards the penalty
of death on a slave who shall strike his master; on a son
who shall strike his father or mother; on a grandson who
shall strike his paternal grandfather or grandmother; on
a wife who shall strike her husband’s father, mother, pa¬
ternal grandfather or grandmother; but if a father, mother,
paternal grandfather, or grandmother, shall chastise a dis¬
obedient child or grandchild in a severe and uncustomary
manner, so that he or she dies, the party so offending shall
be punished only with one hundred blows, which, in reali¬
ty, are no more than forty; and when any of the afore¬
said relations are guilty of killing such disobedient child
or grandchild designedly, the punishment shall be extend¬
ed to sixty blows and one year’s banishment. A parent
may, at any time, sell his children, with the exception only
to strolling players and professors of the magic art. This
distmction which the law makes between the parent and
c md, and the almost unlimited authority which is given
to the former over the latter, would lead one to conclude,
that, if the. crime of infanticide be not sanctioned, it is at
least connived at, by the government. There is every
reason, however, to believe that the extent of it has been
grossly exaggerated, and that the greater part of infants
taken up in the streets of large cities by the police have
died in the birth, and been laid out to avoid the expense
of burial; or been exposed alive, with the view of their
being taken care of as adopted children, or conveyed to
hospitals for the reception of deserted children.
In the cases above stated, the child murdered is sup¬
posed to have been disobedient, which is a crime of the
deepest dye, as affecting the principle on which the whole
system of government is founded; but, from section 294,
it is evident that killing a son, grandson, or slave, under
any circumstances, with the aggravation of imputing his
death to an innocent person, is not a capital offence.
Whoever is guilty of killing his son, his grandson, or his
slave, and attributing the crime to another person, shall
be punished with seventy blows, and one and a half year’s
banishment.” But “ a child or grandchild who is guilty
of addressing abusive language to his or her father or mo-
ther, paternal grandfather or grandmother; a wife who is
guilty of addressing abusive language to her husband’s
father or mother, paternal grandfather or grandmother,
shall, in every case, suffer death, by being strangled.”
I hey must, however, themselves complain, and them¬
selves have heard the abusive language. In like manner,
a. slave is liable to capital punishment for addressing abu¬
sive language to his master.
I he fifth book relates to indictments and informations
of all kinds ; the sixth to cases of bribery and corruption,
and seems to contain provisions against bribery in almost
every shape which it can be supposed to assume. It is not
easy, however, to reconcile these apparent appropriate pro¬
visions with that systematic corruption which, under the
less odious name of presents, is prevalent in every depart¬
ment, of the administration of public affairs and public jus¬
tice in China. There is a scale of punishment for the
value of the bribe received, from one ounce of silver to 120
and upwards; the first entailing sixty blows, the last
death by strangulation, when the object is in itself law¬
ful ; but, if unlawful, an ounce of silver incurs seventy
blows ; and eighty ounces and upwards, death by strangu¬
lation. I hat they all take bribes is well known; yet it
557
China.
558
CHINA,
China.
appears by a note in the original (Leu-lee'), that, in the
thirty-third year of Kien-lung, a governor of a city in the
province of the capital was tried, and sentenced to suftei
death, for taking a bribe of 7000 ounces of silver to stop
proceedings in a case of disorderly conduct and contempt
of court; though, finding himself unable to accomplish
the object, he had returned the money. In like manner,
there are so many provisions against extortions and cor¬
rupt practices on the part of great officers of state and
their families, that it might be supposed no such prac¬
tices could exist. The last section of this book is curious,
as affording a proof of the care with which the imperial
prerogative is fenced round. “ All military officers of
government, whether stationed at court or in the pi evin¬
ces, are prohibited from receiving presents of gold, silver,
silk-stuffs, clothes, wages, or board-wages, from indivi¬
duals in any of the three principal ranks of hereditary no¬
bility” (mostly related to the I'oyal family and othei I ar-
tar chieftains). Any breach of this law deprives them
of their rank and employment, and renders them, moie-
over, liable to the punishment of one hundred blows, and
remote perpetual banishment. The second offence of this
kind is capital. . ,
The seventh book awards punishment for frauds and
forgeries, falsification of the imperial seal or imperial al¬
manac, counterfeiting the current coin of the realm, se¬
ducing persons to transgress the laws, &c. I he eighth is
entitled incest and adultery. Criminal intercourse with an
unmarried woman, though by mutual consent, is punish¬
able with seventy blows; with a married woman eighty
blows; deliberate intrigue with either, with one hundred
blows; a rape with death by strangulation; and criminal
intercourse with a girl under twelve years of age is pu¬
nishable as a rape. Adultery with the wife of any civil
or military officer is death ; but civil or military officers
committing adultery with the ivife of a private individual
is degradation, one hundred blows, and wearing the cangue
for a month. In all ordinary cases of adultery among the
people, the punishment is one hundred blows,. and the
cangue for a month. An unnatural crime forcibly com¬
mitted, or committed on boys, is punishable as a rape;
but by mutual consent the parties are punishable only
with one hundred blows, and the cangue for a month.
In all cases of criminal intercourse, the law is more se¬
vere towards the woman than the man, and towaids sla\es
than freemen. All civil or mditary officers of govern¬
ment, and the sons of those who possess hereditary rank,
who shall frequent the company of prostitutes and actres¬
ses, shall be punished with sixty blows ; which is, in fact,
no punishment at all, as the blows, in reality, are reduced to
twenty, and redeemable for a mere nominal sum, not ex¬
ceeding tw'o or three shillings.
The ninth book is entitled miscellaneous offences,
among which is that of gaming; any person convicted of
which is punishable with eighty blows. Tet in every
street and corner, and in the very temples, the lowest of
the people may be seen daily, and every hour of the day,
playing at cards, dice, or a sort of game resembling chess.
Accidental incendiaries are flogged and fined, according
to the consequences of the fire they have occasioned; and
wilful incendiaries are punished with death, provided it be
proved that the fire was occasioned with a view of plunder.
Stage-players and musicians are prohibited from represent¬
ing emperors, empresses, famous princes, ministers, and ge¬
nerals of former ages, on pain of receiving one hundred
blows for every breach of this law. Tet, as these are the
favourite and most usual exhibitions, it may be presumed
that this law is obsolete. There is, indeed, a saving
clause, which says that, “ by this law, it is not intended
to prohibit the exhibition on the stage of fictitious cha¬
racters of just and upright men, of chaste wives, and pious China,
and obedient children ; all which may tend to dispose the
minds of the spectators to the practice of virtue.”
The tenth and eleventh sections contain regulations
with regard to arrests and escapes, imprisonment, judg¬
ment, and execution. n Kiou' " 1 j"
The sixth and last division contains the laws and regu¬
lations respecting the public works, which are placed un¬
der the superintendence of the department of state called
the Cong-poo, or board of public works. It has only two
sections ; the first relating to public buildings, and the se¬
cond to the public roads. From the first it appears, that this
board has also the superintendence of the public manu¬
factures of the state, such as military weapons, silks,
stuffs, porcelain, &e.; and that if any private individual
be convicted of manufacturing for sale, silks, satins, gau¬
zes, or other stuffs of this nature, according to the prohi¬
bited pattern of the lung (dragon), or the fung-whang
(phoenix), he shall incur the penalty of one bundled blows,
and the goods so manufactured be forfeited to the state.
This book, and the next, concerning the keeping in repair
of the public roads, embankments, and bridges, contain a
number of regulations and petty penalties for neglect and
malversation, that are beneath the dignity of legislation,
and fitted rather for the subjects of deliberation in a pa¬
rish vestry. Indeed, the whole body of Chinese law,
civil and criminal, consists of such minute meddling with
all the common concerns of life as to be utterly unfit for
any practical application, except to such mere machines
as the Chinese are, for whom it seems to be admnably
suited to answer the intended purpose. Nothing can more
clearly exhibit this great multitude of human beings as an
inert and sluggish mass, without a heart, and without one
single idea of the liberty and independence of the human
mind, than the minute and paltry regulations under which
it has voluntarily submitted to be bound and shackled for
so many thousand years.
After all, there is reason to suspect that this minute
measuring out of punishments by a scale, in order to adapt
them to their respective degrees of criminality, is preg¬
nant with the most gross injustice; and that, wheie so
much pains are ostentatiously displayed to oeal out jus¬
tice by weight and measure, there is so much less of it in
the execution. Many examples might be chec* ^ con*
firmation of this opinion, but a few will suffice. In t ie
eleventh volume of the Chinese Memoirs, 1 ere Amiot
gives a curious account of a master mason that died by an
accidental blow of the bamboo, while under a flogging by
order of an officer of the household of a prince of the blood,
whose house he was rebuilding in Pekm. As culpable
homicide is death by the law of China, the officer bribed
one of the mason’s labourers, for ten ounces of silver, ana
the promise of a respite, to take the blame on himself, as tne
consequence of a quarrel; and, for three ounces o si v >
two or three of the labourers were to give evidence to tbat
effect. The man was tried, and condemned to suffer deat
on the day of general execution in autumn. On the morn¬
ing of that day, or the evening preceding, it is the custom,
it seems, to bring up all the prisoners under se.nten^ (?
death to be interrogated by the co-laos, or principa
sters of the crown ; and, on this occasion, the heai
bricklayer’s labourer failing him, he discovered the whole
transaction. The offending officer was immediately tried,
and, coupling his original offence with the agS^d°ne
of exposing an innocent person to suffer death, wa
tenced to die by a slow and painful execution. Nor
this all; the judges and assessors of the ^ho h d
originally tried the offence, were each degraded o .g
and mulcted of their salary and emoluments,
given by Fere Amiot as an instance of Chinese jus
CHINA.
t'hina.
but it tells as strongly the other way; for, if such gross
iniquity, committed in open day, and in the presence of a
multitude, was thus connived at at the very fountain-head,
what may not be expected at a distance, w here the stream
is still more muddy ? That government can have no high
notions of justice or morality which winks at, and some¬
times encourages a criminal to find a substitute, even when
the punishment is death. Many of the servants of the
East India Company can testify, from their own personal
knowledge, to the truth of the severe remark of Pauw 
“ Le juge veut faire une execution, et il lui faut un pa¬
tient; or il prend celui qui se pr£sente.” In the case
of an English seaman, tried for the murder of a Chinese,
when they failed in their endeavours to procure a black
slave, or a criminal of Macao, or a sick person on the
point of death, to execute,—not to satisfy justice, for it
was an accidental death in a scuffle, but to satisfy the
criminal court of Pekin, to which they had unluckily for
themselves appealed; they had recourse to one of the
meanest and most paltry expedients that ever disgraced a
civilized government. “ All the proceedings,” says Sir
G. Staunton, “ were founded on a story fabricated for the
purpose; a story in which the Europeans did not con¬
cur, though asserted to have done so; which, in fact, the
Chinese magistrates themselves, or the merchants under
their influence, invented; which the Chinese witnesses,
knowing to be false, adopted; and which, lastly, the sove¬
reign himself appears to have acquiesced in without exa¬
mination.” Under such a government, the laws are either
a dead letter, or may be so perverted that, under their
sanction, the innocent may be made to suffer, and the
guilty escape punishment.
In addition to all this, that horrible system of visiting
the crimes of the guilty upon the heads of the innocent,
which pervades all the despotic governments of the East,
is also practised in China, in all cases of rebellion and
treason ; though it is not carried so far as among the Hin¬
dus, who, not content with cutting off a whole family,
swept away whole towns and villages in which treason had
appeared, as a terrible example to prevent other villages
from harbouring traitors. Such are the dreadful effects
of despotism, and the miseries inflicted on innocent fami¬
lies, where the people have no voice in the government;
such a government is always more ready to punish than
to protect. (Ta-tsing-leu-lee, translated by Sir G. Staun¬
ton.)
The condemned criminals for ordinary offences are kept
in prison till autumn, when they are all executed in every
part of the empire on a particular day. In general, the
prisons are described as spacious, neat, and clean. Nava¬
rette, who was himself confined in one of them, says that
they have large airy courts for the prisoners in the day¬
time; that overseers are always present to quell any noise
or disturbance; and that they contain temples for the
priests to resort to. The priests, he says, make a harvest
m the prisons, as those whose trials were pending were
constantly consulting the priests as to the issue, and they
became the more religious, the nearer the day of trial ap¬
proached. Criminals are kept in chains, and always apart;
so are the women kept separate from the men; and the
missionary observed so little gallantry on the part of the
men, that though there were gratings in the doors of the
women s cells, the Chinese never once visited them. A
very different picture, however, is given of the state of
tie prisons, and the prostitution of the females confined
m them, in the province of Canton, from better authority
t an Navarette,—an official report to the emperor on the
state of the prisons. The scenes of depravity therein ex-
ubited are horrible beyond description. (MS. Report.)
I he durability of a system so arbitrary, and an admi¬
nistration so corrupt, is not a little owing to the incessant
and indefatigable vigilance of the police; to the absence
of all political meetings or societies, and of all discussions
respecting public measures; to the gradation of obedience
throughout every class of society, inculcated by precept,
by example, and by the bamboo ; and certainly not a little
to that spirit of national industry, which is the grand pre- *
server of national tranquillity.
It is utterly impossible, from any document that has-,,
appeared of an authentic nature, to form any estimation ofKevt
the amount and value of the revenue. From an extract
of the Y-tung-tche (Encyclopaedia), translated by Dr Mor-
lison, it appears that the annual value of the imports
amounts to about 36,000,000 leang (of 6s. 8d. each), or
L. 12,000,000 sterling; but whether this is exclusive of
the taxes paid in kind to the public granaries and maga¬
zines, or whether these are included in that sum, it is not
stated ; but as the value of money is only about one
fourth pai t of its value in England, fifty millions of money,
m an economical government like this, where the officers
and magistrates are so shamefully paid that they could
not live without robbing the people, may be considered as
an ample revenue for all the necessities of the state. The
largest sum arises from an impost of about one tenth on
the estimated produce of the land; a duty on salt yields
about one fourth of the land-tax; and the customs and
minor taxes make up a sum altogether about equal to that
of the salt-tax. Besides, grain, silks, cottons, and various
manufactures, are paid in kind into the imperial maga¬
zines, and are distributed as clothing to the troops, and in
part payment to the magistrates, and also as presents to
those distinguished by imperial favour, and to foreign am¬
bassadors. A forced loan, never to be repaid, and a ca¬
pitation-tax, the most unjust of all taxes, because the most
unequal, are the odious resources to which the Chinese
government is occasionally compelled to have recourse.
The immense treasures supposed to have been amassed in
Tartary by the reigning dynasty exist only in the imagi¬
nation of the Chinese.
Religion, as a system of divine worship, as piety towards
God, and as holding forth future rewards and punishments, ie ^
can hardly be said to exist among the people. It is here,
at least, neither a bond of union nor a source of dissen¬
sion. They have no sabbatical institution, no congrega¬
tional worship ; no external forms of devotion, of petition,
or thanksgiving, to the Supreme Being; the emperor,—
and he alone, being high priest, and the only individual
who stands between Fleaven and the people, having the
same relation to the former that the latter are supposed
to bear to him,—performs the sacred duties, according to
the ancient ritual, and at certain fixed periods ; but the
people have no concern with them. The emperor alone
officiates at all the solemn ceremonies, for propitiating
Heaven, or expressing a grateful sense of its benefits;
and as “ sacrifices and oblations can only be acceptable to
Heaven when offered up with humble reverence, and a
pure and upright heart,” he prepares himself for such oc¬
casions by fasting and abstinence, and acts of benevolence
and mercy to his subjects.
The equinoxes are the periods when the grand sacrifices
in the temple dedicated to Heaven, within the precincts
of the palace, are offered up; when every kind of business
in the capital, all feasts, amusements, marriages, funerals,
must be suspended during the ceremony, the moment of
which is announced to the people by the tolling of the
great bell in Pekin.
A ridiculous dispute was carried on with great vehe¬
mence between the Jesuits and other sectaries of the Ca¬
tholic religion, whether the emperor did not offer his sa¬
crifices and oblations to Tien as the visible and material
559
China.
CHINA.
heaven, and whether the Chinese were not atheists, at the
head of whom he was the officiating high priest. I here
is not an expression in their ancient book of rites that
warrants such a supposition. rlhe Lee-kee descnbes i
Tien as having neither voice, nor smell, nor tigure, sun-
stance, nor dimensions ; it gives him the attributes of om¬
nipotence, omniscience, and ubiquity, and considers hm
spiritual beings; but they never clothed them in a corpo- China;
real form. In the time of Confucius their temples were s-x
without images; their guardian gods and their evil genii
were mere imaginary beings, to which they neither gave
form nor substance ; but when the priests of Fo found their
entrance into China, they brought with them all the follies
and absurdities of the doctrine of Buddh, and grafted them
nipotence, omniscience, and ubiquity, ana conhiueis*i‘»* on"thT sunerstitions of the Chinese. They filled their
as rewarding the good and punishing t le a , P temples with all manner of images, each having its pecu-
lie calamities are the instruments he employs to exc.te m emp es w.t > a ^ ^ ^ for each
the sovereign, and through him in the people, a reforma
tion of morals. The names by which the sovereign power
is known in their writings are, the illustnou
heaven ; Chang-tee, the Supreme Ruler ; Tien-tee, heaven
and earth; Che-chung, the first and the last (Alpha and
Omega); root and branch. When the Jesuits
asked the Emperor Kaung-hee, whether the sacrifices
were made to the Sovereign Lord of heaven, the author
and preserver of all things; whether the ceremonies m
the hall dedicated to Confucius were in honour of his
memory as a benefactor to his country ; and whether the
rites observed towards ancestors in the hall dedicated to
them, w'ere merely to show respect and gratitude . —
Kaung-hee replied, that they comprehended very wed
the Chinese religion; but the prayer of Kaung-hee, befoie
going into battle, and published in the Pekm Gazette,
might have satisfied the most scrupulous. “ Sovereign
Lord of heaven, the Supreme Ruler, receive my homage,
and grant protection to the humblest of thy subjects.
With respectful confidence, I invoke thy aid in a war
which I am compelled to wage. Thou has heaped on
me thy favours, and hast distinguished me by thy special
protection. A people without number acknowledges my
power. I adore in silent devotion thy manifold kindnesses,
but know not how to manifest the gratitude which I feel.
The desire of my heart is to give to my people, and toilet
strangers enjoy, the blessings of peace ; but the enemy has
put an end to this my most cherished hope. I rostrate
before thee, I implore thy succour, and, in making this
humble oblation, I am animated with the hope of obtain¬
ing thy signal favour. My only wish is to procure a last¬
ing peace throughout the immense region over which thou
hast set me.” (Hist. Gen. de la Chine, tom. n.) The in-
liar virtues and peculiar influences, and levied for each
a tax on the credulity of the people. In some of these
temples are not fewer than three hundred sainted peison-
ageS)—monstrous figures, as large as, and frequently many
times larger than, human beings. Their bells and their
beads, and burning of incense and tapers,—their images
and their altars,—their singing and processions, were well
calculated to seduce the populace, who had no outward
forms of any religion. So strong was the resemblance of
the interior of a temple of Fo, the dress of the priests,.
and the ceremonies of devotion, to those of the church of
Rome, that one of the Catholic missionaries says, it seem¬
ed as if the devil had run a race with the Jesuits to Chi¬
na, and having got the start of them, had contrived these
things for their mortification.
The Tao-tse are of Chinese origin, and sprung up un¬
der the very nose of Confucius, 1500 years nearly before
Christ. Their tenets resemble those of Epicurus; they
pretend to magic and alchemy, to consult oiacles, and to
deal with demons ; and they keep old women, who aie re¬
garded as a kind of witches. The priests of Fo came from
Upper India into China, by invitation from a weak empe¬
ror, between the 60th and 70th year of the Christian era.
Their tenets resemble the Pythagorean. They kill no
living animal, and eat no animal food, lest they might par¬
take of a relation or friend, whose soul had taken up its
abode in the animal; and they believe that the human sou ,
in its transmigration through an infinity of corporeal exist¬
ences, becomes purified and perfect, and at length is re¬
united to the Deity, from whom it originally emanated.
They consider the consummation of felicity to consist in
the annihilation or total suspension of every faculty ot
the soul, leaving a void for that of Fo to occupy. Arrived
llg tV V WAV*. * W* “     *■ * .
Hast sec me. ^c.». -o — —  st.„p.e tiie devotee soon dies from exhaustion and
iPSP**?. °rC^d0£S/want of food; hit body is burnt, the asl.» put into eight
urns, upon which a tower of nine roofs and eight apa tments
is built, and an urn placed in each apartment; and this is
said to have been the origin of the numerous tall pagodas
that appear in every part of China. It is pure Shamanism,
which may be traced from the Caspian Sea to JaPan ’ f™
the Saghalien Oula to the Persian Gulf. The priests pio-
fess the most sublime notions of virtue, and many of the
are said to practise the most refined pmty; prayers, fast¬
ings, austere and rigorous punishments for the sins o
others ; chastity, abstinence, penitence, contempt of bod ly
suffering, to secure for the indestructible soul a better
abode in the circle of its transmigrations.
Some of the Catholic missionaries, however, have re¬
presented the priests of Fo as living in all ™ann^ f „
and luxury; but the testimony of unprejudiced travelers
is against them, and even several of the Jesults P
highly in their favour, saying that, m their moral doc
trines, there is little to reprehend; that they inculcate
benevolence, humility, reciprocal kindness, command^
the passions, and tenderness towards the brute pa f t
creation. But it may be questioned whether the pnests
of Fo or Tao-tse act upon any fixed principles, bom
them, for instance, refuse to drink wine, others to eat g
he and onions; some practise celibacy, and profess p
petual continence; others have several wives and cmic
bines. It is quite certain that neither of them are mu
‘‘"fo the only true God,” &c. written with Kaung-hee s
own hand, affords further proof of his sentiments respect¬
ing the Deity. .
All ranks, however, from the emperor downwards, are
full of absurd superstitions. The imagination of untu¬
tored man, not easily comprehending a power so almighty
and universal, created a number of inferior spiritual beings
as the harbingers and agents of his will; and these sp|ri"
tual agents, which the Chinese call Quei-shin, aie invism e
attenuated beings, some white and good, the advocates of
men, others black and wicked, the punishers of sin; and
these “ illustrious subjects of the Great Ruler” are sup¬
posed to preside over the five seasons of the year, ovei
mountains and rivers, over the hearth and the door of
the house, and influence all the concerns of men. io
these spirits certain duties are prescribed, and certain
oblations offered ; the men usually bring wine, the women
tea; but these are private ceremonies and heartless du¬
ties; the devotion of religion was totally wanting; and in
such a state it was not surprising that the doctrines and
the practices of the sects of Iao~tse and of Fo should cap¬
tivate the vulgar, and seduce them to a religion that spoke
more strongly to the senses. It would seem, indeed, that
the establishment of some popular religion is unavoidable,
and that of Fo may, on this ground, be encouraged by the
government, though it derives little or no support from
it. The ancient religion of China entertained the idea of
CHIN A.
iina. respected by the government. Their protection or per-
secution depends on the caprice or feeling of the ruling
sovereign. At one time we find their temples demolished,
the materials employed for the public buildings, the bells
and brazen statues melted down into money, and the
priest, by an imperial edict, reduced to the rank of the
people. One emperor persecutes the Ho-chang of Fo, and
encourages the Tao-tse. He drinks the beverage of im¬
mortality, and dies soon after; his successor eradicates
the Tao-tse for poisoning the sovereign, and sanctions the
worship of Fo. At present the number of temples dedi¬
cated to Fo, and of the priests attached to them, is incal¬
culable. They not only occur in every city, town, and
village, but are erected on a small scale in private houses,
in which priests are employed, though not generally, to
instruct the children of the family. One emperor ob¬
served that there were not fewer than 100,000 priests of
Fo, and as many priestesses; and that the wisest policy
would be to make them marry and get children for the
good of the state ; that a religion which imposed restraint
on the natural passions given to man was undeserving of
any regard. No temple can be built without special per¬
mission ; and they are always used for state purposes by
the officers of government, for foreign ambassadors, &c.
in their journeying through the country.
The Christian missionaries are exposed to the same ca¬
pricious conduct; caressed at one time, persecuted at an¬
other. One emperor gives them money towards building
churches, and the same emperor converts these into pub¬
lic granaries and public schools. In the year 1747 five
missionaries were beheaded in Fokien, and two Jesuits
strangled in the same year in Kiang-nan, all of which was
done according to the law, which says that the chief of
any sect who seduces the people from their duties, under
religious pretences, shall be strangled.
The people are ready enough to embrace any of these
religions; but the emperor and his court, and all the offi¬
cers and magistrates, adhere to the ancient religion, as
laid down by Confucius, though there is an obvious lean¬
ing of the present Tartar dynasty towards that of Fo or
Buddh, which is that of the Lamas of Thibet. The great
temple at Gehol, the summer residence of the Tartar so¬
vereigns now on the throne, is named Poo-ta-la (Buddh-
laya), the residence of Buddh ; but ostensibly he professes
and performs the rites of the ancient religion of China;
and, at the appointed times, in the capacity of high priest,
testifies his gratitude to heaven by offering up the fruits
of the earth, and the flesh of certain animals considered
as the most useful, as the horse, the ox, the sheep, the hog,
the dog, and the domestic fowl. At such times all labour
is suspended, the public offices and courts of justice are
shut up, and a general festival prevails throughout the
whole empire. The vernal ceremony of the emperor hold¬
ing the plough, is rarely had recourse to in modern times.
The magistrates perform their devotions in the temple or
hall dedicated to Confucius; and the usual oblation to his
memory is that of a hog, as being the most useful animal
known. The ceremonies are performed before a tablet
placed on a pedestal, on which is written the name of the
philosopher; and at the foot of the pedestal a grave is
dug to receive the hair and offals of the animal, in order
that no part of it may fall to unworthy purposes. To this
temple every magistrate, on entering upon his office, goes
with his official brethren, and, in their presence, after the
usual homage to the emperor, professes himself a grateful
adherent of the doctrines of the illustrious master, which
ceremony amounts to the taking of the oaths of fidelity and
allegiance to the sovereign. Pere Intorcetta, in his trea¬
tise Cultu Sinensi, has translated the whole ceremony
from a Chinese author. It is very curious, and bears a
VOL. VI.
marked resemblance to the Catholic ceremony of high
mass. They burn incense, pour out libations of wine,
chant solemn hymns, accompanied with instruments, read
aloud a panegyric on his memory, prostrate themselves
before the tablet; and then proceed to feast on the obla¬
tions, and to drink each of the “ cup of felicity.” (Intor¬
cetta de Cultu Sinensi.)
The common festival of all savage nations is the time
of full moon; and the common people of China are still
barbarous enough to hold this festival, by keeping up a
noise and riot the whole night. But the grand festival in
which all China partakes is that of the new year, when
families visit each other, exchange mutual compliments
and presents, and abstain from all labour for several days.
Every Chinese, however poor, contrives at this time to
treat himself and his family with new dresses. His house
is newly painted; and tablets of paper, variously shaped,
adorn the w'alls of his apartments. On new-year’s day
every Chinese strictly watches his own conduct, and every
thing that befals him, being persuaded that whatever
he does on that day will influence his conduct during the
whole year. An universal holiday prevails; all labour is
suspended ; and nothing but feasting, rejoicing, music, and
firing of crackers, prevail, from the midnight preceding
the first day of their new year to the ninth day following.
During this period all is joy and festivity ; yet, in this gene¬
ral scene of mirth and conviviality, to the credit of the Chi¬
nese it ought to be noticed, that instances of intemperance
or inebriety rarely occur.
The festival of the new year is followed by another of
a similar kind, which is called the festival of the lanterns.
It commences two days before, and continues two days
after, the first full moon of the new year. All China is
then in a blaze. Every house and every village, all the
shipping on the canals and rivers, every Chinese, however
poor, contrives to light up his painted lantern on these
days. Transparencies in the shapes of birds, beasts, fishes,
and all kinds of animals, are seen darting through the air,
and contending with each other; some with squibs in
their mouths, breathing fire, and others with crackers in
their tails; some sending out sky-rockets, and others ris¬
ing into pyramids of party-coloured fire ; and others again
bursting like a mine with violent explosions. A Chinese
knows not why, nor makes any inquiries wherefore these
things are; it is an ancient custom, and that is enough
for him. The inscriptions on these lanterns w-ould seem
to point out its religious origin. The most common runs
thus, Tien-tee, San-Sheai, Van-lin, Chin-tsai, “ Oh, hea¬
ven, earth, the three limits, and thousand intelligences,
hail! ” (Barrow’s Travels in China ; Macartney’s Jour¬
nal; Du Halde and Grozier.)
The basis, however, of the ancient Chinese religion,
and which forms as it were the link that connects- it with
the government, is the obedience which children owe
to their parents, and the respect which is due from the
young to the aged, and from the living to the dead, in
the strict observance of which all other virtues are con¬
centrated ; for these are not to be considered as moral du¬
ties only, but as political and religious ordinances. Every
family of condition endeavours to build a temple to the
memory of its ancestors ; and all persons not lost to every
sense of duty and devotion visit the tombs of their pa¬
rents on a certain day in the spring of the year. Never
were institutions more innocent in their intention, more
blameless in practice, more amiable in their object, or
better calculated to produce beneficial results, by recall¬
ing pleasing recollections, subduing the passions, and
bringing the mind to that calm and tranquil state to which
the memory of departed parents usually disposes it. The
love and tenderness of departed parents are among the
4 B
561
China.
562
China.
CHINA.
best impressions of the human mind; “ Bind them, says
Solomon, “ continually about thine heart; yet the bi¬
goted Dominicans quarrelled with the Jesuits for allow¬
ing their Neophytes to honour the memory of departed
relations. They represented it as a crime to pluck away
the grass and weeds that might have grown around a pa¬
rent’s tomb, and to scatter flowers on a relation s grave;
to meet together, and regale themselves with those dam-
lestial, terrestrial, and infernal. They reckon seven ruling Chin;
powers—the sun, moon, and five planets; nine is as efli-
cient and mysterious a number as among the Hindus;
but five appears to be the number which is supposed to
exert the most extensive influence. The five great vir¬
tues frequently spoken of in the ancient classical books are,
charity, justice, good manners, prudence, fidelity. Ihey
reckon five domestic spirits ; five elements ; five primitive
to meet together, ami rega e themselves w.tn tnose ua - wi,ich are>e pre¬
ties of which the deceased -ud have been taker .f points „f the c'ompU
alive; fulfilling thus the precept of Confucius, which in¬
culcates the same respect to the dead as if they were
living. To support his parents while alive, to bury them
decently when dead, to visit their graves at the appointed
time, are three indispensable duties of a pious son, by which
he proves his gratitude, his sorrow, and his veneration.
There are few families of which some member, in a se¬
ries of years, has not risen to rank and fortune. Such a
one is particularly careful, in obedience to the precept
in the ancient book of rites (Lee-kee), before he builds a
palace, to erect a temple to the memory of his ancestors.
To this temple, at particular seasons, all the branches ot
the family repair together, old and young, rich and poor,
high and low, the first officer in the state and the day-
labourer. Here all distinction for the time is laid aside,
save that of age, which is always reverenced ; and he over
whose head has passed the greatest number of years takes
the precedence in making the oblations, and at the sub¬
sequent entertainment given at the expense of the more
wealthy members of the family. From five to ten thou¬
sand persons sometimes meet together on such occasions.
siding spirits; five planets; five points of the compass;
five sorts of earth ; five precious stones ; five degrees of
punishment; five kinds of dress, &c. (Hist. Gen. de la
Chine ; Mem. Chin.; Intorcetta de Cultu Sinensi; Mor¬
rison’s Diet. &c.)
It is perhaps impossible for the Chinese themselves to Lange;
determine what portion of their present mixed religion
and superstitions belongs to their ancient institutions, and
what has been borrowed from other people. This, how¬
ever, is not the case with their language. Their speech,
and the character in which it is written, have maintained
their primitive purity, and may be considered as exclu¬
sively their own. This language, more than any thing
besides, stamps them as an original people. It has no
resemblance whatsoever to any other language, living or
dead, ancient or modern. It has neither borrowed nor
lent any thing to any other nation or people, now in ex¬
istence, excepting to those who are unquestionably of
Chinese origin. The written character is just now as dis¬
tinct from any alphabetical arrangement, as it was some
thousands of years ago; and the spoken language has not
nd persons sometimes meet together on such occasio . simde step beyond the original meagre and
Whether it be the effect of raperst.t.on or of rea, f ! l»h e.P Our couutrymfn have a? length
ing, or be considered as a religious duty, no people observe
so much external attention to the memory of the dead as
the Chinese. They even move their coffins from the place in
which they have been interred, if the situation be gloomy
or the ground swampy. Everywhere in China may coffins
be seen exposed on the surface of the ground, because the
surviving relation has not been able to fix upon^ a propi-
I'nflexible monosyllable.* Our countrymen have at length
fathomed this hitherto mysterious, and, as it was supposed,
unattainable language, the acquirement ot which had long
set at defiance all the talents and industry of foreigners,
and was said to employ the whole life-time of the natives:
to them it is owing that we are now able to give some in¬
telligible account of it. In fact, those insurmountable dit-
tioiis spot toraise the tomb for its reception. Th“Se S DrMoSJll’as £
fins are generally made of wood sufficiently thick to plan a e in J d dict}onaries of this singular
a first-rate man of war. A Chinese usually keeps his cof¬
fin by him in the house as a piece of furniture. He con¬
templates with pleasure the angusta domus which is to re¬
ceive his last remains, and he tries it on just as he would
try on a new coat. They believe in a future state of re¬
wards and punishments; but their notions on this head
are so va^ue, and mixed up with those of the Buddhists
and Brahmins, that it is difficult to say what were the pre-
Qclulv? lllClLloll V '-/x 1 ^ ^ _
nlied us with grammars and dictionaries of this singular
language. They have not only placed the treasures with¬
in our reach, but given us the key to unlock them, thoug
in an uncouth and unsystematic manner ; a defect, how¬
ever, which has been, in a great measure, remedied by the
labours of others. As the subject is almost new in this
country, we shall endeavour to give as concise and com¬
prehensive a view of it as our limits will admit, and such as
and Brahmins, that it is d.Hicult to say what were the pre- ly” „ect notion „f the singular na-
cise tenets of the ancient sages respecting a future state may not of the written character, but may be
of existence - . , n  ^f„ri,r nt it-.
Among the religious superstitions of the Chinese, part¬
ly native and partly exotic, may be ranked the almost uni¬
versal “observance of lucky and unlucky days, which are
duly registered in the imperial calendar. No marriages,
no funerals, no contracts, in short, nothing of importance,
must be undertaken on an unlucky day. Even his impe¬
rial majesty must be governed in his movements by the
Board of Astronomers. Another universal superstition is
the fung-shui, wind and water, which relates to the exact
line in which the roof of a house must be placed, in order
to preserve its ovrn security and its owners piosperity.
The Chinese conceive that a peculiar virtue resides in the
odd numbers: thus they reckon three powers—heaven,
earth, and man; three lights—the sun, moon, and stars;
the three relations—a prince and his ministers, a father
and son, a husband and wife. Fo has his three precious
ones, and the Tao-tse their three pure ones, in which the
Jesuits discovered the Holy Trinity. I he temples of
these sectaries have three quadrangular courts, the build¬
ings around which contain the three classes ot spirits, ce-
O
lure ciiiu uunoti ^
of some use to those who shall engage in the study o it.
The philologists of China speak ot knotted cords, twist
ed from the inner bark of trees, being made use of origi¬
nally to register events ; but as this period is carried back
to the fabulous part of their history, it only deserves no¬
tice from the remarkable coincidence of a nation having
been discovered many thousand years afterwards on a dif¬
ferent continent, and the antipodes almost of China, who
were actually in the practice of using the same means^
the same purpose. Ihe second step towau s
tion of a written character, by the invention o ft q
or diagrams of Fo-he, is perhaps entitled to as h ^ c
deration as the knotted cords. As a language they mus
have been too complicated, and the supposed use of hem
too refined, for a people in so rude a state as the Ch
represented themselves to have been in t,ietim
chief. It is generally thought that the written characte^
was first suggested in the reign of Hoang-tee, the n
from Fo-he, and that the figures on a tortoise s back .
gave the idea.
D
Dr Morrison says that a person
named
CHINA.
ina. Paou-she, who lived about the year of the world 2900, is
v yV considered as the father of letters, and that nine tenths' of
his characters were hieroglyphic ; he means to say, rude
representations of the thing signified, which, in point of
fact, may be considered as the first attempt of all uncivi¬
lized people to express their ideas to the eye. At a later
period we find several accounts of alterations and new
suggestions in the characters, one making them to imitate
the lines of the dragon, another the flowing lines of worms
and snakes, a third the prints of birds’ feet, a fourth of
leaves, branches, roots, &c.; all of which would appear to
be nothing more than so many attempts to reduce the
rude figures of objects to a more convenient and systema¬
tic form for general utility. Enough still remains on an¬
cient seals, and vases for sacred purposes, to show the ori¬
ginal state, or nearly sq, of the Chinese characters, and to
trace the changes that have taken place from the picture
to the present symbol. These ancient characters are to
be met with in numerous Chinese books; and a collection
of them is contained in Pere Amiot’s Lettre de Pekin,
from which the following are extracted. They are called
the Kou-wen, and are the most ancient characters that
are known.
a dragon, a lion.
an ox.
an elephant. a tortoise*
^Tafish- 'P|^ahouse- r a branch of
a window. ^
a tree.
a bow.
to shoot. A multitude of similar description is
to be found in books of philology, being obviously the
rude representations of the several objects they are meant
to express.
From these rude imitations of objects Chinese writers
trace the progressive steps to a more abbreviated and
convenient form: Thus, Q the sun, is now
J) the moon, now ^a mountain, now Ilj.
a mouth, now J J. |4~| a field, now |-fJ.
a horse, now the eye, now
the ear, now a chariot, now .
a boat, now a sheep, now .
a bow, now ^. The dragon is still a complicated
character and the tortoise
563
The qualities of objects could only be marked down by China,
arbitrary signs or symbols, which, however, when once
settled by convention, were equally expressive with the
pictorial resemblances of those objects. Many modifica¬
tions, however, such, for example, as crooked, straight,
above, below, great, little, &c. were capable of being ex¬
pressed to the eye by particular characters, appropriate
to their modifications.
one> two, _ three, ^ hooked,
) "J covered, sheltered, protected, &c.; but symboli¬
cal representations of this kind could not be sufficiently
numeious to embrace all the qualities and modifications
of objects.
The first attempt at a regular system of classification of
the characters which the Chinese had invented for ex¬
pressing their ideas, is stated to have been that of divid¬
ing them into nine classes, called the Lee-shoo, and after¬
wards into six, called the Lieou-ye.
1st Class contained all those which had been reduced from
the rude picture of the object to a more simple form; as
the sun, moon, a man, a horse.
2d, Ihose which pointed out some property belonging to
the object; as great, small, above, below.
3c?, The combination of two or more simple objects or
ideas to produce a third, resulting from their union.
bth, Those whose names, when sounded, were supposed to
imitate the sound of the objects expressed by them.
bth, Those which give an inversion of the meaning by in¬
verting the character; and all those used in a metapho¬
rical sense.
Qth, This class seems to include all those characters that
are merely arbitrary, and which cannot be brought un¬
der any of the preceding divisions. We shall explain
these classes by examples.
This ill-digested and obscure arrangement was soon
abandoned for another not much better, namely, that of
classing the characters according to their sounds or names.
As these names were all monosyllables, and as each mo¬
nosyllable began with a consonant, with very few excep¬
tions, and ended with a vowel or liquid consonant, the
number of such monosyllables was necessarily very limit¬
ed ; by our alphabet, the whole of them might be express¬
ed in about 330 syllables; but as necessity taught the
Chinese to employ in early life the organs of speech and
hearing, in acquiring a greater nicety than most nations
have any occasion for, they were able to swell the number
of their monosyllables, by means of intonations and accen¬
tuations, to about 1200 or 1300. As soon, therefore, as
the number of characters exceeded the number of words,
it is evident that any verbal arrangement must be attend¬
ed with uncertainty and confusion; if, for instance, they
had 10,000 characters and only 1250 words, the same word
must be applied to eight different characters; and as the
latter now, in Kaung-hee’s Dictionary, exceeds 40,000,
each syllable in the Chinese language must, on an average,
represent thirty-two different characters; and, in point of
fact, there are syllables that give the same name to sixty
or eighty different characters.
It is difficult to conceive, therefore, without the assist¬
ance of an alphabet, how they could possibly contrive to
class the characters in a dictionary according to their
names, and by what means they could ascertain the name
of a character which speaks only to the eye. To discover
this, they seem to have had recourse to three different
methods. The first was to place at the head of a list of cha-
564
China.
'peen, “ convenient,” the key, j jin, “ man,” is
2.
on the left.
tsoo, “ to assdst,” has the key,
right.
lee, on the
4.
5. gai, “ to love,” has its key, sin> in the
tsewi, “ the whole,” has the key, joo, at
the top.
ping, “a soldier,” has the key, fj^pa, at the
bottom.
CHINA.
racters, having the same sounds, some common well-known of the characters into which they may enter, and without Chit
character and to mark them severally with their respec- some one or more of which no character can he formed.
tive^ntonations*.0 ^Hre second Method was that whfch is They will be found to stand more frequently on the left
still used in all their dictionaries. It consists in writing side than on any other part of the character, though they
after the character whose sound is sought for, two com- also take their stations sometimes on the right, sometimes
n on characters, of which the initial sound of the first, add- in the middle, frequently at the top and occasions ly at
ed to the final sound of the latter, produces a third ; as the bottom; but a little practice and a ready knowledge
from the m of moo and’the ing of tsing, is compounded the of these keys will point them out at once. 1 bus, in
third or new monosyllable ming; and, in the same way,
from ting and he would be formed te, &c. The two cha¬
racters, so employed, are called tse-moo, or “ mother cha¬
racters,” and the third produced from them tse, or “ the
child.” The third method was, by means of a modified
Sanscrit alphabet, or series of sounds, which was introdu¬
ced into China since the Christian era, by some priests of
Buddh, “ to give currency,” says one writer, “ to the books
of Fo.” This system is described in the introduction to
Kaung-hee’s Dictionary, though it is never used, and but
very little understood. The Chinese, indeed, reprobate
the' idea of changing their beautiful characters for foreign
systems, unknown to their forefathers. “ It appeans to
me,” says one of their writers, “ that the people of Tsan
(Thibet, from whence they derived the system of initials
and finals) distinguish sounds ; and with them the stress
is laid on the sounds, not on the letters. Chinese distin-
o-uish the characters, and lay the stress on the characters,
not on the sounds; hence in the language of Tsan there
is an endless variety of sound, with the Chinese there is
an endless variety of the character. In Tsan, the prm- middle of the compound.
These symbols are now reduced to a regular and com- the fourth under the// J P
pi etc system, which renders the study of the language fifthunder the ^^ct^noltU is e^mdy simple
comparatively easy. A certain number of characters have Fhis classification of characters is ext e^
been selected, which the Chinese call Tse-poo, “ superin- and easy ; the chief o jec mvimf facility to the
tending or directing characters,” and sometimes Shoo-moo, be, like the Linnaean system, that ° c by t.
or theS“ eyes of The book,” which, considering them as finding in the dictionary the
composing an index to the book, is no bad name. The e . e na Ll . ynd philosophical arrange-
Jesuits have given them the name of kegs, and sometimes of a more beau i , p ’ ‘ 1 nia([e the most ra.
elements or radicals, there being no character in the whole ment, and m,ght> indeed> • by or universal cha-
lano-uage, into the composition of which some one or other tional and complete syste p< g 1 y ,, seem in-
ofthern does not enter. This number, according to the clas- racier that has yet been attempted
sification now in general use, consists of two hundred and deed, that t le _ nnese c » canrice thevhaveen-
fourteen, and they are divided into seventeen chapters or either through ignorance, pride, °r ce’^ ther.
classes ; beginning with those keys or elements that are tirely marred the plan, and ^ar ^ 100^,”
composed or formed of one stroke of the pencil, and end- In the origina a op ion 0 ^ ^ jegg tjian479 to
ing with those (of which there is only one) composed of namely, theor eys, (-)/ the whole of which were
seventeen strokes. Plates CLVIII. CLIX. CLX., compre- serve as indices to the chameters the whole ot^w ^ ^
hend the whole of these keys or elements, with their several marshalled under nine divisi . ^ ,ce(j ceiestial
names and significations. When these two hundred and consisting of a sing e 1I\e'> , moon, stars,
fourteen keys or elements have once become familiar to the objects, as the sky or i mamen , ’ 0kjectSj as
eye, there is no great difficulty in detecting them in any clouds, ram, thunder. I he third, tenestr a J
CHINA.
tins, earth, water, metals, hills, rivers; the fourth, man, and
all the animal functions ; the fifth, moving things, includ¬
ing all the rest of the animal creation ; the sixth, the ve¬
getable world ; the seventh, productions of art and human
industry; the eighth, miscellaneous; and the ninth, cha¬
racters of a double genus, whose classification could not
well be ascertained. Though this was a complicated, and
in some degree an arbitrary classification, yet it compre¬
hended a principle which, if it had been adhered to in sim¬
plifying the arrangement of the characters, the Chinese
might have challenged the world to produce so beautiful
and so philosophical a language as their own. This sys-
tern, called the Leu-shoo, is that stated by Dr Morrison ' v
to have been invented by Paou-she.
After this the 479 keys or elementary characters were
reduced to 214, and the characters themselves arranged
under six divisions, as before mentioned, the nature of
which will be best explained by a few examples to each ;
and they will tend to show how much more might have
been accomplished in this practical approach to an uni¬
versal character.
1st Class. The rude representation of the object may
now be considered as no longer existing; but this class
consists generally of simple characters, and almost all the
great objects of nature are found among the keys or ele¬
ments which enter into their composition: this may be
called tbe Imitative Class.
2d Class. Under this class are comprehended those cha¬
racters which point out the quality or property of an ob-
ming, splendour:
4,
njLi* sin, heart, fidelity: jin, man,
tien, a field, 4m tien, a farmer: m tien, a field, and
and
lee, strength,
*33-
koo, mouth, and kin, gold, kin, volubili¬
ty of speech : yen, word, and shee, temple,
shee, verses, poetry: fen, to divide, and
'pin, poverty: u yu, an enclo-
pei, riches,
ject, as slicing,
above.
shea, below'.
sure, and
man, cheu, a prisoner:
Thus also
ye, one, is used to represent unity, con¬
cord, and the like ; | kuan, straight, upright; J quay,
hooked; and generally characters whose meaning can be
extended, in a metaphorical sense, as far as the object re¬
presented would admit of being so applied; as, for instance,
a line drawn through a square thus, fjjt’ signifies middle,
rice, and koo, mouth,
A ta, great, X
comfort:
/<0'*
ye,
one, and
tien, heaven or God:
)l^ tcheou, a bamboo, and a slap, c^iee’
or any thing divided.into two parts; while the same cha¬
racter, in a figurative sense, expresses moral rectitude,
good dispositions, and so forth. This class may there¬
fore be called the figurative.
3d Class. Under this class might have been ranked all
those compound characters which, if the numbers were
properly selected, would have given that peculiar beauty
and expression to the language which, even in its clumsy
and imperfect state, the Chinese still pretend to feel, by
employing significant characters, each of which should be
connected with the idea to be conveyed by their union.
One half of the language, at least, might have been thus
composed, and might have presented a series of symbols,
every one of which would have been intelligible to the
eye ; whereas not one sixth part at the most, some say not
one tenth, of the compounds, have any relation to their
component parts. A few examples will serve to show how
much might have been done by attending to a philoso¬
phical composition of the compounded characters. Thus,
to govern : keu, high, and
ma, horse,
jin, man, and
yen, word, forms the compound
1
f 
sttl> s*ncere: je, the sun, and Jtj
kheu, proud.
4th Class. The characters arranged under this class
are such as embrace both the meaning of the object and
the sound it is supposed to utter; and it includes objects
animate and inanimate. The characters are all compound¬
ed of one of the elements to express the genus, added to
one imitative of the sound uttered by the object. Thus,
shuee, water, added to ^ *7"^ koong, forms the cha¬
racter t±. kyang, which denotes a rapid stream, ex¬
pressive, as they say, of water rushing with violence; and
i
ho, a river, with -y shuee, water, makes the com¬
pound ho, a river, the name of which is said to imi-
yue, the tate the sound. To this class may also be added those
objects in the animal kingdom whose generic character
565
tchung, middle, and
China.
nan, male kind : Jfj£ eul, the
ear, and lir tchei, to stop, JCH: chee, shame: a
566
CHINA.
China.
can be expressed by one of the elements, and the species
by some other character that shall convey its name mere¬
ly by the sound of the latter character. If, for instance,
to the generic character, bird, be added another charac¬
ter whose name and sound is go, the new compound will
also be named go, and will signify a goose; if to the same
character bird be added another named ya, the compound
will be also ya, and will signify a duck ; if to the generic
character tree, be added the appellative pe, the compound
will be named pe, and signify a cypress; with too, it will
be called too, and signify a walnut tree; and with heouii
will retain the name of lieou, and signify a willow. In
this class may also be comprehended all foreign names
written in the Chinese characters, to which, in order to
mark them as destitute of meaning, they usually annex
on the left side the character signifying mouth. Ihus the
English word strong would require three characters, se-te-
lung, and, with the mouth prefixed, would be written thus,
Pd~.
te «Xl
lung; but these charac¬
ters, if the mouth was taken away, would be read by a
Chinese, the magistrate procured a dragon.
5th Class. Consists of an inversion of the sense by an
inversion of the whole or some part of the character ; or
it alters the meaning by giving a different name to the
same character; or, lastly, the characters which compose
it are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. An Eu¬
ropean cannot readily comprehend the illusions or allego¬
ries that are frequently contained in a single character,
though probably they are not more numerous than those
which are found in any of the languages of Europe, ren¬
dered easy, and indeed not perceived, by early habit, the
combined characters of the sun and moon, which, in a
physical sense, expressed brightness, brilliancy, splendour,
are also, in a moral or metaphorical sense, noble, illus¬
trious, famous. The characters heart and dead form a third,
which signifies forgetfulness ; fickleness or levity is repre¬
sented by a girl and thought; attention, by the heart and
totality; antiquity, by mouth and the numeral ten; to
flatter, is compounded of word and to lick ; to boast, of a
mountain and to speak. The wife of a magistrate is used
metaphorically for an accomplished lady, a wild boar tor
courage, a tiger for ferocity: and so of others. It may be
"observed, however, that these compounds are disregarded
by the Chinese in general, just as many words in the Euro¬
pean languages are in common use, without any reference
to their etymology. . , , .
6th Class. These characters are either arbitrary, or
formed out of some distant or local allusion, most of which
are inexplicable to the Chinese themselves. Thus, a 6am-
boo and heaven form a compound, which signifies to laugh ;
water and to go, compose a character signifying law;
wood and the sun form the word east; the character
ivoman three times repeated may signify adultery, or com¬
municating with an enemy. These may or may not be ar¬
bitrary combinations. We can explain why the compound
of wine and seal should signify marriage, from the circum¬
stance of wine being presented by the bridegroom to the
bride as the seal to the contract; and why that of girl and
upright should signify concubine, or inferior wife, because
such a one must stand in the presence of her lord and
master ; also why that of woman and sickness should sig¬
nify death, because when the sovereign was sick, and given
over by the physicians, he was left to die in the hands of
women ; but by far the greater part are utterly inexph-
Such, by the Chinese account, is the philosophy of their
language; not very clear, it must be confessed, nor exact¬
ly calculated for practical facility; but, at the same time, China;
approximating to a very beautiful system. I hat system
has, to a certain degree, been preserved in the modern
classification under the 214* elements. Thus, under the
element or key which signifies heart, we shall find all the
characters arranged expressive of the sentiments, passions,
and affections of the mind, as grief, joy, love, hatied, anger,
and the like. The element water enters into all the com¬
pounds which relate to the sea, rivers, lakes, swamps,depth,
transparency, and so forth. 1 he key or element plant
takes in the whole vegetable kingdom. \en, a word, enters
into the composition of those characters which relate to
reading, speaking, studying, debating, consulting, trusting,
and the like. The handicraft trades, laborious employ¬
ments, and a great number of verbs of action, have the ele¬
ment hand for their governing character. All this is per¬
fectly intelligible; but, on casting a glance over the ele¬
mentary characters, it will be seen that fully one half of
them are utterly incapable of being formed into any gene¬
ric arrangement; and one is surprised and puzzled to con¬
jecture by what accident they could possibly have been
included among the elementary characters, or even as in¬
dices to characters. The fact is, that, of the 214 charac¬
ters thus employed, not more than 150 can beconsideied
as effective; the rest being very rarely employed in the
combination of characters. Of the 40,000 characters, or
thereabouts, contained in the standard dictionary of the
language, sixty of the elements govern no less than
25,000. The most prolific is the element grass or plants
(No. 140), which presides over 1423 characters ; the next
water (No. 85), which has 1333; then the hand (No. 64),
which has 1012. After these follow, in succession, the
mouth, heart, and insect, each having about 900; then a
word, a man, and metal, each exceeding 700; next a reed
or bamboo, a woman, silk, a bird,fiesh, mountain, and so on,
each governing from 500 to 600. In the modern classifica¬
tion, therefore, of the characters, though probably intend¬
ed as a more convenient instrument for reference m the
dictionaries, so much of the natural arrangement has been
preserved as will serve to convey to the eye at once the
general meaning of a character; at least of such charac¬
ters as are governed or fall under any of the principa
elements. They have even gone beyond this, feeling
how much more capable of nice discrimination the eye is
than the ear, the written character has been employed to
mark distinctions, which, in an alphabetic language, would
be impossible. Instead of the modifications of time, place,
age, colour, and the like, by which sensible objects are
affected, being expressed by so many epithets or addi¬
tional characters, in the several stages of their existence,
or the lights in which they may be viewed, the Ehinese
employ only one single character for each several modifi¬
cation of which an object or idea may be susceptible,
whether in the physical or intellectual world. Ihus tney
have the key or elementary character for wafer simply,
another under that key for salt water, a thirc or jr
water, a fourth for muddy water, a fifth for c/car water,
and so on for running, standing, deep, shallow, an e y
other qualification that water is capable of receiving; ana
the same of love, anger, jealousy, ambition, c- ^ .
which are expressed by their respective symbols, comD
ed with the element heart. . ,
The colloquial language is not less singular than u e
symbolical characters, being, like the latter, exc Y
their own, and having borrowed nothing from, nor lent any
thing to, the test of the world. The 330
each beginning generally with a consonant, an
wkh avowel, 0“ fiquid, orV double consonant ^,whh
as we have observed, complete the catalogue of words
in their language, are, by means of four mo
C H ]
ia. sound, or intonation to each syllable, extended to about
1300; beyond which, not one of them is capable of the
least degree of inflexion, or change of termination ; and
the same unchangeable monosyllable acts the part of a
noun substantive and adjective, a verb and a participle,
according to its collocation in a sentence, or the mono¬
syllables with which it is connected. It is neither affect¬
ed by number, case, nor gender ; mood, tense, nor person ;
all of which, in speaking, are designated by certain affixes
or prefixes to mark the sense. Thus the genitive of love,
gai, is expressed by the particle tie set after it, as gai-tie,
of love; the dative by eu-gai, to love; and the ablative by
tung-gai, by or from love. The plural is expressed some¬
times by the repetition of the noun, as yin, a man ; yin-
yin men; to-yin, many men ; to-to-yin, all men. Certain
particles of number are also employed before nouns,
which vary according to the nature of the noun. Thus
man has ho, as san-ho-yin, three men ; most other animals
tehee, as liang-tchee-ma, two horses; bodies with extend¬
ed surfaces tchiang, as ye-tchiang-tchoa, one table. The
number of particles so employed amount to about thirty.
The final expletive tse is added to nouns, not only to dis¬
tinguish them from adjectives, but for the sake of euphony;
as pie-ise, a pipe ; fang-tse, a house; ya-tse, a chair; the
particle tie, the same which designates the genitive of the
substantive, is set after the adjective or pronoun; as ta,
he, with tie after it, becomes a possessive, ta-tie, his, &c.
The gender of nouns is seldom necessary to be expressed
in conversation, unless for the sake of removing ambiguity.
When this is the case, nan and neu distinguish male from
female, as nan-yin, a man; neu-yin, a woman. Adjectives
admit of comparison in various ways. Commonly ye-yang
is used to express the positive, as ye-yang-hoa, as good as,
or equally good; the preposition heng forms the compara¬
tive, as keng-hao, better; and, with the addition of toa fol¬
lowing it, the superlative, as hao-toa-keng, the best. A re¬
petition of the positive also marks the superlative, as hao-
hao, very good.
The personal pronouns go, ne, ta, I, thou, he, are made
plurals by the addition of mun, as go-mun, ne-mun, tu-mun,
we, ye, they. Che-ko, this, and no-ho, that, are the de¬
monstratives.
The only tenses of the verb necessary to be distinguish¬
ed are the present, past, and future. The past is formed
by the particle lean set after it, and the future by yau,
will or determination, or tchong lai, time to come. Thus,
go gai, I love; gi gai lean, I have loved, or did love; go
yau gai, or go tchang lai gai, I shall hereafter love. The
negatives generally in use are mo and poo; as yeu, to have;
mo yeu, not to have ; hao, good; poo hao, bad.
Such is the simple and inartificial language spoken by
a mass of people equal in number to that of the whole of
Europe. Its imperfection must be obvious when it is con¬
sidered that 40,000 distinct characters are represented by
about 1300 monosyllabic sounds; but, as a good composi¬
tion is intended only to be seen, the particles and exple¬
tives necessary in familiar conversation are all omitted.
If such writing were read aloud it would scarcely be in¬
telligible, and, at any rate, full of ambiguity. Indeed, it
frequently happens, that, in reading a paper, the auditors
are assisted by the reader making, with a motion of his
band in the air, or with his fan, the shape of the charac-
or, at least, the key of it, to remove any ambiguity.
Ibis, in conversation, is obviated by the use of certain ex¬
pletives. For instance, wdien a man is speaking of his fa¬
ther, which is foo, a monosyllable that has seventy or eighty
other meanings besides that of father, a Chinese will say
joo-chin ; and, instead of moo for mother, moo-chin. The
syllable chin, signifying kindred, removes at once all doubt
as to the meaning of the speaker; but the chin, in writing,
N A. gi;;
is wholly unnecessary, and would be left out, the charac- China,
ter signifying/«i!/ier being totally different from any other -v'w
character that may have the name of foo. A foreigner,
not always aware of this, is liable to many equivoques in
speaking the language. Thus a missionary, requesting to
be allowed to pass the night at a peasant’s house, asked
for a young girl to sleep with, when he meant only to ask
for a mat; and another told the emperor he served three
wives, when he meant to say so many churches. (Barrow’s
Travels in China; Morrison’s Dictionary; Marshman’s
Claris Sinica ; Fourmont’s Meditationes Sinicce, &c.)
One of the most remarkable features of Chinese policy,
is the encouragement given to the cultivation of letters,
which are professedly the sole channel of introduction to
political advancement in the state, and to the acquirement
of office, rank, and honours, of almost every description.
The pursuits of literature throw open the highest offices
in the state to the lowest of the people ; and with a few
exceptions of particular favourites, or of Tartars connected
by blood with the imperial family, it would appear that ho¬
nours and offices are generally bestowed according to me¬
rit. With the prospect of such rewards, the number of
competitors is very great, and a taste for letters is almost
universally diffused among all ranks and denominations.
Schools abound in every town and village, and the best
education that China affords is to be had on the most mo¬
derate terms. In every part of the empire certain magis¬
trates are appointed by the government to call before
them all candidates for employment, to direct them in
their studies, and twice a year to hold public examina¬
tions, when small presents are distributed to the most
deserving. As a further encouragement to literature, the
press is left free to all, and any one may print what he
pleases, taking his chance for the consequences. That
this unrestrained liberty of the press should exist in one
of the most arbitrary governments that is known, is a re¬
markable phenomenon in the history of nations. No pre¬
vious license is required, no restrictions are imposed,
though the publication of books is made amenable to cer¬
tain regulations established by law. In general, crimes,
and their corresponding punishments, are clearly and
minutely defined in the Laws of China; but the law
which regards the press is left, perhaps intentionally,
vague and uncertain. According to the Leu-tee, “ whoever
is guilty of editing wicked and corrupt books, with the
view of misleading the people, and whoever attempts to
excite sedition by letters or handbills, shall suffer death
by being beheaded ; the principals shall be executed im¬
mediately after conviction, but the accessaries shall be re¬
served for execution at the usual season.” And further,
“ all persons who are convicted of printing, distributing,
or singing in the streets, such disorderly and seditious
compositions, shall be punishable as accessaries.”
These severe laws are by no means a dead letter; num¬
bers have been executed in virtue of them. Three unfor¬
tunate authors were punished with death, and their fami¬
lies banished, by that great patron of literature, Kien-lung,
in three consecutive years, for publishing books that no
European government would have deigned to notice; but
political discussions are least of all palatable to despotic
governments, and are easily brought under the charge of
constructive treason, a crime that in China is never par¬
doned.
The instances, however, that occur of severity of punish¬
ment seem to have little effect in diminishing the number
of publications, and are not more hostile to the liberty of
the press in China, than the occasional punishment of a
jail, for libel, is destructive of that liberty in England. A
writer in a popular periodical journal says, that thousands
of novels and moral tales, amusing stories, laughable come-
568
CHINA.
China.
dies moral precepts from ancient sages, and exhortations on the state of Hindustan before the Mahommedan irrup- Chin,
from Hying sovereigns; popular songs, fables, and roman- tion, winch created such havoc and devastation of Hindu '-p,
ces book! of receipts to heal the sick and to pamper the literature. It was chiefly with the view of examining
appetite°' predictions of the weather, and of good or bad these documents, for the better dlustratmn of the history
Hick - manuals of devotion, of religious rites, and rules religion, and literature of India, that Sir William Jones set
of good-breeding; almanacs and court calendars, are the about learning the Chinese language. De Guignes ascer-
hiter sort of publications which issue daily from the press tained that the priests of Fo were in posse s,on of 5400
in Pekin and other great cities of the empire. All ranks volumes on the rehgion of India an the sixth century of
n China read, and find it a cheap luxury; the more bulky the Christian era. Five centuries before this another priest
and expensive works, as those ml history, philology, juris- translated twenty-three different books on re ig.on m o
prudence" are sometimes published by subscription, but Chinese, which were lodged ,n the library of the temp o
are supplied to the libraries of the magistrates by the of Se.-gan-foo; and, about the same time, one of a party
government. Libraries are seldom formed to any great of pilgrims who travelled from his city to Benares, from
extent bv individuals. The grand collections of history, thence to Ceylon, and returned by sea to Canton, pub-
phiiosophy, and other standaid national works, published lished a relation ot his travels under the title otFo-guo-
Siv the direction of the sovereign, under the superinten- fee, a history of the kingdom of Fo, of which there is a
deuce of the Han-lin, are distributed to the princes of the copy in the king's library at Pans. Frequent mention is
Wood “re viceroys of provinces, presidents of departments, made in the Tong-hen-hang-moo, and other histones of
and to the learnld of the empire, but are rarely met with China, of priests being dispatched into India, in the early
W "he libraries of private individuals. periods of tire Christian era, for the express purpose of
We can form no estimate of the state of literature in procuring Hindu writings, chiefly those on rehgion and
China, from the paraphrastic translations of ill-chosen astronomy; from which it may be concluded, that, if the
t in , - 1 1 • - Tw Hindus really had any thing valuable which perished by
Mahommedan bigotry, it may still have survived in China.
Among the works of which a translation would be most
desirable, may be mentioned the Tai-tsing-ye-tung-tse, a
complete Encyclopaedia ot Arts and Sciences, in 200 vo
books, and the commentaries on them, made by the Je¬
suits and other Catholic missionaries; the trite morality
of Cong-foo-tse and Men-tse ; the wise sayings of this
emperor, and the wicked doings of that, which are con¬
tained in the Ou-king and the Se-choo, their ancient ca-
rmnica/bool^, convey no better idea of the state of China lumes, published under the sanction, and by the authority,
or of its literature, than the Domesday Book does of that of Kien-lung ; for, although we have nothing to expect hom
of England. The Tong-kien-kang-moo, or General His- the state ot science m China, they far surpass al Europe
torv of China, by Pere Mailla, mav be considered as the in many arts, and are in possession of otheis of which ^'
molt important of missionary translations. Some of the rope is entirely ignorant, the Ta-tsing-hoei-tien, another
odes of the Shee-kinq, by Pere Premare, are curious, as work, containing the whole institutes of this vast empire,
exhibiting specimens of their poetry 4000 years ago. The with all the regulations of the several depaitments ot go-
py de^Moukden, a poem of the emperor Kien-lung, by vernment, the whole system of jurisprudence, of revenue
S Ambt is no baPd specimen of modern poetry; for and finance, taxation, &c. would afford an interesting pic-
such it is, though, like Ossian, it is unmeasured poetry.
Of the merits of his Conquest of the Miao-tse, by Mr S.
Weston, through the medium of a French translation, we
are unable to form any just idea. Works on philology,
and commentaries on the characters of the languages, are
endless; and, on this subject, many curious observations
will be found in Pere Amiot’s Lettre de Pekin, and in va¬
rious parts of the Mem. concernant les Chinois. The little
novel of Hao-hiau tchuan, edited by Dr Percy, from the
papers of an English supercargo, is so charming a specimen
of that kind of writing, as to make us regret that we have
not more. The orphan of the house of Ichao was not un¬
worthy of the tragic muse of Voltaire, and yet it was the
only specimen of this kind of composition that had appear¬
ed in an European dress till a comparatively very recent
period. We have now another drama, more closely and
more faithfully translated by Mr Davis, taken from the
ture of this extraordinary nation. Of this curious work,
also published by the authority of Kien-lung, there is a
very general abstract by M. Cibot, in the fourth volume of
Mem. sur les Chinois. rIhis abstract, and the translation
of the Ta-lsing-leu-lee, by Sir George Staunton, enable us
to form a tolerably correct notion of the machinery by
which the multitudinous population of the largest empire
on the face of the earth has been uniformly kept in mo¬
tion, and performed its several functions, for the last four
thousand years.
The desiderata of Chinese literature in Europe are some
of their lighter productions, which our increasing know¬
ledge of the Chinese language will no doubt soon supply.
The dictionary of De Guignes, compiled by the Jesuits;
the more important dictionary of Kaung-hee, called the
Tse-tien, published in the English language by Dr Morri¬
son ; a Chinese Grammarby the same gentleman; and the
more faithtully translated by IVir uavis, taken iioin me ^ ^ Morchman with
same collection of one hundred dramas in which the Or- Clams binica, ponderous as it is, y rendered
phan is found. The Memoirs sur VArt Militaire, although various translations of these missionaries,^ ha e  
utian is touna. rue memoirt siu ixxn nn pvruse
collected from the works of the greatest generals, was un- the study of that language so easy, as to leave no exc
worthy the trouble bestowed upon it by Fere Amiot; the for the continuance of that total which has for
military movements, as there represented, are more suit- nearly two centuries prevailed among the Easy^
able for mountebanks, tumblers, and posture-makers, than Company s servants stationed in Ch”fa’ ; t of the
for soldiers ; the Chinese are, in fact, the worst soldiers in wanting of the possibility of a sPee. J a;^mstanCe 0f Mr
the world. The same thing may be observed with regard Chinese language by a foieig , . both in
to his treatise on Chinese music, a farrago of trash, not one Davis having translated several Chinese works, both
word of which either he or his Chinese author understood, poetry and prose, may be adduced as ^ example in p^^
We have some curious matter on the rites and ceremonies Before he had been two yeais in Canton, g to
of the several religious sects in China, by Pere Intorcetta had acquired a sufficient knowledge of the laiJ jS t0
and La Favre, and on various subjects in the Hist, de I'Aca- enable him, with the occasional assistance otana^ov^^
dernie des Inscript, ctde Belles I^ettres, by MM. Ferret and translate several pieces o poetiy, VJ° Chinese
de Guignes; and especially of books translated into Chi- and, which is probably most 1 cu o ’ jyjany
nese from the Sanscrit, which are to be found in the temples drama, which has since been pu is icc in on a
of Fo. These volumes would, no doubt, throw much light years ago Sir George Staunton was a e
CHINA.
569
1
ina. correspondence with the officers of government at Canton,
translate the Ta-tsing-leu-lee, the journal of a Chinese
officer through the vast regions of Tartary, by the Baikal
Lake, as far as the Kerghis hordes, near the borders of
the Caspian, It corroborates, we understand, in an ex¬
traordinary manner, the observations of Bell, which, in¬
deed, were never called in question; and is the more cu¬
rious, as they both travelled in the same year, and must
have crossed each other on the way. Sir George, besides,
translated a Chinese drama, and two or three short tales,
from a collection called Tsing-tsu, or, “ Histories descrip¬
tive of the Passions.” Mr Manning also made himself
perfect master of the Chinese language in a comparative¬
ly short period. We mention these to show that there
is neither any difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the
Chinese language, nor want of inducement to prosecute
the study of it. Sir George Staunton alone possessed
from 3000 to 4000 volumes.
Europeans have been deceived as to the vast number of
characters in this language, which was supposed to create
its difficulty. In the great dictionary of Kaung-hee there
are not more than 40,000 characters, of which about
36,000 only are in use. The lexicon of Scapula contains
about 44,000 words, Ainsworth’s Dictionary 45,000, and
Johnson’s about the same number. The whole works of
Confucius contain only about 3000 different characters.
The Leu-lee may have, in the whole, about 100,000 cha¬
racters, but not more than 1860 different ones throughout
the whole work. Where, then, can thei’e possibly be any
difficulty ?
!y. The origin of Chinese poetry is indicated by the com¬
ponent parts of the character employed to express it,—
words of the temple,—short-measured sentences, delivered
as instructions to the people such are those in the ancient
writings, and such chiefly are the moral maxims of Con¬
fucius. It is so far from being true, as Grozier flippantly
asserts, “ that a learned man writing good verses would
be considered in the same light as a dragoon officer plajr-
ing wrell on the fiddle,” that there are few men having any
pretensions to learning who do not write verses. The
several odes and didactic poems of Kien-lung were quite
sufficient to make poetry fashionable, if there were no
taste for it among the people; but all are fond of poetrjr.
We have before us the translation of part of an Ode on
England and London, written by a common Chinese ser¬
vant, brought over by a gentleman from Canton, in which
are many just observations, with accurate and concise de¬
scriptions. The climate, he says, is cold, and people live
close to fires; and the houses are so lofty, that you may
pluck the stars. Kaung-hee made the same observation to
the Jesuits, and supposed that Europeans lived, like birds, in
the air, for want of space to build upon. Our Chinese pro¬
ceeds to say, that the virtuous read their sacred book, and
(pe lee to Got) pray to God; that they hate the French,
and are always fighting with them; that the little girls
have red cheeks, and the ladies are fair as the white gem ;
that husbands and wives love each other; that the play¬
houses are shut in the day and open at night; that the
players are handsome, and their performance delightful.
I he nature of the character is well adapted to that ex¬
pressive kind of poetry which pleases the eye of a Chi¬
nese, by selecting such as are most comprehensive, or such
as allude to some ancient custom, or such as can be used
in a metaphorical sense: for instance, “ the rushing of
water down a precipice roars like thunder,” is expressed
by a single character; and that which signifies “ happi¬
ness,” reminds him, by its component parts, of his guar¬
dian angel, of the benefits of union and concord, and of
plenty, signified by a mouth over a cultivated field. The
intercalary moon is expressed by the character king
VOL. VI.
placed in that of gate, because on such an occasion it was
the ancient custom for the king to stand in the door.
Thus, also, a man and word express fidelity ; fire and wa¬
ter, calamity ; eye and ivater, tears ; heart, truth, and words,
sincerity; icord and nail, a bargain ; beauty and goodness
are signified by a character composed of a young virgin
and an infant; flatterer, of word and to lick ; a kingdom
is expressed by a square or space, within which is a mouth
and weapons, alluding, perhaps, to arms and counsel, being
the best protection of a state. But though the sense of
seeing seems to be that which is rather addressed in Chi¬
nese poetry than the sense of hearing, yet they have their
rules both of rhyme, and measure, and quantity, the last
of which is given by the tones or accentuations, which are
entirely modern. Mr Davies has recently published a
very curious work, in which he enters into a critical exa¬
mination of the rules, and the merits, and the defects of
Chinese poetry. Among the specimens of ancient poetry
from the Shoo-king, the following is an address of the em¬
peror Chun to his ministers :—
Koo, koong khee tsai
Yuen shyeu khe'e tsai
Puh koong hee tsai.
When the chief ministers delight in their duty,
The sovereign rises to successful exertion,
A multitude of inferior officers ardently co-operating.
To which the ministers responded in the same strain :—
Yuen shyeu ming tsai
Kod koong lyang tsai
Shyu tse khang tsai.
When the sovereign is wise,
The ministers are faithful to their trust,
And all things happily succeed.
The Shee-king, or collection of odes, upwards of three
hundred in number, is of a higher strain, one of which, on
marriage, has been beautifully versified by Sir William
Jones. The lines consist of no definite number of syllables,
some containing three, some seven, but the greater part
are limited to four. The rhyme is equally irregular, some
having none, in others every line terminating with the
same word ; sometimes six lines rhyme in a stanza of eight,
occasionally four, three, and sometimes only the first and
last. Four Ikies in the stanza, and four characters in each
line, seem to be the most common measure in ancient
poetry ; but many odes of the Shee-king extend the stanza
to eight, ten, or twelve lines. At present, five and seven
characters are the most common number in the line; the
former having the stanza of sixteen, the latter generally
of eight; the rhyme seems to be entirely arbitrary. There
is not much sublimity of mind or depth of thought in these
odes; but they abound with many touches of nature, and
are exceedingly interesting and curious, as showing how
little change time has effected in the manners and senti¬
ments of this singular people. A number of rules with
regard to the tones have recently been introduced, which
would require more space to describe than they seem to
deserve. As a didactic poem, the Eloge de Moukden of
Kien-lung appears by no means to be destitute of merit;
it is considered, in the Chinese, to be highly poetical,
though not written in measured lines; and it contains
much beautiful description. His Ode on Tea is of a hum¬
bler cast; and some lines on Tea-cups, generally ascribed
to him, are, in an English dress we have seen, absolute
nonsense. The translator has, in fact, mistaken the whole
meaning.
We give the following from Grozier’s collection, as no
unfavourable specimen of modern poetry. It may be call¬
ed the Contented Philosopher.
4 c
China.
CHINA.
The dra¬
ma.
“ My palace is a little chamber, thrice my own length ;
finery never entered it, and neatness never left it. My
bed is a mat, and the coverlid a piece of felt; on these I
sit by day, and sleep by night. A lamp is on one side,
and on the other a pot of perfume. The singing of birds,
the rustling of the breeze, the murmuring of a brook, are
the only sounds that I hear. My window will shut, and
my door open,—but to wise men only; the wicked shun
it. I shave not, like a priest ot ho; I fast not, like the
Tao-tse. Truth dwells in my heart, innocence guides my
actions. Without a master, and without a scholar, I waste
not my life in dreaming of nothings, and in writing charac¬
ters, still less in whetting the edge of satire, or in trim¬
ming words of praise. I have no views, no projects. Glo¬
ry has no more charms for me than wealth, and all the
pleasures of the world cost me not a single wish. The en¬
joyment of ease and solitude is my chief concern. Lei¬
sure surrounds me, and bustle shuns me. I contemplate
the heavens, and am fortified. I look on the earth, and
am comforted. I remain in the world without being in it.
One day leads on another, and one year is followed by an¬
other ; the last will conduct me safe to port, and I shall
have lived for myself.” < .
Dramatic entertainments are in China, as in Europe,
closely connected with poetry. The songs and recitative,
in the lighter pieces, abound with characters of double
meaning and equivocal expression; but are generally so
contrived that, while the written characters shall bear one
sense, the sound shall convey to the ear another; and
these subterfuges are resorted to in order to avoid that
punishment which the magistrates would be compelled to
inflict for a breach of the law respecting public decorum,
in the publication or exhibition of any thing directly and
unequivocally obscene; and yet real life is represented
on the stage, without any of its polish or embellishments.
All acts, however infamous or horrible, are exhibited on
the stage,—a murder or an execution. Whether the cul¬
prit be condemned to die by the cord, by decollation, by
being cut into ten thousand pieces, or by being flayed
alive, the spectators must be indulged with a sight of the
operation. Nor do they stop here. I hose functions of
animal life over which decency requires a veil to be
thrown, are exhibited in full display; many of them so
gross and indelicate, so coarse in the dialogue, and so in¬
decent in the scenic representation, that foreigners who
have witnessed them have retired from the theatre in
disgust. , . .
It is no excuse that these obscene exhibitions were per¬
formed for the amusement of foreigners, whom they are
pleased to consider as barbarians. The representation of
real life, in its ugliest dress and most hateful deformities,
could only be conceived by a people of depraved habits
and a vicious taste. Of the court exhibitions we have
amusing descriptions in the journals of Lord Macartney,
Van Braam, and De Guignes. Lord Macartney describes
the theatrical entertainments to consist of great variety,
tragical as well as comical; some historical, and others of
pure fancy, “ partly in recitative, partly in singing, and
partly in plain speaking, without any accompaniment of
instrumental music, but abounding in battles, murders,
and most of the usual incidents of the drama.’ The
grand pantomime followed, the subject of which his lord-
ship conceived to be “ The Marriage of the Ocean and
the Earth. The latter exhibited her various riches and
productions, dragons, and elephants, and tigers, and ea¬
gles, and ostriches, oaks and pines, and other trees of dif¬
ferent kinds. The ocean was not behind hand, but pour¬
ed forth on the stage the wealth of his dominions, under
the figures of whales and dolphins, porpoises, and levia¬
thans, and other sea monsters, besides ships, rocks, shells,
sponges, and corals, all performed by concealed actors, China,
who were quite perfect in their parts, and performed
their characters to admiration.” These marine and land
productions paraded about for a while, when the whale,
waddling forward to the front of the stage, took his station
opposite to the emperor’s box, and spouted out of his
mouth into the pit several tons of water. “ Ihis ejacula¬
tion,” says his lordship, “ was received with the highest
applause ; and two or three of the great men at my elbow
desired me to take particular notice of it, repeating at the
same time, Hue, kung hao ! charming, delightful! After
this, they were entertained with tumbling, wire-dancing,
and posture-making; and the amusements of the morning
concluded with various fire-works, which were much ad¬
mired for their novelty, neatness, and ingenious contri¬
vance.
The Dutch ambassadors were chiefly entertained by the
feats of jugglers and posture-makers; after which there
was a kind of pantomimic performance, the principal cha¬
racters of which were men dressed in skins, and going on
all fours, intended to represent wild beasts. Alter them
were a parcel of boys habited like mandarins, who were to
hunt these animals. “ This extraordinary chase, and the
music and the rope-dancing, put the emperoi into such
good humour, that he rewarded the performers very libe¬
rally; and the ladies behind some Venetian blinds ap¬
peared, from their tittering, to be equally well enter¬
tained.”
An eclipse happened, which kept the emperor and his
mandarins the whole day devoutly praying the gods that
the moon might not be eaten up by the great dragon that
was hovering about her; and the next day a pantomime
was performed, exhibiting the battle of the dragon and
the moon, and in which two or three hundred priests,
bearing lanterns at the end of long sticks, dancing and
capering about, sometimes over the plain, and then over
chairs and tables, bore no mean part.
The dramatic representation of the eclipse of the moon
is thus described by De Guignes : “ A number of Chi¬
nese, placed at the distance of six feet from one another,
now entered, bearing two long dragons of silk or paper
painted blue, with white scales, and stuffed with lighted
lamps. These two dragons, after saluting the emperor
with due respect, moved up and down with great compo¬
sure, when the moon suddenly made her appearance, up¬
on which they began to run after her. The moon, how¬
ever, fearlessly placed herself between them ; and the two
dragons, after surveying her for some time, and concluding
apparently that she was too large a morsel for them to
swallow, judged it prudent to retire, which they did wit
the same ceremony as they entered. The moon, elated
with her triumph, then withdrew with prodigious gravi¬
ty, a little flushed, however, with the chase which she had
sustained.” .
It is not easy to reconcile the admission ot these pue¬
rile absurdities and gross indelicacies on the stage, where
regular dramas of a higher order exist, and comedians are
trained up to perform them, unless it be that their o-
rough contempt for foreigners induces them to think any
thing good enough for their entertainment. The dialogue
in the regular drama is uttered in a kind of whining reci¬
tative, full of querulous cadences, which are drowned ge¬
nerally in a crash of trumpets, cymbals, gongs, and t e
kettle-drum. The passions, as in the Italian opera, are
mostly expressed in song. If a fight ensues, eac i o
combatants sings a stanza, and then falls to, and during
combat the instruments of music keep up a most treme -
dous noise. ■ j p
Comedians are not much esteemed, if we may Ju &
from the statute against actresses; and yet it is said
iina*
C H I N A.
parts offemaTes'are peTforLd by eunuchs’and boys’ d!e Be!'6' bei”S, I’’,6 'f'h';use SlrI> '“‘enced to lose her head,
latter of whom are regularly bound apprentices ^o the re ng?au1le|< t0 tIie PIace of execution at midnight, she is
trade. Pekin is said to have about a hundi-ed different ZT! Vf ^ Ina.tr?n ? Son’ who,was ^»ong the
companies, and each company to consist of fifty persons the evee^-^11 W 10i seizin^ tlle officer s sword, attacks
and upwards, composed of speakers, musicians, tumblers speedilvtaken^amlbntlf116] the/founSlad^.; but they are
and jugglers, so as to suit all tastes. They live in mss- Wr, Z ^ a b<?t l ^^led for execution ; the truth,
age boats, in which they are conveyed from place to pffice" the triel’ f Llsco.ve^d’. and tlle magistrate who played off
There are no regular theatres, but players are hired bv the It C suffers in their stead. I his superior magistrate,
wealthy at so much by the day. The/are sakUo be /eaSy her for'hf J “J l0Vf WUh the lad/’ and Pr«P^es"to take
at any moment to perform any play that may be fixed mon fm- } -S ^rst or. e8*t™atje Wlfe> and hires the young
on, out of a list seldom short of 100. These^are the sorts whirh «hpS- Serv,ant' 1 le lad^ peremptorily refuses, upon
of plays performed before their countrymen, and not the lies for dead t0 bG beaten.by the se[vants till she
^ich Ah!Lfxhibit be5re forei^ ** court body and tlmow it intoS^Hela^ on thelnk!
571
and at the sea-port town of Canton. The translation of
An Heir in his Old Age, by Mr Davis, is calculated to
give rather a favourable opinion of the Chinese drama.
It consists of five regular acts; it has plot and character
the action is simply one, and never stands still. It is de¬
ficient in wit, but not in sentiment, and the several cha¬
racters are well preserved. It is, in short, a story that
may commonly occur in a family, thrown into action in
stead of being merely told, and the catastronhe is ouie 1 • Z7’ l 7 great dlstress- However, he
and naturally brought about. taS"0phe qU,el'y !' i"! ,"AhaS h s
and naturally brought about.
Many of their dramas, however, are full of bustle and
business, and abound with incident. They are generally
representations of real life, and contain sometimes the
whole life and adventures of an individual, some great so
covers her with his cloak, and goes to buy a coffin, as his
last act of gratitude for one who had relieved his mother
and himself in their distress. A boat approaching, and
nnding a woman thus bestowed, carries her off to serve the
lartar queen in her wars against the Chinese; this same
people, it seems, having already carried off the old matron
and the young girl of the tea-shop. Our hero returning and
missing the body, falls in great distress. However, he
time has learned whose daughter he had thus cruelly treat¬
ed , and, to prevent further mischief, he engages his new
servant (the hero of the piece) to put to death her father
instead of which he reveals the whole to the father, and
they concert together and put to death his master. The
vereia-n or celehratprl o-pn^l. Q k;.f “ - VT6 r , J cuucerc togetner and put to death his master. The
hkXafcrciaT,from ;he b44 °f is;
poverty are dri e t t^ ^ P1£;ce) being reduced to ing the story, sets the three Chinese women at liberty, and
p e y, are driven to the necessity of asking alms for commits them to his care. They all return to China • th,>v
their support An officer’s daughter, finding them of good find the father of the young lad^ restored to his rank and
pa entage and education, gives money to the son, and en- honours, who bestows his daughter on the hero of the niece •
gages the mother to attend on her. The son hires himself and the other young woman of ^
a tea-b?use kePfc b7 an .°.ld woman and her for by his taking her for a second wife. By tbe emperor’s
daughter. A rakish young officer, liking the daughter,
gams the consent of the old woman to take her into his
house, but the girl rejects the offer. He then sends his
servants to carry her off by force, but the new servant
icscues her. Ihe officer lays an accusation against him ;
he is carried before a magistrate, w ho orders him a flog¬
ging, and to wear thecangue or wooden collar. Not satis¬
fied with this, the young officer sends out his people with
cudgels to beat him to death. Unable, on account of the
China.
patent he is created a great mandarin for the service he
has performed, receives the suitable habit for himself and
his two wives, and the congratulations of all their friends.
(Macai tney ; Staunton ; Barrow ; De Guignes ; Mission¬
ary Communications in Du Halde ; Grozier, Mem. sur le
Chinois, &c.)
As connected with the drama, the state of Chinese mu-Music,
sic may next be considered. Detestable as Europeans
must find the very best of this music, such is the force of
collar to reach hk c YA:’ 7 . ‘"“A uie vei7 °est or tms music, such is the force of
him food H s LT 1 ’ J r 6 y°r,ng S ! STng hablt 0r Prejudice> that the Chinese are as fond of their own
ahnn! H 1 • , ’ ho1w,ever’ be,ng at hberty, he lays as a Highlander is of the bagpipe. Their ancient writers
en ruff ThTcnm81 e®’a sudden whirl of his wood- ascribe to it all those extraordinary and extravagant ef-
head and till i^ ° 1 strikes the young officer on the fects of softening the manners and promoting civilization,
street takes hirr °t? he Sp0t" 1 16 -head man °f the taming wild beasts’ moving rocks and stones, and, in short,
lies them I f ^ .y°Ung VVTan Jnt0 custod^’ car* performing all the wonders which have been related of the
man hut tnl il 3 ln.a^'st1rate’ wh° releases the young strains of Orpheus and the lyre of Amphion. The Shoo-
from whLl l8 • G gff ° jt le tea‘shoP Iat.0 his own house, king says, that the emperor Chun considered music as one
perior ma -V0/8 Sliffered f.0 escape by Ins wife. The su- of the most efficient engines of government, and a test for
deithnf T 6 °f S' dlstr'ct hemg informed of the proving the national character. Confucius was so astound-
housp t? y°u"?- odlcer’ aad the girl of the tea- ed with one of the old airs, that he could neither eat nor
ferinr m • Ye . , C1US? °P lt5 sends an order to the in' drink, and for three months could think of nothing else,
liver W S t 6’ Z°bad taken her into his house, to de- In the book of Odes it is remarked, that, while the Insti-
sn-piiPcV rP; bUt 816 ^ ”ovybere t0 be found 5 and’ ,n the tutes of the empire continue to be observed, and music to
vants tn Smay’ tb,s .inferior magistrate orders his ser- be cultivated, China will remain a mighty and invincible
carrv bp8^ °fUt , SeiZe any won?an they meet with and nation. And one of the early emperors has this remark :
ten,nip 6 ^ ^e superior magistrate. They find, in a “ would you conquer your enemies without bloodshed, dif-
woman li 0 hcf_s daughter first mentioned, with the old fuse among them songs set to tender and voluptuous me-
eracptl ’ nn i° ill • ed fli°m hi°Te ?n her father belng dls' lodies’to soften their minds and enervate their bodies, and
ried aw* w 118 P°ds and family seized’ She is hur‘ tben’ sending among them plenty of women, your con-
away before the magistrate, and, in the supposition quest will be complete.”
572
China.
C HIN A.
Dr Burney lias well observed, that the more batba o
the age and the music, the more powerful its eftects.
For still the less they understand.
The more they admire the slight of hand.
In China the music is still barbarous enough, whatever
the neople may be who can admire it. It has neither sc
ence1’ nor system ttat
sionroflh^ttmes'ifnot'one word of which,
acknowledges, he could understand), the Ah
concludes, that, like the music ot the Greekb’ f ^f^e-
to be the remaining fragments of a C0™Pje ^ } ’ It
lonmno- to a people more ancient than eithei o *.
will, perhaps!* be safer to follow ^mui
“ thot from all the specimens he had seen ol Chinese mu
sic (and le quotes Dr Lind, who resided some tone m
China in support of his opinion), all the melodies of this
nation’have a very strong analogy to “ l.^^Xre-
that “ the Chinese scale is very Scottish , that DOtn
semble in their melodies the songs of ancient Greece ; an
thati “ the music of all three ought to be considered as
""The'chtaesl airs are almost invariably sung in slow
movements, generally plaintive, and mostly of a q .1
ot^complaining east ;^d they are always accompanied by
some stringed instrument in the shape ot a guitai. they
rue use,fn singing, of so many shakes .he,r aws abound
with so many half and quarter tones, that they aie auu,
dThdrggaltdco2,s of five natural tones, which they
distinguish by five characters ot the language, and two
semitones; but they use neither lines nor spaces to note
down their music. They however, write down in succes¬
sion the characters or notes in a column, as they aie played,
though it does not appear that they pay any attention
in marking the time, the key, the mode of expression, or
the like, but acquire their airs by dint of Jahour and un -
tation. Their gamut for instrumental music is so impe
feet, and the keys so inconsistent, wandering from flats to
sharps, and the contrary, that they are under the neces¬
sity of being steadied and directed by a bell or C) •
They always play, or endeavour to play, m unison, hav g
no idea of counterpoint and parts in music. The band of
Lord Macartney, on this account, afforded them no p
sure, except when it played some supple air such as
“ Malbrook,” or the national song of “ God save the King.
Some of their instruments, however, do occasionally
to the octave in the accompaniment. The wind instru¬
ments are in general shrill, harsh, and discordant; the
drums, hells, cymbals, and other pulsatory instruments,
loud and jarring; and the stringed instruments meagre
and iingling. The sweetest instrument is a small organ,
made of unequal reeds stuck into the upper surface o a
hollow cup of wood, of which there are numbers in this
country, but for which Dr Burney tried m vam to adapt a
scale. This we believe to be the same tibia which that
literary coxcomb Isaac Vossius maintained to be superior
to all the instruments of modern Europe.
As a favourable specimen of Chinese music, the follow¬
ing national song of Moo-lee-wha is here inserted .
China.
Vv'J
This air was played by Lord Amherst s band, and ue-
* . i /'VI. *   nn\r ntllPr.
JLI11S clii wao — 
lighted the Chinese more than any other. _
It may be added, that the affected gravity of Chinese
   unennia! life, are unfavourable to the
It may he atmea, umi me ~ V”
manners, and their unsocial life, are unfavourable to the
cultivation of music, which cannot be expected to ainve
niTirmp- a ncoole who rarely
Cultivation 01 music, wmuu eaui.wt, —i i   -
even at a state of mediocrity, among a people who rarely
assemble together, who take no enjoyment m the amuse¬
ment of dancing, and whom the loves and toe graces have
Illtliit ui w-nv.*   -- -
not as yet condescended to visit. .
In a country where every kind of luxury is discouraged, Paintm
  p a prime, where property is
In a country wnere eveiy ui   
and some of them constitute a crime, where property is
so precarious as rarely to descend to three generations,
and where the useful only is affected to be considered as
valuable, no great progress can be looked lor m the hue
arts. For the same reason that their poetry is deficient
• •  iw-»orria11nn nn(1 diffiiitv of sentiment* tind
arts, i or uie banic icaouii r j .
in invention, imagination, and dignity of sentiment, and
their music of harmony, the sister art of painting is want-
• _ • „n thnt are considered to be neces-
their music ot narmouy, me o
ing in all the requisites that are considered to be neces¬
sary to form a good picture. Indeed it could not well be
otherwise, as, independently of their contractea ideas, Uey
.v , _ ■ rw^ninlp nf nersnective, which, with
otherwise, as, inaepenuenmy ui nie.. ,
offend against every principle of perspective, which, with
the effects produced by a proper disposition of light and
tr. pnnsider as unnatural. That it is not
the eiiects proauceu uy u —in .
shade, they affect to consider as unnatural. That it is not
from want of talent that their drawings and paintings are
xi nroved bv the laci-
so° ex trava gantly outre, is sufficiently "proved by the faci¬
lity and accuracy with which the painters of Canton copy
^ • . filioir Vinnrls. whether on paper, glass,
litv and accuracy wim wunm   - ,
any picture put into their hands, whether on paper, glass,
or canvass ; and, so far from the Abbe Grozier s Parisian
idea being true, that their best works are executed in
Pekin the very reverse is the case ; ail the arts, manu¬
factures, even down to common printing, being worse exe¬
cuted in the capital than in any other city of the empire,
and the reason is obvious enough; for the moment hat
a man acquires a superior reputation, he is s",™'u,T
the palace, where, within Us spacious precincts, h'S talen s
must he exercised for the emperor alone. Here the r ar
and manufactures remain stationary J^***^*.
and manutactures reuuun    , ,
Canton, being in the habit of copying from better mo"
arc superior to any that the imperial palace can boast,
n   r. riimpsp tn nretend that the ancienis
are superior to any mat tnc nnrUmits
is -ill v-rv well for a Chinese to pretend that the ancien
p-rentlv excelled the moderns in the art of painting, an
greatly exce eu t er having
£ produce examples in their books of one pa n er having
drawn on the palace wal s some hawks very "atar
that the little birds, afraid to aPPr<>»ch’nf!c'G"Ttll
away; and of anther having pain cd
awav; and ot anotner navuig   
deception of which was so complete, that P^ ^
ourfd go through it: but why should the
voured to go through it: mir way muuu- hould
peat these idle stories as if they were facts - Lors if
we be told that the Chinese would be good S£U is
the art was not prohibited by the government. ! ^
so far from being true, that in every
hurying-ground, may be seen all nianner of grotes^
figures of men, women, quadrupeds, and otl .
tS never exUted hn. in the scu^r,
that never existed but in tne scmpio. “ " '“J ; , wm)d,
these we have abundantly in all "'aInng .“/.“f'S “cts they
stone, metals, and baked day hr, J
vmrl • nnd ohiectS
C H I
na. same size with those of the same kind in the fore-ground,
w-r-' which they absurdly contend to be proper, because they
are so in nature. It may be doubted whether the most
skilful European artist can excel a Chinese in painting a
bird or a reptile, an insect, a fish, or a flower; so correct
is he to nature, that not one plumula of a feather, nor a
single scale of a fish, escapes him, and every shade and
tint of colour is minutely imitated. It is strange that a
man of Pauw’s sagacity should suffer his judgment to be
so warped as to assign the “ singular disposition of their
optical organs” as the cause which prevented the Chinese
from becoming good painters. As little trujh is there in
his assertion, that they are unable to copy from good mo¬
dels, without falling into their own style, and converting
European eyes, ears, and noses, into those of a Chinese;
they are the most servile imitators on earth. A Chinese
will imitate the likeness of any object in shape, colour,
and proportion. Though when left to himself he has no
mind to convey the idea of distance, solidity, expression,
and magnitude of objects, by fore-shortening, perspective,
and a due distribution of light and shade, yet he will copy
them all in a picture with scrupulous accuracy.
S pture. Sculpture has been thought by some to date its improve¬
ments, if not its origin, from monumental edifices. No
country can boast a greater number or variety of objects
of this nature than China; but, like the rest of its edifices,
they are totally destitute of the character of solidity and
duration. A few monsters, or distorted forms of men
and domestic animals, generally moulded in clay, are
sometimes placed among the tombs, but they are wholly
undeserving of notice. In cutting wood, in forming the
root of a plant into the shape of human beings, quadru¬
peds, or monsters, they succeed better, and communicate
to the features or to the action a high degree of expres¬
sion ; the same things occur in metal and in porcelain ;
but the human figure is always clothed, and a naked sta¬
tue never seen. Some of the gigantic clay figures in the
temples are by no means void of character and expres¬
sion, and the images cut in stone, which sometimes adorn
the avenues to the palaces, the gates of cities, and the pa¬
rapets of bridges, monstrous as they generally are, show
that, by proper encouragement and instruction, they are
capable of producing something better ; but they seem to
be deficient in taste and feeling, and to possess no general
ideas of the beauties of nature. Content with the repre¬
sentation of individuality, the imagination is never called
into play; they servilely imitate what appears before them,
with all its beauties and all its blemishes. They are defi¬
cient neither in ingenuity nor in dexterity. They engrave
with a tool on copper, on silver, or on wood, as well, gene¬
rally speaking, as the same kind of work can be executed
in any part of Europe ; and they are expert enough as
lapidaries, in cutting all sorts of precious stones. They
use spectacles made of crystal.
^ hitec- It is somewhat remarkable that a government so long
^and so firmly established, and a population so numerous
and civilized, should at no period of its history have con¬
structed a building, public or private, that could deserve
the least attention or admiration for its form, solidity, or
magnitude, or that could possibly resist the action of two
or three centuries; such is the obstinate and inveterate
adherence of this people to ancient usage, which has nar¬
rowed and confined their ideas in the construction of their
dwellings to the primitive tent. Perhaps, however, the
want of permanent security to private property may have
operated against the construction of solid and expensive
edifices, and confined them to the less durable materials
of half-burnt bricks, mud, clay, and wood. This is more
likely to be the case than the absurd and ridiculous rea¬
son assigned by Grozier, that the heat and moisture of the
N A. 573
southern provinces, and the rigorous cold of the northern China,
ones, would render buildings of marble *and other stone
unhealthy and scarcely habitable; and that the same rea¬
sons equally operate against a number of stories, as the
second and third would not be habitable. If the Abbe
Grozier had passed but a single summer’s day under the
roof of one of the magnificent stone buildings of Cal¬
cutta, and another under a Chinese tent, he would not
have committed such nonsense to paper. From the want
of windows in their houses to the street, and from the
small courts behind being barricadoed by high walls, which
overtop the roofs, and conceal the dwellings from adjoin¬
ing courts, it may perhaps be concluded that privacy, and
jealousy of their women, have been the causes that pre¬
vent the Chinese from building second and third stories
to their dwelling-houses. The missionaries, however, have
assigned the frequent earthquakes in the northern pro¬
vinces as the cause of the lowness of the houses and
slightness of the materials ; as if men would speculate,
over a whole empire of unparalleled extent, on a contin¬
gency which might never happen, and which, when it had
happened, was confined to certain limits. The eruptions
of Vesuvius have not prevented the inhabitants of Naples
from building palaces, much less the Russians from re¬
building Moscow; though the distance between these
two cities is not greater than that of Pekin, where earth¬
quakes are frequent, from that of Canton, where they never
happen.
One can scarcely give credit to the disastrous effects
produced by these earthquakes. The lives that have been
lost are reckoned in Chinese history by hundreds of thou¬
sands, especially under the Mongoos dynasty. This might
lead to a suspicion of exaggeration, as famines, earth¬
quakes, and inundations, are considered by the Chinese as
the scourges inflicted by heaven on the people, to show
its dislike to a sovereign whom it disapproves, did not the
accounts of more recent earthquakes, given by the mis¬
sionaries, who were eye-witnesses of their tremendous ef¬
fects, correspond with those recorded in Chinese history.
It is stated by Pere Mailla, that, in 1G79, in the reign of
Kaung-hee, more than 300,000 inhabitants of Pekin were
buried under the ruins of the houses thrown down by an
earthquake ; that at the same time above 30,000 persons
perished in the city of Tong-tchoo. The statements, how¬
ever, of the missionaries, are vague and discordant. Pere
Couplet says, Sub decimam horam matutinam, regiam
urbem et loca vicina tam horribilis tcrrce, motus concuss 'd, ut
innumera palatia, deorum farm, turres et urbis mcenia cor-
ruerint; et sub ruinis sepulta quadraginta hominum mil-
lia. Again, in 1730, in the reign of Yong-tchin, a violent
earthquake shook the capital to its foundations, and 100,000
of its inhabitants were crushed to death. The earth
opened in various places, black volumes of smoke issued
forth, and left behind large pools of water. The city of
Pekin is represented as affording a horrible spectacle ; its
walls, its palaces, the public buildings, two of the Jesuits’
churches, and a multitude of dwelling-houses, were wholly
or in part thrown down. The palace of the emperor, more
solid than any other edifice, was greatly injured; that of
Yuen-min-yuen was scarcely reparable. Of the 100,000
inhabitants contained in the adjoining village of Hai-tien,
20,000 are stated to have perished. The imperial family
betook themselves to their barges in the canals within the
precincts of the palace. The emperor distributed many
millions of money to the sufferers, and gave the Jesuits
one thousand ounces of silver towards the expense of re¬
pairing their churches.
If earthquakes were to throw down the tall and ill-built
brick pagodas of seven and nine stories in height, there
would be nothing surprising; yet these appear to stand
CHINA.
Naval
architec¬
ture.
tlie shocks, and many of them are evidently among the
oldest buildings4n China. These, and the temples of ho
and Tao-tse, are among the most striking buildings of the
country. The want of a national or state religion will
best explain the want of those magnificent edifices in
China, that almost every other civilized nation has reared
to the objects of divine worship. Some of their bridges
are light, and sufficiently pretty in their appearance ; but
they are generally slight and faulty in their construction.
They consist of every possible variety of form. Their
monuments to the memory of the dead are still more va¬
rious than their bridges, but they are poor in design and
bad in execution. Wooden pillars forming a triple gate¬
way, roofed over, and painted, gilt, and varnished, are
among the most striking objects that catch the eye of a
stranger. They are monuments erected at the public ex¬
pense, in streets or by the sides of highways, to comme¬
morate some celebrated warrior, some ancient mandarin,
or some antiquated virgin who had withstood temptation,
and never swerved from the strict rules of decorum. To
such a one will probably be inscribed, in letters of gold,
“ Honour granted by the emperor—to icy coldness, hard
frost.” But these pei-loos have little permanency. The
mandarin to whom the emperor’s order is addressed for
erecting it, employs a carpenter, contracts for building the
edifice as cheaply as he can, and pockets the rest of the
money. The emperor’s object is answered by publishing
the edict in the National Gazette. It is handed down to
posterity in the great history of the empire, whilst the
monument itself in a few years is consumed by the dry-
rot, and is seen no more.
Superior as the temples and palaces of the Hindus and
Mahommedans in India and Persia, and indeed throughout
Asia, are to those of the Chinese, the dwellings of the lat¬
ter are infinitely more comfortable in every respect than
those of the former. Their stoves for warming the apart¬
ments and for cooking, their beds and furniture, bespeak
a degree of refinement and comfort unknown to other
oriental nations; but the great characteristic difference is,
that the Chinese sit on chairs, eat off tables, burn wax
candles, and cover the whole body with clothing.
Their naval architecture wears the stamp of great anti¬
quity, and is exceedingly grotesque. They have, in fact,
made little progress in maritime navigation, from the in¬
veterate dislike of the government to all foreign inter¬
course, and to all innovation. The very same kind of ves¬
sels as those described by Marco Polo at the port nearest
to Pekin, in the thirteenth century, were found without
variation by Lord Macartney, five hundred years after¬
wards, and accurate to the Italian’s description, even to
the number of compartments into which the hold of
each vessel was divided. They had anchors of wood, and
ropes and sails of bamboo. The boats and barges for in¬
ternal commerce and communication are very varied, ge¬
nerally commodious, especially the passage-boats on the
grand canal, and all of them suited to the depth and ve¬
locity of the stream, and the width of the locks and flood¬
gates of the respective canals and rivers which they are in¬
tended to navigate. These vessels are so numerous as al¬
most to supersede the necessity of land-carriage ; and the
most common and convenient mode of travelling in China
is in barges, which are generally provided with cabins
for sleeping, and a kitchen and utensils for cooking vic¬
tuals. Their military navy is unworthy of the name. It
consists of a flotilla, whose principal occupation is that of
conveying soldiers where they may be wanted, and look¬
ing after pirates and smugglers. An English frigate would
beat the whole naval force of China. (Grozier, Du Halde,
Barrow, De Guignes, &c.)
The state of their military architecture and military
science is equally rude and imperfect. There is nothing, China,
in fact, from the celebrated wall on the side of Northern
and Western Tartary, to the mouth of the Bocca Tigris -'‘hlitary
near Canton, that merits the name of a fortress. They^cr“tec'
are all of the same construction, being mounds of earth
heaped into the shape of a wall, and cased on each side
with bricks, and flanked with square towers at bowshot
distance ; and with walls of this description all their cities
are surrounded.
The best defences of China are its great distance from Military
any civilized country; its rugged mountains and sandy and de.
deserts on one side, and a stormy sea, whose navigationfences.
is but little known, on the other. In its military strength
it can place little or no confidence ; a fact which has
frequently been proved by the successful incursions of
the Tartars, who have twice since the Christian era con¬
quered the whole country, and changed the ruling dynasty.
There is little doubt, indeed, that a well-appointed army
of 15,000 or 20,000 men, led by an experienced general,
would easily make its way from Canton to Pekin. It has
been supposed, from their skill in fire-works, and from the
frequent mention of them in ancient books, that the de¬
flagrating power of nitre, sulphur, and other ingredients,
was well known to them; but it is pretty evident that
they had but an imperfect, if any knowledge of cannon or
muskets, before the arrival of European missionaries in
the capital. We may form some notion of the mode of
fighting of the Tartars and the Chinese about the Chris¬
tian era, from the memoir of a general officer, presented
to the sovereign when about to make war on the Tartars.
“ The manner,” this general says, “ in which the Tar¬
tars carry on war is very different from ours. To mount
up and descend the steepest mountains with astonishing
rapidity ; to swim deep and rapid rivers ; to brave storms
of wind and rain, hunger and thirst; to make forced
marches, and overleap all impediments, training their
horses to tread in the narrowest paths; expert in the use
of the bow and arrow, they are always sure of their aim-
such are the Tartars. They attack, retreat, rally, with a
promptitude and facility peculiar to themselves. In the
gorges of the mountains, and in the ravines and deep de¬
files, they will always have the advantage over us ; but on
the plains, where our chariots can perform their evolutions,
our cavalry will always beat theirs. Their bows have not
the strength of ours, their spears are not so long, and
their arms and arrows are inferior in quality to ours. To
stand firm, to come to close quarters, to handle the pike,
to present a front, to cut their way when surrounded, are
the proper manoeuvres of our troops, of which the lartars
are ignorant, and against which they can oppose no suc¬
cessful resistance. In such situations, with equal num¬
bers, our forces are as five, when the Tartars are but as
three.” (Hist. Gen. de la Chine.)
The first mention of anything like fire-arms, and that is
but an equivocal one, is in the year 1219, when Gengis-
khan was penetrating the provinces of China. It is stated
that the Chinese, from the turrets of the walls of Isao-
yong, played their machines called poo, the present name
of guns, by which they killed great numbers at every
stroke. Again, when Ogdai-khan laid siege to Lo-yang,
the Chinese commandant Kiang-chin invented a kind ot
pao, which hurled large stones to the distance of one hun¬
dred paces, with such accuracy as to strike any point that
might be desired. But another passage is more to the pur‘
pose. The Tartars are said to have breached an angle ot
the wall, by employing more than a hundred machines,
consisting of tubes, each made of thirteen laths of bam¬
boo ; that the Chinese repaired these breaches with wood,
straw mixed with horse-dung, &c., which the Tartars set
on fire with their ho-pao, or fire-tubes; and immediately
ina. afterwards we find these ho-pao called Tchen-tien-ley or
heaven-shaking thunder; and it is further stated that a cer¬
tain substance put into them, when set on fire, explodes
like a thunder-clap, loud enough to be heard at the dis¬
tance of a hundred %, or thirty miles. This description
and that of the effects produced, leave no doubt of these
bamboo staves, hooped together, being the first attempt
in China at the use of cannon, to which succeeded pro¬
bably those of plates of malleable iron, also hooped toge¬
ther, several of which kind have been found in India, and
also seen by Bell, lying in heaps, within the walls of a city
near the great wall. J
In 1453 we find mention made of chariots of war, carry¬
ing cannon in their fronts; but it is probable they knew
very little of the use of them ; for when Chin-tsing, in
1608, made war upon the Tartars on the northern fron¬
tier, and was defeated, the I ortuguese at IMacao, availin°"
themselves of the panic into which the Chinese wyere
thrown, made an offer of assistance with a party of artil¬
lery. A Jesuit was dispatched from the capital to hasten
the new auxiliaries. The party consisted of two hundred
Portuguese, and as many Chinese trained and exercised
in the European manner, and they were commanded by
two Portuguese captains, Pierre Cordier and Antoine Rod¬
riguez del Capo. They were feasted and treated with
distinguished honours on their passage to the capital,
where they were well received and generally admired, ex¬
cept in the cut of their jackets, which, according to Chi¬
nese notions, were too scanty to be elegant. This admi¬
ration, however, soon ceased, and in a few days they were
sent back to IVlacao. It is stated by one of the missionaries,
that this was owing to a Portuguese and four Chinese
being killed in firing the guns. That the Jesuit Verbiest
taught them how to cast cannon there can be no doubt,
for the president of the tribunal of rites thanks the mis¬
sionaries for this signal service ; and the matchlocks now
in use by the Chinese troops are nothing more than the
old Portuguese matchlock.
The Tartars are soldiers by profession, mostly cavalry,
and their arms the bow and a broad simitar, which they
wear on the left side, with the point forwards, and which
they draw by carrying the right hand behind them, in
order, they say, that their adversary may not cut the arm
when in the act of drawing. They are arranged under
eight banners, distinguished by different colours. The
Chinese soldiers are for the most part a sort of militia, en¬
rolled for the defence of the extended frontier, guards to
the city gates, and the military posts placed at certain dis¬
tances along the roads, rivers, and canals. All expresses
are forwarded from post to post by the soldiers. Vast
multitudes are employed to assist the civil magistracy, and
act in the cities as police-officers. Their dress and ap¬
pearance are most unmilitary, better suited for the stage
tian the field of battle; their paper helmets, wadded
gowns, quilted petticoats, and clumsy satin boots, are but
i adapted for the purpose of war. Indeed, unless it be
to quell an insurrection, or to pursue bands of robbers, the
Chinese military are rarely called away from their pacific
employments. There was some anxiety, on the return of
Cord Amherst through the country, that the military
should put on an imposing appearance. “ Through the
w iole route, says the emperor, “ take care that the sel¬
lers have their armour fresh and shining, and their wea¬
pons disposed in a commanding style, and that an attitude
t>e maintained at once formidable and dignified.”
The people are all enrolled for service, when called upon,
rom a certain age. A father of a family, having a certain
number of children, is exempt from service ; an only son,
nnd a son who supports his parents, are both exempt.
reat distinctions are shown to those who fall in battle.
CHINA.
575
The body of an officer is burnt, and his ashes, with his ar- China,
mour and a suitable eulogium, sent to his friends; the bow
and sabre of a common soldier slain in fight are sent to his
family; rewards are distributed, and honourable mention
made of the deceased in the Pekin Gazette.
Since the conquest of Western Tartary, completed by
Kien-lung, they are not likely to be engaged in any foreign
wars. If the neighbouring states, which pay a'nominal
vassalage, contribute nothing to their wealth or strength,
neither are they likely to give them trouble or uneasiness.
They have nothing to apprehend on the side of Tartary
but an irruption of the Russians, an event which has been
supposed not altogether foreign to the plans of the rulers
of that overgrown empire. A revolt, however, of a very
alaiming nature, took place in the western provinces, and
extended itself to the very heart of the empire, in which
the lebels were stated to be everywhere victorious; but
the only result would be, if successful, to set up a new
sovereign, perhaps a new dynasty. Every tiling else will
go on just as it has done from time immemorial. (Hist.
Gen. de la Chine coneernant les Chinois ; Canton Gazette.)
Nothing has yet appeared in Europe from an authentic Sciences,
source, to warrant any other conclusion than that of the
uttei ignorance of the Chinese in the pure, speculative,
cind abstract science of mathematics. Their knowledge
of arithmetic and geometry is bounded by mere practical
rules. Their numerical notation is marked down by sym¬
bols of the language, as that of the Greeks and the Ro¬
mans was, by letters of the alphabet; and, like them, the
Chinese symbols want that value in position which the
Arabic numbers possess. The common operations of arith¬
metic are generally performed by a few balls strung on
wires, somewhat resembling the Roman abacus, and some¬
times by the joints of the fingers. The measure of quan¬
tity is usually determined, by reducing all surfaces and
sides to the dimensions of squares or cubes; and with
those few practical operations they contrive to manage
all the common purposes of life.
Yet the Chinese have been represented by some of the
French missionaries as profound astronomers at a time
when all Europe was in a state of barbarism ; as being able
to calculate the recurrence of eclipses; to adjust the irregu¬
lar motions of the sun and moon ; to measure the distances
of the planets, and so forth. I he ridiculous ceremonies ob¬
served by the great officers of state when eclipses happen,
furnish, it is true, no proof against the knowledge of their
causes. A government established on ancient customs
cannot afford to lop off any of its props; and the foretelling
of eclipses, the frightening away of the dragon that would
devour the sun or moon, the favourable or unfavourable
omens of the heavenly appearances, are so many engines
for keeping the ignorant in awe. The Imperial Calendar
is an admirable coadjutor of the Imperial Gazette. But
when we find, from their own annals, and from the report
of the earliest travellers, that foreigners have had the su¬
perintendence of the astronomical part of this almanac ;
and that, from the defective knowledge of these foreign
astronomers, and the occasional want of them altogether,
the national calendar, as declared by one of their empe¬
rors, had undergone no less than seventy-two revisions, it
may safely be concluded that the Chinese know very little
of the matter. M. Freret says he had in his possession the
copy of a celestial chart, constructed in China about the
sixth century of the Christian era, on which were inserted
1460 stars in their proper positions, at least sufficiently
near to be recognised; but this may have been made me¬
chanically, and perhaps by a foreigner. It is recorded in
their annals, that in 718 of the Christian era, an Indian
astronomer of the name of Koo-tan, having brought from
the west a treatise on astronomy, was employed at court
576
China.
CHINA.
to translate it into the Chinese language; and they also
' mention that Kublai-khan encouraged learned men to re¬
main in China, and that under his reign an Arab astrono¬
mer was employed in rectifying the calendar, an con
structing astronomical instruments. Since that time, Ar¬
menians, Bucharians, Hindus, Arabs, and Christians, have
presided over the board charged with the construction of
the National Almanac, in which the native Chinese took
no other part than that of assigning the lucky and un¬
lucky days, what was to be done and what abstained fiom
on those days. When Lord Macartney was in Pekin,
a Portuguese, who called himself Bishop of 1 ekin, a per¬
son of no great skill in mathematical knowledge, presided
over this board. Indeed, the state in which their calen¬
dar was found when Adam Schaal, one of the earliest Je¬
suits, made his way to Pekin, sufficiently proves their ig¬
norance of astronomical calculations, an intercalary month
having been introduced into the wrong year. On making
found, retaining their original language, manners, and go¬
vernment. Captain Sayer, of his Majesty’s ship Leda, on
ascending a river of the western coast of Borneo, came un¬
expectedly on a colony of Chinese in the interior, consist-
in- of not less than 200,000 or 300,000 persons, all united
under one chief or captain; and Sir Iliomas Baffles says,
that near the same place, it has been calculated that the
number of Chinese employed in the gold mines alone
amounts to 32,000 working men. .
Their knowledge, however, of their immediate neigh¬
bours was very limited and imperfect. By the aid of prac-
tical geometry, they had a tolerable notion or their own
country. Pere Madia asserts, that on comparing an an¬
cient chart of China, said to be copied out of the Shoo-
kinq, with the actual survey made by his brother Jesuits
and himself, and which took them ten years to complete,
they found the limits and the positions of the provinces,
the courses of the rivers, and the direction of the moun-
China.
having been introduced into the wrong year, un . ^ ttv nearly to accord ; but the proportions of the
them acquainted with this blunder, all the departments of ^ Fetty neariy^o acc ^ ^ ^ were not in the
the state, ordinary and extraordinary, were summoned to objects to eacn otner, anu u _ _ .w tW ami
sit in judgment on the good fathers report, which they
voted to be erroneous, and that the ancient system should
be continued. They kept, however, the learned Jesuit at
court, and quietly allowed him to set them right. Hie
emperor Kaung-hee, who seems to have entertained no
high opinion of his Chinese subjects, brought the Chinese
president of the board of astronomy to trial because he
could not calculate the length of shadow which a gnomon
would throw, but which was immediately done by bather
Verbiest. This intelligent Tartar put himself under the
tuition of the Jesuits, who made for him a quadrant, trans¬
lated into the Chinese language a set of logarithm tables,
which were printed, and a copy of which is now m the
library of the Royal Society of London ; a very beautiful
specimen of Chinese typography. Kaung-hee carried these
tables and his quadrant suspended from his gndle, and,
when in Tartary, is said to have constantly amused him¬
self in taking angles, and measuring the height of moun-
' The Chinese system, if system it can be called, of as¬
tronomy, resembles so closely that which remains o ie
Hindus, that both must have been derived from the same
source. The period or cycle of sixty years, by which their
chronology is regnlated-the period of 10,800 years^ob-
least observed. He further observes, that they saw and
-azed with astonishment and admiration at the chasms
which the emperor Yu caused to be cut through solid
mountains, to open new channels for the waters of the
Yellow River. Some, however, will be apt to conclude
that it was the water itself, and not the empeior iu,
which opened these channels. ,
Of natural and experimental philosophy, they know only
what the Jesuits taught them, and that appears not to
be much. Of clock-making, dialling, optics, and electri¬
city, they know nothing ; of hydrostatics and hydraulics,
very little. They raised water by a machine resembling
the Persian wheel, and by a large wheel, with bamboo tubes
fixed obliquely on its rim ; but they were ignorant even ol
the principle of the common pump. I he use of most of
the mechanical powers is known to savages ; but the most
commodious and effective application of them was not
known to the Chinese. In most cases manual strength
supplied the place of mechanical power. W hen Mr Bar-
row, in delivering the presents to the emperor kien-lung,
failed in making him comprehend the use of the mechani¬
cal powers from a complete set of models, the old man
observed, that they might serve as playthings for his grand-
"’’The nature of their own If °liK
served by the S„-t“se, which & the sum of the first three f
Hindu ages, with their intermediate periods—the division ra ;V ;,] j ners may explain the low ebb ofprofe ■
of the zodiac into twelve signs, and also into twenty-eight —trse wdh f»™^™feSns in China. The max-—
constellations, or habitations of the moon, coiiespondinj.
with the twenty-eight Hindu naeshatras are so many
proofs of a common origin; and both may perhaps nave
derived the remains of this science from some third na¬
tion, more ancient than either; as the little which both
nations do possess appears to be the remains rather than
the elements of the science. .
The system of policy which discouraged all intercourse
with strangers, which set no value on foreign commerce
and navigation, and which cultivated no language but that
of the country, which was unintelligible to other nations,
must necessarily have kept the people of China in igno¬
rance of all the rest of the world. China was to them, in
the sciences and liberal professions m Ch na’ 11
ims of the sovereigns and sages of antiquity, the r t
ceremonies and duties required by the civil and re g
institutions of the empire, the laws and custor A
points of knowledge which lead to wealth, power, and d
Ruction in the state. As there is no established rehgion,
so none is paid or preferred by the governme
structinsr the people. As there is no pleading i
or civil suits, so there are none who act as attorneys or
vocates; and the practice of physic is attended wiffit^
little either of honour or emolument to exclt® .
in men of rank and ability in the pursuit of R, a"d
rally in the hands of the sectarian priests of
tse, or of low vulgar quacks. Without the least _ S.
discover uy tuc v   r
the tongue, the ears, and the voice. ‘7'fplirifuLres, de¬
tained, they prescribe their vomits, PuJe ’ J which
■ world. It appears, however, that at a very tse, or ot low^ h* can know pule of the an.-
remote period they had intercourse with Pegu, Siam, Ma- °f anatmny or s^g y^J ^ they pretend to
lacca, Hindustan, and several of the Asiatic islands. 1 wo mal econo y. , , the eye> the nose,
centuries before the Christian era, they had a knowledge discover by the quackery oUhejiuise, ^ ^ ig ascer.
of the upper regions of Tartary ; and one of their travellers
gives an account of an inland sea, into which the rivei s
running to the westward were received, which could be no
other than the Caspian. The great islands of Borneo, Ja¬
va, Sumatra, and Ceylon, are names easily recognized in
their annals, on which great numbers of Chinese are still
Ixtrac’tedBom the three Idngdoms of nature, ojjl ^
mercury, antimony, rhubarb, am gmsci ^egs t0
inconsiderable part. Of ginseng affine they gur_
have no less than seventy-seven preparations.
CHIN A.
:na.
gery consists chiefly in acupunctuation and shampooing,
and it is practised chiefly by the barbers. There are cer¬
tain persons whose occupation is to discover whether those
who may be found dead have died a natural death or by
violence, whether by their own means or that of others;
and the verdict of the criminal court is often grounded on
the decision of these quacks.
The emperor Kaung-hee soon convinced himself that
several of the Jesuits were better skilled in medicine than
his own physician. At first, however, he had some scru¬
ples, upon being attacked by a fever, of following their ad¬
vice. Three of the first physicians to the court dissuaded
him from taking a medicine of whose qualities they pro¬
fessed themselves ignorant, and advised him to let the dis¬
ease go on, that they might discover its true character.
The emperor, however, at last took the Peruvian bark
which the Jesuits had prescribed, and soon recovex-ed ; but
it is said in the General History, that several officers who
had similar fevers were first ordered to take the bark, and
finding it at least harmless, he then ventured upon it him¬
self. As ignorance is a crime in the eyes of the ignorant,
it is more especially so at the court of China, and made
capital in those to whom the life of the sovereign is in¬
trusted. The three physicians were, therefore, delivered
over to the criminal court, who condemned them to death ;
but Kaung-hee mitigated the punishment to that of exile,
and rewarded the Jesuits with a house in Pekin, and con¬
tributed largely towards the building of a church.
Kaung-hee was a man of great humour, and used fre¬
quently to joke with the missionaries x’especting their reli¬
gion and the customs of their country. One day he asked
Mezzabarba, the pope’s legate, if it was the custom in Eu¬
rope to condemn a man to death without sufficient proof
of his guilt; and being answered in the negative,—“ One
cannot, ’ says the emperoi’, “ attach too great a value to
the life of man;” and turning to his body physician, and
ordering him to approach, “ Here,” continues he, “ is a
much more formidable person than myself. I can only
put a man to death on legal proof of guilt; but this fellow
can dispatch whomsoever he pleases without the form of
trial.”
Whoever may be curious to see the quackery of the
pulse detailed, without a complete knowledge of which
a physician would gain no reputation in China, may find a
translation of the doctrine in the collection of Du Halde.
The Chinese are subject to a species of contagious le-
pi’osy, which their physicians cannot cure, and which the
law ordains to be a legitimate cause of divorce, as the only
means to stop its progress. The itch is most prevalent,
and cutaneous disorders of vaidous kinds ai’e very common;
but they have escaped the plague, more, as Pauw thinks,
by constant ventilation, bybux-ning sandal-wood dust, and
other odoriferous woods, by the abundant use of musk and
various strong scented drugs, than by any attention to clean¬
liness. Perhaps, also, the universal smoking of tobacco
may have contributed to save them from the horrors of
the plague. (Hist. Gen. de la Chine, par Du Halde.)
Though little progress has been made in any of the li¬
beral arts or absti*act sciences, and little as they are likely
to advance under a system of government which intex--
dicts all intercourse wdtli foreign nations, the arts which
necessity demands, which add to the conveniences and
increase the comforts of a civilized state of society, seem
to have flourished at a very early period of their history;
and many of them have been brought to a degree of per-
ection which is still unequalled by the most polished na¬
tions of Europe. Whatever depends on mere imitation
and manual dexterity, can be executed as well and as
neatly by a Chinese* as by the most skilful artists of the
western world; and some of them in a style of very supe-
vol. VI.
rior excellence. No people, for example, have carried
the art of dyeing, or of extracting dyeing materials from
so great a variety of animal, mineral, and vegetable sub¬
stances, as the Chinese have done; and this merely from
a practical knowledge of chemical affinities, without trou¬
bling themselves with theories derived from scientific prin¬
ciples. In like manner practice has taught them how to
detect the exact proportion of alloy that may be mixed
with gold and silver, and how to separate it. We import
from China their native cinnabar; but our vermilion, ex¬
tracted from it, is not to be compared with theii's for bril¬
liancy and deepness of colour, which is supposed to be
given to it by long and patient trituration under watei\
Again, the beautiful blues on their poi'celain are more
transpai'ent, deep, and vivid, than the same blues applied
to our pottery-ware; yet we supply the Chinese with the
same cobalt frits from which our own colours are extract¬
ed. It has been supposed that the greater or less bril¬
liancy of the colour’s used for painting porcelain depends
more on the nature of the glaze on which they are laid,
than on their own intrinsic merits. Here then we have
sornething still to learn from the Chinese. The biscuit of
their porcelain, too, is much superior in whiteness, hard¬
ness, and transparency, to any which has been made in
Europe. The Swansea porcelain comes the nearest to it
in these x’espects, which is supposed to be owing in some
degree to a proportion of magnesian earth being mixed with
the aluminous and silicious ingredients. In form and de¬
coration, which depend on a taste and feeling which the
Chinese are strangers to, we far surpass them.
In the cutting of ivory into fans, baskets, pagodas, nests
of nine or more hollow movable balls, one within the
other, beautifully carved, the artists of Europe cannot pre¬
tend to vie with the Chinese; yet it does not appear
that they practise any other means than that of working
in water with small saws. As little can Eui’opeans pre-?
tend to rival their lai’ge horn lanterns, of several feet ifx
diameter, perfectly transparent in every part, without a
flaw or opaque spot, and without a seam ; yet a small port¬
able stove or furnace, an iron boiler, and a pair of com¬
mon pincers, are all the tools that are required for the
manufacture of those extraordinary machines. In silver
fillagree they are at least equal to the Hindus, and their
lacquered cabinets and other articles ai'e excelled only in
Japan. They are not less expert in cutting tortoise-shell
and mother of pearl, and all kinds of gems and stones.
They have a method of ornamenting their cabinet wares,
tea-chests, and other articles, with spangles laid on with the
black varnish in the shape of plants, birds, insects, &c. ex¬
hibiting varied iridescent colours, appearing like metallic
scales that have undergone the process of heat; but they
are nothing more than the thin lamina of a particular spe¬
cies of shell (Helix), which they have a method of separat¬
ing by boiling, as they pretend, for the space of half a moon.
In all the metals they woi’k with neatness; and if they
make not a lock or a hinge that an English artist would
look at, it is only because a Chinese would not pay the
price of a good one. Their white copper is a metal, or a
mixture of metals, unknown in Eui’ope; and though we
think that we have ascertained the component parts of
the famous gong to be coppei', tin, and bismuth, we are
yet unable to make a Chinese gong. In works of the
loom, and especially in the manufactui’e of silk and satin
cloths, we cannot pretend to cope with them; and their
silken twisted cords, tassels, and all kinds of embroidery,
in general the labour of females, ai-e extremely beautiful.
In the variety of gums, spices, and perfumes, they excel the
rest of the world. Our artists can attest the excellence
of their ink, and their paper and printing may challenge
those of Europe. Many other branches of the mechani-
4 D
577
China.
CHIN A.
cal arts might be enumerated, in which the Chinese may
consider themselves as second to none; but those already
mentioned are sufficient to exemplify their skill in this
respect. There are no manufactories carried on by ma¬
chinery, or upon a great scale. Generally speaking, each
individual in the country spins, weaves, and dyes his own
web. It would appear, however, from some regulations
laid down in the Leu-lee, that of porcelain, silks, satins,
and certain other articles, government is its own manu¬
facturer. The manufactories of porcelain and the coarser
kinds of pottery, for the sake of the coal, are mostly in
Kiano--see; and the village of Kin-te-chin, it is sait., con-
tains&nearly a million of people, all of them engaged in
the potteries. „
Ponulation There is no subject on which the accounts ot the mis-
1 sionaries are so vague and contradictory as that of the po¬
pulation ; yet they all affect to refer to official documents.
They agree, however, in stating it to be something im¬
mense, though the highest number is not equal to two
thirds of the enormous mass of 333,000,000, which the
mandarins attendant on Lord Macartney’s embassy gave
to that nobleman as the amount of the population. I he
inaccuracy, however, not to say impossibility, ot that ac¬
count, is obvious from mere inspection. The numbers in
each province are given in round millions, and in two pro¬
vinces the number of millions is precisely the same. In
the General History of China, the population is frequent¬
ly stated at different periods, but in a way so loose and
vague as to deserve little attention. There can be no
doubt, however, that from time to time a census is order¬
ed to be taken, and the result of it made public; that
the number of mouths is always included; but that a
separate list of the taxable inhabitants only is taken at
the same time, and is all perhaps that the government
cares about. Thus it is stated, that under Yang-tee, in
the 609th year of the Christian era, the empire contained
8 900,000 families, which, at six to each family, would
give a population of 53,400,000; but, to show how very
little numbers are to be depended on, it is also stated that
China at that time was from north to south 14,815 lee, and
from east to west 9300 lee, or 4444 miles by 2790, which
is about three times its actual dimensions, or nine times
its magnitude.
Again, it is stated that, in the year 1222, under the reign
of Hoei-tsong, before the 1 artar conquest, the board oi
Taxes ordered a census to be taken, which amounted to
20,882,358families,and46,734,784 persons, or about 2^-ths
to each family, which is absurd. In 1290, after the 1 al¬
tar conquest, ”Kublai-khan directed a census to be taken
of the taxable population. It amounted to 13,196,205 fa¬
milies, comprehending 58,834,711 persons; but it is ad¬
mitted that the state of the country prevented the whole
being taken. In 1502, Shiao-tsong caused a census^ to be
taken, the result of which is stated to have been 53,280,000
mouths. There is a strange difference between these num¬
bers and those which are published by Grozier,. purpoiting
to be a census of all the people in China, taken in the yeais
1760 and 1761, in the former of which the list amounts
to 196,837,977 mouths, in the latter to 198,214,553, mak¬
ing an increase in one year of 1,376,576 mouths.
If we are to give credit to these accounts, we must sup¬
pose that the population of China must have attained its
prodigious magnitude within the last two or tluee centu¬
ries, and that it must be greatly on the increase; but we
are immediately stopped short from drawing this conclusion,
by the translation^ of some statistical accounts of China
by Dr Morrison, taken by order of the emperor Kia-king
in order to be compared with a similar statement made at
the commencement of the reigning dynasty. According
to this census, the total population, including the twelve
Tartar banners, and all ranks and conditions, great and China,
small, amounts to between 145,000,000 and 146,000,000
of mouths; and this account agrees very exactly with
that census taken by Kien-lung in the yeai 1 /43, and con¬
tained in the Ye-tung-tche, or All matters concerning China,
a curious work we have before mentioned. By this cen¬
sus the number of heads of families paying taxes is stated
at 28,514,488; which, by reckoning five persons to each
family, would give 142,582,440. The number of the lite¬
rati, the military, and others exempt from taxation, will
amply make up the deficiency. Grozier, indeed, by the
omissions of Pere Amiot, and the exempts as above men¬
tioned, swells the total to 157,301,755. . , ,
This enormous population is fed and subsisted, and allResouri'j
its wants entirely supplied, from China alone. Except a
few Eno-lish broad cloths and metals, a few furs from Rus¬
sia, and a little cotton from Bombay, it receives but little
external supplies. The extent and fertility ot the soil are
amply sufficient for its demands. China consists of at
least one million and a half of square miles, and has about
ninety-seven persons to a square mile. Deduct a third
for waste lands, lakes, and mountains, and 640,000,000
acres still remain, which give near four and a half acres
of land to each individual. The land is subject to an
arbitrary tax, generally about one tenth ; and, in order to
ascertain the revenue, a report was made to Kien-lung in
the year 1745, of the amount of land under cultivation.
It was as follows :
King.
Land in the possession of individuals 7,081,142
Belonging to the Tartar standards  15,838
To the military  q roa
To the sectarian priests... 
To the literary 
7,359,447
each king being a hundred moo, and a moo equal to a su¬
perficies whose length is 2400 tehee, and breadth ten tehee.
The tehee is about 14*55 English mches ; so that the Chi¬
nese moo is to the English acre as 10,890 to 88M, by
which it will be found that, agreeably to the above state¬
ment, the land under cultivation was about 600 millions
0f Se constituent parts of the population of China wereCto
anciently considered to consist of four classes; the tse, oi
learned, who governed and instructed the rest; the nung,
or agriculturists, who provided food and materials for
clothing the rest; the hung, artizan or manufacturer, who
clothed, and built, and furnished houses for the rest a
the shanq, who distributed and exchanged the produc
tions of the other two among all the classes ot socie.v-
But nothing like a division into castes ever appeared m
China. On the contrary, every encouragement ;
for the children of the three inferior classes to aspire
th Thenumbers of the tse, or officers and literary men con¬
sisting of the members of the several boards, go _
provinces and cities, judges, treasurers, colle^rS’^
missaries, inspectors, and the like, with an enormous list of
subaltern officers, according to Grozier, amount to j
and of the literati, who every year take the-r deg e
L I y J     C7 y
qualify for office, there are 21,701; the whole of whom • -
L at any one time cannot, he says, be estimated at less
than 494,000. The military officers are also i eckone
the learned; and the number of those who have actual c ^
mands amount to 7411, each of whom, on an average
ploys nine subaltern officers under him; the whole, d
fore, of these would amount to 74,110; and the O) al of^
military, or militia, is estimated at 82~,621. B t _
the officers of government told Pere Amiot that
na.
C' H I N A.
ul.
tory exceeded two millions; and this agrees pretty near¬
ly with the information given to Lord Macartney.
A court calendar and an army list are published in Pe¬
kin four times a year, each consisting of several volumes ;
a tolerable proof of the frequent changes that take place'
in the subordinate movements of this vast machine.
The great mass of the people, however, are employed
in productive labour; perhaps, on a rough estimate, full
two thirds in agriculture and the fisheries; the remaining
third, after deducting the military, the civil officers, the
students, and candidates for office, amounting, perhaps, on
a rough guess, to about ten millions, are manufacturers,
tradesmen, shopkeepers, and the multitudes that are em¬
ployed in the numerous vessels and barges on the rivers
and canals, to carry on the internal commerce of the king¬
dom. Agriculture is the productive labour that has al¬
ways received the highest encouragement from the govern¬
ment ; and occasionally the emperor himself has turned out
into the field with great pomp and solemnity, to hold the
plough, as an example to the peasantry. Perhaps, however,
as Pauw observes, if th ey woul d remove all the trammels from
agriculture, it would have a better effect than the conti¬
nuance of this ancient ceremony. These trammels are, how¬
ever, fewer and lighter than in most countries. One tenth
of the estimated produce is all that is required for the
state; and they have neither priesthood nor poor to main¬
tain, each family being compelled by law and custom to
take care of its poor relations, and the sovereign taking
care of the spiritual concerns of his subjects. The mo¬
narch may be considered as the universal and exclusive
proprietor of the soil. There is no such thing as freeholds ;
but undisturbed possession is kept, as long as the holder
complies with the conditions on which the land was grant¬
ed. As there are no public funds, and capital vested in
trade is not very secure, nor the profession highly esteem¬
ed, the purchase of land is the most eligible mode of render¬
ing capital productive. Still there are very few great land¬
ed proprietors. Two reasons may be assigned for this ; first,
the rate of legal interest being as high as three per cent,
for a month, it would be ruinous to borrow money on
mortgage; and, secondly, it appears by the penal code,
that the proprietorship of the landholder is of a very qua¬
lified nature, and subject to a degree of interference and
control on tbe part of government, not known under any
of the European governments. It can only be disposed of
by will, under certain restrictions; the inheritors must
share it under certain proportions. If a proprietor should
neglect to register his land in the public records, and to
acknowledge himself as responsible for the payment of the
taxes, such land would become forfeited. If land capable
of cultivation be suffered to lie waste, through the inability
of the proprietor to till it, another may obtain permission
to cultivate it; and the mortgagee becomes responsible for
the payment of the taxes, until the land be redeemed by
the proprietor. All these restrictions operate against large
landed proprietorships.
Much has been said in praise of Chinese agriculture—
much more, in fact, than it deserves. In Europe it would
be despised. There are no great farms in China ; few fa-
milieus cultivate more than is necessary for their own use,
and for payment of the imperial taxes; and without teams
of any kind—without any knowledge or practice of a suc¬
cession of crops—without any grazing farms, for feeding
cattle or for the dairy, of which tiiey are totally ignorant—
making no use of milk, butter, or cheese—they can have
ittle manure, nor can the land be kept in good concli-
tion. In fact, the old fallowing system is followed, and
m many parts the spade and the hoe are the great hnple-
ments of cultivation, their miserable plough scarcely de¬
serving the name. The command of water is the principal
579
substitute for manure. Every substance, however, that China,
can be converted into manure, is most carefully collected;
and numbers of old people and children of both sexes find
employment in scraping together, with wooden rakes, into
their little baskets, whatever may have fallen in the streets
or roads, where these
Lean pensioners upon the traveller’s tract
Pick up their nauseous dole.
Leaves, roots, or stems of plants, mud from the sides of
canals, and every sort of offal that presents itself, of which
human hair, shaven from the scalps of a hundred millions
weekly, forms no inconsiderable ingredient, are carefully
scraped together. Large earthen vessels are sunk in the
ground, to which, it is said, their cattle are taught to re¬
tire; and on the outskirts of many towns and villages are
small buildings, invitingly placed for the accommodation
of passengers who may have occasion to use them. All
these resources, however, are very limited, and the utmost
suppJy thus afforded can only serve for horticultural pur¬
poses.
I he whole of the land in China under cultivation may
be said to be employed exclusively for the subsistence and
clothing of man. The staff of life is rice; and it is the
chief article of produce in the middle and southern pro¬
vinces. This grain requires little or no manure ; age after
age the same piece of ground yields its annual crop, and
some of them two crops a year. In the culture of rice,
water answers every purpose; and nature has supplied this
extensive country most abundantly with that valuable ele¬
ment. It is here that Chinese agricultural skill is most
displayed; the contrivances for raising it out of rivers
where the banks are high, by means of wheels, long levers,
swinging buckets, and the like ; or of leading it down from
mountain springs, and along terraces levelled on the sides
of hills, or in little channels across the plains, are all ad¬
mirable ; but when, from long drought, the rivers run
low in their channels, and the springs fail, a scarcity of
the crop is the inevitable consequence, and the effects of
famine are most dreadful; for though the government has
not been wanting in storing up a year’s supply of grain in
the public magazines (the produce of the taxes being most¬
ly paid in kind), yet, before the beneficent intentions of
the sovereign can be carried into effect, there are so many
previous memorials and references necessary, and so many
forms of office to pass through, that the mischief has work¬
ed its effects before the remedy is applied ; and though in
this vast empire the scarcity of grain may be local and par¬
tial, they have no relief to look to from without, and the
system of external commerce is too slow in its operations
to throw in a timely supply where it maybe most wanted.
In the northern provinces, where water is less abundant
and less to be depended upon, wheat, barley, buck-wheat,
and a great variety of millets, supply the place of rice.
Everywhere are met with leguminous plants of different
kinds, pumpkins, melons, sweet potatoes, and whole fields
ofa luxuriant vegetablecalled/>ef-tecM, the white herb, appa¬
rently a species of brassica, which is salted for winter con¬
sumption. In Kiang-nan and Tche-kiang, vast tracts of
land are planted with the white mulberry tree, as food for
the silk worms. They appear like a young orchard of
cherry trees, being kept low by constant pruning, to make
them throw out young shoots and fresh supplies of leaves.
In all the middle provinces are large fields of cotton, which
article supplies the usual clothing of the great mass of the
population; in addition to which, immense quantities are
imported annually from Bombay. That peculiar species
of a yellowish tinge, which we call Nankin, is not worn
by the Chinese, at least in its natural colour ; blue, brown,
and black, are the prevailing colours. Patches of indigo
are generally found in the vicinity of the cotton plantations.
580
CHINA.
China.
The tea plant, which forms so important an article for
the common beverage of the country, and also for expor¬
tation, is cultivated only in particular provinces, and in cer¬
tain situations; but it is found in gardens and small en¬
closures in every part of the empire, being very nrnch ot
the habit and appearance of the broad-leafed myrtle. e
scarcely yet know whether the different kinds of tea aie
from the same plant, or different species of the same genus.
The leaf of the sou-chong is broader than that of the hy¬
son ; but this seems to constitute the only difference.
Both sorts undergo the process of roasting in then iron
pans; the black in a higher degree of heat than the green,
which is sufficient to give a different character to the ex¬
tractive matter from the two sorts; and the nervous qua¬
lity usually ascribed to green tea maybe owing to the
little alteration which the juices of the leaf undergo from
the small degree of heat that is used in the process, lo
procure the fine flavour, the Chinese usually press the
o-reen teas into the chests and cannisters while hot. They
have a practice also of giving a finer bloom to dull-green
teas, by sprinkling a little indigo, mixed with powder of
o-ypsum, while stirring the leaf about in the pan. I he dif¬
ferent sorts of black and green are not merely from soil,
situation, and age of the leaf; but, after winnowing the
tea, they are taken up in succession as the leaves faff:
those nearest the machine, being the heaviest, form the gun¬
powder tea; the light dust the worst, being chiefly used
by the lower classes. That which is brought down to Can¬
ton undergoes there a second roasting, winnowing, pack¬
ing, &c.; and many hundred women are employed for these
purposes, the rate of pay being about fifty of their small
copper coins, or fourpence per day. The Chinese say that
the best tea is that which is gathered in the morning while
the dew is on. The gathering in the hyson countries,
Kiang-nan and Fokien, commences about the middle of
April, and continues till about the middle of May. The
collecting, the rolling, the twisting, and roasting, give em¬
ployment to a multitude of people. From the berry of the
tcha-wha, or flower of tea ( Camelia sesanqua), a fine edi-
ble oil is extracted. The almond and the Palma Chusti
also afford them an oil for culinary purposes. The white
wax is the produce of a tree, or rather of a small insect
which frequents the tree; and the Croton scbiferum yields
an excellent vegetable tallow; both of these articles serving
them to make candles. In the southern provinces sugar
is a common article of cultivation, but it is lather a luxuiy
than an article of common consumption. It is used mostly
in a coarse granulated form ; but for exportation, and foi
the upper classes, it is reduced to its crystallized state.
Tobacco is universally cultivated, and in universal use by
all ages and both sexes. Fruits of every kind abound, but
are mostly bad, except the orange and the ke-tchee, both of
which are probably indigenous. The art of grafting is well
known; but they do not appear to have taken advantage
of this knowledge to the improvement of their fruits! They
have also an art, which enables them to take off bearing
branches of fruit, particularly of the orange and peach,
and transfer them, in a growing state, to pots, for their
artificial rocks, and grottoes, and summer-houses. It is
simply by removing a ring of the bark, plastering round it
a ball of earth, and suspending a vessel of water to drop
upon it, until it has thrown out roots into the earth. It
would require too much space to describe the various ve¬
getable productions used for food and for clothing, for me¬
dicine and for the arts. The climate and the soil are well
adapted for producing almost all that the rest of the world
affords, except, perhaps, those parts which lie within a
few degrees of the equator; and the Chinese have ob¬
tained their full share even of them.
They are exceedingly sparing in the use of animal food.
Those important articles of milk, butter, and cheese, are china,
wholly unknown to them. The broad-tailed sheep are
kept in the hilly parts of the country, and brought down
to the plains; but the two animals most esteemed, be¬
cause they contribute most to their own subsistence, and
are kept at the cheapest rate, are the hog and the duck.
Whole swarms of the latter are bred in large barges, sur¬
rounded with projecting stages, covered with coops, for
the reception of these birds, which are taught, by the
sound of a whistle, to jump into the rivers and canals in
search of food, and by another call to return to their lodg¬
ings. They are usually hatched by placing their eggs,
as the ancient Egyptians were wont to do, in small ovens,
or sand-baths, in order that the same female may continue
to lay eggs throughout the year, which would not be the
case if she had a young brood to attend, dhe ducks, when
killed, are usually split open, salted, and dried in the sun,
in which state they afford an excellent relish to rice or
other vegetables. . .
The fisheries are free to all; there are no restrictions
on any of the great lakes, the rivers, or canals. The sub¬
ject is not once mentioned in the Leu-lee ; but the heavy
duties on salt render the use of salt fish in China almost
unknown. Besides the net, the line, and the spear, the
Chinese have several ingenious methods of catching fish.
In the middle parts of the empire, the fishing corvorant, the
Pelicanus piscator, is almost universally in use; in other
parts, they catch them by torch-light; and a very com¬
mon practice is, to place a board painted white along the
edge of the boat, which, reflecting the moon’s rays into
the water, induces the fish to spring towards it, supposing
it to be a moving sheet of water, when they fall into the
When animal food fails them, the Chinese make no
scruple in eating lizards, toads, grubs, cats, rats, mice,
and many other nauseous creatures. The naked Egyptian
dog is commonly exposed for sale in the market. But
rice, the hog, and the duck, may be considered as the
staple articles of human subsistence for the great mass ot
the population. Those who can afford it indulge in every
species of luxury, and more especially in gelatinous soups,
which, while they pamper the appetite, are supposed to
excite the passions, and to increase their corpulency,
which, in their ideas, confers a degree of respectability
and dignity to which a small meagre figure can never arrive.
No country in the world is better adapted, from situa-Comiri,
tion, climate, and products, for extensive commerce, than
China ; yet no civilized country has profited less by these
advantages. -The happy distribution of its numerous rivers,
aided by artificial canals, affords an almost uninterrupted
water communication from the northern to the southern,
and from the western to the eastern extremities of this
grand empire; and thus a facility is given for the inter¬
change of the products of one province with those of an¬
other, unknown in any other country, and unequalled eve
in Great Britain. But tl\e commerce that exists 18 Fm'
cipally that of barter; no system of credit is esta^he(J,
between the merchants of distant provinces; no bills o
exchange ; no circulating medium of any kind, as a
measure of value, excepting a small copper coin, 0
value of the thousandth part of 6s. 8d., or about one third
of a farthing. The multitudes of barges of different sorts
and sizes, which vary in their construction on almost every
river, are incredible. rIhe Chinese are rare y to e
ed where numbers are concerned; but they are prob y
not far amiss in stating that the number of impenal barges
employed in the grand canal and its lateral branc ,
the purpose of collecting and distributing among P
lie granaries the rice and grain paid in kind a® ’n
amounts to 10,000, or, as they express it, where they m
C H
m. to be correct, to 9999. A vast number of vessels are also
^ employed in conveying the copper currency from place to
place, wherever it may be wanted; others in collecting
the silks, cottons, and various articles of taxes, paid in
kind, and depositing them in the public magazines; and
the salt barges alone are probably not less numerous than
those which carry grain. It was calculated that the de¬
pot of salt accumulated at Tien-sing for the use of the ca¬
pital and the northern provinces, was sufficient for a year’s
consumption for thirty millions of people. This was all
brought up, in the course of the summer, from the sea-
coast of Tche-kiang and Fokien, in sea-going vessels. Cakes
of coal-dust and turf, for fuel, and cakes made up of vari¬
ous ingredients for garden manure, employ a multitude of
barges; and when to these are added the various kinds
of vessels employed in general commerce, in the convey¬
ance of passengers and baggage, in breeding ducks, and
in the fisheries of the interior, we may be sure that the
number of persons who constantly reside upon the water
amounts to many millions, and are probably equal to the
whole population of Great Britain. It may be doubted if
these are included in any census.
All foreign commerce is systematically discouraged.
The extent, fertility, and variety of their soil and climate,
happily situated between the extremes of heat and cold,
partaking of the advantages of both, without experiencing
the inconveniences of either, supply the Chinese with the
productions of almost all the world besides, whether to mini¬
ster to the necessities, the comforts, or the luxuries of their
numerous population; and leave this great empire, as a
nation, completely independent of foreign supplies through
the medium of commerce. Satisfied, or affecting to be
satisfied, with the prodigal bounty of nature, jealous of
strangers, and governed by a gradation of arbitrary despots,
the Chinese consider it as a favour bestowed on foreigners
to open one of their ports for the interchange of commo¬
dities. The revenue derived from this limited intercourse
is of little or no importance at the chief seat of govern¬
ment. The largest estimate that can be made of the value
of the whole of their foreign commerce, and the largest
computation of revenue flowing from it into the imperial
treasury, is but as a drop in the ocean. Individual and
local interests might and would most materially be affect-
| ed by any prohibition of an intercourse which has now sub¬
sisted for a century and a half; but the government pays
little regard to the prosperity or misery of a particular pro¬
vince. The interested views of individuals may, for a time,
keep up a trade which is at variance with the general rule
i of policy prescribed by the laws ; and the frequent discus¬
sions with the English, wdiose power they are aware of
and dread, will most probably determine them ultimately
to close Canton against all foreigners. The English they
will not venture particularly to exclude, though they know
that other nations would take their articles of produce
without forcing upon them European broad cloths, which
they affect not to want, but would give them specie, which
is, of all other things, what they most desire. The Eng¬
lish, however, by their highly improper conduct, not long
ago endangered the privilege of foreigners resorting to
Canton. Fortunately, by the removal of the aggressor, and
a reference to Pekin, which produced a permission to con¬
tinue the trade, on conditions sufficiently humiliating, a
recurrence to naval and military force, threatened on our
part, was avoided, and the impolicy and injustice of such
a measure rendered unnecessary.
The luxuries, however, which wealth requires, have
forced a foreign trade by their own subjects with the na¬
tions of the East, as well as with Europe. A very exten¬
sive intercourse is carried on by them with Japan, the
Philippine Islands, Java, Sumatra, Timor, Gelolo, and the
I N A.
great island of Borneo, in all of which are found multi¬
tudes of Chinese, living in habits of peaceful industry, in the
midst of the more idle and less civilized natives, conduct¬
ing the concerns of trade, cultivating the ground, and ex¬
ercising all the various branches of the mechanical arts;
in no place, however, varying in the smallest degree their
original character. But though the Chinese spread them¬
selves over every part of the Asiatic, and into many of the
Polynesian islands, there seems to be no reciprocity of
commerce by the vessels of those countries visiting the
ports of China, excepting some ten or twelve junks that
annually visit the southern ports of Fokien from Japan, and
perhaps as many from Cochin-China. “ From Canton,”
says Lord Macartney, “ to Ten-chou-foo, at the entrance
of the Gulf of Pe-tche-lee (to say nothing of the country
within the gulf itself), is an extent of coast of near two
thousand miles, indented with innumerable harbours, many
of them capable of admitting the largest European ships,
and all of them safe and sufficiently deep for the vessels
of the country. Every creek or haven has a town or city
upon it; the inhabitants, who abound beyond credibility,
are mostly of a trafficking mercantile cast, and a great part
of them, from their necessary employment in the fishery,
which supplies them with a principal article of their sub¬
sistence, are accustomed to the sea, and the management
of shipping.” Yet with all these advantages, all foreign
commerce in foreign bottoms is interdicted to these peo¬
ple ; whatever they wish to import must be fetched by them¬
selves ; and the articles thus brought in are numerous and
of considerable value. Thus from Java alone they import
birds’ nests to the value of half a million dollars annually ;
the sea slug or biche-de-mer (holothuria), from the coast
of New Holland, Timor, and adjoining islands, to a still
greater extent; sharks’ fins from the same quarter; copper
from Japan, and tin from Bantam; pepper, areca nut,
spices of different kinds, ebony, sandal wood, red wood for
dyeing, tortoise-shell, pearl-shell, coral, camphor, wax, and
a variety of articles, generally produced or collected by
their own countrymen resident in the islands of the East.
When Lange, who accompanied Ismaeloff, the Russian
ambassador, asked permission for his nation to establish
factories in all the provinces, the reply of the emperor
was, “ I allow you to remain here (Pekin), and other fo¬
reigners at Canton, so long as you and they give me no
cause of complaint; but if this should ever be the case, I
will suffer neither you to remain here, nor them at Can¬
ton so very indifferent does the court affect to be about
foreign commerce. In the whole of this extensive empire
there are but two places where the natives have any in¬
tercourse with Europeans, at Canton with the crews of
the several maritime powers, and at Kiackta with the Rus¬
sians; and this intercourse is chiefly confined at the for¬
mer to a select number of men, appointed or licensed by
the government; at the latter it takes place only under
special directions of the government itself, through mer¬
chants appointed under the seal of the emperor. Of the
instructions given to these merchants the Russians pro¬
cured a copy some years ago, though the punishment for
betraying them is condemnation to track the imperial
barges for life ; and a more singular document was never
issued by any government. It confirms all that has been
said of the meanness and knavery of this proud and in¬
solent people; and as it has not appeared in print, a sum¬
mary of it may prove amusing, and may serve to show, at
the same time, the notions entertained by the Chinese
with regard to the conduct of foreign commerce.
It sets out by stating that the aim of every nation, trad¬
ing with other countries, is to prevent the advantage be¬
ing on the side of the foreign nation; to do this the more
effectually, and to establish harmony and frankness, “ all
581
China.
582
CHIN A.
China,
the letters received by any one of the licensed merchants
from their partners are to be opened in a public assem¬
bly, that they may act in concert against the Russians.”
2. That as the general principles of commerce require that
prices and demands should be foreseen, means must be
taken to ascertain what articles the Russians are in want of,
and what prices they fetch in Russia ; what supplies they
may have or expect in the market, and what value they
bear in Russia. Every one is therefore to strive with all
his might to get at this information, and lay it before a ge¬
neral meeting, when the president will give to each mer¬
chant a note of the quantities of each article, and of the
prices lie is to buy at, and of those articles which he is to
withhold from the Russians. 3. That the Chinese market
is to be kept scantily supplied, and Russian goods not ea¬
gerly sought, that the trade may be of importance to them,
and the commerce advantageous to China. 4. That care
be taken that the quantity of Chinese goods should appear
always less than that of the Russians; and that no fresh
<>;oods be brought into the market before all the old stock
be sold off. G. That no eagerness be shown in the pur¬
chase of Russian goods, how much soever any individual
of the merchants may be in want of them, for the inte¬
rest of the whole company is not to be sacrificed to that
of an individual.” 7. That when the Russians have a scan¬
ty supply of any article that may be likely to meet with a
considerable demand in China, a great eagerness is to be
shown to buy up the whole ; the Russians aie to be told
that China is very much in want of the said article, and
one merchant is to outbid the other, and, when bought,
they are to divide the quantity among themselves. 8. That
the Russians, thus tempted by the high prices, and the as¬
surance given them of the great demand, will cause large
supplies to be brought to market, when they are to be told
that the article is no longer in request in China, &c., and
thus the goods will be obtained at a cheap rate from the
foreigners, to the great advantage of the whole nation. 9.
Whenever the Russian merchants shall attempt to raise
the prices of any commodity in consequence of its scarci¬
ty, every obstacle must be thrown in their way for the
space of a month ; and if they will not lower the pi ices,
the whole trade must be suspended ; and if, on complaint
of the merchants, the Russian government should inter¬
fere, it will not be attended to, and the. answer will be,
that the commerce between the two nations shall cease.
The 10th article contains an impudent falsehood: it in¬
structs them not only to tell the Russians that the quan¬
tities of the several articles on hand are much less than
they really are, but that “ China does not produce silk and
cotton.” The 11th article directs them to carry on all
their intercourse in the Russian language, which every
one engaged in the trade must learn, in order to prevent
the Russians from feeling the necessity of learning the
Chinese language, and by that means “ of discovering the
secrets of the trade, or those of the government,” by over¬
hearing conversations, &c. The 12th directs them to
treat the Russians politely ; permits reciprocal visits ; but
forbids a Chinese to pass a night in a Russian house ; di¬
rects, that in these visits each should endeavour to learn
something about the affairs of the Russian government,
and according to the importance of the information obtain¬
ed will be the value of the reward. The 13th directs,
that a new merchant arriving at Mai-mai-chin is not to do
any business for a whole year, but merely to look on and
learn the nature of the trade, “ for fear he should, by some
mistake, break the thread of the whole.” The 14th and
loth prohibit gold and silver, manufactured copper and
iron, from being exchanged, and the introduction of all
articles of luxury, of goods manufactured in China, and of
wine and spirituous liquors. 16th, “ The secrets of our
trade in the interior, as well as of that on the spot, must not Chid
be revealed, that this indiscretion may not occasion a rise
in their prices, and a fall in ours, and thereby injure our
empire and the trade of our subjects.” The eight remain¬
ing articles prescribe the various punishments for disobe¬
dience of the foregoing instructions, from a reprimand to
that of death. The 22d runs thus : “ Whoever betrays
to the Russians the secrets of our commerce in the inte¬
rior, or the prices of Russian products in the interior, or
the demand for them, the quantity he holds himself, or that
others hold at Kiackta, or that may be on the road thither,
shall be banished from Kiackta for ever, and be sent to
the galleys for three years; but whosoever betrays to
them these instructions verbally, or in effect, or by deed,
shall be sent to the galleys for life.” And by the 23d,
“ Whoever betrays the secrets of the government which
are not to be known by the Russians, shall be beheaded,
not, however, without the sanction of the emperor." We
know very little of the value of the trade carried on at this
place in this extraordinary manner. It consists chiefly in
exchange, on the part of Russia, of fur and various kinds
of peltry, horses, drugs, &c., for tea, silks, nankeens, por¬
celain, lacquered ware, and other small articles similar to
those imported by England. {From a Russian MS.)
The principal mart for foreign commerce is that of Can¬
ton, the only port, in fact, which is open for foreigners.
For the last twenty years the foreign commerce of this
port was almost exclusively in the hands of the English
and the Americans. The English commerce consisted of
two distinct branches ; the one direct from England, and
a complete monopoly of the East India Company; the
other indirectly carried on by individuals from the several
presidencies of India, chiefly from Bombay. I he Chinese
system of conducting their foreign trade at. Canton is
somewhat different from that of Kiackta. It is a mono¬
poly confided to a certain number of persons, known by
the name of Hong merchants ; hong being the name of the
large factories or masses of buildings surrounding square
courts similar to our old inns, or the caravanserais of the
East. Each nation has its separate hong, and the whole
being arranged along the bank of a fine river, with abroad
quay in their front, their appearance has a grand effect
from the opposite side. The river is at least as broad as
the Thames dt London, and for the distance of four or five
miles it is crowded by Chinese vessels of all descriptions,
which, from the multitude of people constantly residing
in them, may be considered as a floating city, foreign
vessels are not allowed to approach nearer to Canton than
Whampoo, which is about fifteen miles down the river.
The Chinese levy no specific duties on the articles im¬
ported, nor ad valorem duties on the cargoes; the only
impost is on the ship itself, and is estimated by a rule as
absurd as it is partial and unequal. They measure the
length from the centre of the fore-mast to the centre of the
mizen-mast, and the breadth is taken close abalt the main¬
mast. The length is then multiplied by the breadth, and
the product, divided by ten, gives the measurement of the
ship. All ships, according to this measurement, are class¬
ed under first, second, or third rates; all other vessels,
however small, are classed as third rates. By this rule a
ship of a hundred tons would pay from 4000 to oUUU
dollars, and a ship of a thousand not above double tliat
sum. .
When a ship arrives at Canton she is immediately con¬
signed to one of the hong merchants, who is responsib e
to the government for the good conduct of her commander
and crew during her stay in the river. Ihrough Ins an s
all her cargo must pass, and by him the return cargo mus
be supplied. By long experience of the honourable man¬
ner in which the servants of the East India Company con
CHIN A.
ina.
duct their concerns, a degree of mutual confidence has
been established, which is unknown even in Europe. Not
a bale of cloth, nor a package of any kind, is ever opened
to be examined, but is received and passed from hand to
hand, the Company’s mark being a sufficient guarantee of
its answering the description in the invoice; the same
confidence prevails on our part; and though the Chinese
attach no dishonour to roguery in trade, few packages of
teas, silks, nankeens, or other articles, are received in
England which are not conformable with the samples.
This, however, was not the case originally, nor is it so yet
in purchases made by individuals ; but as the hong mer¬
chants take back any article not answering to the descrip¬
tion given of it, and return it to the person who supplied
the same, the inducement to cheat the Company is taken
away. Some of the hong merchants accumulate fortunes
which, for their magnitude, are unknown in Europe;
others become bankrupt, in which case, as they are all
appointed by government, the rest find it expedient to
compound with their creditors, and, by such arrangements
as may mutually be agreed upon, undertake to liquidate
by instalments the whole debt. At the close of every
season there is generally a balance in the hands of the
hong merchants due to the East India Company, from
half a million to a million sterling, and as much more due
to individuals trading on their own bottoms. The hon<>-
merchants plead the necessity of retaining this balance^
in order to enable them to make advances to the tea-
growers, silk and cotton manufacturers, &c. who, as in
India, are persons of small capitals, and require these ad¬
vances to raise their respective products.
The articles exported to China by the East India Com¬
pany consist of broad cloth, long cloths, camblets, furs,
lead, tin, copper, &c. but the chief article is broad cloth.
The commanders and officers of the Company’s ships have
the privilege of taking out certain articles, such as peltry,
glass, clocks, watches, cutlery, coral, prints, and paintings,
&c. The principal article of import from China is tea.
The rest of the cargo consists of nankeens and raw silk.
Ihe minor articles of porcelain, lacquered and ivory goods,
tutenague, mother of pearl, drugs, cinnabar, &c. are chief¬
ly confined to the private trade.
The Chinese appear to have no regular established sys¬
tem of credit among themselves, and the only circulating
medium in the shape of coin, is a small piece of base me¬
tal (copper, tin, or lead mixed), of the value of the one-
thousandth part of six shillings and eightpence, of little
more intrinsic value, in fact, than a cowrie shell, which
the Chinese, as well as the Hindoos, would seem once to
have used; as the same character in their language which
signifies a shell signifies also money and w'ealth, and it
enters into the composition of characters which represent
buying, selling, paging, &c. Silver in small ingots is used
m commerce, but they have no determinate value, the
price fluctuating with the demand, as in other articles of
commerce. The high rate of interest operates as a dis¬
couragement to mercantile speculations, and the rigour of
corporal punishment is added with the view, as it would
appear, ot deterring the mqst hardy speculator. The law
says, “ whoever shall lend either money or goods, shall
only receive three parts in the hundred per month,” and
tnat “ how much soever may be suffered to accumulate,
tie capital shall remain the same.” It is lent from month
to month, anti if the lender should complain of the inte¬
rest not being punctually paid, the borrower is subject to
t >e punishment of ten stripes of the bamboo the first
jiionth, twenty the second, and so on. While this exhor-
■tant rate ot interest, and the penalties attached to the
)w of usury, operate against all speculation among the
unese, the Europeans resident at Canton have availed
583
themselves of tne opportunity of increasing their fortunes China,
at the expense of the hong merchants, and at the risk of
losing both capital and interest. {From various Manu¬
script Papers.')
When a European first sets his foot in China, he will General ap-
find the appearance of the country, the buildings, and thePearance of
people, so totally different from any thing he had before thecountl>
seen, that he might fancy himself to be transported into
a new world. In the long line of internal navigation be¬
tween the capital and Canton, of 1200 miles, with but one
short interruption, he will observe every variety of surface,
but disposed in a very remarkable manner in great masses.
Tor many days he will see nothing but one uniform extend¬
ed plain, without the smallest variety; again, for as many
days, he will be hemmed in between precipitous mountains
of the same naked character, and as unvaried in their ap¬
pearance as the plains ; and, lastly, ten or twelve days sail
among lakes, swamps, and morasses, will complete the cata¬
logue of monotonous uniformity. But whether he crosses
the dry plains of Betcheli and Shantung, abounding with
cotton and all the varieties of grain and pulse,—the more
varied surface of Kiang-nan, fertile in silk, in yellow cot¬
ton, in fruits, in the staple commodity of grain, and in
every thing that constitutes the luxuries, the comforts, and
the necessities of the people,—the dreary swamps, mo¬
rasses, and extensive lakes of the northern part of Kiang-
see, where men subsist by fishing,—or its naked and pic¬
turesque mountains to the southward, famous for its por¬
celain manufactories ;—or whether he descend to the fer¬
tile plains of Quang-tung, on which almost all the vege¬
table products of the East may be said to be concentrated,
—the grand characteristic feature is still the same, namely,
a redundant population. Everywhere he meets with large
masses of people, but mostly of one sex; thousands of
men in a single group, without a single woman mixing
among them—men whose long gowns and petticoats give
them the appearance of the softer sex; whilst these are
sparingly seen at a distance in the background, peeping
over the mud-walls, or partially hid behind trees or bushes ;
and their short jackets and trowsers would make them pass
for men among strangers, if their braided hair, stuck full
ot flowers, and their little cramped and bandaged feet, did
not betray their sex. He will be pleased with the unequi¬
vocal marks of good humour which prevail in every crowd,
uninterrupted and unconcerned by the bawling of some
unhappy victim suffering under the lash of magisterial
correction ; and he will be amused at the awkward exer¬
tions ot the softer sex to hobble out of sight when taken
by surprise; but his slumbers will be interrupted on the
nights of the full moon by the nocturnal orgies of squibs
and crackers, gongs and trumpets, and other accompani¬
ments of boisterous mirth.
A constant succession of large villages, towns, and cities,
with high walls, lofty gates, and more lofty pagodas,—large
navigable rivers, communicating by artificial canals, both
crowded with barges for passengers and barks for burden,
as different from each other, in every river and every ca¬
nal, as they are all different from any thing of the kind
in the rest of the world,—will present to the traveller an
animated picture of activity, industry, and commerce.
He will behold, in the lakes and morasses, every little
islet crowned with villages and mud hovels. He will
observe birds (the leu-tse, or cormorant) catching fish ;
and men in the water, with jars on their head, fishing
for birds. He will see shoals of ducks issuing from
floating habitations, obedient to the sound of a whistle;
carts on the land, driven by the wind; and barges on the
water, moving by wheels, like those of late years invented
in Europe for propelling the steam-boats. Among other
strange objects, he will observe, at every ten or twelve
584
China.
CHINA.
miles, small military guard-houses, with a few soldiers
fantastically dressed in paper helmets and quilted petti¬
coats, making use of the fan, if the weather be warm, and
falling on their knees if an officer of rank should pass them.
He will observe that the meanest hut, with walls of clay,
and a roof of thatch, is built on the same plan, and of the
same shape, with the palace of the viceroy, constructed of
blue bricks, and its tiled roof supported on pillais. He
will notice that the luxury of glass is wanting in the win¬
dows of both; and that, whilst one admits a fiee passage
to the air, the other but imperfectly resists the weather,
and as imperfectly admits the light, whether through oiled
paper, silk gauze, pearl shell, or horn.
Nothing, perhaps, will more forcibly arrest the atten¬
tion of the traveller than the general nakedness of the
country as to trees and hedge-rows, the latter of which
have no existence, and the former exist only in clumps
near the dwellings of the public officers, or the temples of
Fo, or Tao-tse. No green meadows will meet his eye; no
cattle enliven the scene ; the only herbage is on the nar¬
row ridges which divide the plots of grain or the brown
fallow, as in the common fields of England, fhe teilaced
hills he will probably observe to be terminated with a
clump of trees, or a pagoda, the only objects in the dis¬
tance that catch the eye. But the bridges on the canals,
•of every variety of shape, circular, elliptical, horse-shoe,
Gothic, slight and unstable as they are, are objects that,
by their novelty and variety, must attract notice; and the
monumental architecture, which adorns the cemeteries
under every form, from the lowly tent-shaped dwelling to
the loftiest column—the elevated terraces, supported by
semicircular walls—and the round hillocks, which, in their
graduated size, point out that of the father, the mother,
and the children, according to seniority—are among the
most interesting objects that China affords.
If by chance he should be admitted within the gates of
one of their great cities, as Pekin, Nankin, Sau-tcheou-foo,
Hong-tcheou-foo, or Canton, he may fancy himself, from the
lowhouses with curved overhanging roofs, uninterrupted by
a single chimney, the pillars, poles, flags, and streamers, to
have got into the midst of a large encampment. The glitter
arising from the gilding, the varnishing, and the painting,
in vivid colours, that adorn the fronts of the shops, and,
in particular, the gaily painted lanterns of horn, muslin,
silk, and paper; the busy multitude all in motion, and
all of one sex; the painted and gilded inscriptions, that,
in announcing the articles dealt in, assure the passengers
that “ they don’t cheat here;” the confused noise of tin¬
kers, cobblers, and blacksmiths, in their little portable
workshops ; the buying, selling, bartering, and bawling, of
different wares; the processions of men carrying home their
new-married wives, with a long train of presents, and
squalling and noisy music, or carrying to the grave some
deceased relation, with most lamentable bowlings; the
mirth and bursts of laughter occasioned by jugglers, con¬
jurors, mountebanks, quack-doctors, musicians, and come¬
dians—in the midst of all which is constantly heard a
strange twanging noise from the barbers’ tweezers, like
the jarring sound of a cracked Jew’s harp ; the magis¬
trates and officers, attended by their lictors, and a nume¬
rous retinue bearing flags, umbrellas, painted lanterns, and
other strange insignia of their rank and office;—all these
present to the eyes and ears of a stranger a novel and in¬
teresting spectacle. The noise and bustle of this busy
multitude commence with day-light, and cease only with
the setting of the sun ; after which scarcely a whisper is
heard, and the streets are entirely deserted.
Towards the central parts of China, near to the places
where the two great rivers, the Whang-ho and the Yang-
tse-kiang, intersect the grand canal, a scene, magnificent
beyond description, will arrest the attention of the tra- Ch
veller. Here he will find himself in the midst of bustle and
business. The multitudes of ships of war, of commerce,
of convenience, and of pleasure, some gliding down the
stream towards the sea, others working against it by sails,
oars, or wheels, and others lying at anchor ; the banks on
either side, as well as those of the canals, covered with
towns as far as the eye can reach ; the continuance along
the canals of cities, towns, and villages, almost without
interruption ; the vast number of light stone bridges, of
one, two, and three arches; the temples occurring in fre¬
quent succession, with their double and triple tiers of
roofs; the Pei-los, or triple gateways, in commemoration
of some honest man or chaste virgin ; the face of the sur¬
rounding country, beautifully diversified with hill and
dale, and every part of it in the highest state of cultiva¬
tion ; the apparently happy condition of the numerous in¬
habitants, indicated by their cheerful looks and substan¬
tial clothing, chiefly in silk;—such are the scenes which
presented themselves to our countrymen who composed
the embassy of the Earl of Macartney, and were afterwards
repeated to those who accompanied Lord Amherst.
He would probably be mistaken, however, in inferring
the general happy state of the people, or beautiful ap¬
pearance of the country, from what might occur along this
great line of communication between the northern and
southern extremities of the empire. T he Dutch embassy
setting out in winter, when the canals were frozen, pro¬
ceeded by a different route, and the inconveniences they
suffered, as described by Y an Braam, are such as can
scarcely be credited to have occurred in any nation re¬
moved but a few degrees from the savage state. The
face of the country was dreary, without a visible trace of
cultivation, or a hovel of any kind, for the space of eight
or ten miles together. In many parts the suiface was co¬
vered with water, and the mud hovels completely melted
down. Very few cities, towns, or villages, occurred in
their route, and those were almost universally in a ruin¬
ous condition. Near to the capital they passed a city ex¬
hibiting only a mass of ruins. It was not before they had
crossed the Yellow River that the prints of wheel car¬
riages marked out the road. The people everywhere ap¬
peared indigent and oppressed, equally destitute of the
feelings of humanity and hospitality. The Dutch were
carried in small bamboo chairs, each having four bearers,
so weak and tottering that they could seldom go through
the day’s journey ; and it frequently happened that they
halted in the middle of a cold night, in an open uninha¬
bited part of the country, exposed to all the inclemency
of the weather, without a hovel of any kind to afford them
shelter ; and when they reached the end of the day s
journey, the lodgings appropriated for their reception
were so miserable, admitting on all sides the wind, ram,
or snow, that they generally preferred taking a little rest
in their bamboo chairs. They observed on the road old
men and young women travelling in wheelbarrows, some¬
times in litters or chairs carried by a couple of asses, one
being fixed between the poles before and one behind, me
rivers were without bridges, and crossed, when not or
able, by rafts of bamboo. All this is corroborated in tne
Voyage d Peking, by M. de Guignes ; and hence it may
be concluded that China, like other countries, has its tei-
tile and its desolate districts, and that much information
is yet required to form a competent notion' of tie .
state and condition of this mighty empire. ,
Authentic Account; Lord Macartney’s Journal; Barro
Travels; Voyage d Peking; Van Braams Journal;
J°Oim thing at least is quite certain, that a
the best and most frequented parts would look in v
■' j
C II I
ma. the least trace of these enchanting gardens, of which Sir
Y—' William Chambers and his friend Lepqua, the painter of
amen- Canton, aided by another brother of the brush, Frere At-
‘■ar- tiret, Jesuit and painter to the emperor of China, have
put together so fanciful a description. Sir William saw
what Europeans generally see in Canton, the shops in
China-street, the quay, on which the foreign factories are
situated, and perhaps a small mean garden, at the head of
the first reach of the river, to which strangers are permit¬
ted, as a great favour, to go and buy parcels of lettuce and
turnip seeds, neatly packed up, and sold as rare and cu¬
rious flowers ; and the French Jesuit’s taste and accuracy
may be estimated from his own statement, that “ the face
of the country from Canton to Pekin is very indifferent;
and though six or seven hundred leagues (it is four hun¬
dred) nothing occurs worthy of attention.” He tells us,
it is true, that he was shut up in a kind of close cage,
which they laboured to persuade him was a litter, and that
he arrived in Pekin without having seen any thing at all
on the journey.
With the exception of the imperial gardens of Gehol
and Yuen-min-yuen, there is not, perhaps, in all China a
piece of ornamental ground of the extent of three acres';
and a traveller may pass the whole distance in the open
air, which Frere Attiret did in his cage, without seeing a
single one of any extent. If he should chance to get a
peep within the inclosing walls of those lodges set apart
for the residence of the emperor when he travels, or of
the habitation of some magistrate or wealthy merchant,
he will probably find a square court of a rood or two of
ground behind the women’s apartments, concealed com¬
pletely from public view, in which two or three little fish¬
ponds have their margins fantastically broken by shape¬
less masses of rock, or cut so as to resemble rugged moun¬
tains in miniature; among which, planted in concealed
earthen vessels, are dwarfish trees, proportioned in size to
the pigmy mountains, and bearing all the marks of vene¬
rable age; causing new roots to strike in old branches,
twisting and bending them into particular forms and di¬
rections, wounding the stem, and smearing it with sugar,
to attract the ant and other insects. Among these rocks
are narrow paths almost impassable, with holes and crevices
here and there to peep through, just to catch a glimpse of
some piece of stagnant water, on the shore of which is a
wooden temple, a bridge, a pavilion,—or perhaps to view
a remarkable piece of rock. Within the water, if large
enough, an island with its pagoda will probably be placed ;
or, as occupying less space, the imitation of a passage-
boat stuck upon piles, and fitted up with appropriate apart¬
ments, kitchen, &c. In the recesses of the rocks are seats
or small summer-houses, opposite to which are parterres
of various flowers growing in sunken pots, which can thus
be replaced by others in bloom, according to the season
of the year; and where there is space, the peach, the
orange, the lee-tchee, and other fruit trees, are intro¬
duced. from the boundary wall a x-oof is generally pro¬
jected, supported on wooden pillars, which forms a covered
gallery to walk in; gravel walks are out of the question,
and would be wholly inconsistent with the feelings and
usage of a nation, the women of which, for whose recrea-
uon these gardens are chiefly designed, cannot walk, and
whose male population of the upper ranks are too indolent
to walk. In short, where secrecy is so desirable, where
enjoyments are stolen, and walking is considered as drud¬
gery, seats and concealed recesses are best suited to the
comfort and convenience of the people. If a Chinese acts
on any principle, it is that of producing the greatest pos-
«mle variety in the least possible space. He is indebted
m nature for many of the most beautiful shrubs and flowers
lv llc^ she has bestowed on man for the gratification of
VOL. VI.
N A- 5S5
the sense of sight or smell. Various species of camelia, China,
poeonia, chiysanthemum, asters, roses, and a numerous
list of the choicest flowers, gratify the eye ; while the
Pergularia odoratissima, the Olea fragrans, the Petrospq-
rum Clunense, and . the Arabian jessamine, spread their
fragrance around. The sacred Nelumbium breaks the sur¬
face of the water with its peltate leaves and showy flowers,
and the elegant bamboo and the water Cyprus (^Cupressus
pendula), like the weeping willow, give concealment to
their seats of retirement, whether for ease or sensuality.
Throughout this extensive empire, embracing so great General
a variety of climate, the physical and moral characters of view of
the people remain as fixed and unchangeable as the lawscustoms
and customs, from which, in fact, they receive their C0-‘imlcfia'
lour. Such is the force of ancient usage, and the dread 0fracter-
innovation, that a Chinese never stops to inquire what he
ought to do on any pressing emergency, but what Yao and
Chun did in a similar case four thousand years ago. Time,
in fact, may be said to stand still in China. °Here not
only the system of morals, of social intercourse, of juris¬
prudence, of government, is the same now as it was three
thousand years ago, but the cut of their robes, their houses
and furniture, are precisely the same ; so that if custom
has exercised its dominion over this singular people, they
have at least been freed from the tyranny of fashion.
Here a young lady may safely wear the head-dress of her
great-grandmother, without the imputation of being singu¬
lar or old fashioned. One of the missionaries observes,
Parcourez Vempire de la Chine, tout vous semblera fondee
dans le meme creuset, et fagonnt par le me me moule, No
fault can be found with the metal or the mould in which
it is cast. The general stature of the Chinese is about
that which in Europe we call the middle size ; few tall men
are to be found among them, and fewer dwarfs or deformed
persons ; but they are distinguished by many physical pe¬
culiarities, as the narrow, elongated, half-closed eye, the
linear and highly arched eye-brow ; the broad root of the
nose ; the projection of the upper jaw a little beyond the
lower; the thin straggling beard, and the body generally
free from hair; a high conical head and triangular face :
and these are the peculiar characteristics which obtained
for them, in the Systema Natures of Linnaeus, a place among
the varieties of the species distinguished by the name of
homines monstrosi.
Every individual, without exception, plaits his strong
black hair into a long tail, something like the lash of a
whip, extending below the waist, sometimes to the calf of
the leg. This tail grows from the crown of the head, the
rest of the scalp being closely shaven. The hair of the
beard is pulled out till nearly the age of forty, when its
growth is encouraged, and, being an indication of age, is
considered as a mark of respect. The great mass of the
people is decently and substantially clothed; the upper
and middle classes in rich silks, satins, and fine cottons,
the lower orders generally in cottons; but they are not
cleanly in their persons, having, apparently, a particular
aversion to cold water, which they never use in its pure
state as a beverage, and always warm it fbr washing the
hands and face, even in the middle of the dog-days; yet
they use ice in the northern provinces for cooling their
fruits.
The countenance of a Chinese man has something in it
peculiarly pleasing and good humoured, which is just the
reverse of that of the women, at least of those in the com¬
mon rank of life, the only women who are seen in public.
A Chinese is never out of humour except when disturbed
at his meal ; necessity only, not even his own self-interest,
will prevail on him to leave his rice unfinished.
The common people seldom sit down to table, or, in
fine weather, take their meals within doors; but each with
4 e
586
CHINA.
China, his bowl in his hand, squatting himself down on his haunch-
es round the boiler, eats his frugal repast of rice or other
vegetables, seasoned with a little pork or fish ; or salted
duck, with oil, fat, or a little soy, washing it down with
weak tea, or warm rice beer, or seau-tcheou, a villanou
ardent spirit. Rice is the staff of life in China, of which
they eat largely, but in drinking they are extremely mo¬
derate. They are not nice in their choice of food,—dogs,
cats, rats, and almost every animal, being eagerly sought
after by the poorer class. In such a mass of popuiation,
many fomilies must necessarily struggle with all the ills of
extreme poverty; fewer, however, it would appear, in pio-
portion to the population, than in most other countries;
the small imposts on agricultural produce, the easy terms
on which land is procured, the small divisions into whit
it is partitioned out, the multitude of large rivers lakes,
and canals abounding with fish, the freedom of the fish¬
eries, and the extremely moderate rate at which the agri¬
cultural and labouring poor are taxed, are so many spurs
to industry ; and when a man through age or infirmity be¬
comes incapable of labour, his relations are compelled to
contribute to his support; a refusal would be an offence
ao-ainst parental affection, which is not in China a mere
moral maxim, but carries with it the force of a positive
law ; poor-houses are consequently scarcely known, and
beggars exist only in the persons of the priests of bo and
Tao-tse and other impostors, in the shape of astrologei s
and fortune-tellers. Old age is here highly respected, and
the imperial family takes every occasion to set the ex¬
ample. On Yung-chin’s marriage with a Tartar princess,
she distributed a piece of cotton cloth and two measures
of rice to every woman throughout the empire whose age
exceeded 70 years. In the province of Shang-tung alone,
whose population may amount to 20,000,000, the list con¬
sisted of 98,222 above seventy, 40,893 above eighty, and
3453 above ninety years of age. _
In all ranks of life, but more especially among the ma¬
gistrates and officers of government, vivacity and activity
are less esteemed than sedateness and deliberation; gra¬
vity is considered as the test of wisdom, and silence of
discretion. A magistrate should never attempt to joke,
and should forbear to talk; he should resemble great bells,
which seldom strike, and full vessels, which give little
sound. He should never show his anger, as this would
put the person who had offended him on his guard. A
Chinese of education is a complete machine ; he must act
and speak, and walk abroad, dress, receive and return
visits, according to rule, founded on ancient usage, t e
observance of which is a most important part of his duty.
If two persons meet, they know from the button on the
bonnet their respective ranks; and that alone determines
what each has to do and to say. If two officers of equal
rank pass each other, they fold their hands and sa ute
each other till out of sight; if of different ranks, the chair
or carriage of the inferior must stop, while that of the su¬
perior passes; and where the difference is very great, the
inferior must alight. It is not, as in Europe, that one per¬
son may pass another with indifference, may take oft his
hat or keep it on, may give or refuse his hand, according
to the humour in which he may happen to be; it one ot
the people should fail to pay the respect that is due to
their superiors, a few strokes of the bamboo will bung him
back to a sense of his duty. Where there is so much
ceremony, there must be much hypocrisy and little cor-
When one officer pays a visit to another, a sheet of red
paper, folded in a particular manner, bearing the name
and quality of the visitor, is dispatched before him, that
the person visited may know where to receive him, at the
gate, in the first court, or in the inner apartment. Ihe
card is accompanied by a list of presents meant to be of- Chinsi
fered. If part be received, a letter of thanks, and a list of Wy-v
those returned, are sent back, with this observation in two
characters, “ They are pearls, I dare not touch them;” in
allusion to the prohibition of pearls being worn by any ex¬
cept the imperial family, or those who have special leave.
The visits of an inferior must always be made before the
first meal, that the fumes of meat or wine may not offend
the person visited. If he means to decline the visit, the
bearer of the card is desired to say to his master, that he
will not give him the trouble to alight from his chair; but
if he does not return the visit in person, he sends his card
within three ’days, and there the visiting acquaintance
ends. Where a visitor is received, a prodigious deal of
bowing and ceremony takes place. When once seated, to
lounge on the chair, to lean back, to sit cross-legged, or to
throw about the arms, or to look round, would be a gross
breach of good manners. A cup of tea, sipped simultane¬
ously, according to rule, finishes the formal visit.
These restraints of ceremony, imposed more or less on
all conditions of men, are incompatible with frankness and
sincerity, and beget that want of confidence between col¬
leagues in office which is particularly observable, in this
iealous government, by the constant plotting against and
undermining each other. The habitual gravity which a
magistrate must put on in public stamps an air of import¬
ance on matters of the most trifling nature; though it is
said they sometimes relax in private, where they indulge
in all manner of excesses; and the stiff formality which
strongly characterizes this people is said to give way, on
such occasions, to conviviality ; not, however, unless they
are well acquainted with their guests. At such f6^8
women never appear, but are usually left to be amused by
a set of players. To convince the guests how anxious the
entertainer is to see them, the invitation is repeated three
several times; the first on the preceding evening, the se¬
cond on the morning of the day, and the third when din¬
ner is ready for serving up, which is the latter of the two
meals, and generally from four to six o’clock, according to
the season of the year. The guests do not sit down at one
table, but generally in pairs, at small square tables, every
one of which is served precisely with the same kind ot
dishes, which are very numerous. Besides the ordinary
quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, used as food, several gelati¬
nous articles, as bears paws, the hoofs of various ammas,
stags’ sinews, sharks’ fins, birds’ nests, biche-de-mer,
or sea-weed, enrich their soups. With these and other
substances, mixed with spices, and soys, and vanous 1 ,
they have an endless preparation of dishes, served p
small porcelain bowls, eaten with porcelain spoons, and
two little ivory or ebony sticks, with which t ey
pieces of meat or dry rice, and throw them into the mouth-
Pastry and sweetmeats are served up at intervals, t
lows the dinner, after which comes the dessert,
who, from illness or accident, send an excuse, have
portion of the dinner sent to their homes. Each guest,
the next morning, sends a billet of thanks or g
fare he enjoyed the preceding evening. ,
Though there are tea-houses and cook-shops, to
tradesmen, artizans, and the peasantry, with the mfeno^
officers of state and clerks of the departments, occa.iw
ally resort, to refresh themselves and to read th *
Gazette, there are no promiscuous assemblies h ^
meetings, as fairs for the lower classes, or route^’ V.
music parties for the higher ranks. E^^g^Vd
unknown. The clumsy boots of one sex, and the cr^
feet of the other, would be ill adapted for t
of dancing, even were the sexes permitted to ^
ther; but “ tripping on the light fantastic t ^exterior
become that gravity which is so essential in
CHINA.
ina. of Chinese good breeding. In the former Tartar dynasty,
'CmJ some Lamas from Thibet brought with them to court a
set of dancing girls, whose lascivious movements gave
great offence to the grave and virtuous Chinese, whose
general conduct towards the women is nearly as bad as
that which prevails among savage tribes. One may dis¬
cover in their proverbs the feeling toward the sex. “A
family,” it is said, “ in which there are five women, has
nothing to fear from robbers; its poverty will protect it.”
Again, “ When the hen crows in the morning, domestic
affairs are not going on as they should beand, “ What
the women have lost in their feet, they have added to their
tongues.”
It is remarkable enough, that the accurate Marco Polo
is wholly silent on the subject of -the crippled feet of the
Chinese women, which there, can be no doubt were as
common in his time as they are now. Of the origin of
this unnatural custom the Chinese relate twenty different
accounts, all equally absurd. Europeans suppose it to
have originated in the jealousy of the men, determined,
says Pauw, in his severe manner, to keep them “ si etroit
qu’on ne peut comparer fexactitude avec laquelle on les
gouverne.” Whatever may have been the cause, the con¬
tinuance may more easily be explained: as long as the
men will marry none but such as have crippled feet, crip¬
pled feet must for ever remain in fashion among Chinese
ladies. It is kept up by the pride of superiority and the
dread of degradation, like the custom of widows burning
themselves in India.
The little value set upon females leads but too frequent¬
ly to that unnatural crime, female infanticide and expo¬
sure. There can be no question as to its existence; the
extent of it, however, may have been exaggerated. In the
Pekin Gazette of 1815 is a representation from a humane
magistrate of Kiang-nan to the tribunal of justice in the
capital, praying that the horrible practice of selling and
putting away wives and drowning female infants may be
prohibited: on which the emperor Kia-king sagaciously ob¬
serves, that “ the existence of male and female is essential
to the continuance of the human species that “ husband
and wife form one of the five relationships in which human
beings stand to each other that “ divorce is not allowable
except for one of the seven causesand concludes, “ if it
be true that it is a common practice among poor families
to drown their female infants, and the husband and wife
separate for every trifle, these are indeed wicked prac¬
tices, which should be put a stop to by admonitory and
prohibitory edicts.” The magistrates of a district of Fo-
kien sent a case to court on another occasion, to know how
they should act. It was this : A man had made a vow that,
if his wife recovered from a fit of sickness, he would make
a sacrifice of his son, who was three years of age. The wife
recovered, and he performed his vow. The supreme court
decreed that, having violated the laws of nature, he had
incurred the penalty of death ; but, on a mistaken notion
that, by the unnatural sacrifice, he had savea the life of
his mother, the emperor mitigated the punishment to a
hundred blows of the bamboo, and perpetual banishment.
This is but a miserable picture of the state of society
in China. It is rendered still worse by the common prac¬
tice of all oriental nations, which admits of a man taking
as many wives as he can maintain. In China a second or
inferior wife is taken without any ceremony, and general¬
ly purchased. The children by her are considered as the
children of the first wife, and strictly legitimate ; but the
mother is without consideration in the eye of law, and
may be disposed of in the same way as she was procured.
fhe athletic exercises of wrestling, boxing, fencing, the
active amusements, such as cricket, golf, bowls, tennis,
aie wholly unknown ; and the sports of the field, as hunt-
587
ing, shooting, angling, as pursuits of pleasure, cannot be China,
conceived by them. The Tartars, however, are fond of'-^v^—'
hunting, of the pleasures of which the Chinese had so
little idea, that Kien-lung, in his Eloge de Moukden, seems
to think it necessary to acquaint them with the benefits
arising from this diversion. Having described the pleasures
and the dangers of the chase, “ Thus,” says he, “ ends this
delightful and highly useful exercise, which is at once pro¬
pitious to heaven, to the earth, and to the army; to heaven
by the offerings it affords in its honour ; to the earth, which
it relieves from the cruel and pernicious guests that prey
upon it; and to the army, by accustoming them to the
dangers and fatigues of war.”
To appear with the head uncovered, and without boots,
would be an act of rudeness not to be tolerated. To re¬
ceive a present with one hand would be equally rude and
disrespectful. To mention the word death would be an in¬
sufferable rudeness. When a person dies he is said to be
gone to his ancestors. Many other peculiarities might be
mentioned in which they differ from the rest of the world,
and many in which they resemble the Turks in a very
marked manner; but this is the less surprising, as the
Turks are from the same Scythian stock.
Suicide is no crime with the Chinese. It is a favour to
a condemned criminal to allow him to be his own execu¬
tioner. \\ omen and officers of the government are most
addicted to the practice of suicide ; the former perhaps
from a sense of degradation, or in the gloom of solitude;
the latter possibly to escape torture or disgrace when sus¬
pected of criminal conduct.
There are two favourable traits in the Chinese character
which should not be overlooked,—the respect and venera¬
tion of children for their parents, and the almost universal
sobriety that prevails in all ranks and conditions of men.
A curious story is told by Le Gentil, which he had from
Pere Laureati, respecting the emperor Kaung-hee, who
one day determined to experience the unknown pleasure
of getting drunk. He chose his favourite minister as his
bottle companion, who contrived to keep sober while his
master was unable to stand. The minister apprized the
chief eunuch of the emperor’s situation, and hinted that,
if they did not contrive to cure him of the practice, none
of their lives would be safe for a moment. “ You must
therefore,” he continues, “ load me with chains, and throw
me into a dungeon.” Kaung-hee on waking inquired for
his companion ; the eunuch said that he was in confine¬
ment by his orders, for having incurred his displeasure.
The emperor doubted his senses; but having ordered the
minister to be brought before him, he was so shocked and
provoked that he never afterwards ventured to repeat the
experiment.
Like other nations, therefore, the Chinese character has
its bright as well as its dark side ; and if we find the lat¬
ter to be the most prominent, it should be remembered
that it is drawn chiefly by foreigners, and principally by
those whose communication is rare and restricted, or by
those who have only visited one of their out-ports, distant
many hundred leagues from the seat of government. Here
by all accounts they are so much given to knavery and
cheating, that it is held to be no crime in the seller to
cheat where the buyer is stupid enough to be cheated.
Pauw observes that the shopkeepers would never' have
thought of writing upon their signs, “ here nobody will
be cheated,” if they had not predetermined to cheat all
the world; yet our own shopkeepers are not backward in
announcing their “ genuine” articles. It is to be feared,
however, that the boasted morality of the Chinese is built
on no principle of feeling or propriety of action between
man and man; and that where public decorum is not of¬
fended there is no breach of moral duty. Great crimes
588
China-
Koot
II
Chinapa-
tam.
CHI
are not common, but little vices pervade all ranks of so-
ciety. A Chinese is cold, cunning, and distrustful; a -
ways ready to take advantage of those he has to deal
with; extremely covetous and deceitful; quarrelsome,
vindictive, but timid and dastardly. A Chinese in office
is a strange compound of insolence and meanness. Ai
ranks and conditions have a total disregard for truth ; from
the emperor downwards the most palpable falsehoods are
proclaimed with unblushing effrontery, to answer a pohti-
cal, an interested, or an exculpatory purpose. 1 he em¬
peror asserted, and several great officers of state repeated
the assertion to Lord Amherst, that they saw Lord Mac¬
artney go through the whole of their odious ceremony,
and that he performed it to admiration.
These are among the dark shades of the Chinese cha-
racter; opposed to which may be set his sober and indus¬
trious habits, submissive disposition, a mild and affable
manner, an exactness and punctuality in all which he un¬
dertakes to perform, and if he has not been taught a ge¬
neral philanthropy, or if sentiments of love for the whole
species have! not been instilled into his mind, he has at
C H I
least the merit of believing in the God of his fathers, in Chinch
obeying the commands of his superior, and in honouring ||
his father and mother. Under a better government the Chirig:
Chinese could not fail to become a better people; as it is,
some favourable traits may be found, both in the habits of
the people and the principles of the government. “ Some
very considerable and positive moral and political advan¬
tages,” as Sir George Staunton observes, “ are attribut¬
able to the system of early and universal marriage; to the ^
sacred regard that is habitually paid to the tiess of kindred;
to the sobriety, industry, and even intelligence of the
lower classes ; to the almost total absence of feudal rights
and privileges; to the equable distribution of landed pro¬
perty ; to the natural incapacity and indisposition of the
government and people to an indulgence in ambitious pio-
jects and foreign conquests; and, lastly, to a system of
penal laws, if not the most just and equitable, at least the
most comprehensive, uniform, and suited to the genius of
the people for whom it is designed, perhaps of any that
ever existed i” and with this qualified character we dis¬
miss the subject. (Mv
CHINA-Root, in the Materia Medica, the root of a
species of Smilax, brought both from the East and West
Indies, and thence distinguished into oriental and occiden¬
tal. Both sorts are longish, full of joints, of a pale-red¬
dish colour, with no smell, and very little taste. I he ori¬
ental, which is the most esteemed, is considerably harder
and paler coloured than the other. Such should be chosen
as is fresh, close, heavy, and upon being chewmd appears
full of a fat, unctuous juice. It is generally supposed to
promote insensible perspiration and the urinary discharge,
and by its unctuous quality to obtund acrimonious juices.
China-root was first brought into Europe in the year Ip o,
and used as a specific against venereal and cutaneous disor¬
ders. With this view it was made use of for some time, but
it has long since given place to more powerful medicines.
China-IFare. See Porcelain.
CHINAB ALAR ARAM, a town of Hindustan, in the
territories of the rajah of Mysore. . Between sixty an^
seventy years ago it belonged to an independent P° ygar
chief, but was taken by Hyder Ali about the year 1759.
During the wars in which Lord Cornwallis was engage
it vteis taken possession of by the British forces, and the
authority restored to the Hindu family; in revenge toi
which the town was in a great part destroyed by iippoo
Sultan. Erom this calamity it is now fast recovering, and
already contains from 400 to 500 houses, of which one
fourth are occupied by Brahmins. The neighbouring coun¬
try produces abundance of sugar, which is carried to the
town, and there refined into sugar candy, equal to that of
China, or into clayed sugar, which is very white and fine,
and is held in great estimation all over the peninsula.
Long. 77. 55. E. Lat. 13. 26. N. .
CHINAPATAM, a town of Hindustan, m the terri¬
tories of the rajah of Mysore. It is an open town, huge
and handsome, containing about 1000 houses, with a hanu-
some stone fort at a little distance. Not far from this
place is Pattala Durg, one of the horrid prisons in which
Tippoo was wont to immure those unfortunate wi etches
who incurred his displeasure, and where death soon ter¬
minated their sufferings. The town has a manufactory of
glass, and another of steel wires for the strings of musical
instruments, which are reckoned the best in India. A fa¬
mily at this place had the art of making very fine white
sugar, which was kept for the sole use of the court at be-
ringapatam. It is forty miles north-east of Seringapatam.
Long. 77. 24. E. Lat. 12. 39. N.
CHINCHILLA, a small city of Spain, in the province
of Murcia, containing 4624 inhabitants. It is celebrated
on account of a great fair held annually, in a large public
building at Albacete, a village near to it. Ihe plains of
Almanza adjoin it, on which was fought the famous battle
which established the Bourbons on the throne ol Spain.
A pyramid raised on the spot stands to commemorate this
event. Lat. 38. 48. N.
CHINCHOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Aurungabad, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the
Morla, on the road from Bombay to Poonah. Its popula¬
tion is said to amount to 5000, including 300 Brahmin fa¬
milies. It has the appearance of a commercial, industri¬
ous town, containing many good houses and well supplied
shops. It is indebted for its prosperity to its being the
residence of Chintamun Deo, believed by a great propor¬
tion of the Mahratta nation to be an incarnation of then-
favourite deity Goonputty. The Deo s palace is an enoi-
mous pile of building, without the slightest^ pretensions
to elegance, situated near the river. Here is carried on
all the disgusting worship of this supposed deity, ihe
floors are spread over with sacred cow-dung, and the apart¬
ments crowded with well-fed Brahmins. (Lord Valentias
Voyages and Travels ; Maria Graham’s Journal of a Kesi-
dence in India, &c.) ...
CHINGLEPUT, the chief town and fortress of a ms-
trict of the same name. The town is situated on the nor^'
east bank of the Paiar river, thirty-nine miles soutn-
south-west from Madras, and was formerly the residence ot
the Hindu chief. In 1751 Chingleput was taken by the
French, and was retaken in 1752 by Captain Clive,
ing the wars of the British with Hyder Ah, it was one ot
the few strongholds which withstood his power, and at-
forded a secure refuge to the natives. In 1780, after
defeat of Colonel Baillie,.the army of Sir Hector Mun
sought protection under its walls. It is now the resi
of the British civil establishment, namely, 4he judge, c
lector, &c. Long. 79. 55. E. Lat. 12. 56 N. The f«
of Chingleput, formerly denominated the Jfghl^
forms the collectorship of Chingleput, situated on
shore, between Madras and the Paiar river, fill about t
end of the seventeenth century this territory was g
by a Hindu chief. It was then conquered by the 11
medans, and annexed to the government of Arco •
tract of territory was obtained in 1750 and 1J63, ho
the nabob of Arcot. In 1780 it came under the manag
iiro-
;-am
sura.
C H I
ment of the Madras presidency. It was twice invaded by
Hyder Ali, in 1768 and in 1780, when he so ravao-ed it
with fire and swoid, that at the termination of the war in
1784 it presented a perfect desert. Famine succeeded to
the ravages of war, and the country was nearly depopu¬
lated. In 1790 it was placed under the management of
British collectors, and the country is said to be gradually
recovering. The population in 1822 amounted to 363,129.
Besides Madras, the principal towns are Chingleput and
Conjeveram.
CHINIROPOORAM, a town of Hindustan, in the ter¬
ritories of the rajah of Mysore. It has no considerable
trade, though it has a weekly fair. The town, fort, and
suburbs contain above 900 houses, of which sixty are in¬
habited by Brahmins, and 200 by the garrison. The fort
is well built, of stone and lime ; and has a glacis ditch, and
walls built of the same materials. It is thirty-nine miles
north-west from Seringapatam. Long. 76.40. E. Lat. 12
53. N.
CHINNACHIN, a town of Northern Hindustan, in the
district of Jemlah, of which it is the capital, and tributary
to the rajah of Nepaul. It is situated in a valley bounded
on the north side by the Himalaya mountains, between
the Chinnachin and Kurnald rivers. This town is the
frontier station of Nepaul, and is the best route for sup¬
plying the north-west part of Thibet with goods. It is
a month’s journey for the caravan from Catmandoo. Lonff.
81. 35. E. Lat. 30. 29. N.
CHINNOR, a musical instrument among the Hebrews,
consisting of thirty-two chords.
CHINON, an arrondissement of the department of the
Indre and Loire, in France, extending over 1060 square
miles. It is divided into eight cantons, and these into
119 communes, containing 90,314 inhabitants. The chief
city, of the same name, is on the right bank of the Bienne,
is fortified, and contains 840 houses, and 6016 inhabitants,
employed in various trades, chiefly arising from the pro¬
ductions of the neighbourhood, such as silk, wine, liquo¬
rice, and similar products. Long. 0. 5. 40. E. Lat. 47.
11. 4. N.
CHINSUR A, the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal,
situated on the western bank of the Bhagarutty or Hoogh-
ly river, twenty-four miles above Calcutta. The Dutch
erected a factory here in 1656, on a clear and healthy
spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcut¬
ta is situated, and soon attracted a considerable number of
natives to settle in the vicinity. About thirty-five years
after this they fell under the displeasure of one of the native
potentates, who sequestrated their property and prohibit¬
ed their traffic. In the year 1686 all their factories were
re-established, and their trade continued to flourish for a
long period. At the time when the English were contend¬
ing for the sovereignty of Bengal, the Dutch withheld the
duties on their commerce, on which account Chinsura was
blockaded in the year 1769, by an army commanded by
one of the Nawab’s officers, though the country was then
in possession of the English. In the year 1795, when
Holland became a province of France, the British offered
to retain Chinsura for the stadtholder; but the governor
having declined to surrender, the settlement was reduced
by a detachment from the military stations at Barrack-
pore, and was occupied by a British garrison during the
whole war, but restored to the Dutch at the general peace
of 1814. The town, which extends for half a mile along
the banks of the river, is neatly built, but with great soli¬
dity, of brick and mortar. The houses are plastered with
hne lime, and have flat roofs and green Venetian windows.
Ihe Dutch maintain no military establishment here, the
ascendency of the English being now so decided in India,
they have factories at Patna, Dacca, and other places,
CHI
which are dependent on Chinsura. Long. 88. 28. E. Lat.
52* N"*
CHINUUB, or Chunaub, the ancient Acesines, a river
which has its source near the eastern hills of Cashmere, in
the province of Lahore, near the sources of the Ravey, the
Leyah, the feutlege, and the Jumna. Its general course
is to the south-west, and remarkably straight. After leav¬
ing Jummoo, it flows through a flat country, gradually
approaching the Behut, with which it unites near Jehung-
seet. Ihe junction-is effected with great noise and vio¬
lence ; and this circumstance, Rennell remarks, being
noted both by the historians of Alexander and Timur, fixes
the identity of the spot. The space between the Chinuub
and the Behut is nowhere more than thirty geographical
miles within the limits of the Punjab. About ninety miles
from its source, and not far from the Cashmere Hills, it is
seventy yards broad, and very rapid. The length of its
course, including its windings, is estimated at four hundred
and twenty miles.
CHIO, or Chios, an Asiatic island lying near the coast
of Natolia, opposite to the peninsula of Ionia. See Scio.
. CHIONE, in fabulous history, was daughter of Dmda-
lion, of whom Apollo and Mercury both became ena¬
moured. To enjoy her company, Mercury lulled her to
sleep with his caduceus; but,- under the form of an old
woman, Apollo, in the night, obtained the same favours
as Mercury, from these embraces Chione became mo¬
ther of Philammon and Autolycus; the former of whom,
being son of Apollo, became an excellent musician ; while
the latter, no doubt from his paternity also, became equally
notorious for those robberies of which his father Mercury
was supposed to be the patron. Chione became so proud
of her commerce with the gods, that she even preferred
her beauty to that of Juno; for which impious arrogance
she was killed by the queen goddess, and changed into a
hawk. There is another personage of the same name, who
was daughter of Boreas and Orithia, and had Eumolpus
by Neptune. She threw her son into the sea, but he was
preserved by his father.
CHIPPENHAM, a market and borough town in the
hundred of the same name, in the county of Wilts. It is
ninety-seven miles from London, in a beautiful district,
watered by the river Avon. It is a place of considerable
woollen trade. The market on Saturday is well supplied.
It is an ancient corporation, endowed with considerable
estates. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 3410, in
1821 to 3201, and in 1831 to 4333.
CHIPPING, a pi irase used by the potters and china-
men to express that common accident both of our own
stone and earthen ware, and of the porcelain of China,
which consists in the flying off of small pieces, or breakr
ing at the edges. Our earthen wares are particularly sub¬
ject to this, and are always spoiled by it before any "other
flaw appears in them. Our stone wares escape it better;
but not so well as the porcelain of China, which is less
subject to this species of injury than'any other manu¬
facture of the kind in the world. The method by which
the Chinese defend their ware from this accident is this :
They carefully burn some small bamboo canes to a sort
of charcoal, which is very light and very black; this they
reduce to a fine powder, and then mix it into a thin
paste, with some of the varnish which they use for their
ware; they then take the vessels, when dried, and not
yet baked, to the wheel, and turning them softly round,
cover the whole circumference with a thin coating, by
means of a pencil dipt in this paste; after which the ves¬
sel is again dried, and the border made with this paste
appears of a pale grayish colour when it is thoroughly
dry. They work on it afterwards in the common way,
covering both this edge and the rest of the vessel with
590
Chipping-
N orton
II
Chiro¬
graph.
CHI
the common varnish. When the whole is baked, the
colour given by the ashes disappears, and the edges are
as white as any other part; only when the baking has
not been sufficient, or the edges have, not been covei ed
with the second varnishing, we sometimes find a dusky
edo-e, as in some of the ordinary thick tea-cups. It may
be^a great advantage to our English manufacturers to
attempt something of this kind. The willow is known to
make a very light and black charcoal; but the elder,
though seldom used, greatly exceeds it. The young green
shoots of this shrub, which are almost all pith, make the
lightest and the blackest of all charcoal, which readily
mixes with any liquid, and might be easily used in the
same way as the Chinese use the charcoal of the bamboo
cane, which is a light hollow vegetable, more resembling
the elder shoots than any other English plant. It is no
wonder that the fixed salt and oil contained in this char¬
coal should be able to penetrate the yet raw edges of the
ware, and to give them in the subsequent baking a some-
C H I
dentedly, and a moiety given to each of the parties. This Chin
was afterwards called dividcndct and chortce diviscn, and mane
was the same with what we now call charter-puTty. The II
first use of these chirographs in England was in the time
of Henry III. .
CHIROMANCY, a species of divination drawn from
the lines and lineaments of a person’s hand, by which
means it is sometimes pretended that the dispositions may
be discovered.
CHIRON, a famous personage of antiquity, styled by
Plutarch, in his dialogue on music, the wise Centaur. Sir
Isaac Newton places his birth in the first age after Deu¬
calion’s deluge, commonly called the Golden Age; and
adds, that he formed the constellations for the use of the
Argonauts when he was eighty-eight years of age ; for he
was a practical astronomer, as well as his daughter Hippo.
Chiron may, therefore, be said to have flourished in the
earliest ages of Greece, as he preceded the conquest of
the Golden Fleece, and the Trojan war. He is generally
called the son of Saturn and Phillyra; and he is said
at tne norse anu me imei   -
Chiron was represented by the ancients as one °f the
first inventors of medicine, botany, and chirurgery, which
last word some etymologists have derived frorn his name.
He inhabited a grotto or cave at the foot of Mount re¬
lion, which, from his wisdom and great knowledge of all
kinds, became the most celebrated and frequented school
what different degree of vitrification from the other parts In Thessaly among the Centaurs, the
to defend them from common accidents, and keep t e P perhaps it was imagined by the Greeks,
entire. The Chinese use two precautions in this apphea- and horse ^ ^erbapsu ^ ^ cavalryj
ll0y'ingtiteonret They^eparrttetamboo canerfor'burn. that the horse and the rider constituted but one animal,
ing into charcoal by peeling off the rind. This might
easily be done with our elder shoots, which are so succu¬
lent that the bark strips off with a touch. The Chinese
say that if this were not done with their bamboo, the
edges touched with the paste would burst in the baking,
which does not indeed seem very probable ; but the char- ;“'c;‘‘''“Xlmost”aU the heroes of his time
coal will certainly be lighter when made from the peeled ^ ivin(7his instructions; and Xenophon,
sticks, and this is a known advantage. The othei piecau- ates them'names the following illustrious per-
tion is never to touch the vessel with hands that have any , . • ioc . rVnhahis iEsculapius, Me-
greasy or fatty substance about them ; for if this be done sonages among his disciples : ^^^Cager,
they always find the vessel crack in that place. 7I110 ’ tT:nn’0iitus Palamedes Ulysses, Mnestheus, Dio-
CHIPPING-NORTON, a market and borough town of Th1secU8’^ PP^f^f/^Machaon and Podalirius, An-
the hundred of Chadlington, in Oxfordshire. It is go- es, ^ iEneas. From this catalogue it
verned by two bailiffs and twelve burgesses, and formerly tllocl^cS’ .w rhi’rnn fr^uentlv instructed both fathers
sent two members to parliament. Near to it are the re- appear Xmonhon has recorded a short eulogium
mains of a d^ic.1 .empl. JThe chu.h ,» ajne^c- fa Ws works. The cLk
historian, however, has omitted naming several of ms
scholars, such as Bacchus, Phcenix, Cocytus, Arystaeus,
1Q7r i • iqoi tn ofi4o Jason and his son Medeus, Ajax, and Protesilaus.
19/ o, and in lo/vl to Hnf*phus was the favourite
CHIPPING-ONGAR, a market-town in the hundred pretended the ^rfC^ ^ taught this master
of the same name in Essex, twenty-one miles from Lon- scholar of the Ce a ’ ‘ 1 h cerern0nies of
don. Here is a castle, built originally by the Romans, the revels, was likewise at
upon a mount. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to o95, his worship. & Hercules studied music, medi-
mV! to 678, and in 1821 to 763. The market .a held “77“ “
“'’cHLl'rfNG-SODBURY, a market-town in the hun- Linus was the music-master of thi^ hero. “ 0 j[ected
dred of Grumbald’s Ash, in the county of Gloucester, 113 heroes who ^.f^^^^'^hilles whose renown he
miles from Londoh, and ten from Bristol. It was former- so much h‘>"0”uP“reJ^nd to wliose education he in a
tion rfZethaSuafasi'1 The’ S” b Md Xdo'rus tehTuf cipM
but some portions of it are fertile, and these produce a tuosity of his temper One of the best rema g dug
variety of fruits, of which the varilla, and a peculiar spe- painting now extant, is a Picture o is re.
cies of the cocoa-nut, are the most common. . . out of the ruins of Herculaneum the young Achilles to
CHIROGRAPH was anciently a deed which, requiring presented in the ^ of,^1 ,g, • Ohii0sophical musi-
a counterpart, was engrossed twice on the same piece of play on the lyre. 16 1 ‘ a„e> by an acci-
parchment counterwise, leaving a space between, in which cian was occasionec, c noisoned arrow, shot by
was writtenCHinoGRAeii,and through the middle of which denta wound in the knee w ha poisoned ^ ^ ^
tiie parchment was cut, sometimes straight, sometimes in- his scholar Heicules t P
ture, remarkable for its windows, some brass monuments,
and its lofty tower. It is seventy-three miles from Lon¬
don. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1812, in 1811
to 1975, and in 1821 to 2640.
CHI
after his death by Musaeus among the constellations, from
respect for his virtues, and in gratitude for the great ser¬
vices which he had rendered the people of Greece. Sir
, Isaac Newton says, in proof of the constellations bein°-
formed by Chiron and Musaeus for the use and honour of
the Argonauts, that nothing later than the expedition was
delineated on the sphere ; and, according to the same
author, Chiron lived till after the Argonautic expedition,
in which he had two grandsons. The ancients have not
failed to attribute to him several writings, among which,
according to Suidas, are precepts, vvodwai, in verse, com¬
posed for the use of Achilles; and a medicinal treatise on
the diseases incident to horses and other quadrupeds;
and the lexicographer even pretends that it is from this’
work that the Centaur derived his name. Fabricius gives
a list of the works attributed to Chiron, and discusses the
claims which have been set up for others to the same
writings; at the same time giving him a distinguished
place in his catalogue of ancient physicians.
CHIRONOMY, in Antiquity, the art of representing
any past transaction by the gestures of the body, more es¬
pecially by the motions of the hands. This formed part
of a liberal education ; it received the approbation of So¬
crates, and was even ranked by Plato among the political
virtues.
CHIROTONY, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes
the imposition of hands used in conferring priestly orders.
It is proper to remark, however, that originally chirotony
was a method of electing magistrates, by holding up the
hands.
CHISEL, an instrument much used in sculpture, ma-
sonrjr, joinery, carpentry, and other handicrafts.
CHISME, or Cisme, the ancient Cystus, a sea-port of
Anatolia, in Asiatic Turkey, separated by a narrow strait
from the island of Scio. It is distinguished by a victory
gained by the Russian over the Turkish fleet in 1770, and
in ancient times by that gained over Antiochus by the
Persians, in the 191st year before the Christian era. It is
forty miles north of Smyrna.
CHI’! LONG, a small town of Northern Hindustan, con¬
sisting of a few brick and tiled houses, two or three stories
liigh. It is said to have been formerly more flourishing;
and is the first place that has the appearance of a town to
the traveller coming from the south. The climate, owing
to the height of the ground, is cold; and ice and snow are
frequently seen. Long. 85. 52. E. Lat. 27. 29. N.
CHITORE, or Chetore, a Rajpoot district of Hindu¬
stan, in the province of Ajmeer, situated to the south-west
of Joudpoor, and bordering on Gujerat and Malwah. The
country is subject to the ranah of Chitore or Odeypoor,
whose family is the most ancient and honourable of all the
Kajpoot chiefs, though they at present possess little power.
In modern times, the town of Odeypoor has become the
capital of the district. The territory of the Odeypoor ra¬
nah is bounded on the north by the Ajmeer district and
the chiefship of Kishenagur, on the north-west and west
by Joudpoor, on the south and south-east by the province
of Malwah, on the south-west by Gujerat, and on the
north-east by Kotah and Bundee. The present territories
of the prince are estimated at about seventy miles in
length by a hundred and ten in breadth. The country is in
general mountainous ; but valleys are interspersed of great
fertility, which yield sugar, indigo, tobacco, wheat, rice, and
baney. qhe country contains also iron and sulphur mines.
Ihe lands are all held on feudal principles, every Rajpoot
being a soldier, and holding his lands by the tenure of mi-
itary service. The cultivators of the soil are all Hindus,
o the tribes of Brahmin, Jaut, Bheel, and Rajpoot. Ow-
|og to the want of good pasturage, the cattle are smaller
^n in the neighbouring countries. They also breed a
CHI
number of sheep and camels. The revenues of the district
have been much diminished, owing to the frequent incur¬
sions of the Mahrattas.
. Chitore, or Chetore, the capital of the above-men¬
tioned disti ict, and a celebrated fortress, was formerly the
capital of the ranah of Odeypoor. It is situated on the
top of a high and rugged mountain, and is considered as a
place of great strength. In 1303 it was taken by theMa-
hommedans, the ranah’s son-in-law defending it to the last
extiemity; and having put to death his women and chil¬
dren, he rushed out with his garrison, and fell in the midst
of the enemy. The Mahommedans retained possession of
it till the year 1345, when it was given over to the rajah
of Jalore, from whom it came again into the possession of
the former ranah’s family; and in 1567 it was taken by
the armies of the emperor Acbar. The place was garri¬
soned by 8000 disciplined Rajpoots, who made an obsti¬
nate defence; and when at last driven to despair, they sa¬
crificed their women and children, and were trampled to
death by the war-elephants introduced into the place by
the emperor. It was again taken by the Moguls in 1680,
during the reign of Aurungzebe, when sixty-three Hindu
temples were destroyed, either in the fort or town. In the
succeeding reign the ranah again got possession, and re¬
tained it till the end of last century, when it was again
surprised by a rebellious chieftain. In 1790 it was taken
by Mudajee Scindia, and restored to its lawful possessor
on the payment of an annual stipend of a large sum of
money.
CHITTAPET, a small town of Hindustan, in the Car¬
natic, seventy-five miles north-west from Madras, and fifty
north-west from Pondicherry. It sustained several sieges
during the wars in the Carnatic, and was finally taken by
Colonel Coote after the battle of Wandiwash. Lon<r. 79
26. E. Lat. 12. 25. N.
CHI ITLEDROOG, a town and celebrated fortress of
Hindustan, and capital of a district belonging to the ra¬
jah of Mysore. The fort is situated on a rock which is
surrounded by walls, and is considered as impregnable.
Around it are low, rocky, bare hills. It was besieged with¬
out effect by Hyder Ali in 1776; but three years after,
having bribed the Mahommedan part of the garrison, he
got possession of the fortress on his own terms, at which
time the town was very large. Ever since, however, it
has been on the decline, though the fortress is one of the
strongest in India.
The plain of Chittledroog is ten miles from north to
south, and four from east to west. It consists of a black
soil, called eray, which, say the natives, is always the sign
of an unhealthy country. Water is scarce throughout the
country ; and it must be drawn from very deep wells, where
it is of an indifferent quality. This may be in part attri¬
buted to the dirty practices of the Hindus, who wash their
clothes, bodies, and cattle, in the very tanks or wells from
which they take their own drink. At the conclusion of
the last war with Tippoo in 1799, the Mysore country was
in many districts laid desolate ; Chittledroog in particular
experienced the calamitous effects of the contest, and a
great proportion of its inhabitants was in consequence
obliged to fly. The travelling distance of the town from
Seringapatam is 115 miles, and it is 335 miles from Ma¬
dras. (Buchanan's Journey from Madras., fyc.; Rennell’s
Memoir of a Map of Hindustan; Wilks’ History of the
South of India, &c.)
CHITTOR, a town and fortress of Hindustan, situated
on the western frontier of the Carnatic, eighty miles
east from Madras. It was, in 1721, the residence of the
military commander of the district, Tahir Khan, and was
situated among mountains, and well fortified. It was se¬
lected by the nabob Anwarraddeen Khan as a place of
591
Chitore
I!
Chittor.
' I 
592
CHI
Chitway refuge in times of danger. It was occupied by his young-
11 er son, with several females of the family, when it was as-
2^alry* saulted and taken in 1780 by Hyder Ali. It was afterwards
retaken by Sir Eyre Coote. In 1801 it was made over to
the British ; and the polygars, who were extremely turbu¬
lent and refractory, were reduced by a military force sent
against them in 1804. Long. 79. 10. E. Eat. 13. 12. N.
CHITWAY, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Malabar. It is situated on an island twenty-seven miles
long, and in some places five miles broad, and is separated
from the continent by inlets of salt water, which form the
northern point of an excellent inland navigation. The soil
C H I
is in general poor ; but it produces some rice, and a num¬
ber of cocoa-nut trees, which grow on the shores. The
whole is rented from the Company by the Cochin rajah
for 30,000 rupees, but he is allowed no criminal jurisdic¬
tion over the inhabitants. Long. 76. 12. E. Eat. 10.
23. N.
CHIUS A, a town of Italy, in the province of Coni, in
the kingdom of Sardinia. It stands on the river Pesia,
near the ruins of the ancient castle of Mirabella. It con¬
tains 6100 inhabitants, who are chiefly employed in the
spinning and weaving of silk.
CHIVA. See Khiva.
c4
Chi' v.
''HP
Origin of
the insti¬
tution.
CHIVALRY.
The primitive sense of this well-known word, derived
from the French chevalier, signifies merely cavalry, or a
body of soldiers serving on horseback, and has been used
in that general acceptation by the best of our poets, an¬
cient and modern, from Milton to Thomas Campbell.
But the present article respects the peculiar meaning
given to the word in modern Europe, as applied to the
order of knighthood, established in almost all hex king¬
doms during the middle ages, and the laws, rules, and
customs, by which it was governed. These laws and cus¬
toms have long been antiquated, but theii efiects may
still be traced in European manners ; and, excepting only
the change which flowed from the introduction of the
Christian religion, we know no cause which has pioduccd
such general and permanent difference betwixt the an¬
cients and moderns as that which has arisen out or the in¬
stitution of chivalry. In attempting to treat this curious
and important subject, rather as philosopheis than as an¬
tiquaries, w^e cannot, however, avoid going at some length
into the history and origin of the institution.
From the time that cavalry became used in war, the
horseman wrho furnished and supported a chargei lose,
in all countries, into a person of superior importance to
the mere foot soldier. The apparent difficulty of the art
of training and managing in the field of battle an animal
so spirited and active, gave the /tt-toSo/aos ’Exrog, or Domi-
tor equi, in rude ages, a character of superior gallantry,
while the necessary expense attending this mode of ser¬
vice attested his superior wealth. In various military na¬
tions, therefore, we find that horsemen were distinguished
as an order in the state; and we need only appeal to the
equites of ancient Rome as a body interposed betwixt the
senate and the people ; or to the laws of the conquerors
of New Spain, which assigned a double portion of spoil to
the soldier who fought on horseback, in support of a pro¬
position in itself very obvious. But in the middle ages the
distinction ascribed' to soldiers serving on horseback as¬
sumed a very peculiar and imposing character. They were
not merely respected on account of their wealth or mili¬
tary skill, but were bound together by an union of a very
peculiar character, which monarchs were ambitious to
share with the poorest of their subjects, and governed by
laws directed to enhance into enthusiasm the military
spirit, and the sense of personal honour associated with
it. The aspirants to this dignity were not permitted to
assume the sacred character of knighthood until after a
long and severe probation, during which they practised, as
acolytes, the virtues necessary to the order of chivalry.
Knighthood was the goal to which the ambition of every
noble youth turned ; and to support its honours, which, in
theory at least, could only be conferred on the gallant,
the modest, and the virtuous, it was necessary he should
spend a certain time in a subordinate situation, attendant
upon some knight of eminence, observing the conduct of
his master, as what in future must be the model of his
own, and practising the virtues of humility, modesty, and
temperance, until called upon to display those of a higher
order.
The general practice of assigning some precise period
when youths should be admitted into the society of the
manhood of their tribe, and considered as entitled to use
the privileges of that more mature class, is common to
many primitive nations. The custom also of marking the
transition from the one state to the other by some pecu¬
liar formality and personal ceremonial, seems so very na¬
tural, that it is quite unnecessary to multiply instances,
or crowd our pages with the barbarous names of the na¬
tions by whom it has been adopted. In the general and
abstract definition of chivalry, whether as comprising a
body of men whose military service was on horseback, and
who were invested with peculiar honours and privileges,
or with reference to the mode and period in which these
distinctions and privileges were conferred, there is nothing
either original or exclusively proper to our Gothic ances¬
tors. It was in the singular tenets of chivalry,—in the
exalted, enthusiastic, and almost sanctimonious ideas con¬
nected with its duties,—in the singular balance which its
institutions offered against the evils of the rude ages in
which it arose,—that we are to seek those peculiarities
which render it so worthy of attention.
The original institution of chivalry has often been traced
to the custom of the German tribes recorded by Tacitus.
“ All business,” says the historian, “ whether public or
private, is transacted by the citizens under arms; but it
is not the custom that any one shall assume the military
dress or weapons without the approbation of the state.
For this purpose, one of the chief leaders, or the father
or nearest relation of the youthful candidate, introduces
him into the assembly, and confers on him publicly a buck¬
ler and javelin. These arms form the dress proper to man¬
hood, and are the first honour conferred on youth. Be¬
fore he receives them the young man is but a member o
his own family, but after this ceremony he becomes a
part of the state itself.” (Taciti Germania.) Ihe re¬
cords of the northern nations, though we cannot rely upon
their authenticity with the same unlimited confidence,
because we conceive most of the legends relating to f^em
have been written at a much later period than the time
in which the scene is laid, may be referred to in confirma¬
tion of the Roman historians. The Scandinavian eS^n
and Sagas are full of the deeds of those warriors whom
they termed heroes or champions, and who appear o
been formed into an order somewhat resembling tna
chivalry, and certainly followed the principal an m
characteristic employment ot its profession, van »
from court to court and from shore to shore, bound
C
CHIVALRY.
dry. high adventure, and seeking with equal readiness their
^ fortunes in love and in war. It would not be difficult to
deduce from this very early period some of those peculiar
habits and customs, which, brought by the Gothic con¬
querors into the provinces of the divided empire of Rome,
subsisted and became ingrafted upon the institutions of
chivalry. Tacitus, for example, informs us, that among the
Germans, and especially among the Catti, every youth¬
ful champion permitted his beard and hair to grow, and
did not shave them until he had performed some signal
feat of arms. In the like manner, as the general reader
may have learned from that irrefragable authority, Don
Quixote de la Mancha, a knight who received his order
was obliged to wear white armour, and a shield with¬
out a device, until, by some daring and distinguished
achievement, he had acquired title to an honourable badge
of distinction. If this correspondence of customs shall
be thought too far fetched and too general, the next,
which we also derive from Tacitus, is too close to be dis¬
puted. The German warriors who piqued themselves
upon this bravery, used, at the commencement of a war,
to assume an iron ring, after the fashion of a shackle, upon
their arm, which they did not remove until they had slain
an enemy. The reader may be pleased to peruse the fol¬
lowing instance of a similar custom from the French ro¬
mance of Jehan de Saintre, written in the year 1459, and
supposed to be founded, in a great measure, upon real in¬
cidents.1 The hero, with nine companions at arms, four
of whom were knights, and five squires, vowed to carry a
helmet of a particular shape, that of the knights having
a visor of gold, and that of the squires a visor of silver.
Thus armed, they were to travel from court to court for
the space of three years, defying the like number of
knights and squires, wherever they came, to support the
beauty of their mistresses with sword and lance. The
emblems of their enterprise were chained to their left
shoulders, nor could they be delivered of them until their
vow was honourably accomplished. Their release took
place at the court of the emperor of Germany, after a so¬
lemn tournament, and was celebrated with much triumph.
In like manner, in the same romance, a Polish knight,
called the Seigneur de Loiselench, is described as ap¬
pearing at the court of Paris wearing a light gold chain
attached to his wrist and ankle in token of a vow; which
emblem of bondage he had sworn to wear for five years,
until he should find some knight or squire without re¬
proach, by encountering with whom he might be delivered
{such was the phrase) of his vow and enterprise. Lord
Herbert of Cherbury mentions, in his memoirs, that when
he was made knight of the bath, a tassel of silken cordage
was attached to the mantle of the order, which doubtless
had originally the same signification as the shackle worn
by the German champion. The rule was, however, so far
relaxed, that the knot was unloosed so soon as a lady of
rank gaged her word that the new knight of the bath
would do honour to the order; and Lord Herbert, whose
punctilious temper set great store by the niceties of chi¬
valrous ceremony, fails not to record, with becoming gra¬
titude, the name of the honourable dame who became his
security on this important occasion.
Other instances might be pointed out, in which the an¬
cient customs of the Gothic tribes may be traced in the
history of chivalry; but the above are enough to prove
593
that the seeds of that singular institution existed in the Chivalry.
German forests, though they did not come to maturity
until the destruction of the Roman empire, and the esta¬
blishment of the modern states of Europe upon its ruins.
Having thus given a general view of the origin of chi¬
valry, we will, 1. Briefly notice the causes from which it
drew its peculiar characters, and the circumstances in
which it differs so widely from the martial character as it
existed, either among the ancient Greeks and Romans,
or in other countries and nations. II. We will attempt a
general abstract of its institutions. III. The rise and
jjrogress of chivalry, its effects upon the political state of
Europe, and its decay and extinction, will close the article.
I. Agreeably to this general division, the general nature
and spirit of the institution of chivalry fails first under
our consideration.
In every age and country valour is held in esteem, and Peculiar
the more rude the period and the place, the greater re- nature and
spect is paid to boldness of enterprise and success in bat-spirit of
tie; but it was peculiar to the institution of chivalry tothis insti-
blend military valour with the strongest passions whichtution*
actuate the numan mind—the feelings of devotion and
those of love. I he Greeks and Romans fought for liberty
or for conquest, and the knights of the middle ages for
God and for their ladies. Loyalty to their sovereigns
was a duty also incumbent upon these warriors ; but al¬
though a powerful motive, and by which they often ap¬
pear to have been strongly actuated, it entered less warmly
into the composition of the chivalrous principle than the
two preceding causes. Of patriotism, considered as a dis¬
tinct predilection to the interests of one kingdom, we find
comparatively few traces in the institutions of knighthood.
But the love of personal freedom, and the obligation to
maintain and defend it in the persons of others as in their
own, was a duty particularly incumbent on those who at¬
tained the honour of chivalry. Generosity, gallantry, and
an unblemished reputation, were no less necessary ingre¬
dients in the character of a perfect knight. He was not
called upon simply to practise these virtues when oppor¬
tunity offered, but to be sedulous and unwearied in search¬
ing for the means of exercising them, and to push them
without hesitation to the brink of extravagance, or even
beyond it. Founded on principles so pure, the order of
chivalry could not, in the abstract at least, but occasion a
pleasing, though a romantic development of the energies
of human nature; but as, in actual practice, every insti¬
tution becomes deteriorated and degraded, we have too
much occasion to remark, that the devotion of the knights
often degenerated into superstition,—their love into licen¬
tiousness,—their spirit of loyalty or of freedom into ty¬
ranny and turmoil,—their generosity and gallantry into
hairbrained madness and absurdity.
We have mentioned devotion as a principal feature in
the character of chivalry. At what remote period the
forms of chivalry were first blended with those of the
Christian religion, would be a long and difficult inquiry.
The religion which breathes nothing but love to our neigh¬
bour and forgiveness of injuries, was not, in its primitive
purity, easily transferable into the warlike and military in¬
stitutions of the Goths, the Franks, and the Saxons. At
its first infusion, it appeared to soften the character of the
people among whom it was introduced so much, as to ren-
He may here observe, once for all, that we have no hesitation in quoting the romances of chivalry as good evidence of the
avs and customs of knighthood. The authors, like the painters of the period, invented nothing, but, copying the manners of the
age m which they lived, transferred them without doubt or scruple to the period and personages of whom they treated. But
16 romance of Jehan de Saintre is still more authentic evidence, as it is supposed to contain no small measure of fact, though dis¬
guised and distorted. Probably the achievement of the Polish knights may have been a real incident.
VOL. VI. 4 F
CHIVALRY.
der them less warlike than their heathen neighbours. Thus
the pagan Danes ravaged England when inhabited by the
Christian Saxons,—the heathfen Normans conquered Neus-
tria from the Franks,—the Converted Goths were subdued
by the sword of the heathen Huns,—the Visigoths of Spam
fell before the Saracens. But the tide soon turned. As
the necessity of military talent and courage became evi¬
dent, the Christian religion was* used by its ministers (just¬
ly and wisely, so far as respected self-defence) as an ad¬
ditional spur to the tempermf the valiant. Those books
of the Old Testament which Ulphilas dechned to translate,
because they afforded too much fuel for the military zea
of the ancient Goths, were now commented upon to ani¬
mate the sinking cottrage of their descendants. ^ictoiy
and glory on earth, and a happy immortality after death,
were promised to those champions who should distinguish
themselves in battle against the infidels. And who shall
blame the preachers who held such language, when it is
remembered that the Saracens had at one time nearly pos¬
sessed themselves of Aquitaine, and that, but for the suc¬
cessful valour of Charles Martel, Pepin, and Charlemagne,
the crescent might have dispossessed the cross of the fair¬
est portion of Europe; The fervent sentiments of devotion
which direct men’s eyes toward heaven, were then justly
invoked, to unite with those which are most valuable on
earth—the love of our country and its liberties.
But the Romish clergy,'who have in all ages possessed
the wisdom of serpents, if they sometimes have fallen short
of the simplicity of doves, saw the advantage of convert¬
ing this temporary zeal, which animated the warriors of
their creed against the invading infidels, into a permanent
union of principles, which should blend the ceremonies of
religious worship with the military establishment of the
ancient Goths and Germans. The admission of the noble
youth to the practice of arms was no longer a mere mili¬
tary ceremony, where the sword or javelin was delivered
to him in presence of the prince or elders of his tribe; it
became a religious rite, sanctified by the forms or the
church, which he was in future to defend. Ihe novice
had to watch his arms in a church or chapel, or at least
on hallowed ground, the night before he had received the
honour of knighthood. He was made to assume a white
dress, in imitation of the Neophytes of the church, hast
and confession were added to vigils, and the purification
of the bath was imposed on the military acolyte, in muta¬
tion of the initiatory rite of Christianity; and he was at¬
tended bv godfathers, who became security for his perform¬
ing his militarv vows, as sponsors had formerly appeared
for him at baptism. In all points of ceremonial, the in¬
vestiture of chivalry was brought to resemble, as nearly
as possible, the administration of the sacraments of the
church. The ceremony itself was performed, where cir¬
cumstances would admit, in a church or cathedral; and
the weapons with which the young warrior was invested
were previously blessed by the priest. Ihe oath of chi¬
valry bound the knight to defend the rights of the holy
church, to respect religious persons and institutions, and
to obey the precepts of the gospel. Nay more, so intimate
was the union betwixt chivalry and religion supposed to
I will ne gou one foot on ground
For to speke with an heathen hound ;
Unchristen houndes, 1 rede ye flee,
Or I your hearte’s bloode will see.
This intemperate zeal for religion the knights were ex¬
pected to maintain at every risk, however imminent. Like
the early Christians, they were prohibited from acquiescing,
even by silence, in the rites of idolatry, although death
should be the consequence of their interrupting them, in
the fine romance of Huon of Bourdeaux, that champion is
represented as having failed in duty to God and his faith,
because he had professed himself a Saracen, for the tem¬
porary purpose of obtaining entrance into the pa ace of the
Amial Gaudifer. “ And when Sir Huon passed the thir
gate, he remembered him of the lie he had spoken to ob¬
tain entrance into the first. Alas! said the kmgh , wm
but destruction can betide one who has so foully falsitie
and denied his faith towards him who has done so much
for me 1” His mode of repentance was truly chivalrous.
When he came to the gate of the last interior inclosure o
the castle, he said to the warder, “ Fagan, accursed
thou of God, open the gate.” When he entered ti e 1^
where the Fagan monarch was seated ]n tuil ^ ,
struck off, without ceremony, the head of the PaS
who sat next in rank to him, exclaiming at the same tim ,
with a loud voice, “ God, thou hast given me g—
to commence my emprize ; may our Reueemer gra^
•**that thc—rs ssz “o5
The effect which this union of religious and military chiv;,
zeal was like to produce in every other case save that of W*/
defensive war, could not but be unfavourable to the purity
of the former. The knight, whose profession was war, be-
ino- solemnly enlisted in the service of the gospel of peace,
regarded infidels and heretics of every description as the
enemies whom, as God’s own soldier, he was called upon
to attack and slay wherever he could meet with them,
without demanding or waiting for any other cause of quar¬
rel than the difference of religious faith. Ihe duties of
morality were indeed formally imposed on him by the oath
of his order, as well as that of defending the church and
extirpating Iveresy and misbelief. But in all ages it has
been visual for men to compound with their consciences
for breaches of the moral code of religion, by a double pro¬
portion of zeal for its abstract doctrines. In the middle
ages, this course might be pursued on system; for the
church allowed an exploit done on the infidels as a merit
which might obliterate the guilt of the most atrocious
crimes. „ , , . .
The genius alike of the age and of the order tended to
render the zeal of the professors of chivalry fierce, burning,
and intolerant. If an infidel, says a great authority, im¬
pugn the doctrines of the Christian faith beiore a church¬
man, he should reply to him by argument; but a knight
should render no other reason to the infidel than six inches
of his falchion thrust into his accursed bowels. Even cour¬
tesy, and the respect due to ladies of high tlegree, gave
way when they chanced to be infidels. The renowned
Sir Bevis of Hamptoun, being invited by the fair Princess
Josiane to come to her bower, replies to the payraims who
brought the message,
At what period this c^plejo ^
sion of religious ceremonial into an order-purely military
first commenced, and when it became complete and per¬
fect, would be a curious but a difficult subject of investi¬
gation. Down to the reign of Charlemagne, and some¬
what lower, the investiture w as of a nature purely civil;
but long before the time of the crusades, it had assumed
the religious character we have described.
loseu ro acvuaie u
is needless to ransack works of fiction Jor tllis 0f
The real history of the crusades, founded on the P
chivalry, and on the restless and intolerant zea w
blended by the churchmen with this -
ment, are an authentic and fatal proof of the sam ^
The hairbrained and adventurous character o
terprises, not less than the promised pardons, ind a
airy, and remissions of the church, rendered them dear to the
■fJ warriors of the middle ages; the idea of re-establishing
the Christian religion in the Holy Land, and wresting the
tomb of Christ from the infidels, made kings, princes,&and
nobles, blind to its hazards; and they rushed, army after
army, to Palestine, in the true spirit of chivalry, whose
faithful professors felt themselves the rather called upon
to undertake an adventure, from the peculiar dangers
which surrounded it, and the numbers who had fallen in
previous attempts.
It was after the conquest of the Holy Land that the
union between temporal and spiritual chivalry (for such
was the term sometimes given to monastic institutions) be¬
came perfect, by the institution of the two celebrated mi¬
litary orders of monks, the knights templars and knights
ofSt John of Jerusalem, who, renouncing (at least in terms)
the pomp, power, and pleasures of the world, and taking
upon themselves the monastic vows of celibacy, purity,
and obedience, did not cease to remain soldiers, and di¬
rected their whole energy against the Saracens. The his¬
tory of these orders will be found in its proper place in
this work; but their existence is here noticed, as illus¬
trating our general proposition concerning the union of
devotion and chivalry. A few general remarks will close
this part of the subject.
The obvious danger of teaching a military body to con¬
sider themselves as missionaries of religion, and bound to
spread its doctrines, is, that they are sure to employ in its
service their swords and lances. The end is held to sanc-
tify the means, and the slaughter of thousands of infidels
is regarded as an indifferent, or rather as a meritorious ac¬
tion, providing it may occasion the conversion of the rem¬
nant, or the peopling of their land with professors of a purer
faith. The wars of Charlemagne in Saxony, the massacres
of the Albigenses in the south of France, the long-conti¬
nued wars of Palestine, all served to illustrate the dangers
resulting from the doctrine which inculcated religion, not
as a check upon the horrors and crimes of war, but as it¬
self its most proper and legitimate cause. The evil may
be said to have survived the decay of chivalry, to have
extended itself to the new world, and to have occasioned
those horrors with which it was devastated for ages after
its first discovery. The Spanish conquerors of South Ame¬
rica were not, indeed, knights-errant; but the nature of
their enterprises, as well as the mode in which they were
conducted, partook deeply of the spirit of chivalry. In
no country of Europe had this spirit sunk so deeply and
spread so wide as in Spain. The extravagant positions re¬
specting the point of honour, and the romantic summons
which chivalry proclaimed to deeds of danger and glory,
suited the ardent and somewhat oriental character of the
Spaniards, a people more remarkable for force of imagina¬
tion and depth of feeling than for wit and understanding.
Chivalry, in Spain, was embittered by a double proportion
of intolerant bigotry, owing to their constant and invete¬
rate wars with the Moorish invaders. The strain of sen¬
timent, therefore, which chivalry inspired, continued fora
ong time to mark the manners of Spain, after the decay
°f its positive institutions, as the beams of the sun tinge
the horizon after the setting of his orb. The warriors
whom she sent to the new world sought and found mar¬
vels which resembled those of romance; they achieved
deeds of valour against such odds of numbers as are only
recorded in the annals of knight-errantry; and, alas ! they
o lowed their prototypes in that indifference for human
he, which is the usual companion of intolerant zeal,
varice, indeed, brought her more sordid shades to com-
P ete the gloomy picture; and avarice was unknown to
t e institutions of chivalry. The intolerant zeal, however,
wmch overthrew the altars of the Indians by violence, in-
c H I Y A L R Y.
595
stead of assailing their errors by reason, and which im- Chivalry,
puted to them as crimes their ignorance of a religion -y-w/
which had never been preached to them, and their rejec¬
tion of speculative doctrines of faith, propounded by per¬
sons whose practice was so ill calculated to recommend
them,—all these may be traced to the spirit of chivahy,
and the military devotion of its professors.
The religion of the knights, like that of the times, was
debased by superstition. Each champion had his favou¬
rite saint, to whom he addressed himself upon special oc¬
casions of danger, and to wham*, after the influence of his
lady’s eyes, he was wont to ascribe the honour of his con¬
quests. St Michael, the leader of banded Seraphim, and
the personal antagonist of Satan,—St George, St James,
and St Martin, all of whomi popular faith had invested
with the honours of chivalry,—were frequently selected
as the appropriate champions of the militant adventurers
yet on earth. The knights used their names adjected to
their own as their insignia, watchword, or signal for bat¬
tle. Edward III. fighting valiantly in a night-skirmish
before the gates of Calais, was heard to accompany each
blow he struck with the invocation of his tutelar saints,
Ha! Saint Edward! ha! Saint George ! But the Virgin
Mary, to whom their superstition ascribed the qualitietTof
youth, beauty, and sweetness, which they prized in their
terrestrial mistresses, was an especial object of the devo¬
tion of the followers of chivalry, as of all other good Ca¬
tholics. Tournaments were undertaken, and feats of arms
performed, in her honour, as in that of an earthly mistress;
and the veneration with which she was regarded seems
occasionally to have partaken of the character of romantic
affection. She was often held to return this love by sin¬
gular marks of her favour and protection^ During an ex¬
pedition of the Christians to the coast of Africa, Froissart
informs us that a large black dog was frequently seen in
their camp, which barked furiously whenever the infidels
approached it by night, and,rendered such service to the
Christian adventurers by its vigilance, that with one con¬
sent they named it f‘ the dog of our lady.”
But although, as is incidental to human institutions, the
mixture of devotion in the military character of the knight
degenerated into brutal intolerance and superstition in
its practical effects, nothing could be -more beautiful and
praiseworthy than the theory on which it was grounded.
That the soldier drawing the sword in defence of his coun¬
try and its liberties, or of the oppressed innocence of dam¬
sels, widows, and orphans, or in support of religious rights,
for which those to whom they belonged were disqualified
by their profession to combat in person,—that he should
blend with all the feelings which these offices inspired, a
deep sense of devotion, exalting him above the advantage
and even the fame which he himself might derive from
victory, and gaving dignity to defeat itself as a lesson of
divine chastisement and humiliation,—that the knight on
whose valour his countrymen were to rely in danger, should
set them an example in observing the duties and precepts
of religion,—are circumstances so well qualified to soften,
to dignify, and to grace the profession of arms, that we can¬
not but regret their tendency to degenerate into a fero¬
cious propensity to bigotry, persecution, and intolerance.
Such, however, is the tendency of all human institutions,
which, however fairly framed in theory, are in practice
corrupted by our evil passions, until the results which
flow from them become the very reverse of what was to
have been expected and desired.
The next ingredient in the spirit of chivalry, second in
force only to the religious zeal of its professors, and fre¬
quently predominating over it, was a devotion to the fe¬
male sex, and particularly to her whom each knight select¬
ed as the chief object of his affection, of a nature so ex-
596
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, travagant and unbounded as to approach to a soit of ido
latThe original source of this sentiment is to be found, like
that of chivalry itself, in the customs and habits ot the
northern tribes, who possessed, even in their rudest state,
so many honourable and manly distinctions over a ie
other nations in the same stage of society. I he chaste
union of marriage, or to term an infringement of its laws Chiva
a compliance with the manners of the age. The German
wife, once married, seldom endeavoured to form a second
union, but continued, in honoured widowhood, to direct
and manage the family of her deceased husband. This
habitual subjection of sensuality to sentiment, these plain,
simple, virtuous, and temperate manners of the German
other nations in the same stage of socie y. . . \ females placed the females in that high rank of society
and temperate habits of ^course until the which the sex occupies when its conduct is estimable, and
it was dishonourable to hold sexua , . , d ee from which it as certainly declines in ages or climates
twentieth year was attained, was m : ^ ^ p inx,ir;ous indulgence. The superintendence of
favourable, not only to the morals and ica 11 o ‘ k domestic affairs was assigned to the German women,
cient Germans, but must have conmbuted greatly to place the dom^sUc a#a.rs ™ e rfered unless ^
the females in that dignified and respectable rank -h.ch a duty m wh^h the men se of iv4rfare. Th
they held in society. Nothmg tends so much to blunt the sl' eme auth0rity in their
the other sex, their character has become degraded, and
they have sunk into domestic drudges and bondswomen
among the poor,—the slaves of a haram among the more
wealthy. On the other hand, the men, easily and eai ly
sated with indulgences, which soon lose their poignancy
when the senses only are interested, become first indiffe¬
rent, then harsh and brutal, to the unfortunate slaves ot
their pleasures. The sated lover,—and perhaps it is the
most brutal part of humanity,—is soon converted into the
capricious tyrant, like the successful seducer of the mo¬
dern poet.
Hard ! with their fears and terrors to behold
The cause of all, the faithless lover cold,
Impatient grown at every wish denied,
And barelv civil, soothed and gratified.
Crabbe’s Borough, p. 213.
Habitual indulgence seeks change of objects to relieve
satiety. Hence polygamy, and all its brutalizing conse¬
quences, which were happily unknown to our Gothic an¬
cestors. The virtuous and manly restraints imposed on
of Tacitus. “ It is the principal incitement to the courage
of the Germans, that in battle their separate troops or co-
lumns are not arranged promiscuously as chance dnects,
but consist each of a united family or clan with its rela¬
tives. Their dearest pledges are placed in the vicinity,
whence may be heard the cries of their females, the wai -
ings of their infants, whom each accounts the most sacred
witnesses and the dearest eulogists of his valoui. The
wounded repair to their mothers and spouses, who hesi¬
tate not to number their wounds, and to suck the blood
that flows from them. The females carry refreshment
to those engaged in the contest, and encourage them by
their exhortations. It is related that armies, when disor¬
dered and about to give way, have renewed the contest
at the instance of the women, moved by the earnestness
of their entreaties, their exposed besoms, and the danger
of approaching captivity; a doom which they dread more
on account of their females than even on their own, inso¬
much that these German states are most effectually
bound to obedience, among the number of whose hostages
cestors. The virtuous and manly restraints imposed on ^ a numb;r 0f noble damsels as well as men.
their youth were highly calculated to exalt the character indeed, that there resides in the female sex
of both sexes, and especially to raise the females in their "nlth^’sKrTand capable of presaging the future;
own eyes and those ot their lovers, they were led to ie- ^ » gcorn their advice or neglect their responses,
gard themselves, not as the passive slaves of pleasure, but ) Vespasian we have seen Velleda long ho d
the objects of a ^longed and respect^ tt^k^a deiX most of the German states ; and in
could only be finally gratified when their lovers had at¬
tained the age of mature reason, and were capable to go¬
vern and to defend the family which should arise around
them. With the young man imagination and sentiment
combined to heighten his ideas of a pleasure which nature
instructed him to seek, and which the wise laws of his coun-
in uie unit; in v   ~ , .
the rank of a deity in most of the German states ; and, m
former times, they venerated Aunma and other females,
not, however, from mere flattery, nor yet m the character
of actual goddesses.” The tales and Sagas of the north
in which females often act the most distinguished part
might also he quoted as proofs of the rank which they
held in society. We find them ^arat.ng he mo« de.
try prevented him ft™ maturely aspiring sh«e To -m m soe.er,. .. e ^ ^ andS; or tteir
a youth so situated, the maiden on whom he placed Ins peiate y ) P the levelled weapons of
affections became an object elan’6 as wellas of affection ; were their rights less eatensne
the passion which he indulged for her was of a nature as
timid and pure as engrossing and powerful; the minds ot
the parties became united before the joining of their hands,
and a moral union preceded the mere intercourse of the
S6X6S#
The marriages formed under these happy auspices were
in general happy and affectionate. Adultery was unfre-
quent, and punished with the utmost rigour. Nor could
she who had undergone the penalty of such a crime find
a second husband, however distinguished by beauty, birth,
or wealth. (Taciti Germania.) The awe and devotion
with which the lover had regarded his destined bride dui-
ing the years in which the German youth were enjoined
celibacy, became regard and affection in the husband
towards the sharer of his labours and the mistress of us
household. The matron maintained that rank in society
which love had assigned to the maiden. No one, then,
says the Roman historian, dared to ridicule the sacred
the combatants. Nor were them rights !ess ex
than their authority. In the Eyrhggia Saga we are
formed that Thordisa, the mother of the celebrated Pont.
Snorro, and wife of Biarko of Stelgafels, received abb
from her husband. The provocation was fron?
tron had, in her husband’s house and at his table, att p
ed to stab his guest Eyalf Graie, on account bis having
slain one of her relations. Yet so little did i P
tion justify the offence, that, in the presence p^ co
tia, or public assembly of the tnbe, 1 hordisa >nvoked
nesses to hear testimony that she divorced 1
on account of his having raised his hand again P,
son. And such were the rights of a northein nia J
milias, that the divorce and a division of Spod^™ h the
ly took place between the husband and wife, altho gM
violence of which Thordisa complained was occasioned j
her own attempt to murder a guest. this
We have traced the ideas of the Gothic tribe
C H I V
valry. important point the more at length, because they show
that the character of veneration, sanctity, and inviolabi¬
lity attached to the female character, together with the
important part assigned to them in society, were brought
with them from their native forests, and had existence
long before the chivalrous institutions in which they made
so remarkable a featuie* d^hey easily became amalgamat¬
ed in a system so well fitted to adopt whatever was ro¬
mantic and enthusiastic in manners or sentiment. Amid
the various duties of knighthood, that of protecting the
female sex, respecting their persons, and redressing their
wrongs, becoming the champion of their cause, and the
chastiser of those by whom they were injured, was pre¬
sented as one of the principal objects of the institution.
Their oath bound the new-made knights to defend the
cause of all women without exception ; and the most press¬
ing way of conjuring them to grant a boon was to implore
it in the name of God and the 'ladies. The cause of a
distressed lady was, in many instances, preferable to that
even of the country to which the knight belonged. Thus,
the Captal de Buche, though an English subject, did not
hesitate to unite his troops with those of the Compte de
Foix, to relieve the ladies in a town where they were be¬
sieged and threatened with violence by the insurgent pea¬
santry. The looks, the words, the sign of a lady, were
accounted to make knights at time of need to perform
double their usual deeds of strength and valour. At
tournaments and in combats the voices of the ladies were
heard, like those of the German females in former battles,
calling on the knights' to remember their fame, and exert
themselves to the uttermost. “ Think, gentle knights,”
was their cry, “ upon the wool of your breasts, the nerve of
your arms, the love you cherish in your hearts, and do va¬
liantly, for ladies behold you.” The corresponding shouts
of the combatants were, “ Love of ladies! Death of war¬
riors ! On, valiant knights, for you fight under fair eyes.”
Where the honour or love of a lady was at stake, the
fairest prize was held out to the victorious knight, and
champions from every quarter were sure to hasten to com¬
bat in a cause so popular. Chaucer, when he describes
the assembly of the knights who came with Arcita and Pa-
lemon to fight for the love of the fair Emilie, describes the
manners ot his age in the following lines:
For every knight that loved chivalry,
And would his thankes have a passant name.
Hath pray’d that he might ben of tliat game.
And well was him that thereto chusen was;
For if there fell to-morrow such a case,
Ye knowen well that every lusty knight
That loveth par amour, and hath his might,
Were it in Engellonde, or elleswhere,
They wold hir thankes willen to be there.
To fight for a lady ! Ah ! Benedicite,
It were a lusty sight for to see.
It is needless to multiply quotations on a subject so trite
and well known. The defence of the female sex in gene¬
ral, the regard due to their honour, the subservience paid
to their commands, the reverend awe and courtesy which,
m their presence, forbear all unseemly words and actions,
were so blended with the institution of chivalry, as to form
its very essence.
But it was not enough that the “ very perfect, gentle
knight,” should reverence the fair sex in general. It was
essential to his character that he should select, as his pro¬
per choice, “ a lady and a love,” to be the polar star of his
thoughts, the mistress of his affections, and the directress
of his actions. In her service, he was to observe the
duties of loyalty, faith, secrecy, and reverence. Without
such an empress of his heart, a knight, in the phrase of
the times, was a ship without a rudder, a horse without a
bridle, a sword without a hilt; a being, in short, devoid of
A L It Y. 597
that ruling guidance and intelligence, which ought to in- Chivalry,
spire his bravery and direct his actions. '
The Dame des Belles Cousines, having cast her eyes
upon the little Jean de Saintre, then a page of honour at
court, demanded of him the name of his mistress and his
love, on whom his affections were fixed. The poor boy,
thus pressed, replied, that the first object of his love was
the lady his ^mother, and the next his sister Jacqueline.
“ Jouvencel,” replied the inquisitive lady, who had her own
reasons for not being contented with this simple answer,
“ we do not now talk of the affection due to your mother
and sister ; I desire to know the name of the lady whom
you Xovepar amours!'—“ In faith, madam,” said the poor
page, to whom the mysteries of chivalry, as well as of love,
were yet unknown, “ I love no one par amours!’:—<£ Ah,
false gentleman, and traitor to the laws of chivalry,” re¬
turned the lady, “ dare you say that you love no lady ?
well may we perceive your falsehood and craven spirit by
such an avowal. Whence were derived the great valour
and the high achievements of Lancelot of Gawain, ofTris-
trem, of Giron the Courteous, and of other heroes of the
Round I able,—whence those of Panthus, and of so many
other valiant knights and squires of this realm, whose names
I could enumerate had I time,—whence the exaltation of
many whom I myself have known to arise to high dignity
and renown, except from their animating desire to main¬
tain themselves in the grace and favour of their ladies,
without which mainspring to exertion and valour they
must have remained unknown and insignificant. And do
you, coward page, now dare to aver that you have no lady,
and desire to have none ? Hence, false heart that thou art.”
lo avoid these bitter reproaches, the simple page named
as his lady and love par amours Matheline de Coucy, a child
of ten years old. The answer of the Dame des Belles
Cousines, after she had indulged in the mirth which his an¬
swer prompted, instructed him how to place his affections
more advantageously ; and as the former part of the quo¬
tation may show the reader how essential it was to the pro¬
fession of chivalry, that everyone of its professors should
elect a lady of his affections, that which follows explains
the principles on which his choice should be regulated.
“ Matheline,” said the lady, “ is indeed a pretty girl, and
of high rank, and better lineage than appertains to you.
But what good, what profit, what honour, what advantage,
what comfort, what aid, what council for advancing you in
the ranks of chivalry, can you derive from such a choice ?
Sir, you ought to choose a lady of high and noble blood,
who has the talent and means to counsel and aid you at
your need ; and her you ought to serve so truly, and love
so loyally, that she must be compelled to acknowledge
the true and honourable affection which you bear to her.
For believe there is no lady, however cruel and haughty,
but through length of faithful service will be brought to
acknowledge and reward loyal affection with some portion
of pity, compassion, or mercy. In this manner you will
attain the praise of a worthy knight; and till you fol¬
low such a course, I would not give an apple for you or
your achievements.” The lady then proceeds to lecture
the acolyte of chivalry at considerable length on the se¬
ven mortal sins, and the way in which the true amorous
knight may eschew commission of them. Still, however,
the saving grace inculcated in her sermon was fidelity and
secrecy in the service of the mistress whom he should
love par amours. She proves, by the aid of quotations
from the Scripture, the fathers of the church, and the
ancient philosophers, that the true and faithful lover can
never fall into the crimes of Pride, Anger, Envy, Sloth, or
Gluttony. From each of these his true faith is held to
warrant and defend him. Nay, so pure was the nature of
the flame which she recommended, that she maintained it
598
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, to be inconsistent even with the seventh sin of Chambering
and Wantonness, to which it might seem too nearly allied.
The least dishonest thought or action was, according to
her doctrine, sufficient to forfeit the chivalrous lovei the
favour of his lady. It seems, however, that the greater
part of her charge concerning incontinence is levelled
against such as haunted the receptacles of open vice ; and
that she reserved an exception (of which, in the course of
the history, she made liberal use) in favour of the inter¬
course which, in all love, honour, and secrecy, might take
place when the favoured and faithful knight had obtained,
by long service, the boon of amorous mercy fiom the lady
whom he loved “pciv clitioxits* I he last encouiagement
which the Dame des Belles Cousines held out to Saintre,
in order to excite his ambition, and induce him to fix his
passion upon a lady of elevated birth, rank, and sentiment,
is also worthy of being quoted, since it shows that it was
the prerogative of chivalry to abrogate the distinctions of
rank, and elevate the hopes of the knight, whose sole pa¬
trimony wras his arms and valour, to the high-born and
princely dame, before whom he carved as a sewer. ^
“ Plow is it possible for me,” replied poor Saintre, after
having heard out the unmercifully long lecture of the
Dame des Belles Cousines, “ to find a lady, such as you
describe, who will accept of my service, and requite the
affection of such a one as I am “ And why should you
not find her?” answered the lady preceptress. “ Are you
not gently born ? Are you not a fair and proper youth ?
Have vou not eyes to look on her—ears to hear her—a
tongue to plead your cause to her—hands to serve her—
feet to move at her bidding—body and heart to accom¬
plish loyally her commands? And, having all these, can
you doubt to adventure yourself in the service of any
lady whatsoever?”
In these extracts are painted the actual manners of the
age of chivalry. The necessity of the perfect knight
having a mistress, whom he loved -par amours, the duty
of dedicating his time to obey her commands, however ca¬
pricious, and his strength to execute extravagant feats of
valour, which might redound to her praise,—for all that
was done for her sake, and under her auspices, was count¬
ed her merit, as the victories of their generals were ascribed
to the Roman emperors,—was not a whit less necessary to
complete the character of a good knight than the Dame
des Belles Cousines represented it.
It was the especial pride of each distinguished cham¬
pion, to maintain against all others the superior worth,
beauty, and accomplishments of his lady ; to bear her pic¬
ture from court to court, and support with lance and swmrd
her superiority to all other dames, abroad or at home.
To break a spear for the love of their ladies, was a chal¬
lenge courteously given, and gently accepted, among all
true followers of chivalry; and history and romance are
alike filled with the tilts and tournaments which took
place upon this argument, which was ever ready and ever
acceptable. Indeed, whatever the subject of the tourna¬
ment had been, the lists w ere never closed until a solemn
course had been made in honour of the ladies.
There were knights yet more adventurous, who sought
to distinguish themselves by singular and uncommon feats
of arms in honour of their mistresses, and such was usu¬
ally the cause of the w'himsieal and extravagant vows of
arms which we have subsequently to notice. To combat
against extravagant odds, to fight amid the press of armed
knights without some essential part of their armour, to
do some deed of audacious valour in face of friend and
foe, were the services by which the knights strove to
recommend themselves, or which their mistresses (very
justly so called) imposed on them as proofs of their af¬
fection.
On such occasions the favoured knight, as he wore the Chivalr-
colours and badge of the lady of his affections, usually ex- v**"y>*
erted his ingenuity in inventing some device or cognisance
which might express their affection, either openly, as
boasting of it in the eye of the world, or in such myste¬
rious mode of education as should only be understood by
the beloved person, if circumstances did not permit an
avowal of his passion. Among the earliest instances of
the use of the English language at the court of the Nor¬
man monarchs, is the distich painted in the shield of
Edward III. under the figure of a white swan, being the
device which that warlike monarch wore at a tourney at
Windsor.
Ha ! ha ! the white swan,
By God his soul, I am thy man.
The choice of these devices was a very serious matter;
and the usurpation of such as any knight had previously
used and adopted was often the foundation of a regular
quarrel, of which many instances occur in Froissart and
other writers.
The ladies, bound as they were in honour to requite
the passion of their knights, were wmnt on such occasions
to dignify them by the present of a scarf, ribbon, or glove,
which was to be worn in the press ot battle and tourna¬
ment. These marks of favour they displayed on their
helmets, and they were accounted the best incentives to
deeds of valour. The custom appears to have prevailed
in France to a late period, though polluted with the gross¬
ness so often mixed with the affected refinement and gal¬
lantry of that nation. In the attack made by the Duke
of Buckingham upon the Isle of Rhe, favours were found
on the persons of many of the French soldiers who fell at
the skirmish on the landing; but for the manner in which
they were disposed we are compelled to refer to Howel
and Wilson.
Sometimes the ladies, in conferring these tokens o
their favour, clogged them with the most extravagant and
severe conditions. But the lover had this advantage in
such cases, that if he ventured to encounter the hazard
imposed, and chanced to survive it, he had, according to
the fashion of the age, the right of exacting from the lady
favours corresponding in importance. The annals ot chi¬
valry abound with stories of cruel and cold fair ones who
subjected their lovers to extremes of danger, in hopes
that they might get rid of their addresses, but were, upon
their unexpected success, caught in their own snare, an ,
as ladies who would not have their name made the theme
of reproach by every minstrel, compelled to recompense
the deeds which their champion had achieved in their
name. There are instances in which the lover used Ins
right of reprisals with some rigour, as in the well-known
fabliau of the three knights and the shift, in which a lady
proposes to her three lovers successively the task ot en¬
tering unarmed into the melee of a tournament,
only in one of her shifts. The perilous proposal is de¬
clined by two of the knights, and accepted by the third,
who thrusts himself, in the unprotected state required,
into all the hazards of the tournament, sustains many
wmunds, and carries off the prize of the day. On the nex
day the husband of the lady (for she was married) was to
give a superb banquet to the knights and nobles w io
attended the tourney. The wounded victor sen s
shift back to its owner, with his request that she w
wear it over her rich dress on this solemn occasion, soneu
and torn as it was, and stained all over with the b.oo
its late wearer. The lady did not hesitate to comp y>
daring that she regarded this shift, stained with the b
of her “fair friend, as more precious than if it were o
most costly materials.” Jaques de Basin, the nuns >
CHIVALRY.
ry. who relates this curious tale, is at a loss to say whether
the palm of true love should be given to the knight or to
the lady on this remarkable occasion. The husband, he
assures us, had the good sense to seem to perceive no¬
thing uncommon in the singular vestment with which his
lady was attired, and the rest of the good company highly
admired her courageous requital of the knight’s gallantry.
Sometimes the patience of the lover was worn out by
the cold-hearted vanity which thrust him on such perilous
enterprises. At the court of one of the German emperors,
while some ladies and gallants of the court were looking
into a den where two lions were confined, one of them
purposely let her glove fall within the palisade which in¬
closed the animals, and commanded her lover, as a true
knight, to fetch it out to her. He did not hesitate to
obey; jumped over the inclosure; threw his mantle to¬
wards the animals as they sprung at him; snatched up
the glove, and regained the outside of the palisade. But
when in safety, he proclaimed aloud, that what he had
achieved was done for the sake of his own reputation, and
not for that of a false lady, who could for her sport and
cold-blooded vanity face a brave man on a duel so despe¬
rate ; and, with the applause of all that were present, he
renounced her love for ever.
This, however, was an uncommon circumstance. In ge¬
neral, the lady was supposed to have her lover’s character
as much at heart as her own, and to mean, by pushing
him upon enterprises of hazard, only to give him an op¬
portunity of meriting her good graces, which she could not
with honour confer upon one undistinguished by deeds of
chivalry. An affecting instance is given by Godscroft.
At the time when the Scotch were struggling to recover
from the usurpation of Edward I., the castle of Douglas
was repeatedly garrisoned by the English, and these gar¬
risons were as frequently surprised and cut to pieces by
the good Lord James of Douglas, who, lying in the moun¬
tainous wilds of Cairntable, and favoured by the intelli¬
gence which he maintained among his vassals, took op¬
portunity of the slightest relaxation of vigilance to sur¬
prise the fortress. At length a fair dame of England an¬
nounced to the numerous suitors who sought her hand,
that she would confer it on the man who should keep the
perilous castle of Douglas (so it was called) for a year and
a day. I he knight who undertook this dangerous task at
her request discharged his duty like a careful soldier for
several months, and the lady relenting at the prospect of
his continued absence, sent a letter to recal him, declar¬
ing she held his probation as accomplished. In the mean¬
time, however, he had received a defiance from Douglas,
threatening him, that, let him use his utmost vigilance, he
would recover from him his father’s castle before Palm-
Sunday. The English knight deemed that he could not
in honour leave the castle till this day was past; and on
the very eve of Palm-Sunday was surprised and slain with
the lady’s letter in his pocket, the perusal whereof great¬
ly grieved the good Lord James of Douglas.
We are left much to our own conjectures on the ap¬
pearance and manners of these haughty beauties, who
were wooed with sword and lance, whose favours were
bought at the expense of such dear and desperate perils,
and who wrere worshipped, like heathen deities, with hu¬
man sacrifices. The character of the ladies of the ages
of chivalry was probably determined by that of the men,
to whom it sometimes approached. Most of these heroines
were educated to understand the treatment of wounds,
not only of the heart, but of the sword ; and, in romance
at least, the quality of leech-craft (practised by the Lady
hountifuls of the last generation) was essential to the cha¬
racter of an accomplished princess. They sometimes tres¬
passed on the province of their lovers, and actually took
599
up arms. The Countess de Montfort in Bretagne is cele- Chivalry,
brated by Froissart for the gallantry with which she de- v—
fended her castle when besieged by the English ; and the
old prior of Lochleven in Scotland is equally diffuse in
the praise of Black Agnes, countess of March, who, in
the reign of Edward III. held out the castle of Dunbar
against the English. She appeared on the battlements
with a white handkerchief in her hands, and wiped the
walls in derision where they had been struck by stones
from the English engines. When Montague, earl of Sa¬
lisbury, brought up to the walls a military engine, like
the Roman estudo, called a sow, she exclaimed in rhime,
Beware Montagou,
For farrow shall thy sow.
A huge rock discharged from the battlements dashed the
sow to pieces, and the English soldiers who escaped from
its ruins were called by the countess, in derision, Monta¬
gue’s pigs.
The nature of the conferences between these high-
minded heroines and their lovers was somewhat peculiar.
Their delectations were in tales of warlike exploits, and
in discourse of hunting and hawking. But when these
topics were exhausted, they found in metaphysical discus¬
sions of nice questions concerning the passion of love, an
endless source of interesting disquisition. The idea and
definition of a true and pure passion, illustrated by an
hundred imaginary cases devised on purpose, were ma¬
naged in the same manner in which the schoolmen of the
day agitated their points of metaphysical theology. The
Scotists and the Thomists, whose useless and nonsensical
debates cumbered the world with so many volumes of ab¬
surd disquisition upon the most extravagant points of po¬
lemical divinity, saw their theological labours rivalled in
the courts of love, where the most abstract reasoning
was employed in discussing subtile questions upon the ex¬
aggerated hopes, fears, doubts, and suspicions of lovers,
the circumstances of whose supposed cases were often
ridiculous, sometimes criminal, sometimes licentious, and
almost always puerile and extravagant. These particulars
will fall to be more fully illustrated under the article
Troubadour. In the meanwhile, it is sufficient to state,
that the discussions in the courts of love regarded such
important and interesting questions as, Whether his love
be most meritorious who has formed his passion entirely
on hearing, or his who has actually seen his mistress ?
with others of a tendency equally edifying.
Extremes of every kind border on each other; and as
the devotion of the knights of chivalry degenerated into
superstition, the Platonic refinements and subtilties of
amorous passion which they professed were sometimes
compatible with very coarse and gross debauchery. We
have seen that they derived from the Gothic tribes that
high and reverential devotion to the female sex which
forms the strongest tint in the manners of chivalry. But
with the simplicity of these ancient times they lost their
innocence ; and woman, though still worshipped with en¬
thusiasm, as in the German forests, did not continue to be
(in all cases at least) the same pure object of worship.
The marriage-tie ceased to be respected; and as the
youthful knights had seldom the means or inclination to
encumber themselves with wives and families, their lady¬
love was often chosen among the married ladies of the
court. It is true, that such a connection was supposed to
be consistent with all respect and honour, and was regard¬
ed by the world, and sometimes by the husband, as a high
strain of Platonic sentiment, through which the character
of its object in no respect suffered. But nature vindicat¬
ed herself for the violence offered to her; and while the
metaphysical students and pleaders in the courts of love
professed to aspire but to the lip or hand of their ladies.
GOO
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, and to make a merit of renouncing all farther intrusion
'w'V'w on their bounties, they privately indulged themselves in
loves which had very little either of delicacy or senti¬
ment. In the romance of the Petit Jehan de Saintre, that
self-same Lady des Belles Cousines, who lectures so learn¬
edly upon the seven mortal sins, not only confers on her
deserving lover “ le don d’amoureux merci,” but enters
into a very unworthy and disgraceful intrigue with a stout
broad-shouldered abbot, into which no sentiment what¬
ever can be supposed to enter. The romance of hr ante
the White, praised by Cervantes as a faithful picture of the
knights and ladies of his age, seems to have been written
in an actual brothel, and, contrasted with others, may
lead us to suspect that their purity is that of romance,
its profligacy that of reality. This license was greatly
increased by the crusades,'from which the survivors of
these wild expeditions brought back the corrupted morals
of the East, to avenge the injuries they had inflicted on
its inhabitants. Joinville has informed us of the com¬
plaints which Saint Louis made to him in confidence, of
the debaucheries practised in his own royal tent, by his
attendants, in this holy expedition. And the ignominious
punishment to which he subjected a knight, detected in
such excesses, shows what severe remedies he judged
necessary to stem the increase of libertinism.
Indeed, the gross license which was practised during
the middle ages may be well estimated by the vulgar and
obscene language that was currently used in tales and nc-
tions addressed to the young and noble of both sexes. In
the romance of the Round lable, as Ascham sternly states,
little was to be learned but examples of homicide and
adultery, although he had himself seen it admitted to
the antichamber of princes, when it was held a crime but
to be possessed of the word of God. In the lomance of
Amadis de Gaul, and many others, the heroines, without
censure or imputation, confer on their lovers the lights of
a husband before the ceremony of the church gave them
a title to the name. These are serious narrations, in which
decorum, at least, is rarely violated ; but the comic tales
are of a grosser cast.
The Canterbury Tales of Chaucer contain many narra¬
tives, of which not only the diction, but the whole turn of
the narrative, is extremely gross. Yet it does not seem
to have occurred to the author, a man of rank and fashion,
that they were improper to be recited, either in the pre¬
sence of the prioress- and her votaries, or in that of the
noble knight who
 of his port was meek as is a maid,
And never yet no villany he said.
And he makes but a light apology for including the disas¬
ters of the Millar of Trompington, or of Absalom the
Gentle Clerk, in the same series of narrations with the
Knight's Tale. Many of Bandello’s most profligate novels
are expressly dedicated to females of rank and consideia-
tion; and, to conclude, the Fabliaux, published by Bar-
bazan and Le Grand, are frequently as revolting, from
their naked grossness, as interesting from the lively pic¬
tures which they present oflife and manners. Yet these
were the chosen literary pastimes of the fair and the gay,
during the times of chivalry, listened to, we cannot but
suppose, with an interest considerably superior to that
exhibited by the yawning audience who heard the theses
of the courts of love attacked and supported in logical
form, and with metaphysical subtilty.
Should the manners of the times appear inconsistent in
these respects which we have noticed, we must remember
that we are ourselves variable and inconsistent animals,
and that, perhaps, the surest mode of introducing and en¬
couraging any particular vice, is to rank the correspond¬
ing virtue at a pitch unnatural in itself, and beyond the Chin.,
ordinary attainment of humanity. The vows of celibacy '—yy
introduced profligacy among the Catholic clergy, as the
high-flown and overstrained Platonism of the professors
ofchivalry favoured the increase of license and debauch-
ery.
After the love of God and of his lady, the preux che¬
valier was to be guided by that of glory and renovyn. He
was bound by his vow to seek out adventuies of risk and
peril, and never to abstain from the quest which he might
undertake, for any unexpected odds of opposition which
he might encounter. It was not indeed the sober and
regulated exercise of valour, but its fanaticism, which the
genius ofchivalry demanded of its followers. Enterprises
the most extravagant in conception, the most difficult in
execution, the most useless when achieved, weie those
by which an adventurous knight chose to distinguish him¬
self. There were solemn occasions also on which these
displays of chivalrous enthusiasm were specially expected
and called for. It is only sufficient to name the tourna¬
ments, single combats, and solemn banquets, at which
vows of chivalry were usually formed and proclaimed.
The tournaments were uniformly performed and fre¬
quented by the choicest and noblest youth in Europe,
until the fatal accident of Henry II. after which they fell
gradually into disuse. It was in vain that, from the va-
rious accidents to which they gave rise, these dangerous
amusements were prohibited by the heads of the Chris¬
tian church. The popes, infallible as they were deemed,
might direct, but could not curb, the military spirit of
chivalry ; they could excite crusades, but they could not
abolish tournaments. Their laws, customs, and regula¬
tions, will fall properly under a separate article. It is
here sufficient to observe, that these military games were
of two kinds. In the most ancient, meaning “ nothing in
hate, but all in honour,” the adventurous knights fought
with sharp swords and lances as in the day of battle.
Even then, however, the number of blows was usually re¬
gulated, or, in case of a general combat, some rules were
laid down to prevent too much slaughter. The regula¬
tions of Duke Theseus for the tournament in Athens, as
narrated by Chaucer in the Knight's Tale, may give a
o-ood example of these restrictions. When the combatants
fought on foot, it was prohibited to strike otherwise than
at the head or body; the number of strokes to be dealt
with the sword and battle-axe were carefully numbered
and limited, as well as the careers to be run with the
lance. In these circumstances alone, the combats at ou-
trance, as they were called, differed from encounters in
actual war.
In process of time, the dangers of the solemn justs,
held under the authority of princes, were modified by the
introduction of arms of courtesy, as they were termed,
lances, namely, without heads, and with round braces o
wood at the extremity called rockets, and swords without
points, and with blunted edges. But the risk continue
great from bruises, falls, and the closeness of the deten-
sive armour of the times, in which the wearers were o e
smothered. The weapons at outrance were afterwards
chiefly used when knights of different and hostile c0
tries engaged by appointment, or when some adven '
rous gallants took upon them the execution of an ente
prise of arms {pas d’armes), in which they, as chaheng >
undertook, for a certain time, and under certain condit on ,
to support the honour of their country or their misties
against all comers. These enterprises of^enM 6
against all comers. inese . -
tally, but the knights who undertook them were rec
in the foreign countries which they visited in acconpl
ment of their challenge, with the highest defe_ ^
honour; their arrival was considered as affordi s
ilry. ject of sport and jubilee to all ranks ; and when any mis-
chance befel them, such as that of De Lindsay, who, in a
tournament at Berwick, had his helmet nailed to his skull,
by the truncheon of a lance which penetrated both, and
died after devoutly confessing himself in the casque’from
which they could not disengage him, the knights who
looked on prayed that God would vouchsafe them in
his mercy a death so fair and so honourable. Stories of
such challenges, with the minute details of the events of
the combat, form frequent features in the histories of the
age.
The contests of the tournament and the pas d’armes
were undertaken merely in sport, and for thirst of honour.
But the laws of the period afforded the adventurous knight
other and more serious combats, in which he might exer¬
cise his valour. The custom of trying all doubtful cases
by the body of a man, or, as it was otherwise expressed,
by the judgment of God—in plain words, by referring the
decision to the issue of a duel, prevailed universally among
the Gothic tribes, from the highest antiquity. A salvo
was devised for the obvious absurdity of calling upon the
weak to encounter the strong, a churchman to oppose a
soldier, or age to meet in the lists with activity and youth.
It was held that either party might appear personally, or
by his champion. I his sage regulation gave exercise for
the valour of the knights, who were bound by their oaths
to maintain the cause of those who had no other protec¬
tor. And, indeed, there is good reason to think that the
inconveniences and injustice of a law so absurd in itself
as that of judicial combat, were evaded and mitigated by
the institutions of chivalry, since, among the number of
knights who were eagerly hunting after opportunities of
military distinction, a party incapable of supporting his
own cause by combat could have little difficulty in finding
a formidable substitute; so that no one, however bold and
confident, could prosecute an unjust cause to the utter¬
most, without the risk of encountering some champion of
the innocent party from among the number of hardy knights
who traversed every, country seeking ostensible cause of
battle.
Besides these formal combats, it was usual for the ad¬
venturous knight to display his courage by stationing him¬
self at some pass in a forest, on a bridge, or elsewhere,
compelling all passengers to avouch the superiority of his
own valour, and the beauty of his mistress, or otherwise
to engage with him in single combat. When Alexius
Comnenus received the homage of the crusaders, seated
upon his throne, previous to their crossing the Hellespont,
] during the first crusade, a French baron seated himself by
the side of the emperor of the East. He was reproved by
Baldwin, and answered in his native language, “ what ill-
taught clown is this, who dares to keep his seat when the
flower of the European nobility are standing around him !”
The emperor, dissembling his indignation, desired to know
the birth and condition of the audacious Frank. “ I am,”
replied the baron, “ of the noblest race of France. For
the rest, I only know that there is near my castle a spot
where four roads meet, and near it a church where men,
desirous of single combat, spend their time in prayer till
some one shall accept their challenge. Often have I fre¬
quented that chapel, but never met I one who durst ac¬
cept my defiance.” Thus the bridge of Rodomont, in the
rlando Furioso, and the valiant defiance which the knight
of La Mancha hurled against the merchants of Toledo,
who were bound to the fairs of Murcia, were neither fic-
ions of Ariosto nor Cervantes, but had their prototypes
ln rea^ story- The chivalrous custom of defying all and
CHIVALRY
601
sundry to mortal combat subsisted in the borders until Chivalry,
the days of Queen Elizabeth, when the worthy Bernard
Gilpin found in his church of Houghton le Spring a glove
hung over the altar, which he was informed indicated a
challenge to all who should take it down. The remnants
of the judicial combats, and the enterprises of arms, may
be found in the duels of the present day. In former days
they still more resembled each other; for, in the seven¬
teenth century, not only the seconds on each side regu-
aily engaged, but it was usual to have more seconds, even
to the number of five or six ; a custom pleasantly ridiculed
by Lord Chesterfield in one of the papers of The World.
t is obvious that an usage at once so ridiculous and so
detrimental to the peace and happiness of society must
give way, in proportion to the progress of common sense,
ihe custom is in general upon the wane, even as far as
respects single combat between men who have actually
given or taken offence at each other. The general rules
of good-breeding prevent causes of such disagreement
from arismg m the intercourse of society; and the forward
duellist, who is solicitous in seeking them out, is general¬
ly accounted a vulgar and ferocious, as well as a danger-
ous character. At the same time, the habits derived from
the days of chivalry still retain a striking effect on our
manners, and have fully established a graceful as well as
useful punctilio, which tends on the whole to the improve¬
ment of society. Every man is under the impression, that
neither his strength, his wealth, his station, nor his wit, will
excuse him from answering, at the risk of his life, any un¬
becoming encroachment on the civility due to the weakest,
the pooi est, the least important, or the most modest mem¬
ber of the society in which he mingles. All too in the
rank and station of gentlemen are forcibly called upon to
remember that they must resent the imputation of a vo¬
luntary falsehood as the most gross injury ; that the rights
of the weaker sex demand protection from every one who
would hold a good character in society. In short, from
the wild and overstrained courtesies of chivalry has been
derived our present system of manners. It is not certain¬
ly faultless, and it is guarded by penalties which we must
often regret as disproportionably severe. Yet it has a
grace and dignity unknown to classic times, when women
were slaves, and men coarse and vulgar, or overbearing
and brutal, as suited their own humour, without respect
to that of the rest of society.
II. Such being the tone and spirit of chivalry, derived
from love, devotion, and valour, we have next to notice
the special forms and laws of the order, which will be found
to correspond in every respect to the spirit which they
were designed to foster.
The education of the future knight began at an early Rules and
period. The care of the mother, after the first years of forms of
early youth were past, was deemed too tender, and the chivalry,
indulgences of the paternal roof too effeminate, for the
future aspirant to the honours of chivalry. “ Do you
not bless God,” said the Lady Mabel to her husband, the
noble Duke Guerin of Montglaive, as on a solemn feast
they looked on their four hopeful sons, “ do you not bless
God, that has given you such a promising issue ?” “ Dame,”
replied Guerin, in the true spirit of the age, “ so help me
God and Saint Martin ! nothing can do me greater despite
than to look on these four great lurdanes, who, arrived
at such an age, yet do nothing but eat the fat, and drink
the sweet, and spend their time in idle amusement.”1 To
counteract these habits of indulgence, the first step to the
order of knighthood was the degree of Pagb.
4 G
VOL. vi.
1 L'Hystoire de Guerin de Montglaive.
602
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry. The young and noble stripling, generally about his
twelfth year, was transferred from his father s house to
The page. t]iat 0f some baron or noble knight, sedulously chosen by
tbe anxious parent as that which had the best reputation
for good order and discipline. Ihe children of the first
nobles and high crown vassals were educated by the roya
court. And, however the reins of discipline might be
in particular cases relaxed, or become corrupted m latter
days, the theory was uniformly excellent. The youth,
wVu) was to learn modesty, obedience, and address m
arms and horsemanship, was daily exercised in the use ot
arms, beginning with such as were suited to his strength.
He was instructed how to manage a horse with giace and
dexterity ; how to use the bow and the sword ; how to
manage the lance, an art which w-as taught by making
him1 ride a career against a wooden figure holding a buck¬
ler called a quintaine. This quintaine turned on an axis;
and as there was a wooden sword in the other hand ot the
supposed opponent, the young cavalier, if he the not ma¬
nage his horse and weapon with address, was liable to le-
ceive a blow when the shock of his charge made the qum-
talBeesSide" these'exercises, the noble youth was required
to do the work which, in some respects, belonged to a
menial, but not as a menial. He attended his loid during
the chase, the rules of which, as an image ot war, and
as held the principal occupation ot a gentleman during
peace, were carefully inculcated. He was taught the prin¬
cipal blasts or notes of venerie, to be sounded when the
hounds were uncoupled, when the prey was on foot when
he was brought to bay, and when he fell, ihis art d d
not tend solely to amusement. The “ gentle damosel,
to use the language of the times, learned to bear the fa¬
tigue, the hunger and thirst, which huntsmen are exposed
to By the necessity of encountering and dispatching a
stao- a boar, or a wolf, at bay, he learned promptitude and
courage in the use of his weapons. The accuracy with
which he was required to study the attacks of the hunted
animal’s course gave him habits ot attention and reflec¬
tion. In the days and nights spent in the chase, amid
wide and pathless forests, he acquired the art, s° neces¬
sary to a soldier, of remarking and studying the face of
the country. When benighted, he was taught to steer his
course by the stars, if they were visible ; it not, to make
his couch with patience on the withered leaves, or in a
tree. Had he lost his way by day-time, he distinguished
the points of the compass by remarking which side of the
trees were most covered with moss, and from which they
threw their branches most freely; circumstances which,
compared with the known course of the prevailing wind,
afforded him the necessary information.
The ceremonial of the chase was to be acquired, as we
as its arts. To brittle or break the deer (in French faire
la curee), in plain terms, to flay and disembowel the stag,
a matter in which much precision was required, and the
rules of which were ascribed to the celebiated bn 1
tram of Lionesse, was an indispensable requisite ot the
page’s education. Nor did his concern vyith the venison
end here; he placed it on the table, waited during the
banquet, and carved the ponderous dishes when required
or permitted to do so. Much grace and delicacy, it was
supposed, might be displayed on these occasions; and in
one romance we read of the high birth and breeding ot a
page being ascertained, by his scrupulously declining o
use a towel to wipe his hands, when washed, before he
began to carve, and contenting himself with waving them
in the air till they dried of themselves. It is perhaps di -
ficult to estimate the force of this delicacy, unless by sup¬
posing that he had not a towel or napkin appropriated to
his own separate use.
Amidst these various instructions the page was often Chive.
required to wait upon the ladies, rather as attending a j
sort of superior beings, to whom adoration and obsequious
service were due, than as ministering to the convenience
of human creatures like himself. The most modest de¬
meanour, the most profound respect, was to be observed
in the presence of these fair idols. Thus the veneration
due to the female character was taught to the acolyte of
chivalry, by his being placed so near female beauty, yet
prohibited the familiarity which might discover female
weakness. Love frequently mingled with this early de¬
votion, and the connection betwixt some lady of distinction
and her gallant knight is often, in romantic fiction, sup¬
posed to have originated from some early affection. In a
romance called The Golden Thread (of which we have only
seen a modem edition in German, but which has many
features of originality), when the daughter of the count
bestows her annual gifts on her father s household, she
gives the page Leofried, in derision, a single tlnead of
gold tissue. To show the value which he places upon
the most minute memorial, coming from such a hand, the
youth opens a wound in his bosom, and deposits the pre¬
cious thread in the neighbourhood of his heart. The
Dame des Belles Cousines, whom we have already men¬
tioned, was assuredly not the only lady of high rank who
was tempted to give a handsome young page the benefit
of her experience in completing his education. I his led
the way to abuse ; and the custom of breeding up youths
as pages in the houses of the great, although it survived
the decay of chivalry, was often rather the introduction
to indolence, mischief, and debauchery, than to useful
knowledge and the practice of arms. Ihe proper pur¬
poses of this preliminary part of chivalrous education are
well given by one of the characters in Ben Jonson s New
Inn ;&and he is answered by another, who alleges, with sa¬
tire resembling that of Juvenal, the modern corruptions o
the order of pages. Lord Lovel has requested mine host
to give him his son for a page. The host answers, by
declaring he would’rather hang his child with his own
hand
Than damn him to that desperate course of life.
Lovel. Call you that desperate which, by a line
Of institution from our ancestors,
Hath been derived down to us, and received
In a succession, for the noblest way
Of breeding up our youth in letters, arms,
Fair mein, discourses, civil exercises,
And all the blazon of a gentleman ?
Where can he learn to vault, to ride, to lence,
To mar his body gracefully, to speak
His language purer, or to turn his mind
Or manners more to the harmony ot nature,
Than in those nurseries of nobility ?
Host. Aye, that was when the nursery s self was noble,
And only virtue made it not the market.
And he replies by enumerating instances of the defc^ ^
honour among the nobles, and of the debauc
household pages. In La Noue s
Discourses is a similar complaint of the hazai
the morals of young gent emen were exposed while
ing in this domestic capacity. Nevertheless the cui
of having young gentlemen thus bred, continued in a cer
tain degree down to the last century, although thos de
Uned to" such employments became by degree^ of a lower
Quality. In some few instances the institution w .
taineef in its purity ; and the page,
in which he was educated, usua y < „entleman bred
The last instance we know was that of a gen ^
a page in the family of the Duchess of Buccleuc ^
Monmouth, who died, during the ieign g
general officer in his majesty’s service.
O
CHIVALRY. 603
s i^,*1S“whTrLTdFroi"w’ “I r<1 thereon to chi^-
l«iK-actual war, lie was removed from the lowest to Urn se tZ’„ ?„• . ' d there ™s none durst speak any' ^
cond gradation of chivalry, and became an sLer it eSine ' TheP‘r?6,’ S° mUCh <J'd *1 e“! deli8ht ”
Esquire, or Squire. The derivation of this phrase has of Foix^and the Prnrfnm" to describe the Earl
been much contested. It has been generally supposed to sarilv be a lon<r nnp h t >°-f hls.house|lold’ must neces-
be derived from its becoming the official duty^of the inimitable artiS nf ’ ^ 1118 ^ P^u1,6 by the hand of an
esquire to carry the shield (^) of the knightU mt
ter, until he was about to engage the enemy. Others likeness by abridging it. unwil^g destroy the
“eTteS it ofa7rr of FoiXfwith w,,lom 1 ™s’at ttet
especial care of the squire. Others again ascHbe the de- f W f„ “l £ ^ ^ °f tg • lnd 7ne: and’! s^’
rivation of the word to the right which the squire himself and* others lint V','! Sene man^ knights, kynges, princes,
had to carry a shield, and to blazon it with armorial bear- nor of so fayre formeTor'so w^llmade h” vysSayf e
mgs. This, m later times, became almost the exclusive sanguyne, and smyly’ng, his eyen gray ed amorous, who;
as he lyst to set his regarde; in euery thyng he was so
pairite that he can not be praised to moche ; he loued that
ought to be beloued, and hated that ought to be hated : he
was a wyse knyght, of highe enterprise, and of good coun-
' O ' * - -   7 VVO la l/llC CAVviUOiVI
meaning attached to the appellative esquire ; and, accord
ingly, if the phrase now means anything, it means a gen¬
tleman having right to carry arms. There is reason, how¬
ever, to think that this is a secondary meaning of the
word, for we do not find the word escuyer applied as a sayle; fe neSad myXam wlbyrnThe fa^d
title o rank, until so late as the Ordonnanre nf RW orisons every day, a nocturn of the psdter, matyns of our
title of rank, until so late as the Ordonnance of Blois,
in 1579.
The candidate for the honours of chivalry, now an im¬
mediate attendant on the knight or nobleman, was with¬
drawn from the private apartments of the ladies, and only
c ^ TT 1      Jt J Izj iiO KJl UUl
.Lady, ot the Holy Goost, and of the crosse, and dirige
eueiyday; he gaue fyue florins, in small monies, at his
gate to poor folkes for the loue of God ; he was large and
courtesse in gyftes ; he could ryght well take where it par-
saw them upon occasions of stated ceremony. In great teyned to hym, and to defyueV agayne wW ash^ouSTt"
establishments there were squires of different ranks, and he loued houdes of all beestes, wynler and somer he loued
destined for diffeient services; but we sha 1 confine our- huntyng; he neuer loued folly, outrage, nor foly larges-
selves to those general dut.es which properly belonged to euery moneth he wolde knowe what he spended ^he tfoke
the office. The squire assisted his master in the offices in his countre to receyue his reuenwes, and to seruehim,
at once of a modern valet de chambre and groom—he at¬
tended to dress and to undress him, trained his horses to
the menage, and kept his arms bright and burnished. He
did the honours of the household to the strangers who
notable persons, that is to saye, xii. recyuours, and euer
fro 11. monethes to two monethes, two of them shulde
serue for his receyte; for, at the two monethes end, he
wolde change and put other two into that offiyce ; and one
• . .  o— , v-waugc aim put uuier iwo mco mat omyce ; ana one
visited it; and the .reputation of the prince or great lord that he trusted best shulde be his comptroller, and to
whom he serven was mnen pvalfod Lw fK,-, vwo.vwcw. „n   i i i . . 1
whom he served was much exalted by the manner in
which these courteous offices were discharged. In the
words of Chaucer, describing the character of the squire,
Curteis he was, lowly and servisable.
And carf before his fader at the table.
The squire was also expected to perfect himself in the ac¬
complishments of the period, and not only to be a master
of the ceremonial of the feast, but to be capable of enli¬
vening it by his powers of conversation. He was expect¬
ed to understand chess, draughts, and other domestic
games. Poetry and music, if he had any turn for these
beautiful arts, and whatever other accomplishments could
improve the mind or the person, were accounted to grace
his station. And accordingly Chaucer’s squire, besides
that he was “ singing or fluting all the day,”
—Could songs make, and well indite,
Just, and eke dance, and well pourtray and write.
* w.v-mijrug, uw.iic uj aii. viincLLes suniuyiug ueiore ms la-
unquestionably few possessed all these attributes; but the ble all supper; they gaue a gret light, and the hall ever
poet, with his usual precision and vivacity, has given us full of knightes and squyers, and many other tables dress-
the picture of a perfect esquire. ed to suppe who wolde; ther was none should speke to
lo understand the squires’ mode of life more particu- hym at his table, but if he were called; his meate was
arv> 11 >s necessary to consider that which was led in the lightlye wylde foule, the legges and wynges alonely, and
courts and castles of the middle ages. Froissart has given in the day he dyd but lytell eate and drlke ; he had great
us a very striking account of the mode of house-keeping pleasure in armony of instrumetes; he coude do it right
in the family of Gaston, earl of Foix, a prince whose well hymselfe, he wolde have songes song before him, he
court was considered as a first-rate nursery for the noble wolde gladlye se conseytes and fantesies at his table. And
youth; and, from his lively description, we may in some or I came to his court, I had been in many courtes of
measure conceive the mode in which the esquires spent kynges, dukes, princes, erles, and great ladyes, but I was
their time. Froissart abode in his house above twelve neuer in none y so well liked me, nor ther was none more
^eeks, much recommended to the favourable notice of reioysed in dedes of armes, than the erle dyde: there was
he earl, by his having brought with him a book contain- sene in his hall, chabre and court, knightes and squyers of
mg all the songs, ballads, and virilays, which Wencislaus honour goyng up and downe, and talking of armes and
?l "?he™ia> the gentle Duke of Brabant, had made, and amours; all honour ther was found, all maner of tidynges
he historian himself had compiled or transcribed. “ Every of every realme and countre ther might be herde, for out
hym all other shulde accompt, and the comptroller shulde
accopt to hym by rolles and bokes written, and the comp-
tes to rernayne still with therle: he had certeyne cofers
in his chambre, out of the whiche oftetymes he wolde take
money to gyve to lordes, knightes, and squyers, suche as
came to hym, for none shulde departe from him without
some gift, and yet dayly he multiplyed his treasure, to re-
syst the aduetures and fortunes that he douted; he was
of good and easy acquayntance with every man, and amo¬
rously wolde speke to the; he was short in counsayle, and
answers; he had four secretaries, and at his rising they
must ever be redy at his hande, without any callynge ; and
whan any letter were delyuered him, and that he had reed
it, than he wolde calle them to write agayne, or els for
some other thynge. In this estate therle of Foix liued.
And at mydnight, whan he came out of his chambre into
the hall to supper, he had ever before him xii. torches
brennyng, borne by xii. varieties standying before his ta-
ui„ „n   *i—  ^ _ A? i ,,
CHIVALRY.
of every coutre there was resort for the valyantnesse of
0J»^0
While’ the courage of the young aspirant to the honours
of knighthood was animated, and his emulation excited,
by the society in which he was placed, and the conversa¬
tion to which he listened,—while everything was done
which the times admitted to refine his manners, and, in a
certain degree, to cultivate his understanding,—the per-
soS exercises to which he had been tramed wh.le a page
were now to be pursued with increasing assiduity, propor
tional to the increase of his strength. “ He was taught
says a historian, speaking of Boucicaut while a ^ire» ^
spring upon a horse, while armed at all points ; to exercise
himself in running; to strike for a length of time with t
axe or club; to dance and throw somersets, entirely arm¬
ed excepting the helmet; to mount on horseback behind
one of his comrades, by barely laying his hands on his
sleeve ; to raise himself betwixt two partition walls to any
height, by placing his back against the one, and his knees
and hands against the other; to mount a Hdder, placed
against a tower, upon the reverse or under side, sojcly by
the aid of his hands, and without touching the rounds with
aFnor tdtelrtu™;™: 3^ When idwa'rd heard these tidings, he sentfor
parate and distinct from those of the knights. They were Lord Ai
usually solemnized on the eve of the more formal and sp en-
did tournaments, in which the knights themselves display¬
ed their valour; and lighter weapons than those ot the
knights, though of the same kind, were employed by the
esquires. But, as we shall presently notice, the most dis¬
tinguished among the esquires were (notwithstanding the
high authority of the knight of La Mancha to the contia- ^ ““‘w which I had made to give the onset in
ry ) frequently admitted to the honours and dangers of the e^ ^ ^ which the king of England or his sons
more solemn encounter. , , „ , ciim1ifi Up nresent: and had it not been for them, I must
In actual war the page was not expected to render much b lleft dead 0n the field. This is the reason I
service, but that of the squire was important and mdispen- Have    
sable. Upon a march, he bore the helmet and shield of
the knight, and led his horse of battle, a tol heavy animal,
fit to bear the weight of a man in armour, but which was
led in hand upon a march, while the knight rode an am¬
bling hackney. The squire was also qualified to perform
the part of an armourer, not only lacing his master s hel¬
met and buckling his cuirass, but also closing with a ham¬
mer the rivets by which the various pieces were united to
each other. This was a point of the utmost consequence;
and many instances occur of mischances happening to ce¬
lebrated warriors when the duty was negligently perfoi m-
ed. In the actual shock of battle the esquire attended
closely on the banner of his master, or on his person, if he
were only a knight bachelor, kept pace with him during
the melee, and was at hand to remount him when his steed
was slain, or relieve him when oppressed by numbers. It
the knight made prisoners, they were the charge of the
esquire ; if the esquire himself fortuned to make one, the
ransom belonged to his master. . .
On the other hand, the knights who received these im¬
portant services from their esquires were expected to dis¬
play towards them that courteous liberality which made
so distinguished a point of the chivalrous character. Lord
Audley led the van of the Black Prince’s army at the bat¬
tle of Poitiers, attended by four squires, who had promis¬
ed not to fail him. They distinguished themselves in the
front of that bloody day, leaving such as they overcame to
be made prisoners by others, and ever pressing forwards
where resistance was offered. Thus they fought in the
chief of the battle, until Lord James Audley was sorely Chiva
wounded, and his breath failed him. At the last, when the
battle was gained, the four faithful esquires bore him out
of the press, disarmed him, and staunched and diessedhis
wounds as they could. As the Black Prince called for the
man to whom the victory was in some measure owing, Lord
Audley was borne before him in a litter, when the prince,
after having awarded to him the praise and renown above
all others who fought on that day, bestowed on him five
hundred marks of yearly revenue, to be assigned out of
his heritage in England. Lord Audley accepted of the gift
with due demonstration of gratitude; but no sooner was
he brought to his lodging, than he called before him the
four esquires by whom he had been so gallantly seconded,
and the nobles of his lineage, and informed his kinsmen,
“ Sirs, it has pleased my lord the prince to bestow on me
five hundred marks of heritage, of which I am unworthy;
for I have done him but small service. Behold, Sirs, these
four squires, which have always served me truly, and spe¬
cially this day; the honour that I have is by their valour.
Therefore, I resign to them and their heirs for ever, in
like manner as it was given to me, the noble gift which the
prince hath assigned me.” The lords beheld each other,
and agreed it was a proof of great chivalry to bestow so
royal a gift, and gladly undertook to bear witness to the
transfer. When Edward heard these tidings, he sent for
Lord Audley, and desired to know why he had bestowed
on others the gift he had assigned him, and whether it had
not been acceptable to him; “ Sir,” said Lord Audley,
“ these four squires have followTed me well and truly in se¬
veral severe actions, and at this battle they seived me so
well, that had they done nothing else, I had been bound
to reward them. I am myself but a single man; but, by
aid of their united strength and valour, I was enabled to
i-i r i. _ J J ~ f hr* rmcpt in
have been left dead on the field. This is the reason
have transferred your highnesses bounty, as to those by
whom it was best deserved.” The Black Prince not on y
approved of and confirmed Lord Audley s grant, but con¬
ferred upon him, not to be outdone in generosity, a yearly
revenue of six hundred marks more, for his own use.
The names of the esquires who thus distinguished them¬
selves, and experienced such liberality at the hancE of
their leader, were Delves of Doddington, Dutton of Dut¬
ton, Fowlishurst of Crewe, and Hawkestone of Wreyne-
hill, all Cheshire families. This memorable instance may
suffice to show the extent of gratitude which the kmgh
entertained for the faithful service of their squires, bu
it also leads us to consider some other circumstances re¬
lating to the order of esquire. n^efatpof
Although, in its primitive and proper sense, the State «
esquire was merely preparatory to that of hnighthood yj
it is certain that many men of birth and Property leste
content with attaining that first step, and, thougl g J
distinguished by their feats of arms, never rose, HOT appa^
rently sought to rise, above the rank which it con i
It does not appear that any of the esquires of LoM A
ley were knighted after the battle of Poitiers, although
there can be no doubt that their rank, as well fhe h
ploits, entitled them to expect that honour, ibe
seems to be, that it may frequently have been m°re ^
venient, and scarcely less honourable, to re^m
unenvied and unpretending rank ot es(lu;re’,t1ha,JntrJun^ t0
to that of knighthood, without a considerable f°rt“n
supply the expenses of that dignity. No doubt, m t y
i Froissart’s Chronicles, translated by Lord Berners.
* Froissart. Barne’s History of Edward HE
'
CHIVALRY.
1“
airy.
ts.
Th fives,
till
the simplest knight-bachelor was a companion, and in some
degree equal with princes* But, in truth, we shall pre¬
sently see, that, where unsupported by some sort of income
to procure suitable equipment and retainers, that dignity
was sometimes exposed to ridicule. Many gallant gentle¬
men, therefore, remained esquires, either attached to the
service of some prince or eminent nobleman, or frequently
in a state of absolute independence, bringing their own
vassals to the field, whom, in such cases, they were en¬
titled to muster under a penoncele, or small triangular
streamer, somewhat like the naval pendant of the present
day. The reader of history is not, therefore, to suppose,
that where he meets with an esquire of distinguished
name, he is therefore necessarily to consider him as a
youthful candidate for the honour of knighthood, and at¬
tending upon some knight or noble. This is, indeed, the
primitive, but not the uniform meaning of the title. So
many men of rank and gallantry appear to have remained
esquires, that, by degrees, many of the leading distinctions
between them and the knights were relaxed or abandoned.
In Froissart’s Chronicles we find that esquires frequently
led independent bodies of men, and, as we have before
hinted, mingled with the knights in the games of chivalry;
the difference chiefly consisting in title, precedence, the
shape of the flag under which they arrayed their followers,
and the fashion of their armour. The esquires were per¬
mitted to bear a shield, emblazoned, as we have already
seen, with armorial bearings. There seems to have been
some difference in the shape of the helmet; and the French
esquire was not permitted to wear the complete hauberk,
but only the shirt of mail, without hood or sleeves. But
the principal distinction between the independent esquire
(terming him such who was attached to no knight’s ser¬
vice) and the knight, was the spurs, which the esquire
might wear of silver, but by no means gilded.
To return to the esquires most properly so termed, their
dress was, during their period of probation, simple and mo¬
dest, and ought regularly to have been made of brown, or
some other uniform and simple colour. This was not, how¬
ever, essential. The garment of Chaucer’s squire was em¬
broidered like a meadow. The petit Jehan de Saintre
was supplied with money by his mistress to purchase a
silken doublet and embroidered hose. There is also a very
diverting account, in the Memoirs of Bertrand de Guesclin,
of the manner in which he prevailed on his uncle, a covet¬
ous old churchman, to assign him money for his equipment
on some occasion of splendour. We may therefore hold,
that the sumptuary laws of squirehood were not particu¬
larly attended to, or strictly enforced.
A youth usually ceased to be a page at fourteen, or a
little earlier, and could not regularly receive the honour of
knighthood until he was one and twenty. But if their dis¬
tinguished valour anticipated their years, the period of
probation was shortened. Princes of the blood-royal, also,
and other persons of very high eminence, had this term
abridged, and sometimes so much so as to throw a ridi¬
cule upon the order of knighthood, by admitting within
“ the temple of honour,” as it was the fashion of the times
to call it, children who could neither understand nor dis¬
charge the duties of the office to which they were thus
prematurely called.
The third and highest rank of bhivalry was that of
knighthood. In considering this last dignity, we shall first
inquire how it was conferred; secondly, the general privi¬
leges and duties of the order; thirdly, the peculiar ranks
into which it was finally divided, and the difference be¬
twixt them.
■ Knighthood was, in its origin, an order of a republican,
or at least an oligarchic nature; arising, as has been shown,
hom the customs of the free tribes of Germany, and, in
its essence, not requiring the sanction of a monarch. On
the contrary, each knight could confer the order of knight¬
hood upon whomsoever preparatory noviciate and proba¬
tion had fitted to receive it. The highest potentate sought
the accolade, or stroke which conferred the honour, at the
hands of the worthiest knight whose achievements had dig¬
nified the period. Thus Francis I. requested the celebrat¬
ed Bayard, the Good Knight without reproach or fear, to
make him ; an honour which Bayard valued so highly, that,
on sheathing his sword, he vowed never more to use that
blade, except against Turks, Moors, and Saracens. The
same principle was carried to extravagance in a romance,
where the hero is knighted by the hand of Sir Lancelot
of the Lake, when dead. A sword was put into the hand
of the skeleton, which was so guided as to let it drop on
the neck of the aspirant. In the time of Francis I. it had
already become customary to desire this honour at the
hands of greatness rather than valour, so that the king’s
request was considered as an appeal to the first principles
of chivalry. In theory, however, the power of creating
knights was supposed to be inherent in every one who had
reached that dignity. But it was natural that the soldier
should desire to receive the highest military honour from
the general under whose eye he was to combat, or from
the prince or noble at whose court he passed as page and
squire through the gradations of his noviciate. It was
equally desirable, on the other hand, that the prince or
noble should desire to be the immediate source of a pri¬
vilege so important. And thus, though no positive regu¬
lation took place on the subject, ambition on the part of
the aspirant, and pride and policy on that of the sovereign
princes and nobles of high rank, gradually limited to the
latter the power of conferring knighthood, or drew at least
an unfavourable distinction between the knights dubbed by
private individuals, and those who, with more state and so¬
lemnity, received the honoured title at the hand of one of
high rank. Indeed, the change which took place respect¬
ing the character and consequences of the ceremony, na¬
turally led to a limitation in the right of conferring it.
While the order of knighthood mei'ely implied a right to
wear arms of a certain description, and to bear a certain
title, there could be little harm in intrusting, to any one
who had already received the honour, the power of con¬
ferring it on others. But when this highest order of chi¬
valry conferred not only personal dignity, but the right of
assembling under the banner, or pennon, a certain num¬
ber of soldiers,—when knighthood implied not merely per¬
sonal privileges, but military rank,—it was natural that so¬
vereigns should use every effort to concentrate the right
of conferring such distinction in themselves, or their im¬
mediate delegates. And latterly it was held, that the rank
of knight only conferred those privileges on such as were
dubbed by sovereign princes.
The times and place usually chosen for the creation of
knights were favourable to the claim of the sovereigns to
be the proper fountain of chivalry. Knights were usually
made either on the eve of battle, or when the victory had
been obtained; or they were created during the pomp of
some solemn warning or grand festival. In the former case,
the right of creation was naturally referred to the general
or prince who led the host; and in the latter, to the so¬
vereign of the court where the festival was held. The
forms in these cases were very different.
When knights were made in the actual field of battle,
little solemnity was observed, and the form was probably
the same with which private individuals had, in earlier
times, conferred the honour on each other. The novice,
armed at all points, but without helmet, sword, and spurs,
came before the prince or general at whose hands he was
to receive knighthood, and kneeled down, while two per-
006
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, sons of distinction, who acted as his godfathers, and were
supposed to become pledges for his being worthy ot the
honour to which he aspired, buckled on his gilded spurs,
and belted him with his sword. He then received the
accolade, a slight blow on the neck, with the flat ot the
sword, from the person who dubbed him, who, at the same
time, pronounced a formula to this effect; “ I dub thee
knight, in the name of God and St Michael (or in the name
of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost). Be faithful, bold,
and fortunate.” The new-made knight had then only to
take his place in the ranks of war, and endeavour to dis¬
tinguish himself by his forward gallantry in the approach¬
ing action, when he was said to win his spurs. It is well
known that, at the battle of Cressy, Edward III. refused
to send succours to the Black Prince, until he should
hear that he was wounded or dismounted, being deter¬
mined he should, on that memorable day, have full oppor¬
tunity to win his spurs. It may be easily imagined, that
on such occasions the courage of the young knights was
wound up to the highest pitch; and, as many were usual¬
ly made at the same time, their gallantry could not fail
to have influence on the fortune of the day. At the siege
of Tholouse (1159), Henry II. of England made thirty
knights at once, one of whom was Malcolm IV. king of
Scotland. Even on these occasions the power of making
knights was not understood to be limited to the comman¬
der-in-chief. At the fatal battle of Homildown, in 1401,
Sir John Swinton, a warrior of distinguished talents, ob¬
serving the slaughter made by the English archery, ex¬
horted the Scots to rush on to a closer engagement. Adam
Gordon, between whose family and that of Swinton a
deadly feud existed, hearing this sage counsel, knelt down
before Swinton, and prayed him to confer on him the ho¬
nour of knighthood, which he desired to receive from the
wisest and boldest knight in the host. Swinton conferred
the order ; and they both rushed down upon the English
host, followed only by a few cavalry. If they had been
supported, the attack might have turned the fate of the
day. But none followed their gallant example, and both
champions fell. It need hardly be added, that the com¬
mander, whether a sovereign prince or not, equally exer¬
cised the privilege of conferring knighthood. In the old
ballad of the battle of Otterburn, Douglas boasts that,
since he had entered England, he had
With brand dubb’d many a knight.
But it was not in camps and armies alone that the ho¬
nours of knighthood were conferred. At the Cour Ple-
niere, a high court to which sovereigns summoned their
crown vassals at the solemn festivals of the church, at the
various occasions of solemnity which occurred in the royal
family, from marriage, birth, baptism, and the like, the
monarch was wont to confer on novices in chivalry its
highest honour, and the ceremonies used on such investi¬
ture added to the dignity of the occasion. It was then
that the full ritual was observed which, on the eve of bat¬
tle, was necessarily abridged or omitted. The candidates
watched their arms all night in a church or chapel, and
prepared for the honour to be conferred on them, by vigil,
fast, and prayer. They were solemnly divested of the
brown frock, which was the appropriate dress of the squire ;
and having been bathed, as a symbol of purification of heart,
they were attired in the richer garb appropriate to knight¬
hood. They were then solemnly invested with the appro-
priate arms of a knight; and it was not unusual to call the
attention of the novice to a mystical or allegorical expla¬
nation of each piece of armour as it was put on. These
exhortations consisted in strange and extravagant parallels Chivalt
betwixt the temporal and spiritual state of warfare, in which
the metaphor was hunted down in every possible shape.
The under dress of the knight was a close jacket of cha¬
mois leather, over which was put the mail shirt, composed
of rings of steel artificially fitted into each other, as is still
the fashion in some parts of Asia. A suit of plate armour
was put on over the mail shirt, and the legs and arms were
defended in the same manner. Even this accumulation
of defensive armour was by some thought insufficient. In
the combat of the Infantes of Carrion with the champions
of the Cid, one of the former was yet more completely de¬
fended, and to little purpose.
Onward into Ferrand’s breast the lance’s point is driven
Full upon his breastplate, nothing would avail;
Two breastplates Ferrand wore, and a coat of mail.
The two are riven in sunder, the third stood him in stead,
The mail sunk in his breast, the mail and the spear head;
The blood burst from his mouth, that all men thought him dead.1
The novice being accoutred in his knightly armour, but
without helmet, sword, and spurs, a rich mantle was flung
over him, and he was conducted in solemn procession to
the church or chapel in which the ceremony was to be per¬
formed, supported by his godfathers, and attended .with as
much pomp as circumstances admitted. High mass was then
said, and the novice, advancing to the altar, received from
the sovereign the accolade. The churchman present, of
highest dignity, often belted on his sword, which, for that
purpose, had been previously deposited on the altar; and
the spurs were sometimes fastened on by ladies of quality.
The oath of chivalry was then taken, to be loyal to God,
the king, and the ladies. Such were the outlines of the
ceremony, which, however, was varied according to circum¬
stances. A king of Portugal knighted his son in presence
of the dead body of the Marquis of Marialva, slain in that
day’s action, and impressively conjured the young prince to
do his duty in life and death, like the good knight who lay
dead before him. Alms to the poor, largesses to the he¬
ralds and minstrels, a liberal gift to the church, were ne¬
cessary accompaniments to the investiture of a person of
rank. The new-made knight was conducted from the
church writh music and acclamations, and usually mount¬
ed his horse and executed some curvets in presence of the
multitude, couching his lance, and brandishing it as if im¬
patient to open his knightly career. It was at such times
also that the most splendid tournaments were executed,
it being expected that the young knights would display the
utmost efforts to distinguish themselves. Such being the
solemnities with which knighthood was conferred, it was
no wonder that the power of conferring it should, in peace
as well as in war, be almost confined to sovereign princes,
or nobles who nearly equalled them in rank and indepen¬
dence. By degrees these restrictions were drawn more
and more close, and at length it was held that none but a
sovereign, or a commander-in-chief displaying the royal
banner, and vested with plenary and vice-regal authority,
could confer the degree of knighthood. | Queen Elizabeth
was particularly jealous of this part of her prerogative,
and nothing more excited her displeasure and indignation
against her favourite Essex, than the profuseness wit
which he distributed the honour at Cadiz, and afterwar s
in Ireland. These anecdotes, however, belong to the de¬
cay of chivalry. , , .
The knight had several privileges of dignity and i ' . .[ej
portance. He was associated into a rank wherem in^, 0fai;Ui t.
and princes were in one sense only his equals. ,°jj
precedence in war and in counsel, and was addressed y
1 See Translations from the Spanish Metrical Romance on the subject of the Cid, appended to Mr Southey s Cid.
CHIVALRY.
•airy, ths rGspGCtful titlG of J\Tcssivc in French, and Siv in Enej-
Y^J lish, and his wife by that of Madame and Dame. A knight
was also, in point of military rank, qualified to command
any body of men under a thousand. His own service was
performed on horseback, and in complete armour of many
various fashions, according to the taste of the warriors and
the fashion of the age. Chaucer has enumerated some of
these varieties.
With him ther wenten knights many on.
Som wol ben armed in an habergeon.
And in a brest plate, and in a gipon;
And som wol have a pair of plates large;
And som wol have a pruse sheld, or a targe;
Some wol ben armed on his legges wele,
And have an axe, and some a mace of stele.
Ther n’is no newe guise, that it n’as old.
Armed they weren, as I have you told,
Everich after his opinion.
The weapons of offence, however, most appropriate to
knighthood were the lance and sword. They had fre¬
quently a battle-axe or mace at their saddle bow, a for¬
midable weapon even to men sheathed in iron like them¬
selves. The knight had also a dagger, which he used
when at close quarters. It was called the dagger of mercy,
probably because, when unsheathed, it behoved the anta¬
gonist to crave mercy or to die. The management of the
lance and of the horse was the principal requisite of knight¬
hood. To strike the foeman either on the helmet or full
upon the breast with the point of the lance, and at full
speed, was accounted perfect practice ; to miss him, or to
break a lance across, i. e. athwart the body of the antago¬
nist, without striking him with the point, was accounted
an awkward failure; to strike his horse, or to hurt his
person under the girdle, was conceived a foul or felon ac¬
tion, and could only be excused by the hurry of a general
encounter. When the knights, from the nature of the
ground, or other circumstances, alighted to fight on foot,
they used to cut some part from the length of their spears,
in order to render them more manageable, like the pikes
used by infantry. But their most formidable onset was
when mounted and “ in host.” They seem then to have
formed squadrons not unlike the present disposition of ca¬
valry in the field,—their squires forming the rear rank,
and performing the part of serrefiles. As the horses were
trained in the tourneys and exercises to run upon each
other without flinching, the shock of two such bodies of
heavy-armed cavalry was dreadful, and the event usually
decided the battle; for, until the Swiss showed the supe¬
rior steadiness which could be exhibited by infantry, all
great actions were decided by the men-at-arms. The yeo¬
manry of England, indeed, formed a singular exception ;
and, from the dexterous use of the long bow, to which
they were trained from infancy, were capable of with¬
standing and destroying the mail-clad chivalry both of
France and Scotland. Their shafts, according to the ex¬
aggerating eloquence of a monkish historian, Thomas of
Walsingham, penetrated steel coats from side to side,
transfixed helmets, and even splintered lances and pierced
through swords! But against every other pedestrian ad¬
versary, the knights, squires, and men-at-arms had the
most decided advantage, from their impenetrable armour,
the strength of their horses, and the fury of their onset.
To render success yet more certain, and attack less ha¬
zardous, the horse, on the safety of which the rider so
much depended, was armed en barbe, as it was called,
like himself. A masque made of iron covered the animal’s
face and ears; it had a breastplate, and armour for the
croupe. The strongest horses were selected for this ser-
f>07
vice; they were generally stallions, and to ride a mare was Chivalry,
reckoned base and unknightly.
To distinguish him in battle, as his face was hid by the
helmet, the knight wore above his armour a surcoat, as it
was called, like a herald’s coat, on which his arms were
emblazoned. Others had them painted on the shield, a
small triangular buckler of light wood, covered with lea¬
ther, and sometimes plated with steel, which, as best suit¬
ed him, the knight could either wield on his left arm, or
suffer to hang down from his neck, as an additional defence
to his breast, when the left hand was required for the ma¬
nagement of the horse. The shape of these shields is
preserved, being that on which heraldric coats are most
Frequently blazoned. But it is something remarkable, that
no one of those heater1 shields has been preserved in the
Tower, or, so far as we know, in any English collection.
The helmet was surmounted by a crest, which the knight
adopted after his own fancy. There was deadly offence
taken if one knight, without right, assumed the armorial
bearings of another; and history is full of disputes on that
head, some of which terminated fatally. The heralds
were the persons appealed to on these occasions, when the
dispute was carried on in peace; and hence flowed the
science, as it was called, of heraldry, with all its fantastic
niceties. By degrees the crest and device became also
hereditary, as well as the bearings on the shield. In ad¬
dition to his armorial bearings, the knight distinguished
himself in battle by shouting out his war-cry, which was
echoed by his followers. It was usually the name of some
favourite saint, united with that of his own family. If the
knight had followers under his command, they re-echoed
his war-cry, and rallied round his pennon or flag at the
sound. The pennon differed from the penoncel, or trian¬
gular streamer which the squire was entitled to display,
being double the breadth, and indented at the end like
the tail of a swallow. It presented the appearance of two
penoncels united at the end next the staff, a consideration
which was not perhaps out of view in determining its
shape. Of course, the reader will understand that those
knights only display ed a pennon who had retainers to sup¬
port and defend it, the mounting this ensign being a mat¬
ter of privilege, not of obligation.
Froissart’s heart never fails to overflow when he de¬
scribes the encounter of a body of men-at-arms, arrayed
in the manner we have described; he dwells with enthu¬
siasm on the leading circumstances. The waving of ban¬
ners and pennons, the dashing of spurs into the sides of
chargers, and their springing forward to battle ; the glit¬
tering of armour, the glancing of plumes, the headlong
shock and splintering of the lances, the swords flashing
through the dust over the heads of the combatants, the
thunder of the horses’ feet and the clash of armour,
mingled with the war-cry of the combatants and the groans
of the dying, form the mingled scene of tumult, strife, and
death, which the canon has so frequently transferred to
his chivalrous pages.
It was not in war alone that the adventurous knight was
to acquire fame. It was his duty, as we have seen, to
seek adventures throughout the world, whereby to exalt
his own fame and the beauty of his mistress, which in¬
spired such deeds. In our remarks upon the general
spirit of the institution, we have already noticed the fran¬
tic enterprises which were seriously undertaken and punc¬
tually executed by knights desirous of a name. On these
occasions, the undertaker of so rash an enterprise often
owed his life to the sympathy of his foes, who had great
respect for any one engaged in the discharge of a vow of
1 So called because resembling in shape the heater of a smoothing-iron.
603
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, chivalry. When Sir Robert Rnowles passed near Paris,
'—at the head of an English army, in the reign of Edward
III. the following remarkable incident took place :
“ Now it happened, one Tuesday morning, when the
English began to decamp, and had set fire to all the vil¬
lages wherein they were lodged, so that the fires were
distinctly seen from Paris, a knight of their army, who had
made a vow the preceding day, that he would advance as
far as the barriers and strike them with his lance, did not
break his oath, but set off with his lance in his hand, his
target on his neck, and completely armed except his hel¬
met, and, spurring his steed, was followed by his squire
on another courser, carrying the helmet. When he ap¬
proached Paris, he put on the helmet, which his squire
laced behind. He then galloped away, sticking spurs into
his horse, and advanced prancing to strike the barriers.
They were then open, and the lords and barons within ima¬
gined he intended to enter the town ; but he did not so
mean, for having struck the gates according to his vow,
he checked his horse and turned about. The French
knights who saw him thus retreat, cried out to him, ‘ Get
away ! get away ! thou hast well acquitted thyself.’ As
for the name of this knight I am ignorant of it, nor do I
know from what country he came ; but he bore for his arms
gules a deux fousses noir, with une bordure noir non
endentee.
“ However, an adventure befel him, from which he had
not so fortunate an escape. On his return he met a but¬
cher on the pavement in the suburbs, a very strong man,
who had noticed him as he had passed him, and who had
in his hand a very sharp and heavy hatchet with a long
handle. As the knight was returning alone, and in a^
careless manner, the valiant butcher came on one side of
him, and gave him such a blow between the shoulders,
that he fell on his horse’s neck : he recovered himself, but
the butcher repeated the blow on his head, so that the
axe entered it. The knight, through excess ot pain, fell
to the earth, and the horse galloped away to the squire,
who was waiting for his master in the fields at the extre¬
mity of the suburbs. ’I he squire caught the courser, but
wondered what was become of his master ; for he had seen
him gallop to the barriers, strike them, and then turn
about to come back. He therefore set out to look for
him ; but he had not gone many paces before he saw him
in the hands of four fellows, who were beating him as if
they were hammering on an anvil. This so much fright¬
ened the squire, that he dared not advance further, for he
saw he could not give him any effectual assistance : he
therefore returned as speedily as he could.
<s Thus wras this knight slain ; and those lords who were
posted at the barriers had him buried in holy ground.
The squire returned to the army, and related the misfor¬
tune which had befallen his master. All his brother war¬
riors were greatly displeased thereat. (Johnes s Frois¬
sart, vol. ii. p. 63.)
An equally singular undertaking was that of Galeazzo
of Mantua, as rehearsed by the venerable Doctor Paris de
Puteo, in his treatise De Duello et Re Militari, and by
Brantome in his Essay on Duels. Queen Joan of Naples,
at a magnificent feast given in her castle of Gaeta, had
given her hand to Galeazzo for the purpose of opening
the ball. The dance being finished, the gallant knight
kneeled down before his royal partner, and, in order to
make fitting acknowledgment of the high honour done him,
took a solemn vow to wander through the world where-
ever deeds of arms should be exercised, and not to rest
until he had subdued two valiant knights, and had pre¬
sented them prisoners at her royal footstool, to be dis¬
posed of at her pleasure. Accordingly, after a year spent
in visiting various scenes of action in Brittany, England,
France, Burgundy, and elsewhere, he returned like a fal- Chiva,
con with his prey in his clutch, and presented two prison- '-'Y
ers of knightly rank to Queen Joan. The queen received
the gift very graciously; and, declining to avail herself of
the right she had to impose rigorous conditions on the
captives, she gave them liberty without ransom, and be¬
stowed on them, over and above, several marks of libera¬
lity. For this she .is highly extolled by Brantome and Dr
Paris, who take the opportunity of censuring the very
opposite conduct of the canons of St Peter s Church at
Rome, upon whom a certain knight had bestowed a pri¬
soner taken in single combat. These ungracious church¬
men received the gift as if it had been that of a wild beast
for a menagerie, permitting the poor captive the freedom
of the church indeed, but prohibiting him to go one step
beyond the gate. In which condition, worse than death,
they detained the vanquished knight for some time, and
were justly blamed, as neither understanding Christian
charity nor gentleman-like courtesy.
We return to consider the duties of a knight. His na¬
tural and proper element was war; but in time of peace,
when there was no scope for the fiery spirit of chivalry,
the knights attended the tourneys proclaimed by different
princes, or, if these amusements did not occur, they them¬
selves undertook feats of arms, to which they challenged
all competitors. The nature of these challenges will be
best understood from an abridged account of the pas
dHarmes, called the Justs of Saint Inglebert, or Sandyng
Fields. This emprize was sustained by three gallant knights
of France, Bou^icaut, Reynold de Roy, and Saint Py or
Saimpi. Their articles bound them to abide thirty days
at Saint Inglebert, in the marches of Calais, there to un¬
dertake the encounter of all knights and squires, French¬
men, or strangers who should come hither, for the break-
in0- of five spears, sharp, or with rockets, at theii pleasure
On their lodgings they hung two shields called of peace
and war, with their armorial blazons on each. The stran¬
ger desiring to just was invited to come or send, and
touch which shield he would. The weapons of courtesy
were to be employed if he chose the shield of peace, it
that of war, the defenders were to give him the desired
encounter with sharp weapons. The stranger knights were
invited to bring some nobleman with them, to assist in
judging the field ; and the proclamation concludes with an
entreaty to knights and squires strangers, that they will
not hold this offer as made for any pride, hatred, or ill-
will, but only that the challengers do it to have their
honourable company and acquaintance, which with their
whole heart they desire. They were assured ot a tan
field, without fraud or advantage; and it was provided
that the shields used should not be covered with iron or
steel. The French king was highly joyful of this gallant
challenge (although some of his council doubted the wis¬
dom of permitting it to go forth), and exhorted the chal¬
lengers to regard the honour of their prince and realm,
and spare no cost at the solemnity, for which he was
willing to contribute ten thousand francs. A numDer oi
knights and squires came from England to Calais to a -
cept this gallant invitation; and at the entrance of the
“ fresh and joly month of May, the challengers p
three green pavilions in a fair plain between Caais
the Abbey of Saint Inglebert. Two shields hung
each pavilion, with the arms °f the owner.
“ On the 21st of the month of May, as it had been
proclaimed, the three knights were properly anned, a
their horses properly saddled, according to the laws of the
tournament. On the same day those knigis
in Calais sallied forth, either as spectatois oi i > ^
being arrived at the spot, drew up on one siae.
place of the tournament was smooth, and green wit g
CHIVALRY.
alry. “ Sir John Holland was the first M^ho sent his squire to
touch the war-target of Sir Bou^icaut, who instantly is¬
sued from his pavilion completely armed. Having mount¬
ed his horse, and grasped his spear, which was stiff and
well steeled, they took their distances. When the two
knights had for a short time eyed each other, they spurred
their horses, and met full gallop with such a force that Sir
Bou^icaut pierced the shield of the Earl of Huntingdon,
and the point of his lance slipped along his arm, but with¬
out wounding him. The two knights, having passed, con¬
tinued their gallop to the end of the list. This course
was much praised. At the second course, they hit each
other slightly, but no harm was done; and their horses
refused to complete the third.
“ The Earl of Huntingdon, who wished to continue the
tilt, and was heated, returned to his place, expecting that
Sir Boucicaut would call for his lance ; but he did not, and
showed plainly he would not that day tilt more with the
earl. Sir John Holland, seeing this, sent his squire to
touch the war-target of the Lord de Saimpi. This knight,
who was waiting for the combat, sallied out from his pavi¬
lion, and took his lance and shield. When the earl saw he
was ready, he violently spurred his horse, as did the Lord
de Saimpi. They couched their lances, and pointed them
at each other. At the onset, their horses crossed ; not¬
withstanding which, they met; but by this crossing, which
was blamed, the earl was unhelmed. He returned to his
people, who soon re-helmed him; and having resumed their
lances, they met full gallop, and hit each other w ith such
a force in the middle of their shields, that they would have
been unhorsed had they not kept tight seats by the pres¬
sure of their legs against their horses’ sides. They went to
the proper places, where they refreshed themselves, and
took breath.
“ Sir John Holland, who had a great desire to shine at
this tournament, had his helmet braced, and re-grasped his
spear; when the Lord de Saimpi, seeing him advance on
the gallop, did not decline meeting, but, spurring his horse
on instantly, they gave blows on their helmets, that were
luckily of well-tempered steel, which made sparks of fire
fly from them. At this course, the Lord de Saimpi lost
his helmet; but the two knights continued their career,
and returned to their places.
“ This tilt was much praised, and the English and French
said, that the Earl of Huntingdon, Sir Bou^icaut, and the
Lord de Saimpi, had excellently well justed, without spar¬
ing or doing themselves any damage. The earl wished
to break another lance in honour of his lady, but it was re¬
fused him. He then quitted the lists to make room for
others, for he had run his six lances with such ability and
courage as gained him praise from all sides.” (Johnes’s
Froissart, vol. iv. p. 143.)
The other justs were accomplished with similar spirit.
Sir Peter Courtney, Sir John Russell, Sir Peter Sherburn,
Sir William Clifton, and other English knights, sustaining
the honour of their country against the French, who behaved
with the greatest gallantry; and the whole was regarded
as one of the most gallant enterprises which had been
fulfilled for some time.
Besides these dangerous amusements, the unsettled and
misruled state of things during the feudal times found a
gentle knight anxious to support the oppressed and to put
down injustice, and, agreeably' to his knightly vow, frequent
opportunities to exercise himself in the use of arms. There
was everywhere to be found oppressors to be chastised,
and evil customs to be abolished; and the knight’s occu¬
pation not only permitted, but actually bound him to'vo¬
lunteer his services in such cases. We shall err greatly
it we suppose that the adventures told in romance are as
fictitious as its magic, its dragons, and its fairies. The ma-
vol. vi.
609
chmery was indeed imaginary, or rather, like that of Ho- Chivalry,
mer, it was grounded on the popular belief of the times.
But the turn of incidents resembled, in substance, those
which passed almost daily under the eye of the narrator.
Even the stupendous feats of prowess displayed by the
heroes of these, tales, against the most overwhelmin'!-
odds, were not without parallel in the history of the timeT.
When men fought hand to hand, the desperate exertions
of a single champion, well mounted and armed in proof,
were sometimes sufficient to turn the fate of a disputed day;
and the war-cry of a well-known knight struck terror far¬
ther than his arms. The advantage possessed by such an
invulnerable champion over the half-naked infantry of the
period, whom he might pursue and cut down at his plea¬
sure, was so great, that in the insurrection of the peasants
called the Jacquerie, the Earl of Foix and the Captal de
Buche, their forces not being nearly as one to ten, hesi¬
tated not to charge these disorderly insurgents with their
men-at-arms, and were supposed to have slain nearly seven
thousand, following the execution of the fugitives with as
little mercy as the peasants had showed during the brief
success of their rebellion.
The light which crown vassals claimed and exercised,
of imposing exorbitant tolls and taxes within their do¬
mains, was often resisted by the knights-errant of the day,
whose adventures in fact approached much nearer to Don
Quixote than perhaps our readers are aware of. For al¬
though the knight of La Mancha was perhaps two centu¬
ries too late in exercising his office of redresser of wrongs,
and although his heated imagination confounded ordinary
objects with such as were immediately connected with the
exercise of chivalry, yet, at no great distance from the
date of the inimitable romance of Cervantes, real circum¬
stances occurred of a nature nearly as romantic as the
achievements which Don Quixote aspired to execute. In
the more.ancient times, the wandering knight could not
go. far without finding some gentleman oppressed by a
powerful neighbour, some captive immured in a feudal
dungeon, some orphan deprived of his heritage, some tra¬
veller pillaged, some convent or church violated, some
lady in need of a champion, or some prince engaged in a
war with a powerful adversary ; all of which incidents fur¬
nished fit occasion for the exercise of his valour. By de¬
grees, as order became more generally established, and
the law' of each state began to be strong enough for the
protection of the subject, the interference of these self-
authorized and self-dependent champions, who, besides,
were in all probability neither the most judicious nor mo¬
derate, supposing them to be equitable, mediators, became
a nuisance rather than an assistance to civil society; and
undoubtedly this tended to produce those distinctions in
the order of knighthood which we are now to notice.
The most ancient, and originally the sole order ofDifferent
knighthood, was that of the knight-bachelor. This was orders of
the proper degree conferred b_y one knight on another, knight-
without the interference either of prince, noble, or church-110011'
man; and its privileges and duties approached nearly to
those of the knight-errant. Were it possible for human
nature to have acted up to the pitch of merit required by
the statutes of chivalry, this order might have proved for
a length of time a substitute for imperfect policy, a reme¬
dy against feudal tyranny, a resource for the wreak when
oppressed by the strong. Unquestionably, in many indi¬
vidual instances, knights were all that w-e have described
them. But the laws of chivalry, like those of the ascetic
orders, while announcing a high tone of virtue and self-
denial, unfortunately afforded the strongest temptations
to those who professed its vows, to abuse the character
which they assumed. The degree of knighthood was easily
attained, and did not Subject the warrior on whom it was
4 H
G10
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry eranted to any particular tribunal in case of his abusing certain means of income to these adventurous champions.
■ f, “ ““ “ it conferred. Thus the knight became, The horses and arms of the knights who succumbed on
i manvTnsta mes, a wandering and licentious soldier, car- such occasions were forfeited to the victors, and these the
rviuo tVom castle to castle, and from court to court, the wealthy were always willing to reclaim by a payment m
offer of h” mercenary swo d, and frequently abusing his money. At some of the achievements m arms the victors
character to oppress those whom his oath bound him to had the right, by the conditions o the encounter, torn,-
protect. The Ikense and foreign vices imported by those pose severe terms on the vanquished, besides rte usual
who had returned from the crusades, the poverty also to
which noble families were reduced by these fatal expedi¬
tions, all aided to throw the quality of knight-bachelor
lower in the scale of honour, when unsupported by birth,
wealth, or the command of followers.
ChivaL
'-’’V-v
forfeiture of horse and armour. Sometimes the unsuc¬
cessful combatant ransomed himself from imprisonment,
or other hard conditions, by a sum of money ; a transac¬
tion in which the knight-bachelors, such as we have de¬
scribed them, readily engaged. These adventurers used
The poorest knight-bachelor, however, long continued to call the sword which they used in tourneys their 9a9ne-
to exerdse the privileges of the order. Their title of pain, or bread-winner, as itinerant fiddlers of our days de¬
bachelor (or has chevalier, according to the best deriva- nominate their instruments,
tion) marked that they were early held in inferior esti¬
mation to those more fortunate knights who had extensive
lands and numerous vassals. They either attached them¬
selves to the service of some prince or rich noble, and were ^ ^    o  _ „ ,
' at their expense, or they led the life of mere ad- means s0 precarious, and lying under little or no restraint
venturers. There were many kniglvts who, like Sir Gaudwin from lawgj or from tiie sociai system, were frequently
dangerous and turbulent members of the commonwealth.
Every usurper, tyrant, or rebel, found knights-bachelors
Dont i est gagne-pain nommde
Car par li est gagnies li pains.
Pelerinage du Monde, par Guigneville.
Bcivco i.w n.v.     • ■ c Men of such roving and military habits, subsisting by
supported at their expense, or they led the life of meie at - rneans s0 precarious, and lying under little or no restraint
venturers. There were many knights who, like Sir Gaudwin from lawgj or from tiie social system, were frequently
in the romance of Partenopex de Blois, subsisted by pass- - ’ ’ ’ 1 r ^ *"'oUK
111 cue: i wiiicviJi— — — r i
ing from one court, camp, and tournament, to another, ^very usurper, tyrant, or reoei, rounu Kniguis-uaunciuis
and contrived even, by various means open to persons of ^ eSp0Use cause, in numbers proportioned to his means
that profession, to maintain, at least for a time, a fan and eXpen[iiture, They were precisely the “ landless reso-
goodly appearance . „ v    c Wwn
So riding, they o’ertake an errant knight
Well horsed, and large of limb, Sir Gaudwin hight;
He nor of castle nor of land was lord,
Houseless he reap’d the harvest of the sword :
And now, not more on fame than profit bent,
Rode with blythe heart unto the tournament,
For cowardice he held it deadly sin,
And sure his mind and bearing were akin.
The face an index to the soul within,
It seem’d that he, such pomp his train bewray’d,
Had shap’d a goodly fortune by his blade;
His knaves were, point device, in livery dight,
With sumpter-nags, and tents for shelter in the night.
v,. expenditure. They were precisely
lutes,” whom any adventurer of military fame or known
enterprise could easily collect
For food and diet to some enterprise
That hath a stomach in’t.
Sometimes knights were found who placed themselves
directly in opposition to all law and good order, headed
independent bands of depredators, or, to speak plainly, of
robbers, seized upon some castle as a place of temporary
retreat, and laid waste the country at their pleasure. In
the disorderly reigns of Stephen and of King John, many
such leaders of banditti were found in England. And
v.iLn du.i.c'''-*-—ft'-i —   - France, in the reign of John and his successors, was al-
These bachelor-knights, as Mr Rose has well described m0st destroyed by them. Many of these leaders were
Sir Gaudwin, set their principal store by valour in battle; knights or squires, and almost ah pretended that in tie
and perhaps it was the only quality of chivalry which ]awless license they only exercised the lights of ch a y,
thev at all times equally prized and possessed. Their which permitted, and even enjoined, its votaries to maxe
boast was to be the children of war and battle, living in war without any authority but their own, whenever a lair
no other atmosphere but what was mingled with the dust cause of quarrel occurs. c ■ c tn:„bt
of conflict and the hot breath of charging steeds. A “ gen- These circumstances brought the profession of kn g
tie bachelor” is so described in one of the Fabliaux trans- bachelor into suspicion, as in other cases the poverty
. , . t. x xtt Lnlrl tho linnnnr pvnnsfid it to contempt in their
those who held the honour exposed it to contempt in their
person. The sword did not always reap a good harvest;
an enterprise was unfortunate, or a knight was discomfited.
In such circumstances he was obliged to sell his ai ms am
horse, and endure all the scorn which is attached to po
verty. In the beautiful lay ot Lanval, and in the corre-
lated by Air Way :
What gentle bachelor is he,
Sword-begot in fighting field,
Rock’d and cradled in a shield,
Whose infant food a helm,did yield.
His restless gallantry in tournament and battle—the ra- — — ^"“T* :”A ” 7' with the nic-
pidity with which he traversed land and sea, from Eng- spending tale of Gruelan, the stor} °P^ w jth P .
Ld to Switzerland, to be present at each remarkable oc- ture of the hero reduced to md.gence dunned by his^and
casion of action—with his hardihood in enduring every lord, and exposed to contempt by his beggyqP
sort of privation-and his generosity in rewarding min- And when John de Vienne and his French me^t ar^
strels and heralds-his life of battle and turmoil-and his returned from Scotland, .^sgust<;f ^hh^e p 0 ]ortu.
deeds of strength and fame-are all enumerated. But ferocity of their allies, without havmgJiad a y n
we hear nothing of his redressing wrongs, or of his protect- mty to become wealthy at the expense 11 jsfa&ction
ing the oppressed. The knight-bachelor, according to this and compel ed before their departure to gi e t
picture, was a valiant prize-fighter, ant, fived by the ezer- ^ 7
cise of his weapons. nauiiaiiLs, mvcio ivu g n „ • j ‘nri weather
In war, the knight-bachelor had an opportunity of main- so returned, some into Handers, and as w «
taining, and even of enriching himself, if fortunate, by the would drive them, without horse and haine , ?nt0
ransom of such prisoners as he happened to make in bat- and feeble, cursing ic cay ia ^ y v0 a„e;’
tie. If in this way he accumulated wealth, he frequently Scotland, saying that never man had so ^ J
employed it in levying followers, whose assistance, with (Berner’s Fromar*, vol. 11. (reprint; p- ^ 7 nd
his own, he hired out to such sovereigns as were willing quent prohibition of tournaments, both cnnecessary
to set a sufficient price on his services. In time ot peace, by the more peaceful sovereigns, a ‘ V . whom,
the tournaments afforded, as we have already observed, a effect in impoverishing the knights-bachelors,
w
CHIVALRY.
CI airy.
Kdits-
bar ret.
as we have seen, these exhibitions afforded one principal
^ means of subsistence. This is touched upon in one of the
French fabliaux, as partly the cause of the poverty of a
chevalier, whose distresses are thus enumerated:
Listen, gentles, while I tell
How this knight in fortune fell:
Lands nor vineyards had he none,
J usts and war his living won ;
W ell on horseback could he prance,
Boldly could he break a lance.
Well he knew each warlike use;
But there came a time of truce.
Peaceful was the land around,
Nowhere heard a trumpet sound.
Bust the shield and faulchion hid,
Just and tourney were forbid,
All his means of living gone,
Ermine mantle had he none,
And in pawn had long been laid
Cap and mantle of brocade,
Harness rich and charger stout,
All were eat and drunken out.1
As the circumstances which we have mentioned tended
to bring the order of knight-bachelor in many instances
into contempt, the great and powerful attempted to en¬
trench themselves within a circle which should be inacces¬
sible to the needy adventurers whom we have described.
Hence the institution of knights-banneret was generally
received.
The distinction betwixt the knight-banneret and the
knight-bachelor was merely in military rank and prece¬
dence, and the former may rather be accounted an insti¬
tution of policy than of chivalry. The bachelor displayed,
or was entitled to display, a pennon or forked ensign.
The knight-banneret had the right of raising a proper ban¬
ner, from which his appellation was derived. He held a
middle rank beneath the barons or great feudatories of
the crown, and above the knights-bachelors. The banner
from which he took his title was a flag squared at the end,
which, however, in strictness, was oblong, and not an ex¬
act square on all the sides, which was the proper emblem
of a baron. Du Tibet reports, that the Count de Laval
challenged Sir Raoul de Couequens’ right to raise a square
banner, being a banneret, and not a baron ; and adds, that
he was generally ridiculed for this presumption, and call¬
ed the knight with the square ensign. The circumstance
of the encroachment plainly shows, that the distinction
was not absolutely settled; nor have we found the ensign
of the bannerets anywhere described, except as being ge¬
nerally a square standard. Indeed, it was only the pennon
of the knight a little altered; for he who aspired to be a
banneret received no higher gradation in chivalry, as at¬
tached to his person, and was inducted into his new privi¬
leges merely by the commander-in-chief, upon the eve of
battle, cutting off the swallow-tail or forked termination of
the pennon.
In the appendix to Joinville’s Memoirs, there is an essay
on the subject of the bannerets, in which the following ac¬
count of them is quoted from the ancient book of Cere¬
monies :—
“ Comme un bachelier peut lever banniere, et devenir
banneret.
“ Quant un bachelier a grandement servi et suivy la
guerre, et que il a assez terre, et que ’il puisse avoir gen-
tushommes, ses hommes, et pour accompagner sa banniere,
1 Peut hcitement lever banniere, et non autrement. Car
mil homme ne doit porter ne lever banniere en bataille,
su na du moins cinquante hommes d’armes, tous ses
homme8 etles archiers et arbalestriers quiy appartiennent.
Bt sil les a ’il doit a la premiere bataille, ou il se trouvera,
611
apporter un pennon de ses armes, et doit venir au corniest- Chivalry,
able, ou aux marischaux, ou a celui qui sera lieutenant de V^v^/
Tost pour le prince, requirer qu’il porte banniere; et s’il
lui octroient, doit sommer les heraux pour tesmoignage, et
doivent couper la queue du pennon, et alors le doit porter
et lever avant les autres bannieres, au dessoubs des autres.
barons.
There is this same ceremonial, in a chapter respecting
the banneret, in these terms :—
“ Comme se doit maintenir un banneret en bataille.
“ Le banneret doit avoir cinquante lances, et les gens
de trait qui y appartiennent: c’est a savoir les xxv. pour
lui, et sa banniere garden Et doit estre sa banniere des¬
soubs des barons. Et s’il y a autres banniere, ils doivent
mettre leurs bannieres a fonneur, chacun selon son endroit,
et pareillement tout homme qui porte banniere.”
. hroissart, always our best and most amusing authority,
gives an account of the manner in which the celebrated
Sir John Chandos was made banneret by the Black Prince,
before the battle of Navarete. Tlhe whole scene forms a
striking picture of an army of the middle ages moving to
battle. Upon the pennons of the knights, penoncels of
the squires, and banners of the barons and bannerets, the
army formed, or, in modern phrase, dressed its line. The
usual word for the attack was, “ Advance banners, in the
name of God and Saint George.”
. “ When the sun was risen, it was a beautiful sight to
view these battalions, with their brilliant armour glittering
with its beams. In this manner they nearly approached
to each other. The prince, with a few attendants, mount¬
ed a small hill, and saw very clearly the enemy marching
straight towards them. Upon descending this hill, he ex¬
tended his line of battle in the plain, and then halted.
“ The Spaniards, seeing the English had halted, did the
same, in order of battle; then each man tightened his ar¬
mour, and made ready as for instant combat.
Sir John Chandos advanced in front of the battalions,
with his banner uncased in bis hand. He presented it to
the prince, saying, ‘ My Lord, here is my banner; I pre¬
sent it to you, that I may display it in whatever manner
shall be most agreeable to you ; for, thanks to God, I have
now sufficient lands that will enable me so to do, and main¬
tain the rank which it ought to hold.’
“ The prince, Don Pedro being present, took the ban¬
ner in his hands, which was blazoned with a sharp stake
gules, on a fixed argent; after having cut off the tail to
make it square, he displayed it, and returning it to him
by the handle, said, ‘ Sir John, I return you your banner;
God give you strength and honour to preserve it.’
“ Upon this, Sir John left the prince, went back to his
men, with the banner in his hand,—4 Gentlemen, behold
my banner and yours ; you will therefore guard it as it be¬
comes you.’ His companions, taking the banner, replied
with much cheerfulness, that 4 if it pleased God and St
George, they would defend it well, and act worthily of it,
to the utmost of their abilities.’
44 The banner was put into the hands of a worthy Eng¬
lish squire, called William Allestry, who bore it with ho¬
nour that day, and loyally acquitted himself in the service.
The English and Gascons soon after dismounted on the
heath, and assembled very orderly together, each lord un¬
der his banner or pennon, in the same battle-array as when
they passed the mountains. It was delightful to see and
examine these banners and pennons, with the noble army
that was under them.”
It should not be forgotten, that Sir John Chandos ex¬
erted himself so much to maintain his new honour, that,
advancing too far among the Spaniards, he was unhorsed,
1 See the original in the republication of Barbazan’s Fabliaux, vol. iii. p. 410.
G12
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, and having grappled with a warrior of great strength,
wcalled Martin Ferrand, he fell undermost, and must have
been slain, had he not bethought him of his dagger, with
which he stabbed his gigantic antagonist. (Johnes s Frois¬
sart, vol. i. p. 7B1.) . . p .1 .i . .
A banneret was expected to bring into the field at least
thirty men-at-arms, that is, knights or squires mounted,
and in complete order, at his own expense. Each man-at-
arms, besides his attendants on foot, ought to have a
mounted crossbow-man, and a horseman armed with a
bow and axe. Therefore the number of horsemen alone
who assembled under a banner was at least three hun¬
dred, and, including followers on foot, might amount to a
thousand men. The banneret might indeed have arrayed
the same force under a pennon ; but his accepting a ban¬
ner bound him to bring out that number at least, there
is no room, however, to believe that these regulations were
very strictly observed. ,
In the reign of Charles VII. the nobles of France made
a remonstrance to the king, setting forth that their estates
were so much wasted by the long and fatal wars with
England, that they could no longer support the number
of men attached to the dignity of banneret. The com¬
panies of men-at-arms, which had hitherto been led by
knights of that rank, and the distinction between knights-
bannerets and knights-bachelors, were altogether disused
from that period.1 In England the title survived, but in
a different sense. Those who received knighthood in a
field of battle, where the royal standard was displayed,
were called knights-banneret. Thus King Edward Vi.
notices in his Journal, that after the battle of 1 inkie,
« Mr Brian Sadler and Vane were made bannerets.
The distinction of banneret was not the only subdivi¬
sion of knighthood. The special privileged fraternities,
orders, or associations of knights, using a particular de¬
vice, or embodied for a particular purpose, require also
to be noticed. These might in part be founded upon the
union which knights were wont to enter into with each
other as “ companions in arms,” than which nothing was
esteemed more sacred. The partners were united tor
weal and woe, and no crime was accounted more infa¬
mous than to desert or betray a companion at arms, i hey
had the same friends and the same foes; and as it was
the genius of chivalry to carry every virtuous and noble
sentiment to the most fantastic extremity, the most extra¬
vagant proofs of fidelity to this engagement were often
exacted or bestowed. The beautiful romance of Ames and
Amelien, in which a knight slays his own child to ma e
a salve with its blood, to cure the leprosy of his brother
in arms, turns entirely on this extravagant pitch of senti¬
ment. . -
To this fraternity only two persons could, witn pro¬
priety, bind themselves. But the various orders, which
had in view particular objects of war, or were associated
under the authority of particular sovereigns, were also un¬
derstood to form a bond of alliance and brotherhood
amongst themselves.
The great orders of the Templars and Ivmghts-Flospi-
tallers of Saint John of Jerusalem, as well as that of the
Teutonic Knights, were *military associations, formed, the
former for defence of the Holy Land, and the latter for con¬
version (by the edge of the sword, of course) of the Pa¬
gans in the north of Europe. They were managed by
commanders or superintendents, and by a grand master,
forming a sort of military republic, the individuals of which
were understood to have no distinct property or interest
from the order in general. But the system and history of
these associations will be found under the proper heads.
Compa¬
nions in
arms.
It is here only necessary to notice them as subdivisions of Chiva,
the knighthood or chivalry of Europe. _ _ < '*-’Y
Other subdivisions arose from the various associations,
also called orders, formed by the different sovereigns of
Europe, not only for the natural purpose of drawing around
their persons the flower of knighthood, but often with po¬
litical views of much deeper import. Jhe romances which
were the favourite reading of the time, or which, at least,
like the servant in the comedy, the nobles “ had read to
them,” and which were on all occasions quoted gravely,
as the authentic and authoritative records of chivalry, af¬
forded the most respectable precedents for the formation
of such fraternities under the auspices of sovereign princes;
the Round Table of King Arthur, and the Paladins of
Charlemagne, forming cases strictly in point. Edward
III., whose policy was equal to his love of chivalry, failed
not to avail himself of these precedents, not only for the
exaltation of military honour and exercise of warlike feats,
but questionless that he might draw around him, and at¬
tach to his person, the most valiant knights from all
quarters of Europe. For this purpose, in the year ISH,
he proclaimed, as well in Scotland, France, Cxeimany,
Hainault, Spain, and other foreign countries, as in Eng¬
land, that he designed to revive the Round Table of King
Arthur, offering free conduct and courteous reception
to all who might be disposed to attend the splendid
justs to be held upon that occasion at Windsor Castle.
This solemn festival, which Edward proposed to render
annual, excited the jealousy of Philip de Valois, king of
France, who not only prohibited his subjects to attend
the Round Table at Windsor, but proclaimed an opposite
Round Table to be held by himself at Paris. In conse¬
quence of this interference the festival of Edward lost
some part of its celebrity, and was diminished in splen¬
dour and frequency of attendance. . This induced King
Edward to establish the memorable Order of the Gaiter.
Twenty-six of the most noble knights of England and
Gascony were admitted into this highly honourable asso¬
ciation, the well-known motto of which (lloni soil qm
mol y pense) seems to apply to the misrepresentations
which the French monarch might throw out respecting
the Order of the Garter, as he had already done concern¬
ing the festival of the Round Table. There was so much
dignity, as well as such obvious policy, in selecting from
the whole body of chivalry a select number of champions,
to form an especial fraternity under the immediate pa¬
tronage of the sovereign,—it held out such a powerful s i-
mulus to courage and exertion to all whose eyes were
fixed on so dignified a reward of ambition,—that various
orders were speedily formed in the different courts ot
Europe, each having its own peculiar badges, emblems,
and statutes. To enumerate these is the task of the he¬
rald, not of the historian, who is only called upon to no¬
tice their existence and character. Ihe first effect o
these institutions on the spirit of chivalry in general wa
doubtless favourable, as holding forth to the ^g^oo
a high and honourable prize of emulation. Bu
every court in Europe, however petty, had its own pecu¬
liar order and ceremonial, while the great potentates es¬
tablished several, these dignities became so common
to throw into the shade the order of knights-bachelors,
the parent and proper degree of chivalry, in com pa ns
which the others were mere innovations. I be
tinction introduced, when the spirit of chivalry wa
totally extinguished, was the degree of knight-baronet,
The degree of baronet, or hereditary knighthood, m g
have been with greater propriety termed an infen
of noblesse than an order of chivalry. Nothing can be
See the works of Pasquier, Du Tillet, Le Gendre, and other French antiquaries.
CHIVALRY.
( airy, alien from the original idea of chivalry than that knight-
v hood could be bestowed on an infant, who could not have
deserved the honour, or be capable of discharging its du¬
ties. But the way had been already opened for this ano¬
maly by the manner in which the orders of foreign knight¬
hood had been conferred upon children and infants in non¬
age. Some of these honours were also held by right of
blood, the Dauphin of France, for example, being held to
be born a knight of the Holy Ghost without creation ; and
men had already long lost sight of the proper use and pur¬
pose of knighthood, which was now regarded and valued
only as an honorary distinction of rank, that imposed no
duties, and required no qualifications, or period of preli¬
minary noviciate. The creation of this new dignity, as is
well known, was a device of James I. to fill those coffers
which his folly and profusion had emptied ; and although
the pretext of a Nova Scotia or of an blister settlement
was used as the apology for the creation of the order, yet
it was perfectly understood that the real value given was
the payment of a certain sum of money. The cynical Os¬
borne describes this practice of the sale of honours, which,
in their origin, were designed as the reward and pledge of
chivalrous merit, with satirical emphasis.
“ At this time the honour of knighthood, which anti¬
quity reserved sacred as the cheapest and readiest jewel
to present virtue with, was promiscuously laid on any head
belonging to the yeomandry (made addle through pride
and a contempt of their ancestor’s pedigree), that had
but a court friend, or money to purchase the favour of the
meanest able to bring him into an outward roome, when
the king, the fountaine of honour, came downe, and was
uninterrupted by other businesse; in which case it was
then usuall for him to grant a commission for the cham-
berlaine or some other lord to do it.”
U ada- Having noticed the mode in which knighthood was con-
tif ferred, and the various subdivisions of the order in gene¬
ral, it is proper to notice the mode in which a knight
might be degraded from his rank. This forfeiture might
take place from crimes either actually committed, or pre¬
sumed by the law of arms. The list of crimes for which
a knight was actually liable to degradation corresponded
to his duties. As devotion, the honour due to ladies, va¬
lour, truth, and loyalty, were the proper attributes of chi¬
valry, so heresy, insults or oppression of females, cowar¬
dice, falsehood, or treason, caused his degradation. And
heraldry, an art which might be said to bear the shield of
chivalry, assigned to such degraded knights and their des¬
cendants peculiar bearings, called in blazonry abatements,
though it may be doubted if these were often worn or dis¬
played.
The most common case of a knight’s degradation occur¬
red in the appeal to the judgment of God by the single
combat in the lists. In the appeal to this awful criterion,
the combatants, whether personally concerned or appear¬
ing as champions, were understood, in martial law, to take
on themselves the full risk of all consequences; and as
the defendant or his champion, in case of being overcome,
was subjected to the punishment proper to the crime of
which he was accused, so the appellant, if vanquished,
was, whether a principal or substitute, condemned to the
same doom to which his success would have exposed the
accused. Whichever combatant was vanquished, he was
liable to the penalty of degradation ; and if he survived the
combat, the disgrace to which he was subjected was worse
than death. His spurs were cut off close to his heels
with a cook’s cleaver; his arms were bafted and reversed
by the common hangman; his belt was cut to pieces, and
his sword broken. Even his horse showed his disgrace,
the animal’s tail being cut off close to the rump, and
thrown on a dunghill. The death-bell tolled, and the fu-
613
neral service was said, for a knight thus degraded, as for Chivalry,
one dead to knightly honour. And if he fell in the ap- --y-w'
peal to the judgment of God, the same dishonour was done
to his senseless corpse. If alive, he was only rescued from
death to be confined in the cloister. Such at least were
the strict rules of chivalry, though the courtesy of the
victor, or the clemency of the prince, might remit them
in favourable cases.
Knights might also be degraded without combat, when
convicted of a heinous crime. In Stowe’s Chronicle, we
find the following minute account of the degradation of
Sir Andrew Harclay, created Earl of Harclay by Ed¬
ward II., but afterwards accused of traitorous correspon¬
dence with Robert the Bruce, and tried before Sir An¬
thony Lucy.
“ He was ledde to the barre as an earle morthily appa¬
relled, with his sword girt about him, horsed, booted, and
spurred, and unto whom Sir Anthony spake in this man¬
ner. Sir Andrew (quoth he), the king, for thy valiant
service, hath done thee great honour, and made thee
Earle of Carlile; since which tyme, thou, as a traytor to
thy lord the king, leddest his people, that shoulde have
holpe him at the battell of Heighland, awaie by the coun¬
ty of Copland, and through the earledom of Lancaster, by
which meanes, our lorde the king was discomfitted there
of the Scottes, through thy treason and falsenesse; where¬
as, if thou haddest come betimes, he hadde had the victo-
rie : and this treason thou committedst for ye great summe
of golde and silver that thou receivedst of James Dow-
glasse, a Scot, the king’s enemy. Our lord the king
will, therefore, that the order of knighthood, by the which
thou receivedst all thine honour and worship uppon thy
bodie, be brought to nought, and thy state undone, that
other knights, of lower degree, may after thee beware, and
take example truely to serve.
“ Then commanded he to hesne his spurres from his
heeles, then to break his sword over his head, which the
king had given him to keepe and defend his land there¬
with, when he made him earle. After this, he let unclothe
him of his furred tabard, and of his hoode, of his coate of
armes, and also of his girdle; and when this was done,
Sir Anthony sayde unto him, Andrewe (quoth he), now
art thou no knight, but a knave; and, for thy treason, the
king will that thou shall be hanged and drawne, and thyne
head smitten off from thy bodie, and burned before thee,
and thy bodie quartered : and thy head being smitten off,
afterwarde to be set upon London bridge, and thy foure
quarters shall be sent into foure good townes of England,
that all other may beware by thee. And as Anthony Lucy
hadde sayde, so was it done in all things, on the last daie
of October.”
III. We are arrived at the third point proposed in our Decay of
arrangement, the causes, namely, of the decay and extinc-chivalry,
tion of chivalry.
The spirit of chivalry sunk gradually under a combina¬
tion of physical and moral causes; the first arising from
the change gradually introduced into the art of war, and
the last from the equally great alteration produced by time
in the habits and modes of thinking in modern Europe.
Chivalry began to dawn in the end of the tenth and be¬
ginning of the eleventh century. It blazed forth with high
vigour during the crusades, which indeed may be consi¬
dered as exploits of national knight-errantry, or general
wars, undertaken on the very principles which actuated
the conduct of individual knights adventurers. But its
most brilliant period was during the wars between France
and England; and it was unquestionably in those kingdoms
that the habit of constant and honourable opposition, un¬
embittered by rancour or personal hatred, gave the fair-
614 C H I V A L R Y.
Chivalry, est opportunity for the exercise of the virtues required was thus transferred frony the chivalry of France, whose Chivalr
from him whom Chaucer terms a very perfect gentle bold and desperate valour was sometimes rendered useless ''—-y-v
knight. Froissart frequently makes allusions to the gene- by their independent wilfulness and want of discipline, to
rosity exercised by the French and Fnglish to their pri- a sort of regular forces, whose officeis (a captain, lieuten-
soners, and contrasts it with the dungeons to which cap- ant, and an ensign in each company) held command, not
tives taken in war were consigned, both in Spain and Ger- in virtue ot their knighthood or banner right, but being
many. Yet both these countries, and indeed every king- direct commissions from the crown, as in modern times,
dom in Europe, partook of the spirit of chivalry in a great- At first, indeed, these bands ot regulated gens-d’armes
er or less degree ; and even the Moors of Spain caught v/ere formed of the same materials as formerly, though
the emulation, and had their orders of knighthood as well acting under a new system. The officers were men of the
as the Christians. But, even during this splendid period, highest rank; the archers, and even the varlets, were men
various causes were silently operating the future extinc- of honourable birth. W hen the Emperor Maximilian
tion of the flame, which blazed thus wide and brightly. proposed that the French gens-d’armes should attempt to
An important discovery, the invention of gunpowder, storm Padua, supported by the German lance-knechts, or
had taken place, and was beginning to be used in war, infantry, he was informed by Bayard, that it the French
even when chivalry was in its highest glory. It is said men-at-arms were employed, they must be supported by
Edward III. had field-pieces at the battle of Cressy, and those of the Germans, and not by the lance-knechts, be-
the use of guns is mentioned even earlier. But the force cause, in the French companies of ordonnance, every sol-
of gunpowder was long known and used ere it made any dier was a gentleman. But, in the reign of Charles IX.,
material change in the art of war. The long-bow continu- we find the change natural to such a new order of things
ed to be the favourite, and it would seem the more formi- was in complete operation. The king was content to seek,
dable missile weapon, for well nigh two centuries after guns as qualifications for his men-at-arms, personal bravery,
had been used in war. Still every successive improvement strength, and address in the use of weapons, without re-
was gradually rendering the invention of fire-arms more spect to rank or birth ; and, probably, in many instances,
perfect, and their use more decisive of the fate of battle, men of inferior birth were preferred to fill up the ranks of
In proportion as they came into general use, the suits of de- these regulated bands. Monluc informs us in his Commen-
fensive armour began to be less generally worn. It was found, taries, that he made his first campaign, as an archer, in
that these cumbrous defences, however efficient against the Marechal de Foix s company of gens-darmes: “A
lances, swords, and arrows, afforded no effectual protection situation much esteemed in these days, when many nobles
against these more forcible missiles. The armour of the served in that capacity. At present, the rank is greatly
knight was gradually curtailed to a light head-piece, a degenerated.” rIhe complaints of the old noblesse, says
cuirass, and the usual defences of men-at-arms. Complete Mezerai, were not without reason. Mean carabineers,
harness was only worn by generals and persons of high they said, valets, and lacqueys, were recruited in compa-
rank, and that rather, it would seem, as a point of dignity nies, which were put on the same footing with the ancient
than for real utility. The young nobility of France, espe- corps of gens-d armes, whose officers were all barons of
cially, tired of the unwieldy steel coats in which their high rank, and almost every man-at-arms a gentleman by
ancestors sheathed themselves, adopted the slender and birth. These complaints, joined with the charge against
light armour of the German Reiters or mercenary cavalry. Catharine of Medicis, that she had, by the creation of
They also discontinued the use of the lance ; in both cases twenty-five new members of the order of St Michael,
contrary to the injunctions of Henry IV. and the opinion rendered its honours as common as the cockle-shells on
of Sully. At length, the arms of the cavalry were chan- the sea-shore, serve to show how early the first rude at-
ged almost in every particular from those which were pro- tempt at establishing a standing and professional army
per for chivalry; and as, in such cases, much depends up- operated to the subversion of the ideas and privileges of
on outward show and circumstance, the light-armed cava- chivalry. According to La Noue, it would seem that, in
Her, who did not carry the weapons or practise the exer- his time, the practice still prevailed of sending youths of
cises of knighthood, laid aside, at the same time, the ha- good birth to serve as pages in the gens-d armes; but,
bits and sentiments peculiar to the order. from the sort of society with whom they mixed in service
Another change of vital importance arose from the in- of that sort, their natural spirit was rather debased, and
stitution of the bands of gens-d’armes or men-at-arms in rendered vulgar and brutal, than trained to honour and
France, constituted, as we have observed, expressly as a gallantry.
sort of standing army, to supply the place of bannerets, A more fatal cause had, however, been for some time Civil
bachelors, squires, and other militia of early times. It was operating in England as well as France, for the destruc-in rant
in the year 1445 that Charles VII. selected, from the nu- tion of the system we are treating of. I he wars of s
merous chivalry of France, fifteen companies of men-at- and Lancaster in England^ and those of the Fluguenots
arms, called Les Compagnies d’Ordonnance, to remain in and of the League, were of a nature so bitter and rancor-
perpetual pay and subordination, and to enable the sove- ous, as was utterly inconsistent with the courtesy, fair
reign to dispense with the services of the tumultuary forces play, and gentleness, proper to chivalry. V here»difter-
of chivalry which, arriving and departing from the host ent nations are at strife together, their war may be car¬
at pleasure, collecting their subsistence by oppressing the ried on with a certain degree of moderation. “ Durmg
country, and engaging in frequent brawls with each other, the foreign wars between France and Spain, especially in
rather weakened than aided the cause they professed to Piedmont,” says La Noue, “ we might often see a bocy
support. The regulated companies, which were substitut- of spears pass a village, where the peasants only interrupt¬
ed for these desultory bands, were of a more permanent ed their village dance to offer them refreshments ; anc ,
and manageable description. Each company contained a in a little after, a hostile troop receive, from the unoffen -
hundred men-at-arms, and each man-at-arms was to be ing and unoffended inhabitants, the same courtesy. e
what was termed a lance garnie, that is, a mounted spear- two bodies would meet and fight gallantly, and the woun -
man, with his proper attendants, being four archers, and a ed of both parties would be transferred to the same yi
varlet, called a coustillier. Thus, each company consisted lage, lodged in the same places of accommodation, receive
of six hundred horse, and the fifteen bands amounted to the same attention, and rest peaceably on each other s goo
fifteen thousand cavalry. The charge of national defence faith till again able to take the field.” He contrasts tns
CHIVALRY.
(j airy, generosity with the miserable oppression of the civil tvars,
' ' carried on by murdering, burning, and plundering friend’
and foe, armed and unarmed; alleging, all the while, the
specious watchwords of God’s honour, the king’s service,
the Catholic religion, the gospel, our country. In the end’
he justly observes, “ the soldiers become ravenous beasts,
the country is rendered desert, wealth is wasted, the crimes
of the great become a curse to themselves, and God is dis¬
pleased.” The bloody wars of the Rose in England, the
execution of prisoners on each side, the fury and animo¬
sity which allowed no plea of mercy or courtesy, were
scarce less destructive to the finer parts of the spirit of
chivalry in England than those of the Huguenots in Prance.
But the civil wars not only operated in debasing the
spirit of chivalry, but in exhausting and destroying the
particular class of society from which its votaries were
drawn. To be of noble birth was not indeed absolutely
essential to receiving the honour of knighthood, for men
of low descent frequently attained it; but it required a
distinguished display of personal merit to raise them out
of the class where they were born ; and the honours of
chivalry were, generally speaking, appropriated to those of
fair and gentle parentage. The noble families, therefore,
were the source from which chivalry drew recruits ; and
it was upon the nobles that the losses, proscriptions, and
forfeitures of the civil wars chiefly fell. We have seen
that in France their poverty occasioned their yielding up
the privilege of military command to the disposal of the
crown. In England it was fortunately not so much the crown
as the commons who rose on the ruins of feudal chivalry;
but it is well known that the civil wars had so exhausted
the English nobility, as to enable Henry VII. to pass his
celebrated statutes against those hosts of retainers, which
struck, in fact, at the very root of their power. And thus
Providence, whose ways bring good out of evil, laid the
foundation of the future freedom of England in the de¬
struction of what had long been its most constitutional
ground of defence, and in the subjugation of that system
of chivalry which, having softened the ferocity of a bai’-
barous age, was now to fall into disuse, as too extravagant
for an enlightened one.
In fact, it was not merely the changes which had taken
11131 3’ place in the constitution of armies and fashion of the fight,
nor the degraded and weak state of the nobles, but also,
and in a great degree, the more enlightened manners of
the times, and the different channels into which enthu¬
siasm and energy were directed, which gradually abolished
the sentiments of chivalry. We have seen that the ab¬
stract principles of chivalry were, in the highest degree,
virtuous and noble, nay, that they failed by carrying to an
absurd, exaggerated, and impracticable point, the honour¬
able duties which they inculcated. Such doctrines, when
they fail to excite enthusiasm, become exploded as ridi¬
culous. Men’s minds were now awakened to other and
more important and complicated exercises of the under¬
standing, and were no longer responsive to the subjects
which so deeply interested their ancestors of the middle
ages. Sciences of various kinds had been rekindled in the
course of the sixteenth century; the arts had been awak¬
ened in a style of perfection unknown even to classical
ages. Above all, religion had become the interesting study
of thousands ; and the innovating doctrines of the reform¬
ers, while hailed with ecstacy by their followers, rejected
as abominations by the Catholics, and debated fiercely by
both parties, involved the'nobility of Europe in specula¬
tions very different from the arrets of the court of love,
and demanded their active service in fields more bloody
than those of tilt and tournament. When the historians
615
of
or disputants on either side allude to the maxims of chi- Chivalry
valry, it is in terms of censure and ridicule ; yet, if we
judge by the most distinguished authorities on either side
the reformers rejected as sinful what the Catholics were'
contented to brand as absurd. It is with no small advan¬
tage to the Huguenots,—to that distinguished party which
produced Sully, D’Aubigne, Coligni, Duplessis-Mornav,
and La Noue, that we contrast the moral severity with
which they pass censure on the books of chivalry, with the
licentious flippancy of Brantome, who ridicules the same
works on account of the very virtues which they incul¬
cate. Fiom the oooks of Airuidis de Gaul, refining, as he
informs us, upon the ancient vanities of Perceforest, Tris¬
tan, Giron, &c., La Noue contends, the age in which he
lived derived the recommendation and practice of incon¬
tinence, of the poison of revenge, of neglect of sober and
rational duty, desperate blood-thirstiness, under disguise
of search after honour, and confusion of public order.
“ They instructions,” he says, “ of Apollyon, who, being
a murtherer from the beginning, delighteth wholly in pro¬
moting murther.” “ Of the tournaments,” he observes that
“ such spectacles, rendering habitual the sight of blows and
blood, had made the court of France pitiless and cruel.”
“ Let those,” he exclaims, “ who desire to feed their eyes,
with blood, imitate the manner of England, where- they
exercise their cruelty on brute beasts, bringing in bull's
and bears to fight with dogs, a practice beyond compari¬
son far more lawful than the justs of chivalry.” 1
It is curious to contrast the opinions of La Noue, a
stern and moral reformer, and a skilful and brave soldier
as France ever produced, although condemning all war
that did not spring out of absolute necessity, with those
of Brantome, a licentious courtier, who mixed the popish
superstitions, which stood him instead of religion, with a
leaven of infidelity and blasphemy. From the opinions he
has expressed, and from what he has too faithfully handed
down as the manners of his court and age, it is plain that
all which was valuable in the spirit of chivalry had been
long renounced by the French noblesse. To mark this
declension, it is only necessary to run over the various re¬
quisites already pointed out as necessary to form the chi¬
valrous character, and contrast them with the opinions
held in the end of the sixteenth century, in the court of
the descendants of Saint Louis.
The spirit of devotion which the rules of chivalry in¬
culcated was so openly disavowed, that it was assigned
as a reason for preferring the character of Sir Tristram to
that of Sir Lancelot, that the former is described in ro¬
mance as relying, like Mezentius, upon his own arm alone,
whereas Lancelot, on engaging in fight, never failed to
commend himself to God and the saints, which, in the
more modern opinions of the gallants of France, argued a
want of confidence in his own strength and valour.
The devotion with which the ancient knights worship¬
ped the fair sex was held to be as old-fashioned and absurd
as that which they paid to heaven. The honours paid to
chastity and purity in the German forests, and transferred
as a sacred point of duty to the sons of chivalry, were as
little to be found in the court of France, according to
Brantome, as the chastity and purity to which it was due.
The gross and coarse sensuality which we have seen en¬
grafted upon professions of Platonic sentiment, became
finally so predominant, as altogether to discard all marks
of sentimental attachment; and from the time of Catha¬
rine of Medicis, who trained her maids of honour as cour¬
tezans, the manners of the court of France seem to have
been inferior in decency to those of a well-regulated ba¬
gnio. The sort of respect which these ladies were deemed
1 Discourses, Political and Military, translated out of the French of La Noue, 1587-
616
CHIVALRY.
Chivalry, entitled to may be conjectured by an anecdote given by
Lord Herbert of Cherbury, whose own character was form¬
ed upon the chivalrous model which was now become ob¬
solete. As he stood in the trenches before a besieged place,
along with Balagny, a celebrated duellist of the period,
between whom and Lord Herbert some altercation had
formerly occurred, the Frenchman, in a bravade, jumped
over the entrenchment, and, daring Herbert to follow him,
ran towards the besieged place, in the face of a tire of
-rape and musquetry. Finding that Herbert outran him,
and seemed to have no intention of turning back, Balagny
was forced to set the example of retreating. Lord Her¬
bert then invited him to an encounter upon the old chi¬
valrous point, which had the fairer and more virtuous mis¬
tress ; to which proposition Balagny replied by a jest so
coarse, as made the Englishman retort that he spoke like
a mean debauchee, not like a cavalier and man of honour.
As Balagny was one of the most fashionable gallants of his
time, and, as the story shows, ready for the most hair¬
brained achievements, his declining combat upon the
-round of quarrel chosen by Lord Herbert is a proof how
little the former love of chivalry accorded with the gal¬
lantry of these later days. . 7
Bravery, the indispensable requisite of the preux cheva¬
lier, continued, indeed, to be held in the same estimation
as formerly; and the history of the age gave the most
brilliant as well as the most desperate examples of it, both
in public war and private encounter. But courage was no
Ion—er tempered with the good faith and courtesy, Acf
bonta dei gli cavalieri anticJii, so celebrated by Ariosto.
There no longer existed those generous knights, that one
day bound the wounds of a generous enemy, guided him
to a place of refuge, and defended him on the jouiney,
and which, on the next, hesitated not to commit itself in
turn to the power of a mortal foe, without fear that he
would break the faithful word he had pawned for the
safety of his enemy. If such examples occur in the civil
wars of France, they were dictated by the geneiosity o
individuals who rose above the vices of their age, and were
not demanded, as matters of right, from all who desired
to stand well in public opinion. The intercourse with
Italy, so fatal to France in many respects, failed not to
imbue her nobility with the politics of Machiavel, the
coarse licentiousness of Aretin, and the barbarous spirit
of revenge, which held it wise to seek its gratification, not
in fair encounter, but per ogni modo, in what manner so¬
ever it could be obtained. Duels, when they took place,
were no longer fought in the lists, or in presence of judges
of the field, but in lonely and sequestered places. In¬
equality of arms was not regarded, howeve r great the su-
periority on one side. “ Thou hast both a sword and dag-
ger,” said Quelus to Antragues, as they were about to
fight, “ and I have only a sword.”—“ The more thy folly,
was the answer, “ to leave thy dagger at home. V» e came
to fight, not to adjust weapons.” The duel accordingly
went forward, and Quelus was slain, his left hand (in which
he should have had his dagger) being shockingly cut in
attempting to parry his antagonist’s^ blows, without that
weapon. The challenged person having a right to choose
his weapons, often endeavoured to devise such as should
give him a decidedly unfair advantage. Brantome records
with applause the ingenuity of a little man, who, being
challenged by a tall Gascon, made choice of a gorget so
constructed that his gigantic adversary could not stoop
his neck so as to aim his blows right. Another had two
swords forged of a temper so extremely brittle, that un¬
less used with particular caution, and in a manner to which
he daily exercised himself, the blade must necessarily fly
in pieces. Both these ingenious persons killed their man
with very little risk or trouble, and no less applause, it
would seem, than if they had fought without fraud and Chivalr
covine. The seconds usually engaged, and when one of 'w-
the combatants was slain, his antagonist did not hesitate
to assist his comrade in opposing by odds him who re¬
mained. The little French Lawyer of Fletcher turns en¬
tirely on this incident. By a yet more direct mode of
murder, a man challenged to a duel was not always sure
that his enemy was not to assassinate him by the assist¬
ance of ruffians at the place of rendezvous, of which Bran-
tome gives several instances without much censure. The
plighted word of an antagonist by no means insured against
treachery to the party to whom it was given. De Rosne,
a gentleman well skilled in the practice and discipline of
the wars, receiving a challenge from De bargy, through
the medium of a young man, who offered to pledge his
word and faith for the fair conduct of his principal, made
an answer which Brantome -seems to approve as pruden¬
tial. “ I should be unwilling,” he replied, “ to trust my
life upon a pledge on which I would not lend twenty
crowns.” In many cases no ceremony was used, but the
nobles assassinated each other without scruple or hesita¬
tion. Brantome gives several stories of the Baron des
yitaux, and terms his detestable murders bold and brave
revenges. But it would be endless to quote examples.
It is enough to call to the reader’s recollection the bloody
secret of the massacre of St Bartholomew, which was kept
by such a number of the Catholic noblemen for two years,
at the expense of false treaties, promises, and perjuries in¬
numerable, and the execution which followed on naked,
unarmed, and unsuspecting men, in which so many gal¬
lants lent their willing swords.
In England, the free tone of the government, and the
advantage of equal laws, administered without respect of
persons, checked similar enormities, which, however, do
not appear to have been thought in all cases inconsistent
with the point of honour, which, if not, as in France, to¬
tally depraved from the ancient practices of chivalry,
might probably have soon become so. Sir John Ayres
did not hesitate to attack Lord Herbert with the assist¬
ance of his servants ; and the outrage upon the person of
Sir John Coventry, which gave rise to the Coventry act
against cutting and maiming, evinced the same spirit ot
degenerate and blood-thirsty revenge. Lord Sanquhar
having lost an eye in a trial of skill with a master of de¬
fence, conceived that his honour required that he should
cause the poor man to be assassinated by ruffians in his
own school; but as this base action met its just reward
&t the gallows, the spirit of Italian revenge was probably
effectually checked by such a marked example. At the
gallows, the unfortunate nobleman expressed his detesta¬
tion for the crime, which he then saw in all its enormity.
Before his trial he said the devil had so blinded his under¬
standing that he could not understand that he had done
amiss, or otherwise than befitting a man of high rank am
quality, having been trained up to the court, anc iving
the life of a soldier, which sort of men, he said, stood more
on a point of honour than religion. The feelings ot clu-
valry must have been indeed degraded, when so ase
assassination was accounted a point of honour, n c
land, the manners of which country, as is well obser
by Robertson, strongly resembled those of 1,ra"c®’
number of foul murthers during the sixteenth centu y
almost incredible, and indeed assassination mig i
ed the most general vice of the sixteenth century.
From these circumstances, the total decay ot chi
principle is sufficiently evident. As the progress o
ledge advanced, men learned to despise its fanta
finements ; the really enlightened, as belonging to . >
tern inapplicable to the modern state ot the ^or >
licentious, fierce, and subtile, as throwing the barne
C H o
C 1380
CO.
affected punctilio betwixt them and the safe, ready, and un¬
ceremonious gratification of their lust or their veno-eance.
The system, as we have seen, had its peculiar advan¬
tages during the middle ages. Its duties were not, and
indeed could not always be performed in perfection, but
they had a strong influence on public opinion ; and we can¬
not doubt that its institutions, virtuous as they were in
principle, and honourable and generous in their ends, must
have done much good and prevented much evil. We can
now only look back on it as a beautiful and fantastic piece
of frostwork, which has dissolved in the beams of the1 sun.
But though we look in vain for the pillars, the vaults, the*
cornices, and the fretted ornaments of the transitory fa¬
bric, we cannot but be sensible that its dissolution has left
on the soil valuable tokens of its former existence. We
do not mean, nor is it necessary to trace, the slight shades
of chivalry which are yet received in the law of England.
An appeal to combat in a case of treason was adjudged
in the celebrated case of Ramsay and Lord Reay, in die
time of Charles I. An appeal of murder seems to have
been admitted as legal within a recent period, though it
has subsequently been abolished by statute; but it is not
in such issues, rare as they must be, that we ought to trace
the consequences of chivalry. We have already shown
€ H o 617
that its effects are rather to be sought in the general feel- Chocolate
mg of respect to the female sex; in the rules of forbear- ||
ance and decorum in society ; in the duties of speaking Choisi.
truth and observing courtesy ; and in the general convic-
tion and assurance that, as no man can encroach on the
property of another without accounting to the laws, so
none can infringe on his personal honour, be the difference
of rank what it may, without subjecting himself to personal
responsibility. It will be readily believed that, in noticing
the existence of duelling as a relic of chivalry, we do not
mean to discuss the propriety of the custom. It is our
happiness that the excesses to which this spirit is liable
are checked by the laws which wisely discountenance the
practice ; for although the severity of the laws sometimes
give way to the force of public opinion, they still remain
an effectual restraint, in every case where the circum¬
stances argue either wanton provocation or unfair advan-
tage. It is to be hoped that, as the custom of appealing
to this Gothic mode of settling disputes is gradually fall¬
ing into disuse, our successors may enjoy the benefit of
the general urbanity, decency, and courtesy which it has
introduced into the manners of Europe, without having
recourse to a remedy not easily reconciled to law or to
Christianity. (0, Di D \
Court of Chivalry, a court formerly held before the
lord high constable and earl marshal of England jointly,
and having both civil and criminal jurisdiction.
CHIVASSOj a city of Italy, in the province of Turin
and kingdom of Sardinia, near to where the Oreo falls
into the Po. It is surrounded with fortifications, and con¬
tains several churches and monasteries, with 5450 inha¬
bitants, supported chiefly by trading in corn and cattle.
Long. 7. 45. E. Lat. 45. 3. N.
CHIUN, or Chevan, in Hebrew antiquity, a word
which we meet with in the prophet Amos, cited in the
Acts of the Apostles. St Luke reads the passage thus:
“Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the star of
your god Remphan, figures which ye made to worship
them.” The import of the Hebrew is, “ Ye have borne
the tabernacle of your kings, and the pedestal (chiun) of
your images, the star of your gods, which ye made to
yourselves.” The Septuagint in all probability read Jte-
pham or Revan, instead of Chian or Chevan, and took the
pedestal for a god. Some say that the Septuagint, who
made their translation in Egypt, changed the word Chian
into that of Remphan, because they had the same signifi¬
cation. M. Basnage, in his book entitled Jewish Antiqui¬
ties, after having discoursed a good deal upon Chian, or
Remphan, concludes that Moloch was the sun, and Chion,
Chiun, or Remphan, the moon.
CHLOEIA, in Antiquity, a festival celebrated at Athens
m honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name XXojj, or
grass, they sacrificed a ram.
CHLORINE. See Chemistry.
CHOBAR, or Chubbar, a sea-port of Mekran, in Per¬
sia. It is situated on the east side of an extensive bay,
and consists of three hundred mat huts and a mud fort.
Good water is procured from wells, although the country
is and and barren. At a month’s notice, however, a sup¬
ply ot dates and grain might be procured. Sheep and
camels may also be procured. The port is now in posses¬
sion of the imaum of Muscat. Long. 60. 3. E. Lat. 25.
20. N.
CHOCO, a province of Mexico, in the department of
Cauca. It abounds in woods and mountains, and is crossed
by a chain of the Andes. Maize, plantains, and cocoa
VOL. VI.
of excellent quality, are produced in abundance. It pos¬
sesses rich gold mines, and a considerable trade is carried
on with the neighbouring province of Popayan. But
Choco would be richer in the fertility of its hills, and the
superior quality of its cocoa, than in its mines, did not the
cloudy and burning climate almost paralyse human indus¬
try. The population amounts to about 40,000.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of paste or cake
prepared of certain ingredients, the basis of which is cacao.
CHODZESN, a circle in the Prussian government of
Posen, extending over 418 square miles, and containing
six cities and towns, with 22,898 inhabitants. The chief
place, of the same name, is a manufacturing town, contain¬
ing 2506 inhabitants, of whom 906 are Jews.
CHOERINJE, in Antiquity, a kind of sea-shells, with
which the ancient Greeks used to give their suffrage in
the public assemblies.
CHOIR, that part of a church or cathedral where cho¬
risters sing divine service. It is separated from the chan¬
cel, where the communion is celebrated, and also from the
nave of the church, where the people are placed ; and the
patron is understood to be under an obligation to repair
the choir of the church. In the time of Constantine the
choir was separated from the nave, and in the twelfth cen¬
tury it was inclosed with walls; but the ancient balus¬
trades have been since restored, with a view to the beauty
of architecture.
Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to the
body of the church, but separated by a grate, where the
nuns sing the office.
CHOISI, or Choisy, Francis Timoleon de, dean of
the cathedral of Bayeux, was born at Paris in 1644. His
mother, who doated on him, used to amuse herself by-
clothing him in female attire, and his figure, which was
feminine and pretty, aided this deception ; but, it seems,
“ il abusa, aupres de plusieurs femmes, de 1’erreur ou il
les jetait, et de la securite qu’il leur inspira.” A recital of
bis adventures of this description will be found in L’His-
toire de Madame la Corntesse des JBarres, the name which
he assumed in order to complete his disguise. He aban¬
doned this detestable practice, however, and seems to have
become ashamed of his vices, if not to have acquired a
4 1
618
C H O
Choisy due sense of religion. In 1685 he was sent with the Che-
II valier de Chaumont to the king of Siam, and was ordained
Chord. priest in tiie indies by the apostolical vicar. He wrote a
great number of works, in a florid style, the piincipal of
which are, 1. Four Dialogues on the Immortality ol the
Soul; 2. Histories of St Louis, Philip of Valois, John,
Charles V. and Charles VI. first published separately in
4to, but afterwards collected in four vols. 12mo; 3. Ac¬
count of a Voyage to Siam; 4. An Ecclesiastical History,
in eleven vols. 4to ; 5. Life of Ddvid, with an Intel pi cta-
tion of the Psalms; 6. Life of Solomon. He died at Paris
in 1724. . , „
CHOISY, a village of France, in the arrondissement ot
Sceaux, and department of the Seine. It is one of the most
beautiful in the environs of Paris, wheie was formerly a
royal palace and park. It now contains 1500 inhabitants.
There is a printed-cotton manufactory, and some establish¬
ments for making morocco leather.
CHOLERA Morbus. See Medicine.
CHOLET, a city of the department of the Mayenne
and the Loire, in France. It is in a beautiful situation on
the Maine, and contains 750 houses, with 4695 inhabitants,
who are employed in making linen cloths, especially some
of the finer kinds, known by the name of this city ; but its
trade has been on the decline. Long. 0. 57. W. Lat. 47.
10. N. . „ A11
CHOORHUT, a town of Hindustan, province of Alla¬
habad, in the Bogilcund district. It is a fortress situated
between the river Soane and the Vindhya Mountains, and
is possessed by an independent chief. It is ninety-four miles
south-west from Benares. Long. 81. 48. E. Lat. 24. 29. N.
CHOP-CHURCH, or Church-Chopper, a name, or
rather a nickname, given to parsons who make a practice of
exchanging benefices. Chop-church occurs in an ancient
statute as the description of a lawful trade or occupation ;
and some judges have thought it a good addition. Brook,
however, holds that it was no occupation, but a thing per¬
missible by law. A j t i •
CHOPIN, or Chopine, a liquid measure, used both in
Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint.
CHORAL signifies any person who, by virtue of cleri¬
cal orders, was in ancient times admitted to sit and serve
God in the choir. Dugdale, in his History of St Paul’s
Church, says that there were with the chorus formerly
six vicars choral belonging to that church.
CHORASSAN, or Khorassan. See Khorassan.
CHORD, or Cord, primarily denotes a slender rope or
cordage. The word is formed of the Latin chovda, and
that from the Greek ^ogSu, a gut, of which strings may be
made.
Chord, in Geometry, a right line drawn from one part
of an arc of a circle to another. Hence,
Choiw of an Arc is a right line joining the extremities
of that arc.
Chord, in Music, the union of two or more sounds ut¬
tered at the same time, and forming together an entire
harmony.
The natural harmony produced by the resonance ot a
sounding body, is composed of three different sounds,
without reckoning their octaves, forming among them¬
selves the most agreeable and perfect chord that can pos¬
sibly be heard; for which reason they are called,. on ac¬
count of their excellence, perfect chords. Hence, in order
to render the harmony complete, it is necessary that each
chord should at least consist of three sounds. The trio is
likewise found by musicians to include the perfection of
harmony ; either because in this all the chords, each in its
full perfection, are used; or because, upon such occasions
as render it improper to use them all, each in its integri¬
ty, arts have been successfully practised to deceive the
C H O
ear, and to give it a contrary persuasion, by deluding it Chorep
with the principal sounds of each chord, in such a manner coput
as to render it forgetful of the other sounds necessary to II
their completion. Yet the octave of the principal sound
produces new relations and new consonances, by the com-
pletion of the intervals; and hence, to have the assemblage
of all the consonances in one and the same chord, this
octave is commonly added. Moreover, as the addition of
the dissonance produces a fourth sound superadded to
the perfect chord, it becomes indispensably necessary, if
we would render the chord full, to include a fourth part,
in order to express this dissonance. Thus, the series of
chords can neither be complete nor connected, but by
means of four parts.
Chords are divided into perfect and imperfect. The
perfect chord is that which we have just described, and
which is composed of the fundamental sound below, of its
third, its fifth, and its octave. Chords of this description
are also subdivided into major and minor, according as the
thirds which enter into their composition are flat or sharp.
Some authors likewise give the name of perfect to all
chords, even to dissonances, whose fundamental sounds
are below. Imperfect chords are those in which the sixth
instead of the fifth prevails, and in general all those whose
lowest are not their fundamental sounds. These denomi¬
nations, which were given before the fundamental bass
was known, are now most unhappily applied; but those of
chords direct and reversed are much more suitable in the
same sense.
Chords are further divided into consonances and disso¬
nances. The chords denominated consonances, are the
perfect chord and its derivatives; every other chord is a
dissonance. A table of both, according to the system of
M. Rameau, may be seen in Rousseau’s Musical Diction¬
ary, vol. i. p. 27.
CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient church,
concerning whose functions the learned are much divided.
The word is formed from yjuzog, a region, or tract of coun¬
try, and iTTicxovoi, a bishop or overseer.
The Chorepiscopi were suffragan or local bishops, hold¬
ing a middle rank between bishops and presbyters, and
delegated to exercise episcopal jurisdiction within certain
districts, when the boundaries of particular churches, over
which separate bishops presided, were considerably en¬
larged. It is uncertain when this office was first intro¬
duced. Some trace it to the close of the first century;
others tell us that chorepiscopi were not known in the
East till the beginning of the fourth century, and in the
West about the year 439. They ceased both in the East
and West in the tenth century. .
Chorepiscopus is also the name of a dignity still sub¬
sisting in some cathedrals, particularly in Germany, and
signifies the same with cAon episcopus, or bishop or leader
of the choir. The word, in this sense, does not come from
yojpog, place, but choir. In the church of Cologne,
for instance, the first chanter is called chorepiscopus.
CHOREUS, Xogsog, a foot in the ancient poetry, more
commonly called trochaus. See Trochee. _ .
CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, afoot consisting ot
four syllables, of which the first and last are long, anc t e
two middle ones short; or, which is the same thing, it is
composed of a trochaeus and iambus.
CFIORLEY, a market-town in the parish ot Croston,
and hundred of Leyland, in Lancashire, 209 miles from
London, on the great road to Edinburgh. The river Lh
rises near it, the various streams from which are u
to turn mills, and for the other purposes of the couo
manufacture, which is very extensively carried on m
around the town. Two canals connect Chorley wi i _ . ’
Liverpool, and Lancaster. The market, on Tuesday,
^gra-
•iv
C H o
well supplied. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 5182
in 1821 to 7315, and in 1831 to 9282.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of any
j country or province. Chorography differs from geogra¬
phy as the description of a particular country differs from
that of the whole earth ; and from topography as the de¬
scription of a country is different from that of a town or
district.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more persons
present on the stage during the representation, and sup¬
posed to be bystanders without any share in the action.
Tragedy, in its origin, was no more than a single chorus,
who trode the stage alone, without any actors, singing di-
thyrambics or hymns in honour of Bacchus. Thespis, to
relieve the chorus, added an actor, who rehearsed the ad¬
ventures of some hero; and iEschylus, finding a single
person too dry an entertainment, added a second, at the
same time reducing the singing of the chorus to make way
for the recitation. But when once tragedy began to be
formed, the recitative, which at first was intended only as
an accessory in order to give the chorus a respite, became
a principal part of the tragedy. At length, however, the
chorus became inserted and incorporated into the action;
sometimes it was made to speak, and then the chief, called
coryphaus, spoke in behalf of the rest; but the singing was
performed by the whole company; so that, when the cory¬
phaeus struck into a song, the chorus immediately joined.
The chorus sometimes also joined the actors, in the
course of the representation, with their plaints and lamen¬
tations on account of any unhappy accidents which had
befallen them ; but the proper function, and that for which
it seemed chiefly retained, was to show the intervals of
the acts. While the actors were behind the scenes, the
chorus engaged the spectators ; their songs usually turned
on what was exhibited, and contained nothing but what was
suited to the subject, and had a natural connection with
it, so that the chorus concurred with the actors in advan¬
cing the action. In modern tragedies, except those of
Mason, and some few others, the chorus is laid aside, and
fiddles and other musical instruments supply its place. M.
Dacier regards this retrenchment as injudicious, and con¬
ceives that it robs tragedy of a great deal of its lustre ; he
therefore thinks that it ought to be re-established, not only
on account of the regularity of the piece, but also to cor¬
rect, by prudent and virtuous reflections, such extrava¬
gancies as may fall from the mouths of the actors when
under the excitement of violent passion. M. Dacier has
also observed that there was a chorus or grex in the an¬
cient comedy. But this has been suppressed in the new
comedy, because it was used to reprove vices by attacking
particular persons, in the same way as the chorus of the
tragedy has been laid aside to give the greater probability
to those kinds of intrigue which require secrecy.
Chorus, in music, in its general.sense, denotes a com¬
position of two, three, four, or more parts, each of which
is intended to be sung by a plurality of voices. Cho-
russes are made to follow a piece of music sung by one
individual, or in parts by single or at least only a few
voices, and, as it were, bring to a climax the joy, adora¬
tion, grief, or any other sentiment or passion therein ex¬
pressed. The chorusses of Handel, particularly those in
bis oratorio of Messiah, are considered as the finest things
of the kind that have ever been composed, and, when well
performed with complete orchestral accompaniments, pro¬
duce the most triumphant effect of which music is capable.
Chorus is also applied to those who sing the parts.
CHOSE (/Y.), a thing, used in the common law with
divers epithets, as chose local, chose transitory, and chose
ln action. Chose local is such a thing as is annexed to
a place, as a mill and the like ; chose transitory is that
C H R
thing which is movable, and may be taken away, or car¬
ried from place to place ; and chose in action is a thing in-
coiporeal, and only a right, as an obligation for debt, an¬
nuity, and the like. And generally all causes of suit for
any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be accounted as choses
in action ; and it seems chose in action may be also called
chose in suspense, because it has no real existence or beino-,
noi can properly be said to be in our possession.
CHOiEESGUR, a large district of Hindustan, in the
province of Gundwanah, situated principally between the
twenty-second and twenty-third degrees of north latitude.
It is sometimes called Ruttunpore, from its principal town,
but more frequently Jeharcund, from its being full of
woods. Choteesgur, which name is given to it from its
possessing thirty-four forts, is generally unproductive. The
best portion of it is to the south of Ruttunpore, which is
a champaign country, abundantly watered with rivulets,
well cultivated, and stocked with villages, and adorned
with numerous groves. Wheat and vegetables are produ¬
ced in considerable quantities in the vicinity of Ryepore ;
lice is not abundant, there being few places favourable for
its cultivation. Ihe chief towns are Ruttunpore, Ryepore,
Niagur, Nowagur, Sindoury, and Khoorbah. Large quan¬
tities of grain are exported to the Deccan and Northern
Circars; and in return salt is imported from the latter, on
which the merchants exact an exorbitant profit. It is by
the itinerant grain-dealers that the principal part of the
commeice is carried on, though foreign merchants brinu’
a few horses, elephants, camels, and shawls. The country
abounds in cattle and horses. It was estimated about the
year 1794, that 100,000 bullocks were employed in the
export trade. 'Ihe HatSoo and Caroon are the chief rivers.
Ibis district was in ancient times comprehended in the
Hindu province of Gundwanah, and composed part of the
state of Gurrah; but during the reign of Aurungzebe it
was annexed to the province of Allahabad. In°1752 it
was conquered by Rayogee Bhoonsla; it was afterwards
ti ibutary to the rajah of Nagpoor, and, after he was driven
from his dominions in 1818, was annexed to the British
territories.
GHOUL, Upper, a fortress and sea-port of Hindustan,
in the province of Aurungabad, situated on the sea-coast
of the Concan, twenty-five miles south of Bombay. It was
a place of considerable consequence during the Bhamanee
dynasty in the Deccan. At this port Sevajee had in the
year 1679 a very respectable fleet, under Dowlut Khan, his
admiral. Long. 72. 48. E. Lat. 18. 33. N.
Ghoul, Lower, is a sea-port town and fort, formerly
belonging to the Portuguese, at the mouth of a river in
Aurungabad. _ It was besieged by Sambagee, but without
success; and it does not appear when the Mahrattas got
possession of it. In the year 1777 it was ceded to the
French, who found it too defenceless for their acceptance.
Long. 72. 46. E. Lat. 18. 36. N.
CHOUTEA, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bahar, 200 miles west-north-west from Calcutta. Long.
85. 29. E. Lat. 23. 26. N.
CHOWERA, a town of Hindustan, in the Gujerat pe¬
ninsula, about thirty miles north by east from Wankaneer.
It is situated on an eminence, surrounded by a high stone
wall, with square towers in a ruinous state.
CHOWPAREH, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Lahore, situated on the east of the Indus, a few miles
above its junction with the Sohaan river. Long. 70. 50. E.
Lat. 32. 10. N.
CHRENECRUDA, a term occurring in writers of the
middle ages, and expressing a custom of those times ; but
its precise signification is somewhat doubtful. It is men¬
tioned in the Lex Salica, tit. 61, that he who kills a man,
and has not wherewithal to satisfy the law or pay the fine,
G19
Chotees¬
gur
II
Chrene-
cruda.
020
C H R
Chrism must make oath that he has delivered up every thing he
II was possessed of, the truth of which deposition must be con
Christia- firmed by the oaths of twelve other persons. Then he
v mt-Y; invites his next relations by the father s side to pay the
remainder of the fine, having first made over to them a
his effects, according to a prescribed form, which may be
briefly described. He goes into his house, and taking in
his hand a small quantity of dust from each of the four
corners, he returns to the door, and, with his face turned
inwards, throws the dust with his left hand over his shoul¬
ders upon his nearest of kin; upon which he strips to his
shirt, and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over
the hedge. When this ceremony has been performed, bis
relations, whether one or more, are obliged to pay off tbe
comnosition for the murder ; and if these ai’e not able to
ri&y,ilerum super ilium chrenecruda, qui pauper lor est,jac-
tat, et Me totam legem componit. Hence it appears, that
chrenecruda jactare is the same with throwing the dust
gathered from the four corners of the house. Goldastus
and Spelman translate it viridis herba, green grass, from
the German gruen kraut, or from the Dutch groen, green,
and qruid, grass. But Wendelinus is of a contrary opi¬
nion, thinking that by this word is denoted punficatioms
approbatio, from chrein, pure, chaste, clean; and keurcri,
to prove ; so that, according to him, it refers to the oaths
of the twelve jurors. Be this as it may, however, King
Childebert by a decree reformed the law of chrenecruda,
both because it savoured of Pagan ceremonies, and because
several persons were thereby obliged to make over all their
effects : De chrenecruda lex quarn paganorum tempore ob-
servabant, deinceps nunquam valeat, quia per ipsam cecidit
multorum potestas. . .
CHRISM (from I anoint), oil consecrated by the
bishop, and used in the Roman Catholic and Greek churc i-
es, in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordina¬
tion, and extreme unction. It is prepared on Holy Ihurs-
day with much ceremony. .
The chrism in baptism is performed by the priest, and
in confirmation by the bishop, lhat used in ordination is
more usually styled unction.
Chrism Pence, Chrismatis Denarii, or Liirismales
Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to. the bishop by the pa¬
rish clergy, for their chrism, consecrated at Easter for the
C H R
ensuing year. This tribute was afterwards condemned as Chris:
simoniacal. I|
CHRIST, an appellation synonymous with Messiah, usu- Christi
ally added to the name Jesus, and therewith denoting the
Saviour of the world. The word yeniTQi signifies anointed,
from inungo, I anoint. Sometimes the word ( hrist
is used singly, by w'ay of antonomasis, to denote a person
sent from God, as an anointed prophet, priest, or king.
Order of Christ, a military order, founded by Diony¬
sius I. king of Portugal, in order to animate his nobles
against the Mloors. I he arms of this ordei are patriai dial
gules, a cross charged with another cross argent. Ihey
had their residence at first at Castromarin ; but afterwards
they removed to the city of Thomar, as being neaiei to the
Moors of Andalusia and Estremadura.
Christ is also the name of a military order in Livonia,
instituted in 1205, by Albert, bishop of Riga. The object
of this institution was to defend the new Christians who
were converted every day in Livonia, but weie persecuted
by the heathens. They wore on their cloaks a sword with
a cross over it, and hence they w^ere also denominated
Brothers of the Sword.
CHRISTCHURCH, a borough and market town in the
county of Hants, in the new forest division, ninety-eight
miles from London. It is pleasantly situated at the con¬
flux of the rivers Avon and Stour. It is a corporate town,
and has a weekly market, which is held on Monday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 1553, in 1821 to 1644,
and in 1831 to 5344.
CHRISTIANIA, a city, the capital of Norway, the resi¬
dence of the stadtholder, of the storthing or parliament,
and courts of law. It is built at the foot of the Egeberge,
in a beautiful valley, surrounded by country seats. It is an
open city, and defended only by the fortress Aggerhuus.
The streets are broad and at right angles, the public bui d-
ings and dwellings mostly of stone. It contains, including
the suburbs, about 12,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of the
university, with 150 students, -to which belongs a library
and several collections of natural history and antiquities.
It has few manufactures. Near it are 136 saw-mills, which
produce vast quantities of planks, and thus supply the
means of its foreign trade. Long. 10. 43. 25. E. Lat. o .
55, 20. N.
CHRISTIANITY.
Origin of
the word.
The apos¬
tles first
called Na-
zarenes.
Sources of
Christia¬
nity.
CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Christians. The word
is analogically derived, as other abstracts from their con¬
cretes, from the adjective Christian, which again is form¬
ed from the name Xg/tfroj, Christus, the Anointed. The Sa¬
viour of the world was so called, from a custom which pi e-
vailed extensively in antiquity, and was originally said to be
of divine institution, of anointing persons in the sacerdotal
or regal character, as a public mark of their consocia¬
tion to these important offices, and as a testimony that
heaven itself was the guarantee of that relation which then
commencedbetween the personsthus consecrated andthen
subordinates. , , „ , . ,
The disciples of Jesus, after the death of their teacher,
were for some time called Nazarenes, from Nazareth in
Galilee, where he dwelt; a name which afterwards be¬
came the designation of a particular sect. . rhey who
adopted the principles and professed the religion which he
taught were first distinguished by the name of Christians
at Antioch. That profession, and those doctrines, we now
proceed briefly to describe.
When a Christian is interrogated concerning the na¬
ture and foundation of his faith and practice, his ultimate
reference and last appeal is to the facts, the doctrines, a
the injunctions, contained in the books of the 01d a
New Testament. From these, therefore, and from these
alone, must every fair account, or the materia s of which
it is composed, be extracted or deduced. Other formu¬
laries, or confessions of faith, may deserve more m }e$
attention, as they are more or less immediately contained
or implied in the Scriptures. But whatever is not ac¬
tually expressed in, or deducible by fair and neces y
consequence from these writings, must c re& t
merely human, and can have no other title to our as .
and observation than what it deri^e« from
with the Scriptures, as faithfully and honestly interp ^
But as the books from which the clJrlstian
principles of belief and rules of conduct have been
riously interpreted by different professors and commenta
tors, these diversities have given birth to a mu 11
of different sects. It cannot, therefore, be exPec ’ •
any one who undertakes to give an account of thnsta^
nity, should advert to all the writings and opinions 1
have been propagated and exhibitedby histor
matical, or polemical authors. These, if a
CHRIST
ristia- in such a work as this, should be ranged under their pro-
m- per articles, whether scientific, controversial, or biogra-
Y'*”' phical. It is our present business, if possible, to confine
ourselves to a detail of .such facts and doctrines as, in the
strict and primitive sense of the word, are catholic, or,
in other words, to such as uniformly have been, and still
continue to be, recognized and admitted by the whole body
of Christians.
ma- It has already been said that these, or at least the great-
of its est number of them, appeal to the Scriptures of the Old
ences. an(j New Testament as the ultimate standard and only in¬
fallible rule of faith and manners. If the question be asked,
by what authority these books claim an absolute right to
determine the consciences and understandings of men with
regard to what they should believe and what they should
do,—the answer will be, that all Scripture, whether for
doctrine, correction, or reproof, has been given by imme¬
diate inspiration from God. If, again, it be asked how
those books called Scripture are authenticated, the reply
will be, that the evidences by which the Old and New
Testament are proved to be the word of God, are either
external or internal. The external may again be divided
into direct or collateral. The direct evidences are such
as arise from the nature, consistency, and probability, of
the facts, and from the simplicity, uniformity, compe¬
tency, and fidelity, of the testimonies by which they are
supported. The collateral events are either the same
occurrences supported by heathen testimonies, or others
which concur with and corroborate the history of Chris¬
tianity. The internal evidence arises either from its exact
conformity with the character of God, from its aptitude
to the frame and circumstances of man, or from those
supernatural convictions and assistances which are im¬
pressed on the mind by the immediate operation of the
divine spirit. But these can only be mentioned cursorily
in a detail so concise as the present.
M- Such facts as are related in the history of his religion
the Christian asserts to be consistent with themselves and
and with one another. Hence it is that, by a series of an-,
tecedents and consequences, they corroborate each other,
and form a chain which cannot be broken except by an
absolute subversion of all historical authority. Nor is this
all. According to him, the facts on which Christianity is
founded, not only of themselves constitute a series, but
are likewise, in several periods, the best resources for sup¬
plying the chasms in the history of our species, and pre¬
serving the tenor of its annals entire. The facts them¬
selves are either natural or supernatural. By natural facts
we mean such occurrences as happen or may happen by
the operation of mechanical laws, or the interposition of
natural agents, without higher assistants. Such are all the
common occurrences of history, whether natural or civil.
By supernatural facts we mean such as could not have
been produced without the immediate interposition of
Deity, or at least of powers superior to the laws of mecha¬
nism, or the agency of human instruments. Among these
may be reckoned the immediate change of water into
wine, the instantaneous cure of diseases without the in¬
tervention of medicine, the resuscitation of the dead, and
other acts of the same kind. In this order of occurrences
may likewise be numbered the exertion and exhibition of
prophetic power, in circumstances where the persons by
whom this extraordinary gift was displayed could nei¬
ther by penetration nor conjecture unravel the mazes of
futurity, and trace the events of which they spoke from
their primary causes to their remote consequences; so
that persons thus gifted must have been the passive or¬
gans of some superior being, to whose view the whole con¬
catenation of causes and effects operating from the origin
to the consummation of nature, lay naked and open.
IANITY. 021
It has already been hinted, that the facts which we have Christia-
called natural not only agree with the analogy of human nity.
events, and corroborate each other, but in many instances
forcibly illustrate the history of nature in general. Of^atural
this a Christian may offer one instance, of which philoso-facts‘
phy will never perhaps be able to produce any tolerable
solution, without having recourse to the facts upon which
Christianity is founded; for if mankind were originally
descended from one pair alone, how did it happen that,
long before the date of authentic history, every nation had
acquired its own language ? Or if it be supposed, as some
philosophers have done, that man is an indigenous animal
in every country, or that he was originally produced in
and created for each particular soil and climate which he
inhabits,—still it may be demanded, whence arose the
prodigious multiplicity and the immense diversity of lan¬
guages ? Is the language of every nation intuitive, or is
it dictated by necessity, and established by convention ?
If the last of these suppositions be true, what an immense
period of time must have passed; how many revolutions
of material and intellectual nature must have happened;
what accessions of knowledge, refinement, and civilization,
must human intercourse have gained, before the forma¬
tion and establishment even of the most simple, imperfect,
and barbarous language! Why is a period so vast obli¬
terated entirely, so as to escape the retrospect of history,
tradition, or even fable itself? Why was the acquisition
and improvement of other arts so infinitely distant from
that of language, that the era of the latter is entirely lost,
whilst we can trace the former from their origin through
the various gradations of their progress ? These difficul¬
ties, inextricable by all the lights of history or philosophy,
are immediately dissipated by the Mosaic account of the
confusion of tongues, wisely intended to separate the
tribes of men one from another; to replenish the surface
of the globe; and to give its multiplied inhabitants those
opportunities of improvement which might be derived
from experiment and industry, variously exerted, accord¬
ing to the different situations in which they were placed,
and the different employments which these situations dic¬
tated. Thus the duration of the existence of nature is
limited to a period within the reach of human intellect;
and thus whatever has happened might have happened
during the present mode of things; whereas, if we deduce
the origin and diversity of language from a period so re¬
motely distant as to be absolutely lost, and entirely de¬
tached from all the known occurrences and vicissitudes of
time, we must admit the present forms and arrangements
of things to have subsisted perhaps for a much longer
duration than any mechanical philosopher will allow to be
possible. Other instances equally pregnant with convic¬
tion might be multiplied; but holding this to be sufficient,
we shall proceed to make a single observation upon the
facts which have been termed supernatural.
Of those changes which happen in sensible objects, sen-Miracles
sation alone can enable us to judge. Reason has nothing and pro¬
to do in the matter. It may draw conclusions from thePhec7-
testimonies of sense, but it can never refute them. If,
therefore, our senses inform us that snow is white, it
would be vain for the most learned and subtile philoso¬
pher to endeavour to convince us that it was of a contrary
colour. He might confound, but he never could persuade
us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to happen in sen¬
sible objects, must either be real or fallacious. If real,
the miracle is admitted; if fallacious, there must be a
cause of deception equally unaccountable with reference
to the powers of nature, and therefore equally miraculous.
If the veracity or competency of the witnesses be ques¬
tioned, the Christian answers that they must be compe¬
tent, because the facts which they relate were not beyond
CHRISTIANITY.
Christia- their capacity to determine; and they must likewise be
nity. faithful, because they had no secular motives for main-
taining, but many for suppressing or disguising, their tes¬
timony. Now the Christian appeals to the whole series
of history and experience, whether such a man is or can
be found, as will offer a voluntary, solemn, and deliberate
sacrifice of truth at the shrine of caprice. But such facts
as, after a long continuance of time, have been found
exactly agreeable to predictions formerly emitted, must
supersede the fidelity of testimony, and infallibly prove
that the event was known to the being by whom it was
foretold. It has been urged, but in vain, that prophecies
are ambiguous and equivocal; for though they may pie-
figure subordinate events, yet if the grand occurrences to
which they ultimately relate can alone fulfil them in their
various circumstances, and in their utmost extent, it is
plain that the being by whom they were revealed must
have been actually prescient of those events, and must
have had them in view when the predictions were uttered.
The reader may consult a learned and ingenious disserta¬
tion on the credibility of gospel-history by Dr Macknight,
where the evidences, detached and scattered through in¬
numerable volumes, are assembled and arranged in such a
manner as to derive strength and lustre from the method
in which they are disposed, without diminishing the force
of each in particular. The works of Hurd, and those of
Newton, Sherlock, Chandler, and others, may likewise be
consulted. The publication of Mr Hume’s Essay on Mi¬
racles was attended with the manifest advantage of ex¬
citing much discussion on the important subject to which
it relates. The sophistry of his arguments w'as very ably
exposed by Dr Campbell, one of the most acute writers of
the age ; nor must wre overlook the labours of Bishop Dou¬
glas and Dr Adams, who have both treated this subject
with judgment and ability.
On this branch of the subject we may observe, that a
question has been raised, and debated with much learning
and ingenuity on both sides, namely, whether the evidence
of miracles, considered apart from the peculiar nature and
doctrines of Christianity, would not of itself be sufficient to
establish the title of this religion to be received and acknow¬
ledged as a divine revelation. Such a disputation, however,
is but little calculated to promote edification, and seems to
have originated rather in a love of paradox, or a desire to
strike out something apparently new, than in any sound and
comprehensive estimate of the evidences of Christianity.
For while it is certain, on the one hand, that the power of
working real and incontestable miracles is a direct authen¬
tication of a divine mission, and forms an unchallengeable
credential of a teacher sent from above; it is equally clear,
on the other, that the fact of this power having been con¬
ferred presupposes that the purpose to be served is bene¬
ficent, and that the doctrines to be taught are such as
immediately concern the well-being and happiness of the
human race. In other words, the external can never be
separated from the internal evidence ; they are two parts
of one great whole; and it is, therefore, vain to perplex
ourselves by speculating on the supposition of a defective
revelation, or torturing our ingenuity to find arguments in
support of the hypothesis of the external evidence being
sufficient of itself without the internal. Such an hypo¬
thesis, indeed, involves a gross absurdity, if not some¬
thing wrorse ; for it manifestly proceeds on the assumption
that any set of doctrines and principles, however flagiti¬
ous and detestable, may be established by the same evi¬
dence which has been employed to accredit Christianity
to the human race. But it must be obvious that no kind
of evidence, natural or supernatural, can ever prove that to
be true which is in its own nature false, or sanction doc¬
trines subversive of reason and morality. This, however,
is an unprofitable, not to say profane, speculation, and Christ!;;
ought, therefore, to be discouraged as such. The plain nity.
and obvious view of the subject is this : God is infinitely ''T><
wise ; and when he interposes by immediate manifesta¬
tions of his power, the purpose or object to be accomplish-
ed must be compatible with and worthy of his inconceiv¬
able wisdom and goodness. The interposition itself, and
the end to be served by it, cannot possibly be disjoined.
The one imports the direct sanction of heaven; and the
other must reflect in vivid colours the attributes of that
overruling intelligence which is the source of all know¬
ledge, all truth, and all goodness.
It must be obvious to every reflecting mind, that whether Christia
we attempt to form the idea of any religion a priori, or theology
contemplate those which have been already exhibited, cer¬
tain facts and principles must be pre-established, from
which will result a particular frame of mind and course of
action, suitable to the character and dignity of that Being
by whom the religion is enjoined, and adapted to the na¬
ture and situation of those agents who are commanded to
observe it. Hence Christianity may be divided into cre-
denda or doctrines, and agenda or precepts.
As the great foundation of his religion, therefore, the
Christian believes in the existence and government of an
eternal and infinite essence, which even involves in itself
the cause of its own existence, and inherently possesses all
those perfections which are compatible with its nature;
as almighty power, omniscient wisdom, infinite justice,
boundless goodness, and universal presence. In this in¬
divisible Essence the Christian recognizes three distinct
subsistences, yet distinguishable in such a manner as not
to be incompatible with essential unity or simplicity of
being. Nor is this essential union incompatible with the
personal distinction of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Each
of these persons possesses the same nature and properties
to the same extent; and as they are but one God, there
is none of them subordinate, none supreme. The only way
by which the Christian can discriminate them is, by their
various relations, properties, and offices.
This infinite Being, though absolutely independent, and
for ever sufficient for his own beatitude, was graciously
pleased to create a universe, replete with inferior intelli¬
gences, who might for ever contemplate and enjoy his
glory, participate his happiness, and imitate his peifec-
tions. But as freedom of will is essential to the nature oi
moral agents, in order to enable them to co-operate with God
in their own improvement and happiness, so their natures
and powers are necessarily limited, and by that constitu¬
tion rendered peccable. This peccability was first mani¬
fested in a rank of intelligence superior to man. But as
guilt is never stationary, Satan and his apostate angels at¬
tempted to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and
were, unhappily, but too successful. Hence the heteroge¬
neous and irreconcilable principles which operate m his na¬
ture ; hence that inexplicable medley of wisdom and roily,
of rectitude and error, of benevolence and malignity, ot sin¬
cerity and fraud, exhibited throughout his whole conduct;
hence the darkness of his understanding, the depravity ot
his will, the pollution of his heart, the irregularity ot nis
affections; and the absolute subversion of his whole inter¬
nal economy. These seeds of perdition soon ripened
into open acts of disobedience and guilt. Ah the 1]ost"1'
ties of nature were confronted, and the whole subluna y
creation became a theatre of disorder and mischie .
And here the Christian once more appeals to tact an
experience. If these things are so—if man is t ie ve*j\
of guilt and the victim of misery—he demands how tms
constitution of things can be accounted for, or how i
be supposed that a being so wicked and unhappy sno
be the production of an infinitely uerfect Creator
(j itia
W.
Este 41
ffieai f
moral
therefore insists that human nature must have been dis¬
arranged and contaminated by some violent shock; and
" that, without the light diffused over the face of things by
Christianity, all nature must remain an inscrutable and in¬
explicable mystery. To redress these evils, to re-establish
the empire of virtue and happiness, to restore the nature
of man to its primitive rectitude, to satisfy the demands
of infinite justice, to purify every original or contracted
stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the power of vice,
the eternal Son of God, the second person of the sacred
Trinity, the Logos or Divine Word, the Redeemer or
Saviour of the world, the Immanuel or God with us, from
whom Christianity takes its name, and to whom it owes
its origin, descended from the bosom of his Father, assum¬
ed the human nature, became the representative of man,
exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness, and at last
ratified his doctrine, atoned for the sins of the world, and
fully accomplished all the ends of his mission, by a cruel,
unmerited, and ignominious death.
Before this divine person left our world, he delivered
the doctrine of human salvation, and the rules of human
conduct, to his apostles, whom he empowered to instruct
the world in all that concerned their eternal felicity, and
whom he invested with miraculous gifts to confirm the
reality of what they taught. To them he likewise pro¬
mised another comforter, even the Divine Spirit, who
should enlighten the darkness, and console the woes of hu¬
man nature. Having remained for a part of three days
under the power of death, he rose again from the grave,
discovered himself to his disciples, conversed with them for
a time on earth, and then ascended into heaven ; whence
the Christian expects him, according to his promise, to ap¬
pear at the last day as the Sovereign Judge of the living
and the dead. Soon after his departure to the right hand of
his Father, where, in his human nature, he sits supreme of
all created beings, and invested with the absolute adminis¬
tration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace and conso¬
lation descended on his apostles with visible signs of divine
power and presence. Nor were his salutary operations con¬
fined to them, but extended to all the rational world who
did not by obstinate guilt repel his influence, and force him
to withdraw them. These, indeed, were not so conspicu¬
ous as at the glorious era when they were visibly exhibited
in the persons of the apostles ; but though his energy be
less observable, it is by no means less effectual to all the
purposes of grace and mercy.
The Christian is convinced that there is and ever will
be a society upon earth, who worship God as revealed in
Jesus Christ, who believe in his doctrines, who observe
his precepts, and who shall be saved by his death and
die use of those external means of salvation which he has
appointed, ihese are few and simple. The sacraments
of baptism and the eucharist, the interpretation and appli¬
cation of scripture, the habitual exercise of public and pri¬
vate devotion, are obviously calculated to diffuse and pro¬
mote the interests of truth and virtue, by superinducing
me salutary habits of faith, love, and repentance. The
Christian is firmly persuaded that, at the consummation of
all things, when the purposes of providence in the various
i evolutions of progressive nature are accomplished, the
whole human race shall once more issue from their graves ;
some to immortal felicity, in the actual perception and en¬
joyment of their Creator’s presence ; others to everlasting
shame and misery.
fti • e- *W° §>rand principles of action, according to the
Christian, are, the love of God, which is the sovereign pas¬
sion in every perfect mind; and the love of man, which
lepUn 68 °Ur ac^ons according to the various relations in
w uch we stand, whether to communities or to individuals,
his sacred connection can never be totally extinguished
CHRISTIANITY.
by any temporary injury. It ought to subsist in some de- Christia.
g ee even amongst enemies. It requires that we should nitv-
pardon the offences of others, as we expect pardon for v  
our own ; and that we should no further resist evil than is
necessary for the preservation of personal rights and social
happiness. It dictates every relative and reciprocal duty
between parents and children, masters and servants, go¬
vernors and subjects, friends and friends, men and men.
...or ^loe? 11 merely enjoin the observation of equity • it
likewise inspires the most sublime and extensive charity,
a boundless and disinterested effusion of tenderness for
the whole species, which feels for their distress, and la-
hours for their relief and improvement. These heavenly
dispositions, and the different duties which are their na~
tural exertions, are the various gradations by which the
Christian hopes to attain the perfection of his nature, and
the most exquisite happiness of which it is susceptible.
• i cnt — sPecuIative> and such the practical prin-Superior
ciples of Christianity. From the former, its votaries con- excellence
tend, that the origin, economy, and revolutions of intelli-of Chris-
gent nature can alone be rationally explained. From the tianity.
latter they assert, that the nature of man, whether con¬
sidered in its individual or social capacity, can alone be
conducted to its highest perfection and happiness. With
the determined Atheists they scarcely deign to expostu¬
late. According to them, philosophers who can deduce
the origin and constitution of things from casual rencoun¬
ters of atoms, or mechanical necessity, are capable of de¬
ducing any conclusion from any premises. Nor can a more
glaring instance of absurdity be produced than the idea of a
contingent or self-originated universe. When Deists and
other sectarians upbraid them with mysterious or incom¬
patible principles, they without hesitation remit such ca¬
villers to the creed of natural religion. They demand
why any reasoner should refuse to believe three distinct
substances in one indivisible essence, who admits that a
being may be omnipresent without extension ; or that he
can impress motion upon other things, whilst he himself
is necessarily immovable. They ask the sage, why it
should be thought more extraordinary that the Son of
God should be sent to this world, that he should unite the
human nature to his own, that he should suffer and die
for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an
existence whose felicity is eternal, inherent, and infinite,
should have created an humble race of intelligent beings.
Is it not, says the Christian, as worthy of the divine in¬
terposition to restore order and happiness where they are
lost, as to communicate them where they never have been?
Is not infinite goodness as conspicuous in relieving misery
as in diffusing happiness ? Is not the existence of what
we call evil in the world, under the government of an in¬
finitely perfect Being, as inscrutable as the means exhi¬
bited by Christianity for its abolition ? Vicarious punish¬
ment, imputed guilt and righteousness, merit or demerit
transferred, are certainly not less reconcilable to human
reason, a priori, than the existence of vice and punishment
in the productions of infinite wisdom, power, and good¬
ness ; particularly when it is considered that the virtues
displayed by a perfect Being in a state of humiliation and
suffering, must be meritorious, and may therefore be re¬
warded by the restored felicity of inferior creatures in pro¬
portion to their glory and excellence ; and that such merit
may apply the blessings which it has deserved, in whatever
manner or degree, and to whomsoever it pleases, without
being under any necessity of violating the freedom of mo¬
ral agents, in recalling them to the paths of virtue and
happiness by a mechanical and irresistible force.
It will be granted to philosophy by the Christian, that Miracles
as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed without as possible
presupposing established laws, from which it ought rarely, events.
624
Christia¬
nity.
Character
of Chris¬
tianity.
CHRISTIANITY.
if eve, to deviate, so, in fact, H-ac^putsues these thUhypo^is, ^ ^ ^
S'tlhrXS i::eS= 'tl^an^nst be tt„,y infatuated who can treat such a ^
SHElZuf “theZ'l of God should either « S"St “ »
always entirely invisible, or .at ^ °"*by P°^Xiw be apt, the remarkable circumstances which attended it, may with
operation of second causes, intelligent ! S n j re„son ue asCribed. He seems to insinuate that Di¬
in the course of time, to resolve the inteiposi i ^ iJroVidence did notact in a singular or extraordinary
into the general SeZon Hm. Z^V^UtSg the relifion of Jesus ChJ
tion with nature, and deny then (lepu . I tlirniuThmit the world- and that, if every argument which
Hence, according to the dictates of common sens yhas b^en adduced to prove the sacred authority of thisre-
the unanimous voice of every religion i c ycfe i;(T;nn rmv he turned aside or refuted, nothing can be de-
try, God, for the purposes of his wisdom ant enevo en , « 1 ^ source to prevent it from sharing the fate
may not only control, but has actually con rolled ti e com duced from this ^somce to^pe^^ ^ M pro_
mon course and general opeiations of na me, > . ’ ‘ jn bjs 0pini0n, founded on the principles of
in the material world the law of cause and effec is mmver- Potion were, - fj^umstances of society. If we
sally observed, suspension and changes , . 7 ibe not tbe propagation of Mahommedamsm, or of the
become necessary for the advancement of moral and Intel of ZeldustYo an extraordinary interposition of
^BiU tlm ^ciple of Jesus not only contends that no sys-
tern of religion has ever yet been exhibited so consistent Tdjnarv laws of nature ; neither can we,
with itself, and s0 “"S^rktianity.0 hI likewise were upon any reasonable grounds, refer the promulgation of
that it*1^6 infinitely more productive of real, and sensible C^XZrcaaZ toXc'^Te aseribes these effectsThe i
consolation, than any other system of rd.gtous or plnlo- ‘nd intolerant zeal of the Chris-
sophical tenets that ever entered into the n md, o, has are, tah the Jewish religion, but purified from
been applied to the heart of man. For what ,s death to ans’;rlt, whfch, instead of inviting,
that mind which considers eternity as the caieei t , ‘ , the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses;
existence ? What are the frowns of fortune to him who deterred ^ ^ntiles^rom ^| improved by every
claims an eternal world as his inheritance. What is tie 3’ • tance wbich could give weight and
loss of friends to that heart which feels, with more than addit o • tant truth • thirdly, the miraculous
natural conviction, that it shall quickly rejoin them m a efficacy '^^V^X prSe church; fourthly, the
more tender, intimate, and permanent intercourse than any p ^ austere morals of the Christians ; and, fifthly, the
of which the present life is susceptible . What aic t P 1 ‘ • bne 0f the Christian republic, which gra-
fluctuations and vicissitudes of external things, to a nnm " c d P independent and increasing state in the
which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless dually formed ^^dePe^enl
and immutable felicity? What are mortifications, disap- be^t0^^reRe7t^in7|;p0ei; the examination of Mr Gib-
pointments, and insults, to a spirit which is conscious of > • tb 0fder in which they are here enume-
being the original offspring and adopted child, of God; 7ed we bee leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in proper rate ’ nf drnominatine some of these secondary causes,
time, effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its ^rascribed to the primitive
nature ? In a word, as earth is but a speck ot crea ion, as sin were rea] must have constituted a primary
time is not an instant in proportion to eternity, such are clu c , ^allacio couid have been no cause at all,
the hopes and prospects of the Christian, in comparison o c , c , subversion. As little can we con-
every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is therefore, excef “ 1 bl and learned author could imagine
in bis judgment, tbe eternal wonder of angels, and inde- ceive and intolerant,asqua-
lible opprobrium of man, that a religion so worthy ot God, a z < . - Jn P0ther effect than the destruction of
so suitable to tbe frame and circumstances of our natuie, lified I T allowed to have been anxious
soconsonanttoallthedictatesof reason, so fnendly to the he system wh^b ^^ate of the causes assigned by
dignity and improvement of intelligent beings, and preg- to piom . developed as we proceed in
nant with genuine comfort and delight, should he rejected Mr Gibbon will be more tully cleveiope f
and despised. Were there a possibility of suspense or our first examma ion of between the first of First J
hesitation between this and any other religion extant, he In pointing o represents as ans-
could freely, trust the determination of a question so im- these cau?fi^effious writer observes,
portant to the candid decision of real virtue and impaitial reli-don of the Jews doe^ not seem to have been
PhIt0mLybe allowed, that the utmost extent of human intended to be PJP^ytes™"! mtbirSe’ntal than
investigation and research into the doctrine of a future the convexsion p 3^ ^ of the institutions of
life reached no further than a splendid conjecture, before consistent with ^ S ^ J cong uence, studious to
the promulgation of Christianity; at which period alone Judaism. ’ruliar people. Their zeal for
life and immortality were clearly brought to light. It is preserve t iems . ?erant narrow, and unsocial. In
therefore a singular circumstance, that the Deist should their own re ig appearance in the world, all
not perceive the w-onderful superiority of the Christian Christian! y, \\ it , ■nant spirit of Judaism was
over every other system, if it had nothing else to recom- the bettei pai o P c tendency to confine
mend it but this single doctrine, so pregnant with unal- retained; but " was Sid aside. Chris-
loyed felicity. If Christianity be false, the believer of it its influence within "^ ^'wtrines and adhere to the
has nothing to lose, since it inculcates a mode of conduct turns were to main al -tb sacred fidelity. They
which must ever be amiable in the eye of infinite goodness; constitutions o leu g Jesus by entertain-
but if it be true, he has every thing to gain; while, upon were not to violate their allegiance to Jesus oy
CHRISTIANITY.
stia- ing or professing any reverence for Jupiter or any other
y. of the heathen deities; it was not even necessary for
^ them to comply with the positive and ceremonial institu¬
tions of the law of Moses, although these were acknow¬
ledged to have been of divine origin. The zeal, therefore,
which their religion inculcated, was inflexible. It was
even intolerant: for they were not to content themselves
with professing Christianity and conforming to its laws •
they were to labour with unremitting assiduity, and to
expose themselves to every difficulty and every danger, in
converting others to the same faith. But the same circum¬
stances which icndeied it thus intolerant, communicated
to it a more liberal and a less unsocid spirit than that of
Judaism. The religion of the Jews was intended only for
the few tribes; Chiistiamty wtus intended to become a
catholic religion—its advantages were to be offered to all
mankind. All the different sects which arose amono- the
primitive Christians uniformly maintained the sameazeal
for the propagation of their own religion, and the same
abhorrence for every other. The orthodox, the Ebionites,
the Gnostics, and other sects, were all ecjually animated
with the same exclusive zeal, and the same abhorrence
of idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews from other
nations.
Such is the general purport of what Mr Gibbon advan¬
ces concerning the influence of the first of these second¬
ary causes in the propagation of Christianity. It would be
uncandid to deny, tnat his statement of facts appears, in
this instance, to be almost fair, and his deductions toler¬
ably logical. The first Christians were remarkable for
their detestation of idolatry, and for the generous and dis¬
interested zeal with which they laboured to convert others
to the same faith. The first of these principles, no doubt,
contributed to maintain the dignity and purity of Christi¬
anity; and the second to disseminate it throughout the
world. But the facts which he relates are scarcely consis¬
tent throughout. He seems to represent the zeal of the
first Christians as so hot and intolerant, that they could
have no social intercourse with those who still adhered to
the worship of heathen deities. But if so, how could they
propagate their religion ? Nay, we may even ask, how
could they live ? If they could not mingle with the heathens
in the transactions either of peace or war; or witness the
. marriage or the funeral of the dearest friend, if a heathen ;
or practise the elegant arts of music, painting, eloquence,
or poetry; or venture to use freely in conversation the
language of Greece or of Rome ; it is not easy to see what
opportunities they could have had of disseminating their re¬
ligious sentiments. If, in such circumstances, and observ-
ing rigidly such a tenor of conduct, they were yet able to
propagate their religion with such amazing success as they
are said to have done, they must surely either have prac¬
tised some wonderful arts unknown to us, or have been as¬
sisted by the supernatural operation of divine power. But
all the historical records of that period, whether sacred or
profane, concur in proving that the primitive Christians in
general did not retire with such religious horror from all
intercourse with the heathens. They refused not to serve
m the armies of the Roman empire. They appealed to
heathen m-agistrates, and submitted respectfully to their
decisions. The husband was often a heathen, and the wife
a Christian ; or, conversely, the husband a Christian, and
the wife a heathen. These are facts so universally known
and admitted, that we need not quote authorities in proof
of them.
This distinguished writer appears, therefore, not to have
the facts which he produces under this head with
sufficient precision, nor to have reasoned from them cor-
rectly. Had the zeal of the first Christians been as in¬
tolerant as he represents it, it must have been highly un-
625
favourable to the propagation of their religion; all their Christia-
wishes to make converts would, in that case, have been nity.
counteracted by their unwillingness to mix, in the ordinary
intercourse of life, with those who were to be converted.
Their zeal, and the liberal spirit of their religion, were in¬
deed secondary causes which contributed to its propaga¬
tion ; but their zeal was by no means so ridiculously into¬
lerant as this writer would have us believe; for if it had,
it must have produced effects directly opposite to those
which he ascribes to it.
In illustrating the influence of the next of these se- Second
condary causes to which he ascribes the propagation of cause.
Christianity, Mr Gibbon displays no less ingenuity than in
tracing the nature and the effects of the first. The doc¬
trine of a future life, improved by every additional circum¬
stance which can give weight and efficacy to that import¬
ant truth, makes a conspicuous figure in the Christian
system; and it is a doctrine highly flattering to the natu¬
ral hopes and wishes of the human heart.
Though the heathen philosophers were not unacquaint¬
ed with this doctrine, yet to them the spirituality of the
human soul, its capacity of existence in a separate state
from the body, its immortality, and its prospect of lasting
happiness in a future life, rather appeared things possible
and desirable, than truths fully established upon solid
grounds. These doctrines, Mr Gibbon would persuade
us, had no influence on the moral sentiments and general
conduct of the heathens. Even the philosophers who
amused themselves with displaying their eloquence and
ingenuity on these splendid themes, did not allow them to
influence the tenor of their lives ; while the great body of
the people, who were occupied in pursuits very different
from the speculations of philosophy, and were unacquaint¬
ed with the questions discussed in the schools, were scarce¬
ly ever at pains to reflect whether they consisted of a ma¬
terial and a spiritual part, or whether their existence was
to be prolonged beyond the term of the present life; and
they could not regulate their lives by principles which they
did not know.
In the popular superstitions of the Greeks and Romans,
the doctrine of a future state was not omitted. Mankind
were not only flattered with the hopes of continuing to ex¬
ist beyond the term of the present life, but different con¬
ditions of existence were promised or threatened, in which
retributions for their conduct in life were to be enjoyed or
suffered. Some were exalted to heaven, and associated
with the gods; others were rewarded with less illustrious
honours, and a more moderate state of happiness, in Ely¬
sium ; while those who by their conduct in life had merit¬
ed, not rewards, but punishments, were consigned to Tar¬
tarus. Such were the ideas of a future state which formed
part of the popular superstitions of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans. But these notions produced only a very faint im¬
pression on the minds of those among whom they prevail¬
ed. They were not truths supported by evidence; they
were not even plausible; they were in fact a tissue of absur¬
dities ; they had not therefore a greater influence on the
morals, than the more refined speculations of the philoso¬
phers. Even the Jews, whose religion and legislation were
communicated from heaven, were in general, till wdthin
a very short period before the propagation of the gospel,
as imperfectly acquainted with the doctrine of a future
state as the Greeks and Romans. This doctrine formed
no distinct part of the law of Moses, and it is but darkly
intimated in the other parts of the Old Testament.
The rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and some
other nations not more civilized than these, entertained
ideas of a future life much clearer than those of the Greeks,
the Romans, or even the Jews.
Christianity, however, explained and inculcated the
4 K
626
CHRISTIANITY.
Cluistia- truth of this doctrine in all its splendour and all its dig-
nity. nity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not absurd, view or
' ^ the happiness of a future life. It conferred new horrors
on the place of punishment, and added new severity to the
tortures to be inflicted, in another world. The authority
on which it taught these doctrines, and displayed these
views, was such as to silence doubt, and to command im¬
plicit belief. What added to the influence of the doctrine
of a future state of existence, thus explained and incul¬
cated, was, that the first Christians confidently prophesied
and sincerely believed that the end of the world, the con¬
summation of all things, was fast approaching, and that
the generation then present would live to witness that
awful event. Another circumstance which contributed to
render this doctrine favourable to the propagation of Chris¬
tianity was, that the first Christians dealt damnation with¬
out remorse, and almost without making any exceptions,
on all who died in the belief of the absurdities of heathen
superstition. Thus taught, and enforced with these addi¬
tional and heightening circumstances, this doctrine, part¬
ly by presenting alluring prospects and exciting pleasing
hopes, partly by working upon the fears of the human
heart with representations of terror, operated in the most
powerful manner in extending the influence of the Chris¬
tian faith. . j it
Here, however, facts are rather exaggerated, and t le
inferences unfairly deduced. It must be admitted that
the speculations of the heathen philosophers did not fully
and undeniablv establish the doctrine of the immortali¬
ty of the human soul; and hence their arguments cou d
scarcely impress such a conviction of this truth as would
influence in a very strong degree the moral sentiments
and conduct. These arguments, however, were of such
a kind that they must have produced some, nay a consi¬
derable influence. Several of the most illustrious among
the heathen philosophers appear to have been so impressed
with the belief of the soul’s immortality, and of a future
state of retribution, that their general conduct was con¬
stantly and in a high degree influenced by that belief.
Socrates and Plato are eminent and well-known instances.
And if, in such instances as these, the belief of the truths
in question produced such effects, it may be fairly inferred,
though we had no further evidence, that those characters
were°not singular in this respect. It is a truth acknow¬
ledged as unquestionable in the history of arts and sci¬
ences, that wherever any one person has cultivated these
with extraordinary success, some of his contemporaries
will always be found to rival his excellence, and a number
of them will engage in the same pursuits. On this occa¬
sion we may venture, without hesitation, to reason upon
the same principles. When the belief of the immortality
of the human soul produced such illustrious patterns of
virtue as a Socrates and a Plato, it must certainly have
influenced the moral sentiments and conduct of many
others, although in an inferior degree. Some who pro¬
fess to believe the doctrines of Christianity, make this pro¬
fession, even although they have never considered sen-
ously whether they be true or false. But notwithstanding
this, these truths still exert a powerful influence on the
sentiments and manners of society in general. Thus, also,
it appears that the doctrines of the ancient philosophy
concerning a future life, and even the notions concerning
Olympus, Elysium, and Tartarus, which formed part of
the popular superstitions, produced a certain influence on
the sentiments and manners of the heathens in general.
That influence was often indeed inconsiderable, and not
always beneficent; but still it seems to have been greater
than Mr Gibbon is willing to allow. Christians have
been sometimes at pains to exaggerate the absurdities of
Pagan superstition, in order that the advantages of Chris¬
tianity might acquire new value from tho contrast. But Christie
here we find one who is at heart inimical to Christianity, nity.
displaying, and even exaggerating, these absurdities for a
different purpose. The truth, however, may be safely ad¬
mitted ; and it is only when exaggerated that it can serve
any purpose adverse to the authority of our holy religion.
Mr Gibbon certainly represents the religious belief of the
ancient Gauls, in respect to the immortality of the human
soul and a future state, in too favourable a light. It is
only because the system of superstition which prevailed
among the barbarians is so imperfectly known, that it has
been imagined to consist of more sublime doctrines than
those of the popular superstitions of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans. The evidence which Mr Gibbon produces in proof
of what he asserts concerning these opinions of the ancient
Gauls is partial, and far from being satisfactory. They did
indeed assert and believe the soul to be immortal; but this
doctrine was blended with a number of absurdities still
grosser than those which characterized the popular religion
of the Greeks and Romans. The latter was the super¬
stition of a civilized people, among whom reason was un¬
folded and improved by cultivation, and whose manners
were polished and refined. The former was that of bar¬
barians, among whom reason was, as it were, in its infan¬
cy, and who were strangers to the improvements of civi¬
lization. Accordingly, when hasty observers found that
those barbarians were not absolutely strangers to the idea
of immortality, they were moved to undue admiration;
their surprise at finding more than they expected con¬
founded their understanding, and led them to miscon¬
ceive and misrepresent. Hence, what ought to be ascrib¬
ed to the savage ferocity of those rude tribes, has been
attributed by mistake to the influence ol their belief of a
future state. .. .
In the law of Moses, it must be allowed that this doc¬
trine is not particularly explained nor earnestly inculcat¬
ed. The author of the Divine Legation of Moses has
founded upon this fact an ingenious theory, which we shall
elsewhere have occasion to examine, and has supported it
with great and various erudition. Ihe reason why this
doctrine was not more fully explained to the Jews, we
shall not pretend to assign, at least in this place; but we
cannot help thinking, that it was more generally known
among the Jews than Mr Gibbon and Bishop Warburton
are willing to allow. 1 hough it be not strong y mcu
cated in their code of laws, yet there is some reason to
think that it was known and generally prevalent among
them long before the Babylonian captivity; and in diiter-
ent passages in the writings of Moses it is mentione or
alluded to in an unequivocal manner. In the history o
the patriarchs, it appears that this doctrine was known to
these “ gray fathersand it seems to have had a strong
influence on the mind of Moses himself. Were David an
Solomon strangers to this doctrine? We ca™°t herespe¬
cify minute particulars; but surely all the efforts of m
nuity must be insufficient to torture the Sacred S P
of the Old Testament, so as to prove that they conta
nothing concerning the doctrine of a future state e .
in the writings of the later prophets, and that even i
it is only darkly insinuated. Were the Jews in the earlier
stage of their history, so totally secluded *1°™ ‘ , jm.
course with other nations, that a doctrine o not;
' portance, and more or less known to all aroun ’ , tra_
be communicated to them ? The Pharisees adm
ditions, and set upon them an undue va ue ; ye /f th£
ns, and set upon tnem an unuuc , j- y r
pear to have been considered as the most 01 10 ^
different sects which prevailed among the ’
Sadducees were regarded as innovators and “ls'hist0.
But though we are of opinion that the inSe , p^.
rian ascribes to the doctrine of the Greek and R ^ P
CHRISTIANITY.
f
Thi
caus
losophers, concerning the immortality of the human soul,
as well as the notices respecting a future state which form-
' ed part of the popular superstitions of those nations, less
influence on the moral sentiments and conduct of man¬
kind than what they really exerted ; and though we can¬
not agree with him in allowing that the ideas of the im-
rfnortality of the soul and of a future state, which were en¬
tertained by the Gauls and some other rude nations, were
much superior in their nature, or much happier in their
influence, than those of the Greeks and Homans; and
thdugh, from what is contained in the Old Testament, we
are disposed to think that the Jews knew somewhat more
concerning the immortality of the human soul, and a fu¬
ture state in which human beings are destined to exist,
than Mr Gibbon represents them to have known ; yet still
we are very sensible, and very well pleased to admit, that
“ life and immortality were brought to light through the
gospel.”
The doctrine of a future life, as it was preached by the
first Christians, was established on a more solid basis than
that on which it had been before maintained ; it was freed
from every absurdity, and so much improved, that its in¬
fluence, which, as explained by heathen poets and philo¬
sophers, must be confessed to have been in many instances
doubtful, now became favourable only to the interests of
piety and virtue, and that in no ordinary degree. It un¬
doubtedly contributed to the successful propagatiqn of
Christianity; for it was calculated to attract and to please
the speculating philosopher, as well as the simple unen¬
lightened votary of the vulgar superstition. The views
which it exhibited were distinct; and all was„ plausible
and rational, being demonstrated by the fullest evidence.
But the happiness which it promised was of a less sen¬
sual nature than the enjoyments which the heathens ex¬
pected in Elysium ; and it would therefore appear less
alluring to those who were not capable of entertaining
refined ideas, or who preferred the gratifications of the
senses in the present life to every other species of good.
If the first Christians rejoiced in the hope of beholding all
the votaries of Pagan idolatry afflicted wfith the torments of
hell in a future state, and boasted of these hopes with in¬
human exultation, they in all probability irritated rather
than alarmed those whom they sought to convert from that
superstition. The heathens, assailed with such denuncia¬
tions, might be moved to regard with indignant scorn the
preacher who pretended that the beings whom they vene¬
rated as gods, heroes, and wise men, were condemned to
a state of unspeakable and endless torment. Every feel¬
ing of the heart wrould revolt at the idea of a parent, a
child, a husband, a wife, a friend, a lover, or a mistress,
but lately lost and still lamented, being consigned to eter¬
nal torments for actions and opinions which they had
deemed highly agreeable to superior powrers.
With respect, then, to the influence of this secondary
cause in promoting the propagation of Christianity, we
may conclude that the circumstances of the heathen world
were less favourable to that influence than Mr Gibbon
pretends; that the means by which he represents the
primitive Christians to have improved its efficacy, were
some of them not employed, and others rather likely to
weaken than to strengthen it; and that therefore more is
attributed to the operation of this cause than it could pos¬
sibly produce.
Jhe third cause, the miraculous powers of the primitive
church, is with good reason represented as having condu¬
ced to the conviction of infidels. Mr Gibbon’s reasonings
under this head are, that numerous miraculous works of
the most extraordinary kind were ostentatiously perform¬
ed by the first Christians; that, however, from the diffi¬
culty of fixing the period at which miraculous powers
ceased to be communicated to the Christian church, and
from some other circumstances, there is reason to suspect,
as is darkly insinuated, that they were merely the pre¬
tences of imposture; and that the heathens having been
happily prepared to receive them as real by the many
wonders nearly of a similar nature to which they were ac¬
customed in their former superstition, the miracles which
the first Christians employed to give a sanction to their
doctrines contributed in the most effectual manner to the
propagation of Christianity.
In reply to what is here advanced, it may be suggested,
that the miracles recorded in the New Testament as hav¬
ing been performed by the first Christians when engaged
in propagating their religion, are established as true, upon
the most indubitable evidence which human testimony can
give to any facts. Mr Hume, who was too fond of em¬
ploying his ingenuity in undermining truths generally
received, has endeavoured to prove that no human testi¬
mony, however strong and unexceptionable, can afford
sufficient evidence of the reality of a miracle ; but his rea¬
sonings on this head, which once excited doubt and won¬
der, have since been completely refuted; and mankind
still continue to acknowledge, that though we are all liable to
mistakes, and exposed to imposition, yet human testimony
may afford the most convincing evidence of the most ex¬
traordinary and even supernatural facts. We cannot be
expected to enter, in this place, into a particular exami¬
nation of the miracles ascribed to the primitive age of the
church. An inquiry into these will occupy a prominent
place under the appropriate head of Theology, to which
the reader is accordingly referred. We may, however,
consider it as an undeniable and a generally acknowledged
fact, that those miracles were real, and that they contri¬
buted, in a very eminent manner, to the propagation of
Christianity. But it is evident that genuine miracles are
not to be ranked among the natural and secondary causes.
It was long the current opinion, even among Protest¬
ants, that a miraculous power continued for several cen¬
turies to reside in the Christian church. When Dr Mid¬
dleton controverted this opinion in his Free Inquirj^, he
encountered the most vehement and acrimonious opposi¬
tion ; and many of the clergy, with Archbishop Seeker at
their head, thought themselves warranted in representing
this lingering power as an article of faith. But the pro¬
gress of reason, though slow, is commonly certain ; and the
present bishop of Lincoln, Dr Kaye, has ventured to ex¬
press himself in the following terms :—“ My conclusion
then is, that the power of working miracles was not ex¬
tended beyond the disciples, upon whom the apostles con¬
ferred it by the imposition of their hands.”1
The heathens were no strangers to pretended miracles
and prophecies, and other seeming interpositions of supe¬
rior beings disturbing the ordinary course of nature and
of human affairs ; but the miracles to which they were fa¬
miliarized had been so often detected to be tricks of im¬
posture or pretences of mad enthusiasm, that, instead of
being prepared to witness or to receive accounts of new
miracles with easy credulity, they must have been in ge¬
neral disposed to view them with jealousy and suspicion.2
Besides, the miracles to which they had been accustomed,
and those performed by the apostles and the first preach¬
ers of Christianity, were directly contradictory, and there-
1 Kaye’s Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries, illustrated from the Writings of Tertullian, p. 98. Cambridge,
182G, 8vo.
2 See Mr Weston’s Enquiry into the Rejection of the Christian Miracles by the Heathens. Cambridge, 1746, 8vo.
G28
CHRISTIANITY.
Christia¬
nity.
Fourth
cause.
fore the one could receive no assistance from the other.
Yet notwithstanding what has been advanced above, we
must acknowledge, that as disagreements with respect to
the principles and institutions of their religion very early
arose among Christians, so they likewise sought to ex¬
tend its influence, at a very early period, by the use of
pious frauds, which appear to have sometimes served the
immediate purposes for which they were employed, though
eventually they proved highly injurious to the cause of
Christianity itself.
We conclude, then, that Christianity was indebted to
the influence of miracles in a considerable degree for its
propagation, but that the real miracles of our Saviour and
his apostles were not among the secondary causes of its
success; that the heathens who were to be converted
were not very happily prepared for receiving the miracles
of the gospel with blind credulity ; that, as it is possible
to discern between sufficient and insufficient evidence, so
it is not more difficult to distinguish between true and
false miracles; and, lastly, that false miracles were soon
employed by Christians as engines to support and propa-
gate their religion, and perhaps not unsuccessfully, but
were, upon the whole, more injurious than serviceable to
the cause which they were called in to maintain.
The fourth of this series of secondary causes, which the
author supposes to have been adequate to the propagation
of Christianity, is the virtue of the primitive Christians,
which he is willing to attribute to other and less, generous
motives, rather than to the pure influence of the doctrines
and precepts of their religion.
The first converts to Christianity were most of them
originally persons of the lowest and most worthless cha¬
racters. The wise, the mighty, and those who were distin¬
guished by specious virtues, were in general perfectly satis¬
fied with their actual circumstances and future prospects.
People whose minds were naturally weak, unenlightened,
or oppressed with the sense of atrocious guilt, and who were
infamous, or outcasts from society, were eager to grasp at
the hopes which the gospel held out to them. When,
after enlisting under the banner of Christ, they bega,n to
consider themselves as “ born again to newness of life;
remorse and fear, which easily prevail over weak minds;
selfish hopes of regaining their reputation, and attaining
to the honours and happiness of those mansions which
Jesus Avas said to have gone to prepare; and a desire to
raise the honour and extend the influence of the society
of which they were become members ; all operated power¬
fully, so as to enable them to display both active and
passive virtue in an extraordinary degree. Their virtues
did not flow from the purest and noblest source, yet they
attracted the notice and moved the admiration of man¬
kind. Of many who admired, some wer§ eager to imi¬
tate, and, in order to this, thought it necessary to adopt
the same principles of action. Their virtues, too, were
rather of that species which excite wonder, because un¬
common, and not of essential utility in the ordinary inter¬
course of society, than of those which are indispensably
necessary to the existence of social order, and contribute
to the ease and convenience of life. Such virtues were
well calculated to engage the imitation of those who had
failed egregiously in the practice of the more social vir¬
tues. Thus they practised extraordinary but useless and
unsocial virtues, from no very generous motives ; and those
virtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, and indu¬
ced numbers to embrace their faith.
We must, however, declare, that this is plainly an un-
candid account of the virtues of the primitive Christians,
and of the motives from which they originated. 1 he so¬
cial virtues are strongly recommended in the gospel. No
degree of mortification or self-denial, or seclusion from
the ordinary business and amusements of social life, was Christ
required of'the early converts to Christianity, except what nitr
was indispensably necessary to wean them from the irre- ''■"V
gular habits in which they had before indulged, and which
had rendered them nuisances in society, and to form them
to new habits equally necessary to their happiness and their
usefulness in life. We allow that they practised virtues
which in other circumstances would, hoAveyer splendid,
have been unnecessary ; but, in the difficult circumstances
in which the first Christians were placed, the virtues which
they practised were in the highest degree social. The
most prominent feature in their character Avas their con¬
tinuing to entertain sentiments of generous benevolence,
and to discharge scrupulously all the social duties, towards
those who exercised neither charity nor humanity, and
frequently not even bare integrity and justice, in their
conduct toAvards them.
It cannot be said with truth that such a proportion of
the primitive Christians were people whose characters
had been infamous, and their circumstances desperate, as
that the character of the religion which they embraced
should suffer from this circumstance. Nor Avere they only
the weak and illiterate whom the apostles and their imme¬
diate successors converted by their preaching. The cri¬
minal, to be sure, rejoiced to hear that he might obtain ab¬
solution of his crimes ; the mourner Avas Avilling to receive
comfort; and minds of refined and generous feelings were
deeply affected with that goodness which had induced the
Son of God to submit to the punishment due to sinners:
but the simplicity, the rationality, and the beauty of the
Christian system, likewise prevailed in numerous instances
over the pride and prejudices of the great and the wise,
and in instances sufficiently numerous to vindicate the
Christian church from the aspersions by which it has been
represented as being in the first period of its existence
merely a body of criminals and idiots.
The principles, too, from which the virtues of the first
Christians originated, Avere not peculiarly mean and self¬
ish : on the contrary, they seem to have been uncom¬
monly sublime and disinterested. Remorse in the guilty
mind is a natural and reasonable sentiment; and the de¬
sire of happiness in every human breast is equally so. It
is uncandid, therefore, to cavil against the first Christians
for being, like the rest of mankind, influenced by these
sentiments. And when we behold them overlooking tem¬
porary possessions and enjoyments, extending their views
to futurity, and “ living by faith ;” when we observe them
“ doing good to those who hated them, blessing those
who cursed them, and praying for those by whom they
were despitefully used and persecuted ;” we cannot deny
that their virtues were of the most generous and disinte¬
rested kind. .
We allow, then, that the virtues of the first Christians
must have contributed to the propagation of their reli¬
gion ; but it is with pain that we observe the historian
studiously labouring to misrepresent the principles from
which those virtues arose; and not only the principles
themselves, but also the importance of the actions and
conduct which naturally sprung from them.
The fifth cause was the mode of church governmentF,fth
adopted by the first Christians, by which they Avere kmtcause,
together in one society, and preferred the church and its
interests to their country and civil concerns, we don ^
deny that the mutual attachment of the primitive Cnns-
tians contributed to spread the influence of their religion,
and the order which they maintained, by being amma
with this spirit of brotherly love, and with an arden ze
for the glory of God, must no doubt have produced tliose
happy effects among them which order and regular J
produce on every occasion when they are strictly o se
CHRISTIANITY.
n iitians. But whether the form of church government, which was
' gradually established in the Christian church, was ac¬
tually the happiest that coufd possibly have been adopt¬
ed; or whether, by establishing a distinct society, with
separate interests, within the Roman empire, it contri¬
buted to the dissolution of that mighty fabric ; we cannot
here pretend to inquire. These are subjects of discus¬
sion with respect to which we may with more propriety
endeavour to satisfy our readers under another head. ^
From the whole, then, of this review of what Mr Gibbon
has so speciously advanced concerning the influence of
these five secondary causes in the propagation of the gos¬
pel, we think ourselves warranted to conclude, that the zeal
of the first Christians was not, as he represents it, intole¬
rant ; that the doctrine of the immortality of the human
soul was somewhat better understood in the heathen world
particularly among the Greeks and Romans, and the Jews'
than he represents it to have been, and had an influence
somewhat happier than that which he ascribes to it; that
the additional circumstances by which, he informs us, the
first preachers of Christianity improved the effects of this
doctrine, were far from being calculated to allure converts ;
that the heathens, therefore, were not quite so well pre¬
pared for an eager reception of this doctrine as he would
persuade us that they were, and, of consequence, could not
629
be influenced by it in so considerable a degree in their con-Christians,
version ; that real and unquestionable miracles, performed
by our Saviour, and the first race of Christians, contributed
signally to the propagation of Christianity, but are not to be
ranked among the secondary causes of its diffusion; that
weakness and blind zeal did at times employ pretended mi¬
racles for the same purpose not altogether ineffectually ;
that though these despicable and wicked means might be'
in some instances successful, yet-they were, upon the
whole, much more injurious than beneficial; that the vir¬
tues of the primitive Christians arose from the most gene¬
rous and noble motives, and were in their nature and ten¬
dency highly favourable to social order, and to the com¬
fort of mankind in the social state; and, lastly, that the
order and regularity of church government, which were
gradually established among the first Christians, contri¬
buted greatly to maintain the dignity and spread the in¬
fluence of their religion, but tended in no degree to dis¬
join them from their fellow-subjects, or to render them
inimical to the welfare of the state of which they were
members. Upon the whole, therefore, we do not see that
these secondary causes were equal to the effects which
have been ascribed to them ; and it seems undeniable that
others of a superior kind must have co-operated in the dif¬
fusion of Christianity.1
CHRISTIANS, those who profess the religion of Jesus
Christ. The name Christians, as we read in the Acts of
the Apostles, was first given at Antioch, in the year 42,
to those who believed in Jesus Christ. Till that time they
were called disciples.
The first Christians distinguished themselves in the most
remarkable manner by their conduct and their virtues.
The faithful, whom the preaching of St Peter had con¬
verted, hearkened attentively to the exhortations of the
apostles, who'failed not carefully to instruct them, as per¬
sons who were entering upon an entirely new course of
life. They went every day to the temple with one heart
and one mind, and continued in prayers; doing nothing
different from the other Jews, because the time had not
yet come to separate from them. But they made a still
greater progress in virtue ; for they sold all that they pos¬
sessed, and distributed their goods in proportion to the
wants of their brethren. They “ ate their meat with
gladness and singleness of heart, praising God, and hav¬
ing favour with all the people.”
The Jews were the first and the most inveterate ene¬
mies of the Christians, whom they put to death as often
as they had it in their power; and when they revolted
against the Romans in the time of the emperor Adrian,
Barcochebas, the head of that revolt, employed against
the Christians the most barbarous punishments, in order
to compel them to blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ.
We find indeed that, even in the third century, they en¬
deavoured to get into their hands Christian women, in or¬
der to scourge and stone them in their synagogues. They
cursed the Christians solemnly three times a day in their
synagogues, and their rabbin would not suffer them to con¬
verse with Christians upon any occasion. Nor were they
contented merely to hate and detest them. They dis¬
patched emissaries all over the world in order to defame
the Christians, and to spread all sorts of calumnies against
them; they accused them of many things absurd or de¬
testable, and, among these, of worshipping the sun and
1 See Lord Hailes’s Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which
Edinb. 178G, 4to.
the head of an ass; they reproached them with idleness,
and with being a useless unprofitable race; they charged
them with treason, and with endeavouring to erect a new
monarchy in opposition to that of Rome; they affirmed,
that, in celebrating their mysteries, they used to kill a
child and eat its flesh; and they accused them of the
most shocking incests, and of beastly intemperance in
their feasts of charity. But the lives and behaviour of
the first Christians were sufficient to refute all that was
said against them, and evidently demonstrated that these
accusations were mere calumnies and the effect of inve¬
terate malice.
Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus and
Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a particular
account of the Christians of that province, in a letter
which he wrote to the emperor Trajan, of which the fol¬
lowing is an extract i “ I take the liberty to give you an
account of every difficulty which arises to me. I have
never been present at the examination of the Christians ;
for which reason I know not what questions have been
put to them, nor in what manner they have been punished.
My behaviour towards those who have been accused to
me has been this. I have interrogated them in order to
know whether they were really Christians. When they
have confessed it, I have repeated the same question two
or three times, threatening them with death if they did
not renounce this religion. Those who have persisted in
their confession, have been, by my order, led to punish¬
ment. I have even met with some Roman citizens guilty
of this phrenzy, whom, in regard to their quality, I have
set apart from the rest, in order to send them to Rome.
These persons declare, that their whole crime, if they are
guilty, consists in this, that, on certain days, they assem¬
ble before sunrise, to sing alternately the praises of Christ,
as of a God, and to oblige themselves, by the performance
of their religious rites, not to be guilty of theft or adultery,
to observe inviolably their word, and to be true to their
trust. This deposition has obliged me to endeavour to in-
Mr Gibbon has assigned for the rapid Growth of Christianity.
630
C H R
C H R
that if any one accuses a Christian merely on account ot
his religion, the accused person shall be acquitted, and the
accuser5himself punished.” This ordinance, according to
Eusebius, was publicly displayed at Ephesus, in an assem¬
bly of the states.
It is not a difficult matter to discover the causes ol the
^s«sr«X‘
tiTlSutyrheinginTrlct contras' wUhae corruption all of wood and 1624 inhabitants employed m sb.pp.ng
of the heathens, was doubtless one of the most powerful an£“ daughte. of Gus^vus^dolphus, king
motives of the public aversion; and to tins maybe added CHRIS HNA a daughter
the many calumnies unjustly spread ab.oad concerning . when only seven years of age. This princess disco-
them by their enemies, particularly the Jews ; a cncum- ’ . , ^ • p wjiat she afterwards expressed
stance which occasioned so strong a prejudice against them, yere , namelv^an invincible antipathy for the
that the Paeans condemned them without inquiring into in her memoirs, na e y> , , i tjie
their doctrine, or permitting them to defend themselves, employments and conversation °f women , an h l
Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God was con- natural a"^"dne‘Su"ff^ ti * share On the con-
trarv to one of the most ancient laws of the Roman em- works which generally tali to their si, amuSe.
pire, which expressly forbade the acknowledging of any trary, s le was on o vk’ ^ a’n(j activity. She
God who had not been approved as such by the senate. ments as consist forSabstract speculations;
Rut notwithstanding the violent opposition made to the had also both ability a ps Dar.
eSlU.ishml“e Christian reli^n, it gained ground -d “7^
daily, and very soon made a surprising progress in the ticulaily that ot leg s . • S bestsources:
Roman empire. In the third century, there were Chris- ^y^now edge As
tians in the camp, in the senate, in the palace, in short, Po ) ms a n J- n nf a DOwerful kingdom, it is not
everywhere but in the temples and the theatres; they she was the Eu?ope aspired to
filled the towns, the country, the islands ; men and women strange that aimost a p inceP0f Denmark,
of all ages and conditions, and even those of the first dig- her hand. *;^eof BraPndenburg, the king
nities, embraced the faith ; insomuch that the Pagans com- the elector Palatine, the electoi o ^ d «f Austria,
plained that the revenues of their temples were ruined, of Spain, the king of the ^“^^Vhis brother, and
They were in so great numbers in the empire, that, as Stanislaus king o ^ . y five Rnvarian
Tertullian expresses it, were they to have retired into
another country, they would have left the Romans only a
frightful solitude.
CHRISTIANS AMT, a bailiwick in the province of
Aggerhuus, in Norway, comprehending seventeen parishes,
with sixty-six churches and seventeen chapels, and con¬
taining 66,405 inhabitants. ,
• r if cf;i, f„rtW nf thio matter bv putting to the CHRISTIANSAND, a province of Norway. It is the Christk.
C1 ™rt™u”y«wo of their women Scrvani wVom Zy call most southern and the smallest province of the kingdom -
r—^ deaconesses • but I could learn nothing more from them It extends over 10,629 square miles, and contains 117,580
than that the superstition of these people is as ridiculous inhabitants. It is generally mountainous, and on the coast
! • ‘ ,. l t it is astonishing.” has some deep indentations forming excellent havens. By
“fherels sUU extant a jusiification, or rather panegyric, a law of 1815 it is divided into two parts, called Christ,an-
„f tlm Christians pronounced by the mouth of a heathen sand and Savanger. T he chief place is the cty of the
nrince It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus, written same name. It is situated in a spacious and secure bay,
m * the" year 152 in answer to a charge by the states of where a large fleet might ride ,n safety. It is the seat of
As a which had accused the Christian! of being the cause a bishop, and has, besides the cathedral, two churches,
ILe of thouakls which had happened in that part of and 700 houses, with 4844 inhabitants. It has some little
Ihe Torld The emperor advises them to “ take care, lest, trade, but its chief dependence is on the numerous ves-
ftorturina aid Xishing those whom they accused of sels which seek shelter m its bay, and obtain stores when
Athe sm (meaning the Christians), they should render assailed by the storms of the Cattegat. It owns some
them more obstinate, instead of prevailing upon them to vessels m the timber trade, and carries on the fisheries.
change their opinion; since their religion taught them L™§^^l1;NSTADT,'one'of the provinces of the king-
suffer with pleasure ^ *ake of G d As to the ™ is „’unded on tPhe north-west b, tl?e
that^ they'the'mselves are^lway! LfurageT "nd sink Cattegat, on the north by Halmstad. and Cronoberg, on
Oder suchmisforhines; whereas the Christians never dis- the north-east by Carlscros on the east and south by the
covered more cheerfulness and confidence in God than Baltic Sea, and on the west by Malmoe. It extends over
upon such occasions.” feSaT; “ LP“maTetlS
an^'because^hecliristians'honour'andadorellli^lthere- 3084 hamlhs. It is, Considering the climate, a fertile dis-
fore they are jealous ot ^ ^^^ristianstadt, a city, the capital of the province of
tar, alum, potash, and timber. Long. 14. 4. 10. E. Lat.
56. 1. 26. N. . , u
CHRISTIANSUND, a town in Norway, in the baili¬
wick of Romdals, and province of Drontheim. It stands
on an island, or rather three small islands, and a point ol
Stanislaus king ot rolana, jonn cassmm .
Charles Gustavus duke of Deux Fonts, of the Bavarian
Palatinate family, son of the great Gustavus s sister,
consequently her first cousin. 1 o this noble®a"’ , d.
as to all his competitors, she constantly refused her 1 a
but she caused him to be appointed her successor y
states. Political interests, differences of religion, an
trariety of manners, furnished Christina with pretences
C II R
Rina, rejecting all her suitors; but her real motives were the
love of independence, and a strong aversion she had con¬
ceived, even in her infancy, to the marriage yoke. “ Do
not force me to marry,” said she to the states; “ for if I
should have a son, it is not more probable that he should
be an Augustus than a Nero.”
One of the great affairs that employed Christina while
she occupied the throne, was the peace of Westphalia, in
which many conflicting interests were to be reconciled,
and many claims to be ascertained. It was concluded in
the month of October 1648. The success of the Swedish
arms rendered Christina the arbitress of this treaty, at
least in regard to the affairs of Sweden, to which the
peace confirmed the possession of many important coun¬
tries. No public event of importance took place during
the rest of Christina’s reign ; for there were neither wars
abroad, nor troubles at home. Her reign was distinguish¬
ed by an active patronage of learning and genius. She
drew about her, wherever she was, all the distinguished
characters of her time; Grotius, Pascal, Bochart, Des¬
cartes, Gassendi, Saumaise, Naude, Vossius, Heinsius,
Meibom, Scudery, Menage, Lucas, Holstentius, Lambe-
cius, Bayle, Madame Dacier, Filicaja, and many others.
The arts never fail to immortalize the prince who protects
them; and almost all these illustrious persons have cele¬
brated Christina, either in poems, letters, or literary pro¬
ductions of some other kind, the greater part of which are
now forgotten, though the general celebrity they confer¬
red in a great measure remains.
Though Christina at first was fond of the power and
splendour of royalty, yet she began at length to feel that
it embarrassed her; and the same love of independence
and liberty which had determined her against marriage at
last made her weary of the crown. Accordingly, as it grew
more and more irksome to her, she resolved to abdicate ;
and, in 1652, she communicated' her resolution to the
■senate. The senate zealously remonstrated against it, and
was joined by the people, nay even by Charles Gustavus
himself, who was to succeed her. She yielded to their
importunities, and continued to sacrifice her own pleasure
to the will of the public till the year 1654, when she car¬
ried her design into execution. Christina, besides abdi¬
cating her crown, abjured her religion ; an act which was
universally approved by one party and censured by ano¬
ther; for whilst the Catholics triumphed, the Protestants
were offended. No prince, after a long imprisonment, ever
showed so much joy upon being restored to his kingdom,
as Christina did in quitting hers. When she came to a lit¬
tle brook, which separates Sweden from Denmark, she got
out of her carriage, and, leaping on the other side, cried
out in a transport of joy, “ At last I am free, and out of
Sweden, whither, I hope, I shall never return.” She dis¬
missed her women, and laying aside the habit of her sex,
“ 1 would become a man,” said she; “ yet I do not love
men because they are men, but because they are not wo¬
men.’ She made her abjuration at Brussels, where she
saw the great Conde, who, after his defection, made that
city his asylum. “ Cousin,” said she, “ who would have
thought, ten years ago, that we should have met at this
distance from our respective countries ?” During her re¬
sidence in France she excited universal disgust, not only
by violating all the customs of the country, but by observ¬
ing others directly opposed to them. She treated the la¬
dies of the court with the greatest rudeness and contempt;
and when they came to embrace her, she being in male
attire, cried out, “ What a strange eagerness these women
have to kiss me ! Is it because I look like a man ?”
The murder of Monaldechi is to this hour an inscrut¬
able mystery. It is, however, of a piece with the expres¬
sions constantly used by Christina in her letters, with re-
c H R <;:u
spect to those with whom she was offended; for she scarce- Christmas
Jy ever signified her displeasure without threatening the Pay
life of the offender. “ If you fail in your duty,” said she N
to her secretary, whom she sent to Stockholm after her ab- era¬
dication, “ not all the power of the King of Sweden shall
save your life, though you should take shelter in his arms.”
A musician having quitted her service for that of the
Duke of Savoy, she was so transported with rage as to dis¬
grace herself by these words, in a letter written with her
own hand: “ He lives only for me; and if he does not
sing for me, he shall not sing long for any body else.”
Upon the whole, she appears to have been a strange
compound of faults and foibles, pushed to the most extra¬
vagant excess.. She says of herself, “ that she was mis-
tiustful, ambitious, passionate, haughty, impatient, con¬
temptuous, satirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent
and violent temper, and extremely amorous ;” a disposition,
however, to which, if she may be believed, her pride and
her virtue were always superior.
CHRISTMAS Day, a festival of the Christian church,
observed on the 25th of December, in memory of the nati¬
vity of Jesus Christ. As to the antiquity of this festival,
the first tiaces we find of it are in the second century,
about the time of the Emperor Commodus. The decretal
epistles indeed carry it a little higher, and state that Te-
lesphorus, who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, or¬
dered divine service to be celebrated, and an angelical
hymn to be sung, the night before the nativity of our Sa¬
viour. But we have a melancholy proof that it was ob¬
served before the times of Constantine ; for whilst the per¬
secution raged under Diocletian, who then kept his court
at Nicomedia, that prince, among his many acts of cruel¬
ty, finding multitudes of Christians assembled together to
celebrate Christ’s nativity, commanded the church doors
where they were met to be shut, and fire to be put to it,
which, in a short time, reduced the church and all within
it to ashes.
CHRISTOPHERS, St, one of the West India islands,
was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1493, who be¬
stowed upon it his own Christian name. It is about fif¬
teen miles in length, and in average breadth about four;
but towards the eastern extremity it is only three; and
between that and the main part of the island there is a
strip of land three miles long and only half a mile broad.
It is computed to contain 43,726 acres of land, about
one half of which is under cultivation. This island has a
beautiful and picturesque appearance. In the interior are
several mountains, one of which, Mount Misery, an extin¬
guished volcano, towers to an elevation of 3711 feet above
the level of the sea. These eminences, in general rugged,
bleak, and precipitous, are amply redeemed by the luxu¬
riant vegetation of the plains, which have been cultivated
to the very utmost. The soil is rich, and yields abundant
crops of sugar, the principal product of the island. The
average produce of this article for a series of years is
16,000 hogsheads, of sixteen cwt. each. Only one half of
the cane land, however, or 8500 acres, is annually cut (the
remainder being young canes), so that each acre of ripe
canes thus yields yearly about thirty cwt. of sugar.
Basse Terre, the capital town, is situated at the south¬
east end of the island, and at the mouth of a river which
disembogues its waters into a bay called Basse Terre
road. It possesses many good houses, and a large and
handsome square. It is the mart of commerce, and car¬
ries on a considerable trade. There are a few other small
towns and several villages and hamlets, in general plea¬
santly situated in the bosom of exuberant villages. The
island is defended by several fortresses, one of which
stands on Brimstone Hill, and is occupied by the garrison.
The first settlement of St Christophers presents one of
632
C H R
Chroma- those dark pages which are but too often to be met with
tics. in the history of colonization, and which lessen in the eyes
v—of mankind the value of those benefits which must ever
accrue to a savage people from close and every-day inter¬
course with Europeans. In the year 1623, a party of Eng¬
lish under one Warner first settled the island. Shortly
afterwards a party of French also arrived under M. d Es-
nambue. The English lived for some time on friendly
terms with the natives, but having unwarrantably seized
on some of their lands, and being apprehensive that the
Charaibes would retaliate upon them, they treacherously
surprised them during the night, murdered above one hun¬
dred, and expelled the rest, reserving the most handsome
of the young women for slaves and other degrading pur¬
poses. The colony, however, after this inhuman outrage,
was far from being in a flourishing condition, and the two
leaders were compelled to return to their respective coun¬
tries for recruits. Warner returned with about 400, and
a plentiful supply of necessaries; but the greater part of
D’Esnambue’s recruits perished miserably at sea. The
wretched remains of the force were well received by the
English, and the boundaries of possession which each
party was to enjoy were fixed by a treaty. The island was
afterwards seized by the Spaniards ; but these invaders
departed in a short time, and the tranquillity of the settle¬
ment was restored. In the numerous wars between the
two mother countries, St Christophers smTered severely,
and was repeatedly laid waste by the French. So com¬
pletely had they done their work in 1705, that the par¬
liament of England was obliged to distribute L.100,000
amongst the unhappy sufferers. At the peace of Utrecht
the island was wholly ceded to Britain, and the French
possessions were sold for the benefit of the English govern¬
ment. In the year 1782 it was taken possession of by a
French armament, but again restored in the year follow¬
ing. The population of St Christophers in 1823-4, ac¬
cording to Humboldt, amounted to 23,000, of whom 3500
were free persons. Long. 62. 49. W. Lat. 17. 17. N.
CHROMATIC, a kind of music which proceeds by se¬
veral semitones in succession. The word is derived from
the Greek which signifies colour, tor this denomi¬
nation several causes have been assigned, of which none
appears certain, and all are equally unsatisfactory. In¬
stead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we shall offer a conjec¬
ture of our own, namely, that as yj>u[Ma. not only signifies a
colour, but also a shade of a colour by which it melts into
another, or what the French call nuance, so the word in
this sense is highly applicable to semitones, which being
the smallest interval allowed in the diatonic scale, most
easily run into one another. In order to learn the reasons
assigned by the ancients for this denomination, and their
various divisions of the chromatic species, the reader may
consult the same article in Rousseau s Musical Diction-
C H R
ary. At present this species consists in giving such a
procedure to the fundamental bass, that the parts in the
harmony, or at least some of them, may proceed by semi¬
tones, as well in rising as in descending, which is most
frequently found in the minor mode, from the alterations
to which the sixth and seventh notes are subjected, by the
nature of the mode itself.
The successive semitones used in the chromatic species
are rarely of the same kind, but alternately major and
minor, that is to say, chromatic and diatonic; for the in¬
terval of a minor tone contains a minor or chromatic se¬
mitone, and another which is major or diatonic, a measure
which temperament renders common to all tones ; so that
we cannot proceed by two minor semitones which are
conjunctive in succession without entering into the enhar¬
monic species, but two major semitones twice follow each
other in the chromatic order of the scale.
The most certain procedure of the fundamental bass to
generate the chromatic elements in ascent, is alternately
to descend by thirds and rise by fourths, whilst all the
chords carry the third major. If the fundamental bass
proceeds from dominant to dominant by perfect cadences
avoided, it produces the chromatic in descending. To
produce both at once, the perfect and broken cadences
are interwoven, but at the same time avoided.
At every note in the chromatic species, the tone must
be changed; that succession ought to be regulated and
limited, for fear of deviation. For this purpose it will be
proper to recollect that the space most suitable to chro¬
matic movements is between the extremes of the domi¬
nant and the tonic in ascending, and between the tonic
and the dominant in descending. In the major mode one
may also chromatically descend from the dominant upon
the second note. This transition is very common in
Italy; and, notwithstanding its beauty, begins to be a
little too common amongst us.
The chromatic species is admirably fitted to express
grief and affliction ; and these sounds boldly struck in as¬
cending are powerfully effective. Their influence is no
less magical in descending; it is then that the ear seems
to be pierced with real groans. Attended with its pro¬
per harmony, this species appears proper to express eveiy
thing; but its completion, by concealing the melody, sa¬
crifices a part of its expression ; and for this disadvantage,
arising from the fulness of the harmony, it can only be
compensated by the nature and genius of the movement.
We may add that, in proportion to the energy of this spe¬
cies, the composer ought to use it with greater caution
and parsimony, like those elegant viands which, wien
profusely administered, immediately surfeit us with their
abundance, as much as they delight us when enjoyed
with temperance and moderation.
Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic.
Chrots
ticsi
CHROMATICS.
The gradual progress of scientific investigation has con¬
tinued to add, from year to year, a multitude of new dis¬
coveries to our knowledge of experimental and physical
optics; and no department of this subject has received
additions so diversified and so important as those which
relate to the phenomena of colours, which have been dis¬
played, with a thousand brilliant and unexpected transfor¬
mations, under circumstances that in former times could
never have been suspected of exhibiting any thing resem¬
bling them. The successive experiments and calculations
of Ur Thomas Young (1801), Dr Wollaston (1802), Mr
Malus (1810), Mr Arago, Mr Biot, Dr Brewster, Dr &ee-
beck, and Mr Fresnel, have all contributed very essen¬
tially to the extension and illustration of this interesting
branch of science. But, notwithstanding all that lias n -
therto been done, it appears to be utterly impractical),
in the present state of our knowledge, to obtain a sa
factory explanation of all the phenomena of optics, co
1 Now Sir David Brewster.
1
CHROMATICS.
633
[ima- dered as mechanical operations, upon any hypothesis re-
:s. specting the nature of light that has hitherto been advan-
^ ced. It will, therefore, be desirable to consider the facts
which have been discovered, with as little reference as
possible to any general theory; at the same time, it will
be absolutely necessary, as a temporary expedient, to
borrow from the undulatory system Dr Young’s law of
the interference of light, as affording the only practicable
mode of connecting an immense variety of facts with each
other, and of enabling the memory to retain them; and
this adoption will be the more unexceptionable, as many
of the most strenuous advocates for the projectile theory
have been disposed, especially since the experiments of
Mr Arago and Mr Fresnel, to admit the truth of the re¬
sults of all the calculations in which this law has been em¬
ployed. The details of its application to particular cases,
together with an examination of the phenomena of pola¬
risation and of oblique refraction, will occupy the principal
part of this article; but it will also be necessary to pre¬
mise an account of the few cases of the exhibition of co¬
lours which appear to be independent of its operation.
Sect. I.— Of the Separation of Colours by Refraction.
The separation of white light into different colours, as
its component parts, by refraction, though firmly esta¬
blished as an optical fact by Newton, had been in general
somewhat negligently examined as to its details, until Dr
Wollaston pointed out the inaccuracy of the common
subdivision of the colours of the prismatic spectrum into
seven different species. There is little reason to doubt
that white light consists of an infinite number of rays, vary¬
ing gradually among each other, without any marked dis¬
tinctions, and continued, on the one hand, into the dark
chemical rays, and, on the other, into the rays of invisible
heat; and that all these varieties are separable from each4
other by refraction, and preserve alwmys a distinct and con¬
stant refrangibility. The species of homogeneous light,
however, distinguishable from each other by the eye, are
only five,—red, yellow, green, blue, and violet; which are
uniform in their appearance, and well-defined in their li¬
mits, whenever a perfect spectrum is correctly exhibited,
whether obtained by interposing a prism between the eye
and a small, or rather narrow bright object, or between a
lens and the image of such an object formed in its focus;
while, in the common method of admitting a beam of the
sun’s light through a prism, without either employing a
lens, or previously limiting the angular extent of the beam,
it is obvious that there must be a double source of the
mixture of colours; and hence has arisen the Newtonian
division of the spectrum into seven parts, which were some¬
what fancifully compared, with respect to their extent, to
the intervals of the minor diatonic scale in music ; although
it has been shown by Dr Blair, and still more fully by Dr
Brewster, that their proportions are liable to very great
variations, according to the nature of the refracting sub¬
stances employed.
Dr Brewster has remarked, that as, according to the
fundamental law of refraction, a prism with a large angle
must occasion a dispersion of the several colours some¬
what greater than two smaller prisms of the same sub¬
stance, having together an equal mean refractive power;
so also the dispersion of the most refrangible or violet rays
amongst themselves will be always somewhat greater in
a prism with a larger angle, than in two smaller prisms
having an equal mean dispersive power. Hence the green
and blue will be less removed from the red towards the
violet by the single prism, the refraction of the green
remaining in defect, when compared with the mean of the
whole. So that, if the two prisms be employed to correct
VOL. VI.
the mean dispersion of the single one, and the extreme Chroma-
rays of the spectrum be brought to a perfect coincidence, tics,
the refraction of the green by these prisms being compa-
ratively in excess, the green rays will be found on the side
towards which their refraction tends to carry them; and
the two extreme portions of red and violet will be left to¬
gether, forming a crimson, on the side towards which the
refraction of the larger prism is directed. It is obvious
also that if, instead of the two smaller prisms, a single one
of an equal angle, but of twice the dispersive power, were
substituted, the joint effect would be nearly the same.
Dr Brewster has, however, observed, that in almost all
such combinations of different substances, the green is on
the side towards which the refraction of the larger prism
is directed; so that the original proportion of the space
occupied by the different rays in the spectrum must be
different for different substances. Dr Brewster has found
that the violet is the most dispersed by oil of cassia and
by sulphur, and least by sulphuric acid and by water; the
distribution afforded by these substances appearing to vary
from two parts of red, three green, four blue, and three
violet, to about four red, three green, three blue, and two
violet; while the yellow is always confined to a narrow line.
The immediate effects of the combinations of the pri¬
mitive colours on the sense of sight afford an illustration
of some of the physiological characters of sensation in ge¬
neral. It is well known that a mixture of red and green
light produces a simple sensation, perfectly identical with
that which belongs to the minute portion of yellow light
originally found in the spectrum; and that a mixture of
green and violet makes a perfect blue. The blue colour
of the flame of spirit of wine, for example, is derived en¬
tirely from a mixture of green and violet rays; while the
blue light of the lower part of the flame of a candle is
shown by the prism to consist of five different portions,
belonging to different parts of the spectrum, nearly re¬
sembling those which would be distinguished if we look¬
ed through a prism at a small portion of a transparent
plate of a certain minute thickness. It is obvious, there¬
fore, that the eye has no immediate power of analysing
such light; and if we seek for the simplest arrangement,
which would enable it to receive and discriminate the im¬
pressions of the different parts of the specimen, we may
suppose three distinct sensations only to be excited by
the rays of the three principal pure colours falling on any
given point of the retina, the red, the green, and the vio¬
let ; while the rays occupying the intermediate spaces are
capable of producing mixed sensations, the yellow those
which belong to the red and green, and the blue those
which belong to the green and violet; the mixed excite¬
ment producing in this case, as well as in that of mixed
light, a simple idea only: although it must be observed
that no homogeneous light can extend its action so far as
to excite at once the sensations of the fibres belonging to
the red and the violet; so that every crimson must neces¬
sarily be a compound colour. A mixture of red and blue
light exhibits an effect which appears unintelligible upon
the supposition that a compound light ought to produce a
colour intermediate between those of its constituent parts;
but this difficulty will vanish, if we assume that the blue
of the spectrum contains a greater proportion of violet
than of green; so that the green is neutralized into a
white by a mixture with the red and part of the violet,
and the remaining violet gives its character to the whole,
either alone, or with a mixture of red, according to the
proportions employed.
When we look through a prism at a luminous object
of considerable extent, surrounded by a dark space, the
spectra belonging to the several parts of the object are
mixed with each other, so as to produce a light perfectly
4 L
034
C H R O M A T I G S.
Chroma- white, except towards the ends of the object, where the
tics. extreme parts project beyond each other. At the ted
end of the spectrum the whole of the red belonging to the
extreme point retains its place unaltered, and the gieen
and blue become a greenish yellow, nearly uniform in its
appearance, throughout the space which belongs to them,
while the place of the violet is scarcely distinguishable
from the neighbouring white light; but at the opposite
end the violet retains its place and appearance, and the
remainder of the length of the spectrum becomes of a
green, inclining more or less to blue, and continuing to be
very distinctly visible throughout the extent of the simple
spectrum, the place of the red included; so that the illu¬
minating power of the red end of the spectrum must be
incomparably greater than that of the violet end; as may
also be inferred by a direct comparison of the distinctness
of objects viewed in these different lights. The portion
of light totally reflected at the internal surface of a dense
medium, on account of the obliquity of its incidence, is
bounded by a fringe or bow resembling the red end of the
luminous object viewed through a prism ; and the trans¬
mitted portion is bounded by the violet and blue fringe;
but it requires some caution, in observing these colours, to
avoid the optical deception which causes the neighbour¬
ing space to appear of the complementary colour, espe¬
cially when the eye is turned towards it immediately after
having received the impression of the colouis actually ex¬
hibited.
Sect. II.—Of the Colours of Halos and Parhelia.
The immediate effect of the different refrangibility of
light in the production of colours is sometimes sponta¬
neously exhibited, in the atmospherical phenomena of
halos and parhelia, or paraselenes, attending the sun or
moon; the edge nearest to the luminary being generally
reddish, and the remoter parts more or less green and
blue, although without any well-marked separation of the
different tints. These appearances had been long ago re¬
ferred by Mariotte to the refraction of the prismatic crys¬
tals of snow floating in the atmosphere, and descending
through it in all possible positions, but more especially in
a vertical or horizontal direction, on account of the effect
of gravity, combined with that of the resistance of the
air; and sometimes perhaps, from their connection with
other crystals, making angles of 60° with either of these
positions. This theory, however simple and satisfactory,
had been very unaccountably neglected for more than a
century, and even superseded by the awkward and un¬
supported conjectures of Huygens respecting the exist¬
ence of spherical or cylindrical particles of hail, including
opaque nodules, related to them in a certain constant ra¬
tio; or by the equally inadmissible calculation of Newton,
which assigns a partial maximum to the density of the
light simply refracted through a spherical drop of water
when the deviation is about 26°; and it is only a few
years since that the doctrine of Mariotte was revived and
extended by Dr Young, and approved by Mr Cavendish
and Mr Arago.
In some of the highest northern latitudes these appear¬
ances of halos and parhelia are almost constant; and in
warmer countries they are confined to the light clouds
which occupy the higher and colder regions of the atmo¬
sphere. The halos are broad circles, with their interior
margin tolerably well defined, and about the distance of
22° and 4G° from the sun or moon, but less distinctly
terminated externally. Now the angle of 22° exactly
corresponds to the deviation produced by a prism of ice,
with a refracting angle of 60°, when it becomes a mini¬
mum from the equality of the angles of incidence and
emergence; and in other positions of the prism the de- Chronw
viation increases very slowly, till it becomes a few de- tics,
grees greater. Hence the breadth of the circles of each
colour being considerable, the colours must fall princi¬
pally on each other, and become very indistinctly sepa¬
rated. The external circle may be referred to the effect
of two such refractions in succession. Mr Cavendish
seems to have thought the angle somewhat too great to
be derived from this source; and he suggested that it
might depend on a single refraction by the rectangular
terminations of the crystals; but it does not appear that
such terminations are very commonly observable; and it
may easily be shown that the greatest intensity of the
light of a halo formed by two refractions must be at more
than twice the distance of the edge of the inner halo, de¬
rived from one only.
These halos are commonly accompanied by a white ho¬
rizontal circle passing through the sun, derived from the
reflection of the vertical faces of the crystals, which are
scattered equally throughout all possible azimuths. There
are also generally coloured parhelia on each side, depend¬
ing on the refraction of these vertical prisms; they are
commonly a little without the halos, because the deviation
of the light passing obliquely through these crystals is
somewhat greater than that of the light transmitted by
the crystals which have their axes perpendicular to the
plane of incidence and refraction. For a similar reason,
the light passing through the crystals horizontally in va¬
rious azimuths is variously modifled, so as to produce the
appearance of inverted arches, touching the halos at their
highest points, and sometimes expanding in thft form of
a pair of wings, with a point of contrary flexure on each
side.
The anthelia seem to be referrible to two refractions
and an intermediate 1’eflection within the same crystal,
causing a deviation of about 120 + 22 = 142° ; and some¬
times with two intermediate reflections, producing an angle
of 60 + 22 — 82° only. It is not, however, very easy to
assign a reason for the appearance of an anthelion exactly
opposite to the sun, which is said to have been sometimes
seen in the horizontal circle; but it has been delineated
with the accompaniment of an oblique cross, and of other
unusual appearances, which must have been derived from
extraordinary forms of the compound crystals of snow ex¬
isting at the time of the observation in the atmosphere.
Sect. III.— Of the Colours of the Rainbow.
The general nature of the primary rainbow vvas curso-
rily explained by L)e Domims; but Descartes first applk
the true law of refraction, which had recently before been
discovered, to the determination of the angular magnitude
both of this and of the secondary rainbow; although no
sufficient reason could be assigned for the appearance o
colours in either of them, until Newton ascertained the
different refrangibilities of the different kinds of rays; but
as soon as this discovery was established, the method o
fluxions at once enabled him to determine precisely tie
limit at which the broad expanse of light belonging to
each colour must necessarily terminate in an edge o
greater brilliancy; the bright edges of the different co
lours projecting, gradually beyond each other, so as o
form a spectrum somewhat mixed, but still approaching
to the common appearance of a spectrum obtained by t ie
refraction of a prism ; and in fact the angular distances o
the exterior termination of the primary rainbow amt o
the interior of the secondary, from the sun, are fount
agree very accurately with the calculation of the extten
deviations of the red rays reflected once and twice re¬
spectively within the spherical drops of rain; altno b
I
CHROMATICS.
( ins- the whole breadth of the coloured appearances is liable to
is. variations dependent on the magnitude of the drops, and
4 ^ belonging to the phenomena of supernumerary rainbows,
to be described hereafter.
The light reflected from very small portions of water
appears to be incapable of producing a regular rainbow.
Thus we scarcely ever see a rainbow in a cloud, unless it
has united its drops, so that they begin to descend in the
form of rain. Dr Smith has observed this circumstance,
and has attributed it to a tendency of the bright edge of
the expanse of light to lose its intensity, by being gra¬
dually dissipated into the neighbouring dark space ; a ten¬
dency which he would probably have been much at a loss
to explain from any of the received doctrines of optics,
but which bears some analogy to the effects more com¬
monly observed in beams of light admitted into dark
spaces, and sometimes designated by the term diffraction.
Sect. IV.— Of Periodical Cblours in general.
By far the greater part of the phenomena of colours,
except their separation by simple refraction, are referrible
to the description of periodical or recurrent colours ; being
characterized by an alternation which is generally repeat¬
ed, where the observation is sufficiently extensive, several
times in succession, while the circumstances on which
they depend are varied uniformly and by slow degrees.
The number of these alternations, when light perfectly
homogeneous is employed, appears to be continued without
any discoverable limit, although it is always smaller, for
any given change of circumstances, when the least refran¬
gible or red light is employed, than when the observation
is made on the most refrangible or violet; so that mixed
or white light always produces a combination of alterna¬
tions arranged according to a series of different intervals,
which are at first more or less distinct, but by degrees are
so mixed with each other as again to be lost in the gene¬
ral effect of white light. In all these cases the appear¬
ances may be reduced to calculation by means of the ge¬
neral law of the interference of two portions of light, with
its appropriate modifications and corrections.
A. The law is, that when two equal portions of light, in
circumstances exactlg similar, have been separated and coin¬
cide again in nearly the same direction, they will either co¬
operate or destroy each other, according as the difference of
the times occupied in their separate paths is an even or an
odd multiple of a certain half interval, which is different for
the different colours, but constant for the same kind of light.
B. In the application of this law to different mediums,
the velocity must be supposed to be inversely as the refractive
density.
C. In reflections at the surface of a rarer medium, and of
some metals, in all very oblique reflections, in diffraction,
and in some extraordinary refractions, a half interval ap¬
pears to be lost.
D. It is said that, according to some late observations of
Mr Arago, two portions of light, polarised in transverse di¬
rections, do not interfere with each other.
E. The principal intervals in air are, for the
Extreme Red..  *0000266 =
Yellow.[  -0000235 = ,r J-ttt
Green -0000211 =
Blue  -0000189 = j^STo
Extreme Violet  -0000167 = jffjo
Mean, or White *0000225 = -4444-^ inch.
Sect. V.— Of the Colours of Thin Plates.
Ihe colours exhibited by very thin plates of transpa¬
rent or semitransparent substances have been well known
to optical philosophers, from the time that they were first Chroma-
noticed by Boyle, and more particularly examined by tics.
Hooke and Newton. They may be readily observed by
pressing together any two clean pieces of common plate-
glass, which have always sufficient convexities and con¬
cavities to exhibit them, touching each other in some
points, and leaving elsewhere a thin plate of air between
them; or, still more conveniently, by selecting from the
plano-convex lenses, kept by the opticians, such as have
their flatter sides very slightly convex, and are conse¬
quently calculated to throw the spaces of equal thickness,
and the colours dependent on them, into the form of rin^s.
The colours are most distinct when they are formed ^in
the light reflected from the two surfaces in contact, espe¬
cially when care is taken to exclude the foreign light re¬
flected by the surfaces not concerned in their production ;
and in this case they begin from a central dark spot, im¬
mediately surrounded by a bright light, and then by rings
more distinctly coloured, while the colours, exhibited m
light transmitted through the glasses, begin from a bright
spot in the centre, surrounded by a dark ring, being always
exactly complementary to the colours seen by reflection ;
to which they are also, as Mr Arago has demonstrated,’
either exactly or very nearly equal in intensity, although
they have generally been supposed to be much less vivid,
on account of the diminution of their effect on the eye by
their mixture with the whole of the beam of light which
affords them. But if we employ for the observation two
flattish pieces of glass, held in such a position as to trans¬
mit the light received from one part, and to reflect an
image of another part, of an object equally illuminated
throughout its extent, the two series of colours will de¬
stroy each other, and the whole appearance of rings will
vanish. When, on the contrary, the illumination of the
object varies materially, the rings will re-appear in one or
other of their forms, according to the different intensities
of the lights received from its different parts ; so that, as
Mr Arago has ingeniously suggested, this test might be
employed to answer the purpose of a photometer, for
ascertaining the equality of the lights of two distant ob¬
jects.
If any thin plate affording colours be inclined to the
direction of the light passing through it, the appearance
of the colours will be changed either precisely or very
nearly in the same manner as if the thickness were re¬
duced in the ratio of the radius to the cosine of the in¬
clination within the plate ; at least, if this proportion is not
perfectly accurate, the deviations from it, in the experi¬
ments of Newton, are manifestly within the limits of the
unavoidable errors of observation.
We are indebted to Mr Arago for the important fact,
that the colours observed in transmitted light are distin¬
guished by a polarisation opposite or transverse to that
which is appropriate to transmitted light in general, and
possessing the ordinary character of the polarisation pro¬
duced by partial reflection. It is in light thus reflected
that we must seek for one of the two portions which are
to be combined according to the laws of interference, in
the case of the colours seen by transmission, and for both
in the case of reflection. The light transmitted simply
through the plate will be followed by a portion which has
been reflected back from the second surface to the first,
and forwards again from the first to the second; and the
difference of the times occupied in these different paths
will obviously be proportional to the thickness of the plate,
and also, according to the modification (B) of the law, to
its refractive density; so that the number of alterations of
any given colour between the central spots of the rings
and any given point will be as the thickness of the plate
at that point; and the numbers for different colours will
be inversely as the magnitudes of the appropriate inter¬
vals ; the plate appearing light when illuminated by a ho¬
mogeneous colour, only where the thickness corresponds
to any exact multiple of the interval, and dark at the in¬
termediate points ; and this proportion is found to agree
perfectly with experiment. The two reflections within
the plate being always of the same kind, will either not
require any correction on account of their natuie ( or
will altogether add a whole interval to the length of the
path ; an alteration which makes no change in the appear-
^When the incidence is oblique, the actual length of the
two passages of the reflected ray across the plate AB, BL,
is as twice the secant of the angle of refraction ABD, and
its advance upon the surface AC, as twice the tangent,
and this advance, reduced to the direction of the transmit¬
ted ray AE without the plate, must be subtracted from
the retardation within the plate ; the reduction being in
the proportion of the radius to the sine of the angle ot in¬
cidence ACE, for which, if we substitute that of the radi¬
us to the sine of the angle of refraction ADFor CDG, we
shall have the deduction required to be made from the
length of the path within the plate, since the velocities
vary directly as these sines ; and by this deduction the se¬
cants AB, BC, will be reduced to the cosines Bis Mj :
so that the true retardation will always be proportional to
the cosine of refraction.
The same demonstration is applicable to the difterence ot
the paths of the two portions of light reflected once only,
from the upper and lower surfaces of the plates respec¬
tively, supposing A, the point of emergence of the trans¬
mitted ray, to become the point of incidence of a new re¬
flected ray HA. Hence it might be expected that all the
phenomena of colours should be the same as in the case ot
transmitted light; and this really appears to happen when
the observation is made on a plate of air contained between
a transparent substance and a polished surface ot gold 01
silver; or on a plate of a refractive density intermediate
between the densities of the neighbouring substances, as in
the instance of a thin coat of smoke or of an oxide, adher¬
ing to any polished metallic surface, which is at first of a
yellowish white, and, as it becomes thicker, changes to a
yellow and an orange colour; but in more common cases
there is a loss of half an interval in one of the two reflec¬
tions only, so that the thicknesses affording a perfect coin¬
cidence for any species of colour, are always intermediate
between the thicknesses affording the same colour by trans¬
mission ; and hence the tints of the two series of rings aie
always complementary to each other, the seiies seen y
reflection always beginning from a dark central spot, when
they are exhibited by any detached transparent substance,
as a soap bubble, a thin film of glass or of talc, or by a
plate of air contained between two plates of glass, or be¬
tween a plate of glass and a piece of polished steel.
There is a peculiarity in the surface of silver and gold,
and perhaps of some other metals, that, besides the regu-
CHROMATICS.
lar reflection at an angle equal to that of incidence, a con- Chrom
siderable quantity of light is dispersed irregularly; and tics,
this light, as Mr Arago has observed, is polarised in a di-
rection transverse to that of the usual polarisation by re¬
flection ; there is also in the irregular reflection no loss of
a half interval; so that it exhibits, with a piece of glass,
a series of rings resembling those which are produced by
polished steel, except that their dimensions are not varied
exactly in the same proportion by the obliquity of the in¬
cidence, because the light which forms them is not re¬
quired to pass towards the metal in an angle exactly equal
to that which it makes upon its return after reflection;
and there will probably be considerable irregularities in
the interval of retardation, according to the mode of per¬
forming the experiment; although in general the irregu¬
lar dispersion or diffraction from the glass is too weak to
afford colours easily observable, when the position of the
plate differs considerably from that in which the light is
regularly reflected. If a portion of polarised light is in¬
capable of interfering with another portion polarised in a
transverse direction, these rings ought to disappear when
the angle of incidence on the plate of glass is about 55°,
since in this case the light reflected by it is completely
polarised in the plane of incidence i and this disappear¬
ance seems actually to have been observed in some ot Mr
Arago’s experiments, though in others, where the metal¬
lic surface was less highly polished, the polai isation of
the dispersed light may have been less complete, and the
rings may still have been visible at this angle. (Memotres
d’Arcuei/, vol. iii. p« 354, 359.)
Sect. Vl.— Oft/ie Colours of Double Plates.
When light is transmitted in succession through two
plates, differing but little in thickness, they exhibit an ap¬
pearance of colour similar to that which would be produ¬
ced by a single plate equal in thickness to their difference;
and this appearance is wholly independent of the distance
of the plates from each other. It was first noticed by Mr
Nicholson in the glasses employed for the sights of sex¬
tants, and is attributed by Dr Young to “ the rays twice
reflected in the second only.” In somecircumstances, how¬
ever, the light returning from the second glass to the hrst,
and again reflected by it, may co-operate in the effect, the
interval of retardation being the same in both cases. Mr
Knox has more lately described some very striking appear¬
ances of colours, obtained in this way, by the combination
of two pairs of lenses, each exhibiting their appropriate
rings when viewed separately, and affording together a
third series of rings of larger dimensions whe.n 1 T
former are unequal in magnitude, and of straight band
when they are equal. It is in fact easily demonstrable,
that in order that the thicknesses of the plates of aw, con¬
tained between two unequal pairs of lenses, may be eq < ,
the distances from the centres of contact must e in
stant proportion ; and it is well known that all the point
from which the lines drawn to two given pomts are in
constant proportion, will be found in the circumference ot
a circle, the diameter of which is a third proporbonal^ to
the difference and sum of the segments of the g ,.
tance of the points : so that the colours depending on^
difference, instead of beginning as usual from a]™
tral spot, will begin from a wh.te r.ng, and wfl be ”n &
ed in concentric rings on each side of it, Pr.ec^e d an
same order as when they form concentric rIi'g
actual point of contact; and when the ^^^ircle
two pairs of lenses are equal, the diame
becoming infinite, it will obv.ously be converted into
Tjr Brewster has observed a series of similar phenomena
CHROMATICS.
oma- produced by two plates, of equal thickness, but forming
® a small angle with each other, so as to be differently
inclined to the light passing through them. The effect
of the inclination being to reduce the virtual thickness of
the plate in the ratio of the cosine, and the difference of
the cosines of equi-different arcs being simply as the sine
of their half sum, it is evident that the colours must cor¬
respond to a thickness which varies nearly as the sine of
the angle of incidence, considered with regard to a plane
bisecting the angle formed by the plates; and this result
agrees correctly with Dr Brewster’s experiments.
Sect. VII.—Of the Colours of Supernumerary Rainbows
and Glories.
Within the common primary rainbow, and without the
secondary, we sometimes observe a partial repetition of
colours, more or less distinctly marked, and extending oc¬
casionally to several alternations; the repetitions occupy¬
ing somewhat narrower spaces, as they are more remote
from the ordinary bows. These appearances seem to have
been first described by Mariotte; they have been since
noticed by Langwith, Daval, and Dicquemare; and the
term supernumerary rainbows has been very properly ap¬
plied to them. The coloured circles called glories may
generally be seen surrounding the shadows of our heads
when we have an opportunity of standing on a hio-h hill,
and observing them in a cloud below us; they are also
sometimes accompanied by a large white circle, which, in
an observation of Ulloa, was 67° in diameter; and such a
circle may frequently be distinguished when the sun shines
on a mass of vapour rising from a warm bath, of nearly the
same dimensions, or sometimes a little smaller. The whole
of these phenomena may be explained, from the interfer¬
ence of some of the portions of light regularly reflected
vvithin the minute drops of water, with other portions, in¬
cident at a different angle, but, after an equal number of
reflections, coinciding ultimately with them in direction:
supposing only the clouds in question to afford a number
of these drops, varying but little from each other in dia¬
meter. We find, by the well-known mode of calculatino-
the greatest deviation, that each order of reflections ex^
hibits a zone from 30° to 10° in breadth, through which a
double light is diffused by each drop; and, besides this,
when there have been more than three reflections, the
portions belonging to the opposite sides cross each other
in one or more points, and surround the drop, or rather
the observer, if we consider the effect of the refraction of
a multitude of drops situated in all directions. Supposing
the index of refraction for the extreme rays 1-336, and its
logarithm -1258000, the results will be these:—
After
Extreme
Deviation.
1 reflection 41°
2  51
3  40
4  45
5  50
6  34
40'.
41..
39..
2..
0..
14..
Final
Deviation.
..13° 52'
10
12
.-0014
.-0040
.-0074
.-0113
•0160
•0210
•0327
•0461
•0612
.69
.27
.55
.41
.41
12
44
20
36
28
We may obtain a more distinct idea of these duplica-
ures if we represent them in a diagram, showing the an¬
gular extent of the diffusion of light derived from each or-
er of reflections, and distinguishing by different kinds of
lines the portions belonging to the opposite halves of the
nrops; and it will be obvious, from the inspection of this
gure, that the appearances in question have only been
° w^‘n some of the duplicatures of the orders to
which they belong, between the angles of extreme and of
na deviation. The tertiary and quaternary bows (III.
•) are evidently too near the luminary to be visible; the
637
Chroma¬
tics.
quinary (V.) ought to be seen in the space between the
primary and secondary; but it is probably much too faint
to be visible under any circumstances. The duplicature be¬
longing to the primary rainbow exhibits two portions, for
which we may calculate the interval of retardation in parts
of the radius of the drop, supposing the velocity to be that
which is appropriate to the air, by taking twice the differ¬
ence of the cosines of incidence on the drop, and multi-
plying twice that of the cosine of refraction by the index
1-336 ; the difference of these differences giving the inter¬
val for the two portions, of which the direction has been
found to coincide by a previous calculation.
Distance Angle of Difference
from the Edge. Reflection. 0f the Paths
0°   40° 2' -0000
! f 42 591
  136 23 j
9 (44 2(
)34 32J
'44 45
33 *3
45 20'
31 45
145 46i
\30 34
46 9 (
29 26/
46 451
27 20/
47 121
25 24)
/47 321
/23 33/
Hence it may be inferred, that, supposing the extreme
red to re-appear at the distance of 2° from the primitive
external termination of the rainbow, the radius of the drop
, , -0000266
mUSt k6 —q)04— — "00665, or of an inch ; the fourth
alternation of the red being at the distance of 5°, where
the interval is -016. The magnitude of the interval, at
an equal distance from the edge, varies but little with the
refractive density: thus, for violet light, the index of re¬
fraction being probably about 1-346, and its logarithm
•1290000, the greatest deviation wall be found 40° 14';
and for a deviation 2° less, the angles of refraction must
be 43° 30' and 33° 37', and the interval will be little dif¬
ferent from -00400.
1 he supernumerary bands of the secondary bow, formed
by the same drops, will be a little broader than these, since
it appears, from a similar calculation, that the rays inter-
G38
CHROMATICS.
Chroma¬
tics.
fering with each other, at the distance of a degree from
the edge, will exhibit an interval of ’0011 of the xadius
only, instead of-0014.
The supernumerary colours of the third and fourth bows
will be equally imperceptible with the bows themselves;
but the portions of light, four times reflected, will cross
each other in the point opposite to the sun, where their
coincidence will be perfect, and at other neighbouring
points will afford an interval nearly proportional to the dis¬
tance from that point. We shall find that the intervals for
different deviations, supposed to be measured in air, are
these
. Angle of
Deviation. Deflection.
]80°.'.  d#'..,
„?,B' 185  25 311
175  24 7 J
190  20 141
170 .,... 23 25 J
Hence, supposing the first bright or greenish ring to
appear at the distance of 5° from the observer’s head, the
11 r ( *0000^25
radius of the drops must be about t()96 ~ = ’000234, or
Interval in parts
of the Radius.
 -000
 -096
 -195
.rJUr of an inch. . „ .
It might be questioned whether the light, five times re-
fleeted,'could retain sufficient force to produce any sensi¬
ble effects by these interferences ; but since it exhibits no
appearance of colour between the primary and secondary
rainbows, it must necessarily be extremely faint. The in¬
terval which it affords, by the comparison of its two por¬
tions, agrees sufficiently well with that which is deiived
from four reflections, to contribute in some measure to the
production of an alternation of light and shade; but the
separate colours would be rather weakened than strength¬
ened by the mixture: thus, at the deviation of 5°, the in¬
terval is found to become *076 instead of ’096 ; and at 10°,
•155 instead of T95 ; and this difference is too consider¬
able to allow us to expect any material increase of bril¬
liancy from the addition of the fifth reflection, however
great its intensity might be. •
Supposing, now, a cloud to consist of spherules of
which the radius is -000234, we may inquire at what dis¬
tance from the outer edge of the primary rainbow the first
additional red of the supernumerary colours ought to be
•0000266
found: the interval being in parts of the radius .QyQ234
— 116; and we may infer from the table, by taking the
, successive differences, that this distance will be about 18° ;
so that the semidiameter of this red ring will be 42— 18
— 24° ; and the termination of the primitive band of red,
supposing it to extend to one fourth of a complete interval
only, will be where the difference is ‘029, or at 7^°; but
for the violet the quarter of the interval will be, in parts
of the radius, ^00■ = ’0183, which answers to a dis-
•OOO.^dT
tance from the edge of about 5L° ; and this distance, mea¬
sured from the edge of the violet, which is somewhat less
than 2° within that of the red, will extend nearly to the
same point as the red space ; so that we shall have a cir¬
cle about 70° in diameter, at the circumference of which
all the colours will be united, and which will consequently
be white. This magnitude agrees tolerably well with the
direct observations of the phenomenon ; and if we wish to
make the agreement more complete, we have only to sup¬
pose the drops a little smaller, and the coloured glories,
which they are capable of affording, a little larger. It has
already been remarked, that the non-appearance of the or¬
dinary rainbow, in this case, must be referred to the ope¬
ration of something like diffraction; although it is obvious
that its form, under such circumstances, would necessa- Chroma,
rily be somewhat modified by the diffusion of the colours tics,
through a greater space than that which they ordinarily
occupy.
Sect. VIII.— Of the Colours of Striated Substances.
It was observed by Boyle that small scratches of any
kind on the surfaces of polished substances exhibited,
when viewed in the sunshine, a variety of changeable co¬
lours ; and the observation may easily be repeated with
any piece of metal not too highly polished, and placed in
a strong but limited light. Dr Young ascertained by ex¬
periment that the colours afforded by some regular lines
drawn on glass always corresponded to an interval, vary¬
ing as the sine of the angle of deviation from the position
in which an image of the luminous object was exhibited
by the regular reflection of the surface; and .it is easily
shown, that if we suppose two portions of light to be re¬
flected from the opposite edges of the furrow, the differ¬
ence of their- paths must vary in that proportion^ Dr
Young had conjectured that the colours of the integu¬
ments of some of the coleopterous insects might be de¬
rived from furrows of this nature ; but the conjecture has
not been verified by observation. Dr Brewster has, how¬
ever, very unexpectedly discovered that some similar in¬
equalities are the cause of the colours exhibited by mo¬
ther of pearl; and he has confirmed the observation by
showing that impressions of the surface of this substance
taken in black wax, in a hard cement, or in fusible metal,
will often exhibit a similar appearance. Where the form
of the surface of the mother of pearl is the most regular, it
reflects, in an oblique light, a white image of a luminous
object, like that which any other polished substance af¬
fords ; but on one side of this image only, and at some
little distance from it, we may observe the first order of
recurrent colours, beginning from violet, and occasioned
in all probability by the reflections from one side only of
an infinite number of parallel striae, formed by the termi¬
nations of a minute lamellated structure, nearly but not
perfectly perpendicular to the general surface; one side
only of each of the little furrows being situated in such a
direction as to reflect an image of the luminous object to
the eye, and at such a distance that the whole may con¬
stitute a regular series of equal intervals. By transmitted
light, this substance generally appears of a red or a green
colour, changing more or less according to the obliquity,
and apparently belonging to some of the higher orders of
recurrent colours.
Dr Young has observed a series of these colours, pro¬
duced by the parallel lines of some of Coventry’s glass
micrometers, drawn at the distance of of an inch from
each other, in which the first bright space, or the confine
between the green and the red, corresponded to the inter¬
val of of an inch, or -0000232 (Medical Literature,
n. 559); and this result agrees very accurately with the
general theory, the interval for the yellow, derived from
Newton’s measurements, being -0000235; but in genera
these lines exhibit colours much more widely extended,
each separate line consisting in reality of two or more
scratches at a minute distance from each other.
There is a remarkable peculiarity in the aPPe.arancB
both of these colours, and of those which are exhibited oy
substances naturally striated, as by mother of pearl, aga *
and some other semitransparent stones; they Jose
mixed character of periodical colours, aac^ semb
more the ordinary prismatic spectrum, with interva sc
pletely dark interposed. This circumstance may he -
tisfactorily deduced from the general law, it we c
der that each interference depends not only on two {
a na-
[4.
CHROMATICS.
. tions separated by a simple interval, but also on a number
of other neighbouring portions, separated by other inter-
' vals which are its multiples; so that unless the difference
of the two paths agrees very exactly with the interval ap¬
propriate to each ray, the excess or defect beino- multi¬
plied in the repetitions, the colour will disappear; conse¬
quently each of the stripes, which in other cases divide
the space in which they appear almost equally between
light and darkness, when homogeneous light is employed,
becomes here a narrow line; and their succession affords
a spectrum exhibiting very little mixture of the neigh¬
bouring colours with each other, and nearly resemblino-
that which is afforded by the simple dispersion of the
prism; except that, as in all other phenomena of periodi¬
cal colours, the blue and violet portions are much more
contracted than in the common spectrum.
Sect. IX.— 0/ the Colours of Mirrors, and of thick Plates.
In all the species of periodical colours which have been
described, the two portions of light concerned have both
been regularly reflected fropa different surfaces. The me¬
thodical division of the subject now leads us to the consi¬
deration of the colours exhibited in light separately re¬
flected from the same surface. These may be denomi¬
nated in general the colours of mirrors; and they will in¬
clude as a variety those which are called by Newton the
colours of thick plates.
The general character of these colours is, that they are
observed in light reflected by small particles, or irregular¬
ly dissipated by a single surface, first in the passage of
the beam of light towards the mirror, and then in its re¬
turn; the difference of the length of their paths affording,
as usual, the interval of retardation. Thus, in Dr Her-
schel’s experiment of scattering a fine powder in a beam
of light reflected perpendicularly by a concave mirror,
and received on a screen in its return, it may easily be
shown that the colours will be precisely such as would be
exhibited by light transmitted through a thin plate of air,
everywhere half as thick as the plate limited by two sphe¬
rical surfaces in contact; the centre of the one surface
being the particle of powder, and that of the other its
image formed by the mirror. For in the direction of the
principal ray, which is perpendicular to the mirror, tiie
paths of the light will be of equal length, whether the
dissipation takes place before or after the reflection; and
in other parts the whole length of the path of the light
passing from any local point to its conjugate focus being
the same, according to the definition of a conjugate focus
in the Huygenian theory, from whatever point of the mir¬
ror it may be reflected, the light first dissipated will have
advanced, after its reflection, as far as the circumference
of a circle, of which the conjugate focus is the centre, at
the same instant that the portion coming directly from
t ie powder, after a previous reflection, will reach the cir¬
cumference of the circle of which the particle of powder
is the centre; so that the distance between these two
circles must be the difference of the paths of the two por¬
tions, and the colours the same as would be exhibited by
a plate of air of half the thickness, since such a plate is
twice traversed by the retarded light.
A similar appearance of colours had been obtained, by
earlier experimenters, from the interposition of a screen
°t gauze, or of a semitransparent substance, in the path of
tne beam falling on the mirror. But the colours of thick
P ates, observed by Newton, are modified by the nature of
t ie transparent substance employed, and by the obliquity
0 the refracted light. The dissipation here takes place
at the anterior surface of a concave mirror of glass, and the
le ectl°ri at the posterior, which is coated with quicksil¬
ver: and if these two portions proceed, each with a slight
divergence, from a perforation in a screen situated near
the centre of curvature of the mirror, they will co-operate
perfectly with each other in the circumference of a circle
described on the screen, of which the diameter is the dis¬
tance of the perforation from its image ; since all the light
passing, in any given section of the mirror, with the same
obliquity through the glass as the beam itself passes in the
principal section, must be collected into a focal point situ¬
ated in some part of this circle, and will arrive at this point
at the same time, whatever its situation in the section may
have been; the obliquity of the incident light being the
same in every part of the section, because the point of
diveigence is at the same distance from the mirror as the
centre of curvature. For the other parts of the dissipated
light, passing with different obliquities, the interval will
be determined by the difference between the lengths of
the paths of the two portions of light arriving at the given
point, the one by regular refraction, after being first dissi¬
pated and then reflected; the other by dissipation, after
being first regularly refracted and reflected. And this
interval agrees precisely with the law which Newton has
deduced from his experiments ; but the analogy which he
infers from it, between these colours and those of thin
plates, is in fact very far from amounting to identity;
since, it they belonged to the ordinary colours of thin
plates, there is no reason why the series should begin anew
fiom a certain arbitrary thickness, differing in every differ¬
ent experiment, which affords a white of the first order.
Sect. X.— Of the Colours of deflected Light.
We are next to examine the case of light only once re¬
flected, and interfering with a portion of the same beam
which has pursued its course without interruption ; a case
which would scarcely have required a separate considera¬
tion, but from the difficulty of including it in a general
definition with any others; although it is comprehended
in the Newtonian description of the colours of inflected
light: but since the light is in this case turned away from
the substance near which it passes, it may more properly
be termed deflected, especially as the greater number of
the appearances mentioned by Newton as depending on
inflection, belong more properly to diffraction, and the
term inflection might consequently be misunderstood as
relating to them.
When a beam of light is received in a dark room, and
suffered to fall upon the edges of two extremely sharp
knives or razors, meeting each other in a very acute angle,
the shadows of the knives, received on a screen at some
distance, will be found to be bordered by several fringes
of colours ; and the angle will be bisected by a dark
line. The distances from the shadows at which these
fringes appear agree in general with the supposition of
their depending on the interference of the light reflected
from the edges of the respective knives, with the unin¬
terrupted light of the beam passing between them ; but
the coincidence of these portions ought to be perfect in
the immediate neighbourhood of the point in which the
shadows meet, and the two last bright fringes ought to
unite there in an angle of light. This, however, does not
happen, on account of the modification of the general law
(C), which makes it necessary to allow half an interval for
the effect of a very oblique reflection; and for the same
reason, the space immediately next to the shadow is al¬
ways dark instead of being light. If the knives are at all
blunt, the reflection from one to the other, where they
meet, causes the bisecting dark line to disappear ; but this
source of error may be avoided by causing one of them to
advance a little before the plane of the other.
639
Chroma¬
tics.
640
CHROMATICS.
Chroma¬
tics.
Mr Fresnel has repeated these experiments with alt pos¬
sible care, and has ascertained that the points in which
the fringes of any one colour are found, at ditterent dis¬
tances from their origin, belong always to a hyperbola, as
they ought to do according to the calculation founded on
the general law of interference; a fact which had before
been inferred from other measurements, but which had
not been so distinctly proved by direct experiments. New¬
ton himself, indeed, was so far from believing that these
fringes are rectilinear, as Mr Fresnel supposes, that he ex¬
pressly mentions their curvature, and infers from it that
they are not derived from “ the same light” in all their
parts ; imagining, perhaps, that each fringe was of the na¬
ture of a caustic line, formed by reflection or refraction,
in which the light is everywhere more condensed than in
the collateral spaces, but which is by no means necessari¬
ly straight. Mr Fresnel has also shown that all the fringes
are found exactly at such distances from the true shadow
as would be inferred from the supposition of the loss of half
an interval by reflection; while some of the experiments
of Newton appeared to indicate a deviation from this law.
It has been asserted that fringes of the same kind have
been observed at the edges of a detached beam of hg it,
reflected into a dark space by a narrow plane and polished
surface; and in this case it would be difficult to point out
in what manner the supposed oblique reflection could be
produced, or how a diffraction of any kind could cause the
light to be redoubled back upon itself; but the experiment
does not appear to have been hitherto performed with
sufficient attention to all possible sources of error.
Sect. XL—Of the Colours of diffracted Light; including
those of Fibres and of Corona.
The light reflected from each of the knife edges, in ex¬
periments like those of Newton, not only produces colours
by its interference with the light proceeding uninterrupt-
edly between them, but also with' another portion, diverg-
ing from the edge of the opposite knife, and spreading into
its shadow. This tendency of light to diffuse itself was
first described by Grimaldi, under the appropriate name
diffraction; but many of the phenomena in which it is
concerned having been attributed by Newton to othei
causes, he appears almost to have overlooked its existence.
The general law of interference is very directly appli¬
cable to all phenomena of this kind; the fringes exhibited
are broader in the same proportion as the distance between
the edges is narrower; and they always depend on the
difference of the distance from the edges as the interval of
retardation. It is, however, necessary to suppose the same
modification to take place in diffraction as in oblique re¬
flection, half an interval being lost in both cases ; since the
light which deviates the least from a rectilinear direction,
and which is derived from the near approach of the two
paths to equality, is always white. But it is remaikable,
that when the obliquity becomes a very little greater, the
diffracted light seems to change its character in this re¬
spect; for the colours occupy the same spaces as would
have belonged to them if they had begun from a daik
centre, one of the portions only having lost a half interval
in comparison with the other ; and of this circumstance no
explanation has yet been attempted. .
The diffraction producing these fringes may easily be
detected within the eye itself, by holding any object near
it in such a position as to intercept nearly all the light of
a candle except a narrow line at the edge : this line will
then appear to be accompanied by other lines parallel to
it, separated from it by a dark space, and becoming wider
when the object is brought nearer to the eye. Ihese
fringes must be referred to the light diffracted on one
side round the object, so as to be spread on the unen- Chrow
lightened part of the retina, and reflected on the other
from the margin of the pupil; for if we employ an object
narrower than the pupil, so as to observe them on both
sides of it, their magnitude will be altered by any change
in the aperture of the pupil, occasioned by admitting light
to the opposite eye, or otherwise. In such cases as this,
where one of the points of divergence is much nearer to
the point of interference than the other, the interval in¬
creases more rapidly than the distance from the primitive
direction; and the first fringes are much broader than
those which succeed them; the mode of their formation
approaching to that of the fringes seen in deflected light,
commonly called the exterior fringes of the shadow; while
the interior fringes belong more immediately to the pre¬
sent subject, that of the colours of diffracted light.
When the distance of the points offdivergence is more
nearly equal, the one being collateral to the other, the
breadth of the successive fringes is also more uniform.
Such is the appearance of the colours exhibited by a num¬
ber of equal fibres held between the eye and a distant lu¬
minous object; their origin being identical with those of
the fringes produced in the shadows of the knives, except
that the diffracted rays come from the remoter side of the
fibres, and follow the reflected rays instead of preceding
them, These colours may easily be observed by looking
at a candle through a lock of fine wool, and still more dis¬
tinctly by substituting for the wool some of the seeds of
the lycopodium, strewed on a piece of glass ; and they be¬
come very large if we employ a few of the particles of the
blood, or the dust of the lycoperdon, or puffball. Dr Young
has made this appearance the foundation of a mode of mea-
suring the fineness of wool, which he has recommended
for agricultural purposes, though it seems hitherto to have
been found much too delicate to be employed by “ the
hard hands of peasants” with any advantage. The instru¬
ment which he has invented for this examination is call¬
ed the eriometer, and its scale is calculated to express,
in semidiameters of a circle, formed round a central aper¬
ture in a card or a plate of brass, and marked by minute
perforations, the distance at which the lock of wool must
be held, in order that the first bright ring of colours, or
the limit of the green and the red surrounding it, may
coincide with the circle of points ; and the actual measure,
expressed by a unit of this scale, is found to agree very
nearly with the thirty thousandth of an inch. Ihus the
particles of water which have been found capable of ex¬
hibiting a glory 5° from the shadow of the observer, being
about nTW of an inch in diameter, they would correspond
to number fourteen of this scale ; and the cotangent of
the angle subtended by the semidiameter of the bright
circle being fourteen, the angle itself will be about 4 ;
consequently, if we looked at the sun through such a cloud,
he would appear to be surrounded by a bright circle o
colours, 8° in diameter, green within and red without,
and attended by other colours, more or less distinctly
marked, according to the degree of uniformity o
magnitude of the drops. These circles are called coronae.
their dimensions vary considerably, but they have se
been observed quite so large as these drops would m
them ; and more commonly they seem to depend on c p
about a thousandth of an inch in diameter, althoug
not easy to ascertain the precise parts of the
which the measures have been taken by different obs •
In the shadow of a larger substance, formed in a oea
of light admitted into a dark room, these colours are
perceptible, beginning from a white line in the m >
but here both the portions on which they depend are
diffracted into the shadow, and beyond its limits J
are lost in the stronger light that passes on eac i
(j ma-
it. Then appeal ance is somewhat modified when the
shadow is formed by a body terminating in an anHe • for
the breadth of the fringes being inversely as the breadth
of the object which forms them, it is obvious that this
breadth must increase towards the point of the shadow
like the distance of the fringes formed in the shadows of
Newton’s knives: and the fringes seen within the angle
must necessarily assume the character of hyperbolas • nor
will this form be materially altered when the angle be¬
comes a right one, as in the crested fringes noticed by
Grimaldi, although the steps of the calculation for deter¬
mining their magnitude are in this case a little more com¬
plicated.
We find, in an elegant experiment of Mr Biot, on the
fringes produced by diffraction, a singular confirmation of
the truth of the theory which derives these colours from
the difference of the times occupied in the passage of the
different portions of light to the point of interference ; al¬
though this celebrated author does not seem to have been
aware of the nature of the inference which may so natu¬
rally be drawn from it. He found that the densities of
the substances, from the margin of which the diffracted
light originated, had no influence whatever on the appear¬
ances produced by them ; but when they were formed in
the light diffi acted from substances placed at one end of
a long tube, and observed on a piece of glass fixed at the
other end, they became contracted, upon filling the tube
with water, in the proportion of four to three ; as was to be
expected from the diminished velocity which must be at¬
tributed, according to the modification of the general law
(B), to the passage of the light through a denser medium.
CHROMATICS.
641
hqmd, instead of being limited by the distance of the two Chroma-
lenses ; thus the dust of the lycoperdon, mixed with wa- tics.
ter, gives it a purplish hue when seen by indirect, and a   
greenish by direct light; and when salt is added to the
water, or oil is substituted for it, the difference of the ve¬
locities being lessened, the colours exhibited rise in the
series, as if the plate were made thinner.
Mr Arago has very ingeniously applied the principle of
the production of these colours to the construction of an
instrument for measuring the refractive densities of differ¬
ent elastic fluids, and of air in different states of humidi¬
ty ; the fluids being contained in two contiguous tubes of
a given length; through which the two portions of light are
made to pass, previously to their re-union, and to die for¬
mation of the bands of colours; and it may easily be con¬
ceived, that the delicacy of such a test must be great
enough for every determination that can be required, ei¬
ther for the correction of astronomical observations, or for
the illustration of the optical properties of chemical com¬
pounds.
Sect. XIII. Of the Laws of the Polarisation of Light.
Sect. XII.— Of the Colours of Mixed Plates.
The colours of mixed plates depend partly on diffrac¬
tion, and partly either on reflection or on direct transmis¬
sion ; but their essential character consists in the differ¬
ent nature of the two mediums through which the Ifoht
passes after its separation.
When a minute quantity of moisture is interposed be¬
tween two lenses, it readily divides itself into a great num¬
ber of smaller portions, scarcely distinguishable by the eye ;
and the light transmitted through the lenses exhibits rings
of colours much larger than those which are ordinarily ob-
served, and depending on the interval afforded by the dif¬
ference of the velocities in the different mediums, accord¬
ing to the inverse proportion of the refractive densities.
If they are viewed in a direct and unconfined light, the
rings belong to the series commonly seen by transmission,
beginning from a light central spot; both portions passing
in this case simply through the separate mediums, and
amving at the eye after some slight diffraction only, which
attects both of them in an equal degree; but if a distant
dark object is situated immediately behind the lenses, and
the}' are illuminated by a light incident a little obliquely,
their character is changed, and they resemble the colours
commonly seen by reflection, one of the portions of light
emg necessarily reflected, as in the case of the colours of
eflected light; so that, when the dark object is situated
ehind one half of the glasses only, we observe the halves
0 two sets of rings, of opposite characters, exhibiting
everywhere tints complementary to each other. The dia-
raeters of the rings vary according to the refractive den-
sUy of the liquid employed, diminishing as that density in¬
creases, and becoming much larger when two liquids, in¬
capable of mixing with each other, and differing but little
in refractive density, as oil and water, are employed instead
Of air and * ’ 1 J
air and a single liquid.
The magnitude of the interval may also depend on that
0 a minute transparent solid substance, immersed in a
VOL. vi.
The colours first observed by Mr Arago in doubly re-
fracting crystals, and since more particularly analysed by
i lr Biot, afford by far the most striking and interesting
examples of the colours of mixed plates. In order to un-
deistand the laws of these phenomena, it is necessary to
be previously acquainted with the affections of polarised
light, which were first accurately investigated by Malus,
and with the theory of extraordinary refraction, derived
by Huygens, with equal elegance and precision, from his
peculiar hypothesis respecting the nature of the transmis¬
sion of light.
1. Mr Malus discovered, that at a certain angle of inci¬
dence, the light partially reflected by a transparent sub¬
stance receives a peculiar modification, with respect to the
plane of reflection, which is called polarisation in that plane.
2. Dr Brewster observed, that the angle of complete po¬
larisation is such, that the mean direction of the trans¬
mitted light is perpendicular to that of the reflected por¬
tion; the tangent of the angle of incidence being equal to
the index of the refractive density of the medium.
3. A ray of polarised light is again subdivided, in the
usual proportion, by a second refraction in the plane of
polarisation ; but when it is refracted in a plane perpendi¬
cular to the plane of polarisation, by a surface properly in¬
clined, there is no partial reflection; and in intermediate
positions, the intensity of the reflection is nearly as the
square of the cosine of the angular distance of the two
planes.
4. A portion of the transmitted light is polarised in a
direction perpendicular to that of the plane of refraction;
so that none of this portion is reflected by a second sur¬
face parallel to the first; and when there are several pa¬
rallel surfaces in succession, the whole of the transmitted
light becomes at last so polarised, that none of it is par¬
tially reflected.
5. The same transverse polarisation will happen in a
greater number of transmissions, when the angle differs
from that of complete polarisation ; and in the same man¬
ner a second partial reflection, by a surface parallel to the
first, will produce a more complete polarisation, when the
first is imperfect.
6. A perfect polarisation in any new plane, by a partial
reflection at the appropriate angle, completely supersedes
the former polarisation ; but a reflection or refraction void
of any polarising effect, which may be called a neutral re¬
flection or refraction, changes the direction of the plane of
polarisation, according to Mr Biot’s experiments, into that
4 M
G42
CHROMATICS.
Chroma¬
tics.
of the image of the former plane, supposed to be formed
by the action of the given surface. ,
7. The light ordinarily refracted by a doubling crystal
in the plane of the principal section of the crystal, passing
through its axis, is polarised in that direction ; the light ex¬
traordinarily refracted, in the transverse direction.
8. Light previously polarised is transmitted by the ordi¬
nary refraction when its plane of polarisation coincides
with the principal section, and by the extraordinary when
it is perpendicular to it. In intermediate directions, the
quantity of light transmitted by each refraction is, accord¬
ing to Malus, as the square of the cosine and sine of the
an ale formed by the planes passing through the paths ot
the ray, and a line parallel to the axis in each crystal, sup¬
posing the species of refraction to be exchanged.
1 9 The rays of light ordinarily transmitted by doubling
crystals appear in general to retain their previous polarisa¬
tion, like rays transmitted through simple substances ; but
the extraordinary refraction polarises them, according to
Biot, like a neutral reflection at a surface coinciding with
the principal section ; the new plane of polarisation taking
the place of the image of the former.
10. Reflections at metallic surfaces are generally neutral
with respect to polarisation; but in oblique planes they
seem, according to some experiments of Malus, to mix or
depolarise the light subjected to them.
Sect. XIV. Of the Laws of Extraordinary Refraction.
the radius as red to and will be expressed by —, or by ^
J yr
r —, the evanescent increments of any quantities being
always in the ratio of their fluxions : and the plane of re¬
fraction or incidence, without the crystal, will always be
perpendicular to the tangent of the section formed by the
refracting surface. The determination of the relation of
the angles is therefore reduced to the calculation of the
value of y and of its fluxion.
Supposing, then, the ratio of the greatest and least re¬
fractive densities of the crystal or of the equatorial dia-
The extraordinary refraction of regular doubling crys¬
tals may be correctly determined in all circumstances, by
means of the Huygenian supposition of an undulation
diverging in the form of a spheroid from every point o
the medium, the velocity in any given direction bemg a -
ways proportional to the corresponding diameter, so that
the successive spheroidal surfaces remain always similar
to each other. The relations of the angles of incidence
and refraction may be calculated by finding the point in
which any of the spheroids, supposed to represent the
forms of the elementary undulations, at a given instant, is
touched by a plane passing through that Point °f the sVr"
face at which the original beam of light would have arriv¬
ed, at the same instant, through the external medium ; it
may also be deduced, somewhat more simply, from the
determination of the velocity with which an expanding
spheroidal undulation must extend itself on any given sur¬
face ; a velocity which immediately gives ns the direction
of the ray in the surrounding medium; and the relation
thus obtained will also obviously hold good with respect
to a ray returning in the opposite direction. ( (Quarterly
Review, No. xxi.) .
In common refractions, if we compare the space de¬
scribed by an undulation or any given surface with the
radius, the velocities appropriate to the different mediums
will be represented by the sines of the respective angles ;
but the velocity with which a spheroidal undulation ad¬
vances on any surface is evidently determined by the in¬
crement, or the fluxion, of the perpendicular to the cir¬
cumference of the section of the spheroid formed by that
surface; and calling this perpendicular y, the velocity
may be considered as proportional to its increment if .
but the velocity of the surrounding medium is to that with
which the axis x increases, as r to 1, r being the index of
the ordinary refractive density of the crystal, compared
with that of the surrounding medium, since the velocity
in the direction of the axis is the same as that which
belongs to the ordinary refractive density •, consequently,
the increment of the path of the undulation in the sur¬
rounding medium will be expressed by red, and s, the sine
of refraction or incidence without the crystal, will be to
meter of the spheroid 2AB to the axis 2AC to be that of
n to n being greater than unity, and the tangent of the
angle ADE, formed by the axis
with the refracting surface DE,
being called p; the magnitude
of the semidiameter AF, paral¬
lel to the surface, may be found
by comparing the secants of
the angles FAG, HAG, sub¬
tended at the centre by the
corresponding ordinates of the
ellipsis and the inscribed cir¬
cle : for their tangents FG,
HG, being represented by p
and the secants will be
n
^(1 + ?), and v/( 1 + ; and the semidiameter of
the circle AH being x, that of the ellipsis, AF, will be
„ ^ 1 ±iex But the tangent of the angle GIF, made
by the*tangent of the ellipsis with the axis
tile angle made by the corresponding tangent of the circle,
fiyi mi
GIH or GHA, that is, -, as w to 1; consequently y WI
be the tangent of the angle made with the axis by the
elliptic tangent IF or by the conjugate diameter Ah,
and if we substitute y for p, we shall find the length ot
,. . att — ,/w4 + ^ t which is to that of the
this diameter Ak = x> wnit
, . r \/(ft4 + F*) to 1. Hence, for
former AF in the ratio of ra pp)
the lesser semiaxis of the section formed by the given
face EL, calling AL the distance o between
of the spheroid z, we have the mean p p ,
the segments of the diameter V'O^KT A J
-AL]) = ,/(AK2 AL2) = )’
must be reduced in the ratio of the conjugate
ters AK and AF, so that it becomes
CHROMATICS.
' :)raa-
:cs.
nv'(! +«V EL
V \nn Jf-pp w4 -f p2 ) ~
^ But from the known similarity of the parallel sections of
a spheroid, the axes will be to each other as the semidia-
A T7 ✓ 1 + VV
meter At = w 1S to nx the equatorial semi-
diameter, a ratio which may be called that of l to m, m
being — y Y~j^Tpp ’ that the lesser axis EL being
the Sreater Lp will be
Now, if q be the cotangent of the angle MNE, formed
by the plane of the ray’s motion in the external medium,
with the lesser axis of the section, or the tangent of the
angle ELO formed by the conjugate semidiameter LO
with the same axis, this semidiameter may be found by
substituting q for p, m for n, and the value of the semiaxis
of the section for x, in the expression for AF, the semi¬
diameter parallel to the refracting surface, and it becomes
point nearest to the centre of the spheroid ; and the tan¬
gents of the inclinations of the diameters to the axis being p
that of their mutual inclination will be —n
V p(l—nn)'
; and the sine of the
643
Chroma¬
tics
  tan. a -f- tan. b
tan.a tan.b
since tan. (a+6) = —. :
same angle being expressed by tan‘^ it becomes
sec. a sec. b
, nn 4- rrp
iere V(I + p2) TiyTp^) = sin- FAK = sin- ALR\
which we may call r, and the cosine
p (1 — nn)
1 — tan. a tan. b
sec. a sec. b
= t: and the required dis-
m^.±± qq EL=nv'-1- -+ ??f—
mm qq mm 4- qq\mn
mm n* 4- p2
^) = LO.
Hence, since all parallelograms described about an el¬
lipsis are equal, dividing the product of the semiaxes
EL-LP by this semidiameter, we shall have the required
EL-LP LP ^ mm 4- qq
perpendicular y — MQ =
n 4- qq
1 +qq
a/^
LO
1 +PP.
0-
1 + qq -
Now, in order to
w44- p2
find the fluxion of this quantity, increasing as the spheroid
increases, while the place of the centre of radiation re¬
mains unaltered*, we must make z constant while x varies,
and we shall have
^ = iL ^J^L±13x6x : J*?-
m 1 4- ^ v V «4 -f- p2 /’
^(1 4- p2) >/(W4 4- p2)
tance LR will be te, and the distance of the centre of the
spheroid from the refracting surface AR = vz. But MS,
the perpendicular falling from the point of incidence on
the lesser axis of the section formed by the surface, being
called w, the tangent of the angle MLS subtended by it at
the centre being—-, and its sine consequently ,—^ ,
9 ^ J V(m4 4- (fy
1 mmw „ $x
we have u = ,-r—;   = n2   and tbp di«
V(m4 4- ^2) r ^/(l 4- y) ’ ana tne dls_
tance of this perpendicular from the centre, LS = v
qiv
— q^) ’ °r “ We t^ie S^ne ordinary refrac-
t*on ^ and tlle s*ne of the inclination of the plane of
the ray’s motion to the lesser axis /7t-^ ^ = Land its
ni 4- m
cosine
: ^(f+qq) ~ h'we have M := andv=z ^hx-
Hence the cotangent of the angle ERM, formed by the
line nearest to the ray in the section with the lesser axis,
will be —i—if the value of s be considered as positive,
when the ray is inclined on the refracting surface towards
and the the axis of the crystal; for in this case the sign of t being
negative, tz or LR will be subtracted from v or LS; and
the reverse when s is negative. We have also for the
hypotenuse RM, or the distance of the point of inci¬
dence from the point nearest to the centre of the spheroid,
(w2 4- O 4- tz~\2) ; consequently the tangent of RAM,
the angle of incidence or refraction within the crystal, will
, </(v? 4- [?; 4- te]2) . .
be Now, since it has been shown
rthc
which must be equal to ; consequently,
•/{f
1 -}- ]jp
mz^j —
ns . mm 4- qq
Vi—; — x
mr r 1 4- qq
n i q. p2 ~ y mr v j
lesser semiaxis of the section EL, which was found
mm -j- qq
m2^),becomes-^-y'  ,
m \ + p1 /’ mmr v 1 4. ^ *
whence the semidiameter LM at the point of incidence,
which may be called w, and which is analogous to the
conjugate diameter AK in the former section, will be
a/
Ml4 4_ fj2-
nns
,mm 4- qq
y——~——x
a/-
+ q
-that,/(**_^ ™+MXtWehave:!,
-ir-p1 7 mr^ 1 4- W
w4 4-p!
nnss mm. 4- <70 \ . , ,
 tv———-r [ 1 . —,—1 7 ■ - )a^,and thecotan-
mmt 1 -f- PP) \ mmrr \ qq )
gent of the inclination of the plane of refraction ERM, or
v tz q
—7:—= ~ +
tz
mm
:, becomes
mm 4- qq mmr 1 -j- 'mmr v 1 4- qq
Hence it is obvious that this semidiameter, in any one
plane of incidence, will be in a constant proportion to the
sines, as Huygens himself demonstrated ; so that, suppos¬
ing x to be constant, and z to vary, the semidiameter w
may be considered as an ordinate in the elliptic section
passing through the point of incidence M and the diame¬
ter AK conjugate to the refracting surface, which is also
the path of a ray falling perpendicularly on that surface
from without; and the tangent of the angle ELM formed
by this semidiameter with the lesser axis of the given sec¬
tion, will be which determines the intersection of
q
this oblique plane with the refracting surface.
But in order to find the angle made with the refracting
surface in a plane perpendicular to it, we must compute LR, rpnrp<;pntpd hv */ ( w4 m) h- 4- n4 fi2 
the distance of the centre of the refracting section from the ^ \»i4 (nP — n2 f \_m2 ft? 4- A2]/
4. fl— — -L;
mm m (l pp) \ mm / nn^k
mm
and since r2*2 — (m? — n2 g2 [m?k2 4- /i2] ) x2, the tangent
of the angle of incidence or refraction within the costal,
which is = y H—— will be
\ rrzz rrzz r rz rr J
644
Chroma¬
tics.
' ^ ‘
CHROMATICS.
+
2 jo (1 — mi) nnki
through a moderately thin plate of such a substance, in Chror:
paths differing but little from each other, and coinciding tics;
again in direction, should, in all common cases, exhibit '
^{iin + pp) mm ^ — \_rri2 W + /r]) again 1U ulIci;LriJ,     
r"n/l ^ i „ f(, colours nearly similar to those of ordinary thin plates. It
+ relil^rh. The value of the perpend,cular to be difficult t0 conjecture whether they
L nn + _J /  onfrht to resemble the colours seen by transmission or by
the surface, All or rz, is also of importance, as im at - re|ection and the fact jS) that both these series of co-
ly indicating, by its proportion to the axis tne veiocuy - -
o^ the undulation in the donth. which is
proportion to the axis tie veiou y at once produced by the substances in question;
the direction of the depth which i without a particular arranee-
ot tne uimumtiuii m ■ 72-.v
therefore represented by y/ (nr — n o- [m k + ] )•
These expressions become somewhat simpler in many
cases of common occurrence. Thus, when the axis is
parallel to the surface, p = 0, m = n, and t ±= 0, conse-
. g rfk2 + It2
quently the tangent of refraction is - j—(nnkk + M)gg
but they are so mixed that, without a particular arrange¬
ment, they always neutralise each other; and their for¬
mation appears to be also limited to certain peculiar con¬
ditions of polarisation, consistent with Mr Arago’s obser¬
vation on the non-interference of two portions of light
polarised in transverse directions. Several of the cases,
indeed, in which they are exhibited remain still involved
X v gv \ I / 33 111 VAC-CVAj AXX »» J *
T 1 / fl fm2/i2 4-A21p2). in some degree of obscurity ; but it is easy to analyse the
and the perpend,culai- velocty » V (1 — L» * + " Jf > most impo»a„t of the phenomena, and to reduce them,
When the axis is perpendicular to the surface, p is mh- gat ision? t0 the general laws of periodical co-
nite, m = 1, and t is again = 0; and the tangent of the loursf
nno . ,. , Mr Malus has demonstrated, by satisfactory experi-
angle of refraction is 116 perpent 1CU a1'Ve‘ ments, that a beam of light, admitted into a doubly re-
^ fracting crystal, is as much divided by partial reflection
locity being y/ (4 —^ £2)- . at the second surface as by transmission at the first; the
The retardation, produced by the passage of light directions and the relative intensities of the two portions
through such a plate, being equal to the time occupied precisely the same as those of the two portions of a
within the plate, diminished by a time proportional to the ray similarly polarised, and returning to the second sur-
product of the tangent of the angle of refraction and the pace from without in an equal angle ; so that, after a far-
sine of the angle of incidence (see Sect. V.), it will be ^]ier transmission at the first surface, all the poitionsbe-
expressed, in the case of a plate parallel to the axis, by come again parallel. WThen the ray is in the direction of
_i_ /j2 the principal section, there is no separation, each of the
 ! — sp— 7—T/—T z 7 \ „ ’ nencils proceeding undivided, as they would do if they
n</ (\ — [nnkk + M])gg Wl~ Knnkk + ' l)ZS Passed through a second crystal parallel to the first; and
and when the axis is perpendicular to the plate, by [he separation becomes most complete when the plane of
  ™ /i . n'y)*n\ molrpc nn nncrlfi of about 45° with the principal
sung
r (1
If)
\/(l—nngg) V(1—nngg) \/(1 nngg)
— r J (1 nngg). The effect of any small change in the
form of the spheroid, on the retardation, may be found
from the fluxions of these quantities, supposing n to vary ;
which, when properly reduced, making n — 1, will be
~rV(J=§)in’and—vuT
—• d?i respectively.
33/
The values of r and n, for the principal substances, ex¬
hibiting the extraordinary refraction, which have been
examined, are these :
Iceland crystal...r = T657
Arragonite.
Ice 
Quartz 
Sulphate of lime..
Sulphate of barita
1-693
1-310
1-558
1-525
1-635
1-1140 = 10
1-1030 = 11
•9989 = 890
•99444 rr 179
•99432 = 175
9
10
891
180
176
•99295 — 142 : 143
incidence makes an angle of about 45° with the principal
section ; each of the portions o and e, into which the ray
is divided upon its admission, affording then two reflec¬
tions, oO and oE, eO and eE, of nearly equal intensity.
The times occupied by the portions oO, eE, will differ
most from each other, w-hile oE and eO will describe
their paths in equal times of intermediate length ; but of
these, eO only will commonly interfere with oO, which has
a similar polarisation in the plane of incidence, and oE
with eE, both being polarised in a transverse direction;
so that we have two series of colours, depending on an
equal interval, except so far as they are distinguished by
the inversion of one of the portions belonging to the ex¬
traordinary reflection, which renders the series of colours
exhibited by them similar to that of the colours of com¬
mon thin plates seen by reflection, while the ordinary re¬
flection exhibits colours analogous to those of thin plates
seen by transmission. . . .
Mr Biot’s usual mode of exhibiting these colours is to
place a thin plate of sulphate of lime, or of any other crys¬
tal, on a black substance, to allow it to reflect the white
light of the clouds at an angle of incidence of about ho ,
In mica, according to Mr Biot, and in arragonite, accord- ngm oi me eiuuu» au cm „ n i flnp.]e
inn- to Dr Brewster there are two axes of crystallization ; and to receive this light on a black g ass, ^/en that
and the refraction of such substances may probably be re- of incidence, in a plane transverse t^o t ie ^ orme^
presented, by supposing all the circular sections of asphe- the plate may be ted from the upper
fold to become ^ellipses, so that the undu.at.on may as- n h.s - ^gto.ar^fn^eTrst planTof
same the shape of an almond. reflection, is not reflected1 by the black glass, and conse-
quently is incapable of rendering the colours less^as‘J
perceptible by admixture with them ; the beams aa
eO, returning by the ordinary reflection, are als0 f™1/ /.
In the case of doubly refracting substances, the first polarised, and willbe tiansniitted ,ejn a transverse
difficulty is, not to explain why the colours of double ^ut the beams and e^,bein^pOc ^
lights are sometimes produced, but why they are not direction, will be pai ui y t ^, h mutUal inter-
more universally observable; since it might naturally be a very brilliant co our, i epen g . ^ turned
expected, as a consequence of the general law of inter- ference. If, on the con iaiy’ , 0f incidence may
ference, that two portions of the same beam, passing round the ray, so that the second pla
Sect. XV.—Of the Colours of doubly refracting Sub¬
stances.
CHROMATICS.
voma- coincide with the first, the ordinary rays only will be par¬
ies. tially reflected by it, and the complementary colour will be
exhibited by the union of the portions oO, eO ; but this
colour will be less distinct, on account of its mixture with
the white light reflected by the first surface.
Appearances of a similar nature may also be observed
in the transmitted light, each of the refractions exhibit¬
ing the colour complementary to that which it affords
by reflection, as happens in the ordinary colours of thin
plates; and we must seek for the portions of light which
afford them in the successive partial reflections at the two
surfaces of the plate, as in the case of the ordinary colours ;
the light simply transmitted by the separate refractions
not exhibiting the ordinary effects of interference, for want
of a similarity of polarisation. The obliquity of the inci¬
dent light produces similar effects on both series.
Under some circumstances of the reflection of rays near
the perpendicular, Mr Biot observes that the plate assumes
the colour which is usually exhibited by a plate of twice
the thickness viewed a little more obliquely; and in such
cases it is probable that the polarisation of the beams oO
and eE has been so modified as to afford a partial interfe¬
rence ; and if this is not the true explanation, it will not
be difficult to suppose the interval to be doubled in some
other manner by a repeated reflection.
The effect of a plate of a double thickness is also pro¬
duced by two equal and parallel plates, through which the
light passes in succession, provided that their axes of crys¬
tallization be parallel, and that they be of such a thickness
as to exhibit in conjunction a colour more easily observ¬
able than those which they afford separately ; a condition
which is more generally applicable to the case in which
the axes are transverse to each other, and one of the thick¬
nesses is to be subtracted from the other; since in this
situation the two portions of light must always interchange
their refractions, and that which has moved the more
slowly in its passage through one of the plates, will move
the more rapidly in the other. This result is very accu¬
rately confirmed by experiment, and certainly affords a very
striking illustration of the truth of the law of interference.
When we wish to examine the effects of the different
obliquities of the incident light, it is most convenient to
employ a beam previously polarised, which renders the
separation of the different portions by a subsequent re¬
flection or refraction more easily practicable ; and for these
purposes we may either make use of plates of black glass,
placed in proper situations, or polarising piles, consisting
of a number of oblique thin plates, which produce the
effect on the light transmitted through them, with less di¬
minution of its intensity than would take place in a single
: partial reflection. In some cases, also, the light may be
analysed, by causing it to pass through a piece of Iceland
crystal; or through a thin plate of agate, which Dr Brew¬
ster has found to transmit only such light as is polarised in
a particular plane.
The measurements of the thickness of plates of doubly
refracting substances agree in genei'al very accurately
with the various tints exhibited by them in various situa¬
tions with respect to the axis, and with various obliquities
of the incident light, according to the theory of periodical
colours; and the agreement is always sufficiently perfect
to convince us of the dependence of the phenomena on
the law of interference, even if it should happen to re¬
quire some unknown modification in particular cases. In
the first place, when the incidence is perpendicular, the
thickness of the plates is precisely such as would be in¬
ferred from the theory, at least as nearly as the theory is
founded on observations sufficiently accurate, although this
thickness is often many hundred times as great as that of
die thin plates with which it is to be compared ; thus the
greatest« disproportion of the ordinary and extraordinary Chroma-
refraction of rock crystal, according to Malus’s experi- tics-
ments, is that of 159 to 160; so that the difference of
the times occupied by light in passing through this sub¬
stance is to the interval, in virtue of which a similar plate
exhibits the common colours, as 1 to 320, and to the in¬
terval in a plate of crown glass as 1 to 318 ; while the ex¬
periments of Mr Biot make the observed proportion that
of 1 to 360; the difference being no greater than would
arise from an error of less than a thousandth part of the
whole, in the determination of one of the refractive den¬
sities.
The effect of the obliquity of the incident light, on the
colours exhibited by plates of rock crystal, agrees also per¬
fectly with the theory. The difference of the times re¬
quired for the ordinary and extraordinary refractions, which
is always comparatively small, will vary as the fluxion of
the retardation when the obliquity varies; and the sine
of ordinary refraction being g, the interval will be express¬
ed by — r -.,, dra when the axis is parallel to the
A/C1—£?)
surface of the plate, and by — r ——-p   d« when it is
\/(1—ee)
perpendicular. Taking, for example, an experiment of Mr
Biot, on a plate in which the axis was nearly perpendicu¬
lar, the mean angle of refraction being 21° 38-5', the tint
was a reddish white of the seventh order, answering to the
reflection from a plate of glass •0000496 of an inch thick,
in the experiments of Newton, while the colour exhibit¬
ed, in a perpendicular light, by a plate of the same crys¬
tal, in which the axis was parallel to the surface, would
have been expressed by the thickness •000332. In these
two cases, the values of the fluxion become — rdn and
—T4633rdn; and reducing the interval *000332 in this
proportion, wre find •0000486 for the thickness of a plate
of glass which ought to exhibit the tint corresponding to
the oblique incidence ; the difference from the experiment
being only one millionth of an inch, which would scarcely
make a sensible alteration in the colour observed. When
the thickness of such a plate is more considerable, or when
the eccentricity of the extraordinary refraction is greater,
the colours differ, with the incidence, in different parts of
the plate; and they are generally disposed in rings con¬
centric with the axis. These rings have been particular¬
ly described by Dr Brewster, as observed in the topaz ; they
are always interrupted by a dark cross, occasioned by the
want of light, properly polarised to afford them, in the two
transverse directions.
Mr Biot has made a great number of experiments on
the colours of the plates of sulphate of lime, in the form
denominated Muscovy talc. They exhibit a general agree¬
ment with the results of the calculation, particularly with
respect to the constancy of the tint, in all moderate obli¬
quities, when the inclination of the axis to the plane of
incidence is 45° ; but in other cases the agreement is some¬
what less perfect, and the difference is too great to be at¬
tributed altogether to accident. The most probable rea¬
son for this irregularity, under circumstances so nearly
similar to those which accord with the theory in the case
of rock crystal, is the want of a perfect identity of the two
refractions, in the direction of the supposed axis ; or, in the
language employed by Mr Biot with respect to mica, the
existence of a double axis of extraordinary refraction :
and it is the more credible that such a slight irregularity
may have existed in the sulphate of lime without having
been observed, as Dr Brewster has detected a similar
property in the arragonite, though both Malus and Biot
had examined this substance very carefully without being
aware of it. The calculation of the extraordinary re-
t
646
CHROMATICS.
Chroma- fraction, in such a case, would afford but little addition-
lics- al difficulty, if its characters were well determined; the
f(jrm in which the undulations must be supposed to di¬
verge might properly be termed an amygdaloid, and the
velocities with which the sections formed by the given
surface would extend themselves might be deduced from
the properties of the ellipsis, nearly in the same manner
as they have been determined for the spheroid. I he dix-
ference of the results of the calculation from the spheroid,
and of Mr Biot’s experiments, or rather of the empirical
formula derived from them, may be seen in the subjoined
table ; the first part of which, deduced from the theory,
is applicable to all substances affording a regular extra¬
ordinary refraction, when the axis is either perpendicular
or parallel to the surface of the plate. . The first column
of decimals shows the equivalent variation of thickness
where the axis is perpendicular to the plate, being equal
Ji , the product of the sine and tangent of refrac-
VG—ss)
tion ; the second represents the variation for an ordinary
thin plate, being proportionable to the cosine vTl 5
and the subsequent columns are found by adding to the
numbers of the second column those of the first, multi¬
plied by A2, the square of the sine of the inclination of
the plane of incidence to the axis, since
Parallel Plate. Inclination of the Plane of Incidence to
the principal Section.
0° 221° 4-5° 77A° 90c
Anple Perpendi-
ef Re- cular
fraction. Plate.
00°
20
40
60
80
mot.
20°
40
60
80
•0000
•1245
•5394
1*5000
5*5851
22£°
1-0000 1*000
•9397 -958
•7660 -845
•5000 -720
•1736 -992
•969
•898
•848
1*196
•975
•920
•882
•921
1-000
1-002
1-036
1- 250
2- 966
•995
1-000
1-097
1-440
77i‘
1-000 1-000
1-046 1-064
1-245 1-305
1-780 2-000
4-940 5-759
1-023
1-112
1- 396
2- 338
1-038
1-175
1-588
3-562
There are also some circumstances in the experiments
of Mr Biot on plates of rock crystal cut perpendicularly
to the axis, which cannot be sufficiently explained on any
hypothesis, without some further investigation. Ihese
plates seem to transmit the beam of light subjected to the
experiment, without materially altering its polarisation,
and then to produce different colours, according to the
situation of the substance subsequently employed for ana¬
lysing the light; so that Mr Biot supposes the rays of
light to be turned more or less by the crystal, round an
axis situated in the direction of their motion; and he has
observed some similar effects in oil of turpentine, and in
some other fluids. But it is highly probable that all these
phenomena will ultimately be referred to some simp er
operation of the general law of interference.
Dr Seebeck and Dr Brewster have discovered appear¬
ances of colours, like those of doubly refracting substances,
in a number of bodies which can scarcely be supposed to
possess any crystalline structure. They are particularly
conspicuous in large cubes of glass which have been some¬
what suddenly cooled, so that their internal structure has
been rendered unequal with regard to tension. The out¬
side of a round mass thus suddenly cooled, being too large
for the parts within it, must necessarily be held by them
in a state of compression with respect to the direction of
the circumference, while they are extended in their turn
by its resistance; although in the direction of the dia¬
meter the whole will generally be in a state of tension ; so
that the refractive density may naturally be expected to
be somewhat different in different directions, which con- Ciirnr
stitutes the essential character of oblique refraction; and tki
when the proportions of the external parts to the internal '
are modified by the existence of angles, or other devia¬
tions from a spherical form, the arrangement of the ten¬
sions must be altered accordingly ; and there is no doubt
that all the apparently capricious variations of the rings
and bands of colours which are observed, might, by a care¬
ful and minute examination, be reduced to the natural
consequences of these inequalities of density, so far at
least as the laws of the extraordinary refraction alone are
concerned, although the separation of the light into two
portions might still remain unexplained. Effects of the
same kind are produced by the temporary operation of
partial changes of temperature, producing partial com¬
pression and extension of the internal structure of the
substance; and even a mechanical force, if sufficiently
powerful, when applied externally in a single direction,
has been shown, by the same observers, to produce a double
refraction; although the difference of the densities thus
induced is much too minute to be perceived in any other
way than by means of these colours, which are in general
so much the more easily seen, as the cause which excites
them is the feebler. . - . „
Dr Brewster has also shown that the total reflection ot
light within a denser medium, and the brilliant reflection
at the surfaces of some of the metals, are capable of ex¬
hibiting some of the appearances of colour; as if the light
concerned were divided into two portions, the one par¬
tially reflected in the first instance, the other beginning
to be refracted, and caused to return by the continued
operation of the same power. In the case of silver and
gold, it has already been observed that there appear to
be two kinds of reflection, occasioning opposite polarities;
and these may possibly be concerned in the production of
this phenomenon. The original interval appears to ex*
tremely minute, but it is capable of being increased by a
repetition of similar reflections, as well as by obliquity ot
incidence. Mr Biot has also found that such surfaces,
combined with plates of doubly refracting substances,
either increase or diminish the equivalent thickness, ac¬
cording to the direction of the polarisation which they oc¬
casion. In these, and in a variety of similar investigations,
a rich harvest is opened, to be reaped by the enhghtened
labours of future observers; and the more difficulty we
find in fully explaining the facts, upon the general prin¬
ciples hitherto established, the more reason there is to
hope for an extension of the bounds of our knowledge ot
the optical properties of matter, and of all the laws of na¬
ture connected with them, when the examination of these
apparent anomalies shall have been still more dihgen y
pursued.
Sect. XVL—Ofthe Nature of Light and Colours.
Notwithstanding the acknowledged impossibility of fully
explaining all the phenomena of light and colours y a y
imaginable hypothesis respecting their nature, it is ye
practicable to illustrate them very essentially, by a com¬
parison with the known effects of certain mechanical
causes, which are observed to act in circumstances some¬
what analogous; and, as far as a theory will enable us o
connect with each other a variety of tacts, it is perfec y
justifiable to employ it hypothetically, as a temporary
pedient for assisting the memory and the judgment, ^
all doubts are removed respecting its actual ftmnda
truth and nature. Whether, therefore, light maycon^t
merely in the projection of detached particles with a ce^
tain velocity, as some of the most celebiate P P £a
of modern times assert; or whether in the undulatio
CHROMATICS.
iiroma- certain ethereal medium, as Hooke and Huygens main-
tics- tained; or whether, as Sir Isaac Newton believed, both of
these causes are concerned in the phenomena; without
positively admitting or rejecting any opinion as demon¬
strably true or false, it is our duty to inquire what assist¬
ance can be given to our conception and recollection, by
the adoption of any comparison which may be pointedly
applicable even to some insulated facts only. It has, how¬
ever, been thought desirable to separate this investiga¬
tion as much as possible from the relation of the facts,
in order to avoid confounding the results of observation
with the deductions from mere hypothesis ; an error which
has been committed by some of the latest and most meri¬
torious authors in this department. It may be objected
to some of the preceding sections, that this forbearance
has not been exercised with respect to the general law of
interference and its modifications ; but it would have been
impossible to give any correct statement of the facts in
question, without determining whether the appearances
depend upon one or both of the portions of light supposed
to be concerned.
Art. 1. (Sect. I.) The separation of colours is explain¬
ed, in the hypothesis of emission, by the supposition of an
elective attraction, dilferent in intensity for the different
rays of the spectrum; but for this difference no ulterior
cause is assigned. Any original difference of velocity is
contrary to direct experiment; and even the alterations of
relative velocity, which must inevitably be occasioned by
a variety of astronomical causes, have not been detected
by the most accurate observations, instituted for the ex¬
press purpose of discovering them ; so that it has been sug¬
gested that there may possibly be a multitude of rays of
the same colour, moving with various velocities, and only
affecting the sense when they have the velocity appropriate
to that colour in the eye. The name of elective attraction
is indeed little more than a mode of expressing the fact,
without referring it to any simpler mechanical cause ; and
in chemical elective attractions the substances concerned
are under very different circumstances with respect to con¬
tact, and with respect to the probable influence of the form
and bulk of their integral particles; at the same time it
seems impossible to show any absurdity in the supposition
of the existence of such an elective attraction with regard
to the different kinds of light. On the other hand, if we
consider colours as depending on a succession of equal un¬
dulations, of different magnitudes as the colours are differ¬
ent, we may discover an analogy, somewhat more approach¬
ing to a mechanical explanation, in the motions of waves
on the surface of a liquid; the largest waves moving with
the greatest rapidity, although the approximate calcula¬
tion, derived from the most approved theory, leads us to
the same expressions for the velocity as are applicable to
the transmission of an impulse through an elastic fluid.
The fact is, that a larger wave moves more rapidly than a
smaller, because the pressure is not precisely limited to a
perpendicular direction, as the simplest calculation sup¬
poses, but operates also more or less in an oblique direc¬
tion, principally within a certain angular limit; so that the
utmost depth at which any difference of pressure can af¬
fect the liquid as a motive force, is that at which this
angle may be imagined to comprehend virtually the exact
breadth of a wave; and since the velocity depends on the
depth of the fluid affected at once by the pressure, the
breadth becomes in this manner an element of the deter¬
mination. Thus also the larger undulations, constituting
red light, are found to move more rapidly than those of
the violet, which are supposed to be smaller; and there
are many ways in which the difference may be supposed
to be occasioned, although not depending exactly on the
same cause as in the case of the waves on the surface of
a liquid. It is well known that sounds of all kinds move
with an equal velocity through the air, and all colours ar¬
rive through the supposed elastic ether in the same time
from the remotest planets; but a refractive medium, how¬
ever transparent, is not to be considered as perfectly ho¬
mogeneous ; in many instances, two mediums, of different
qualities, seem to pervade every part of a crystal, which is
completely uniform in its appearance; and it seems to be
necessary, in every case, to suppose the particles of mate¬
rial bodies scattered at considerable distances through a
medium which passes freely through their interstices; so
that we may conceive the undulations of light to be trans¬
mitted partly through the particles themselves, and partly
through the intervening spaces, the two portions meeting
continually after a certain very minute difference in the
length of their paths; we may then suppose the portion
transmitted through the interstices to be weakened by the
irregularity of its passage, which will affect the smaller
undulations more than the larger; and when these por¬
tions are combined with the portions more slowly trans¬
mitted through the particles themselves, these last will
bear a greater proportion to the former in the violet than
in the red light, and will have more influence on the ulti¬
mate velocity, which will therefore be smaller for the vio¬
let than for the red. This explanation may perhaps be far
from the best that the hypothesis in question might af¬
ford ; but it will serve as an illustration of a possible mode,
in which the phenomenon may be referred to the esta¬
blished laws of mechanics, without the continual introduc¬
tion of new principles and properties.
Art. 2. (Sect. IV. A.) Most of the ordinary phenomena
of optics are capable of a sufficiently satisfactory explana¬
tion, on either of the hypotheses respecting the nature of
light and colours ; but the laws of interference, which have
been shown to be so extensively applicable to the diver¬
sified appearances of periodical colours, point very directly
to the theory of undulation ; so directly, indeed, that their
establishment has been considered by many persons on the
Continent as almost paramount to the establishment of
that theory. It might not, however, be absolutely impos¬
sible to invent some suppositions respecting the effects of
light, which might partially reconcile these laws to the
theory of emission. Thus, if we suppose, with Newton, the
projected corpuscles of light to excite sensation by means
of the vibrations of the fibres of the retina and of the
nerves, we may imagine that such vibrations must be most
easily produced by a series of particles following each
other at equal distances, each colour having its appropri¬
ate distance in any given medium ; it will then be demon¬
strable that any second series of similar particles interfer¬
ing with them, in such a manner as to bisect their inter¬
vals, will destroy their effect in exciting a vibratory mo¬
tion, each succeeding particle meeting the fibre at the
instant of its return from the excursion occasioned by the
stroke of the preceding, and thus annihilating the motive
effect of that stroke. But the illustration ends here; for
it seems impossible to adapt it to the greater number of
the alternations which occur, during the passage of a ray,
through a given space, in a denser medium; since it is an
indispensable condition of the projectile theory, that the
velocity of light should be increased upon its entrance into
a medium of greater refractive density. The Newtonian
theory, of fits of easy reflection and easy transmission, is
still more limited in its application, since it attributes to
one portion of light those effects which have been strictly
demonstrated to depend on the presence of two.
In the undulatory theory, the analogy between the laws
of interference, and the phenomena of the tides, and the
effects of the combination of musical sounds, is direct and
648
CHROMATICS.
striking. The existence of an undulation of an elastic me-
dium dependson the recurrence of opposite motions, alter¬
nately direct and retrograde, at certain equal distances,
in the same manner as a series of waves consists in a num¬
ber of alternate elevations and depressions, and the suc¬
cession of the tides in a number of periods of high and low
water. The spring and neap tides, derived from the com¬
bination of the simple solar and lunar tides, afford a mag¬
nificent example of the interference of two immense waves
with each other; the spring tide being the joint result ot
the combination, when they coincide in time and place,
and the neap when they succeed each other at the dis¬
tance of half an interval, so as to leave the effect of then-
difference only sensible. The tides of the port of Batsha,
described and explained by Halley and Newton, exhibit a
different modification of the same opposition of undula¬
tions ; the ordinary periods of high and low water being
altogether superseded, on account of the different lengths
of the two channels by which the tides arrive affording
exactly the half interval which causes the disappearance
of the alternation. It may also be very easily observed,
by merely throwing two equal stones into a piece of stag¬
nant water, that the circles of waves which they occasion
obliterate each other, and leave the surface of the water
smooth, in certain lines of a hyperbolic form, while, in
other neighbouring parts, the surface exhibits the agitation
belonging to both series united. The beating of two mu¬
sical sounds, nearly in unison with each other, appears also
to be an effect exactly resembling the succession of spring
and neap tides, which may be considered as the beatings
of two undulations related to each other in frequency as
29 to 30; and the combination of these sounds is still more
identical’with that which this theory attributes to light,
since the elementary motions of the particles of the lumi¬
niferous medium are supposed to be principally confined
to the line of direction of the undulation, while the most
sensible effects of the waves depend immediately on their
ascent and descent, in a direction perpendicular to that of
their progressive motion.
Art. 3. (Sect. IV. B.) The diminution of the velocity
of liffht upon its entrance into a denser medium, in the
direct proportion of the refractive density, is one of the
fundamental principles of the undulatory theory, and is
perfectly inadmissible on the supposition of projected cor¬
puscles. But it must be remembered that the demonstra¬
tion of the actual existence of this proportion is somewhat
indirect, being only derived from the necessity of admit¬
ting it in the application of the laws of interference to the
observed phenomena; and we have no means of obtain¬
ing an immediate measure of the velocity of light in dif¬
ferent mediums.
Art. 4. (Sect. IV. C.) The loss of the half interval may
be explained, in particular cases, without difficulty, al¬
though, in other instances, the circumstances are too com¬
plicated to allow us to appreciate their effects. In the
direct transmission of a ray of light through a plate of a
transparent substance, we may compare the denser me¬
dium to a series of elastic balls, larger and heavier than
another series in contact with them on each side. Now,
it is well known that a series of elastic balls transmits any
motion from one end to the other, while each ball re¬
mains at rest, after having communicated the motion to
the next in order, so that the last only flies off, from
having none beyond it to impel; and if the balls, instead
of being only possessed of repulsive forces, were connect¬
ed by elastic ligaments of equal powers, a motion in a con¬
trary direction would be transmitted with equal ease; the
last ball, being retained by the ligament, instead of flying
off, would draw the last but one in the same direction, it¬
self remaining at rest after this negative impulse ; and the
motion would be communicated backwards in the same Chroma,
manner throughout the series to the first ball; and then, tics,
for want of further resistance, this ball would not remain
at rest after receiving the negative impulse, but would be
drawn forwards by it, so as to strike the second, precisely
in the same manner as at the beginning of the experi¬
ment; and this second positive impulse would proceed
through the whole series like the first. Such is the na¬
ture of the longitudinal vibrations of elastic rods, first ob¬
served by Chladni; the cohesion of the substance supply¬
ing the place of the supposed elastic ligaments; and in
the case of an elastic fluid, the pressure of the surround¬
ing parts performs the same office, a negative impulse
being always propagated through it with the same facility
as a "positive one. If, instead of a single series of balls,
we now consider the effect of two series, the second con¬
sisting of larger balls than the first, the last ball of the
smaller series will not remain at rest after striking the
first of the larger, but will be reflected, so as to strike the
last ball but one in a retrograde direction; and this retro¬
grade impulse will be continued to the first ball, consti¬
tuting a positive impulse with respect to the new duec-
tion m which it is propagated. But if the first series of
balls be larger than the second, the last of the larger balls
will not be deprived of all its motion by striking the first
of the smaller, but will continue to move more slowly in
its first direction; and the elastic ligaments will then be
called into action, so as to carry back step by step to the
first ball this remaining impulse, which will become nega¬
tive with respect to the new direction of its transmission.
And the same must happen in the case of two elastic me¬
diums in contact, supposing them to be of equal elasticity,
but of different densities ; the direction of the elementary
motions either coinciding with that of the general im¬
pulse, or being opposite to it in both mediums at once,
wdien the reflection is produced by the arrival of the un¬
dulation at the surface of a denser medium, and being
reversed when at the surface of a rarer ; and it is obvious
that such an inversion of any regular undulation is para¬
mount to its retardation or advancement, to the extent of
half of the interval which constitutes its whole breadth;
every affection of such an undulation being precisely in¬
verted at the distance of half the breadth ot a complete
alternation: and these effects will not materially differ,
whether the impulse be supposed to arrive perpendicu¬
larly at the surface, or in an oblique direction.
Art. 5. (Sect. IV. D.; Sect. XIII.) The experiments
of Mr Arago, which show that light does not interfere
with light polarised in a transverse direction, lead us im¬
mediately to the consideration of the general phenomena
of polarisation, which cannot be said to have been by any
means explained on any hypothesis respecting the nature
of light. It is certainly easier to conceive a detached
particle, however minute, distinguished by its different
sides, and having a particular axis turned in a particular
direction, than to imagine how an undulation, resembling
the motion of the air, which constitutes sound, can have
any different properties with respect to the different p anes
which diverge from its path. But here the advantage
of the projectile theory ends; for every attempt to reduce
the phenomena of polarisation to mechanical laws, hy me
analogy of magnetism, has completely failed of enabl1 ^
us to calculate the results of the actions of the forces sup¬
posed to be concerned, in any correct manner; to say
nothing of the extreme complication of the Pr0Pe”
which it would be necessary to attribute to the simp _
and minutest substances, in order to justify the °' ? c
hypothesis of a polarity existing in all the particles og>
and a directive attraction, that is, a combination o a
tion and repulsion, in every reflecting or refrac mg
CHROMATICS.
649
jma- stance. In (he undulatory theory we may discover some
:;s. distant analogies, sufficient to give us a conception of the
''“^possibility of reconciling the facts with the theory, and
perhaps even of reducing those facts to some general laws
derived from it; although it will be necessary, in this in¬
tricate part of the inquiry, to proceed analytically rather
than synthetically, and to rest satisfied for the present,
without bringing the analysis to a termination by any
means explanatory of all the phenomena. Some of the
supporters of’this theory may perhaps be of opinion that
its deficiencies are too strongly displayed by this attempt;
but it is for them to find a more complete solution of the
difficulties, if any such can be discovered.
In the case of a wave moving on the surface of a liquid,
considering the motion of the particles at some little dis¬
tance below the surface as concerned in the propagation
of an undulation in a horizontal direction, w'e may observe
that there is actually a lateral motion, throughout the
liquid, in a plane of which the direction is determined by
that of gravitation ; but this happens because the liquid is
more at liberty to extend itself on this side than on any
other, the force of gravitation tending to bring it back
with a pressure of which the operation is analogous to that
of elasticity; and we cannot find a parallel for this force in
the motions of an elastic medium. It is indeed very easy to
deduce a motion, transverse to the general direction, from
the combination of two undulations proceeding from two
neighbouring points, and interfering with each other, when
the difference of their paths amounts to half an interval;
for the result of this combination will be a regular though
a very minute vibration in a transverse direction, which
will continue to take place throughout the line of the pro¬
pagation of the joint motions, although certainly not with
any force that would naturally be supposed capable of pro¬
ducing any perceptible effects. There must even be a
difference in the motions of the particles in every simply
diverging undulation, in different parts of the spherical
surface to which they extend; for, supposing it to origi¬
nate from a vibration in a given plane, the velocity of the
motion constituting the undulation will be greatest in the
direction of that plane, and will disappear in a direction
perpendicular to it, or rather will there become transverse
to the direction of the diverging radii; and in all other
parts there must be a very minute tendency to a trans¬
verse motion, on account of the difference of the velocities
of the collateral direct motions, and of the compressions
I and dilatations which they occasion. When, also, a limit¬
ed undulation is admitted into a quiescent medium, it
loses some of its force by diffraction on each side, where
it is unsupported by the progress of the collateral parts;
and if an undulation were admitted by a number of minute
parallel linear apertures or slits, or reflected from an infi¬
nite number of small wires, parallel to each other, it would
still retain the impression of the incipient tendency to dif¬
fraction in all its parts, producing a modification of the mo¬
tion, in a direction transverse to that of the slits or w ires.
It is true that all these motions and modifications of mo¬
tion would be minute beyond the power of imagination,
even when compared with other motions, themselves ex¬
tending to a space far too minute to be immediately per¬
ceived by the senses : and this consideration may perhaps
lessen the probability of the theory as a physical explana¬
tion of the facts ; but it would not destroy its utility as a
mathematical representation of them, provided that such
a representation could be rendered general, and reducible
to calculation; and, even in a physical sense, if the alter¬
native were unavoidable, it is easier to imagine the powers
of perceiving minute changes to be all but infinite, than to
admit the portentous complication of machinery, which
must be heaped up, in order to afford a solution of the
VOL. Vi.
difficulties which beset the application of the doctrine of Chroma-
simple projection to all the phenomena of polarisation and tics,
of colours. It is not however possible at present to complete
such a mathematical theory, even on imaginary grounds ;
although a few further analogies between polarisation and
transverse motion force themselves on our observation.
In the theory of emission, the resemblance of the phe¬
nomena of polarisation to the selection of a certain num¬
ber of particles, having their axes turned in a particular
direction, supposing these axes, like those of the celestial
bodies, to remain always parallel, will carry us to a certain
extent, in estimating the quantity of light contained in
each of the two pencils into which a beam is divided and
subdivided; but it would soon appear that, after a few
modifications, this parallelism could no longer be supposed
to be preserved : we should also find it impossible to assign
the nature and extent of any forces which might be capa¬
ble of changing the former directions of the axes, and fix¬
ing them permanently in new ones. The distinction of
a fixed, a movable, and a partial polarisation, which has
been imagined by Mr Biot, must vanish altogether, upon
considering that all the effects which he attributes to the
partial polarisation are observable in experiments like
those of Mr Knox, in which there is confessedly no polari¬
sation at all.
It we assume as a mathematical postulate, in the undu¬
latory theory, without attempting to demonstrate its phy¬
sical foundation, that a transverse motion may be propa¬
gated in a direct line, we may derive from this assumption
a tolerable illustration of the subdivision of polarised light
by reflection in an-oblique plane. Supposing polarisation
to depend on a transverse motion in the given plane, when
a ray completely polarised is subjected to simple reflection
in a different plane, which is destitute of any polarising ac¬
tion, and may therefore be called a neutral reflection, the
polar motion may be conceived to be reflected, as any other
motion would be reflected, at a perfectly smooth surface,
the new plane of the motion being always the image of the
former plane; and the effect of refraction will be nearly of
a similar nature. But when the surface exhibits a new
polarising influence, and the beams of light are divided by
it into two portions, the intensity of each may be calculat¬
ed, by supposing the polar motion to be resolved instead
of being reflected, the simple velocities of the two portions
being as the cosines of the angles formed by the new
planes of motion with the old, and the energies, which are
the true measure of the intensity, as the squares of the
sines. We are thus insensibly led to confound the inten¬
sity of the supposed polar motion with that of the reflect¬
ed light itself; since it was observed by Malus, that the
relative intensity of the two portions into which light is
divided under such circumstances, is indicated by the pro¬
portion of the squares of the cosine and sine of "the incli¬
nation of the planes of polarisation. The imaginary trans¬
verse motion might also .necessarily be alternate, partly
from the nature of a continuous medium, and partly from
the observed fact, that there is no distinction between the
polarisations, produced by causes precisely opposed to each
other, in the same plane.
Why light should or should not be reflected at certain
surfaces, when it has been previously polarised, cannot,
even with the greatest latitude of hypothesis, be very sa¬
tisfactorily explained; but it is remarkable that the trans¬
mission is never wholly destroyed, or even weakened in
any considerable proportion. We might, indeed, assign a
reason for the occurrence of a partial reflection or a total
transmission in the constitution of the surface concerned,
since every abrupt change of density must necessarily pro¬
duce a partial reflection, while a gradual transition by in¬
sensible steps must transmit each impulse with undimi-
4 N
650
CHROMATICS.
Chroma- nished energy) and without any reflection of finite inten-
tics. gity, as in the well-known case of a collision supposed to
be performed with the interposition of an infinite number
of balls of all possible intermediate magnitudes. If, there¬
fore, we could find any modification of light, which could
cause it to be transmitted from one medium to another in
a more or less abrupt manner, we should thus be able to
discover a cause of a variation of the intensity of the par¬
tial reflection ; and this seems to be the nearest approach
that we can at present make to an explanation of the phe¬
nomenon, according to the undulatory theory.
Art. 6. (Sect. V.) The equal intensity of the colours
of thin plates, seen by reflection and by transmission, is a
fact which would not have been expected from the imme¬
diate application of the law of interference, and which
seems, therefore, at first sight to militate against its gene¬
ral adoption. But this is only one of the many modifica¬
tions of the law, which are the immediate consequences
of its connection with the undulatory theory ; and it may
be demonstrated, from the analogy of a series of elastic
bodies, that no material difference in the intensity of the
two kinds of colours ought to be expected in such circum¬
stances. The intensity of a ray of light must always be
considered as proportional to the energy or impetus of the
elementary motions of the particles concerned, which va¬
ries as the square of the velocity, and not simply as the
velocity itself; for if the velocity were made the measure
of intensity, there would be an actual gain of joint inten¬
sity whenever a ray is divided by partial reflection ; since
it follows from the laws of the motion of the centre of in¬
ertia, that when a smaller body strikes a larger, not the
sum,, but the difference of the separatC'vqiomenta, will re¬
main unchanged by the collision, while *^4)6 sum ol the
energies remains constant in all circumstance^; the square
of a negative quantity being equal to that of the same
quantity taken positively. Thus, supposing an elastic ball,
1, to strike another, of which the mass is r, with the ve¬
locity 1, the velocity of the transmitted impulse will be
and that of the reflected, ——— I = tr :—r> ^ie
r+1’
r+1
l r + 1
. L . 3r— 1
sum of the momenta intheopposite direction&bemg j 5
instead of 1, the original momentum ; butiue energies ex¬
pressed by the products of the masses intWthe squares of
y* fy'  ' ^
the velocities will be and ( . ^ ) respective-
so that the changes introduced, in consequence of the mo- Chroma,
tion of one of the bodies concerned, are the same as it tics,
would have occasioned if the other had been at rest; and,
consequently, if two undulations interfere in any manner,
the joint velocities of the particles must always be express¬
ed by the addition or subtraction of the separate veloci¬
ties belonging to the.respective undulations. When, there¬
fore, the beam first partially reflected, of which the ele¬
mentary velocity is expressed by n, interferes with the
beam transmitted back, after reflection at the second
surface, with the velocity m2n, the joint velocity, in the
case of the perfect agreement of the motions, will be
n + m?n, and in case of their disagreement, n — m2?*,-
the energies being (n + m2n)2 and {n — m2»)2; the
difference, which is the true measure of the effect of the
interference, being 4 m2n2, that is, four times the product
of the respective velocities. But when the light simply
transmitted at the second surface, with the velocity m2,
interferes with the light transmitted after two reflections,
with the velocity ?»%2, the quadruple product becomes
4 wi%2, only differing from the former in the ratio of m2
to 1, which is that of the intensity of the light transmit¬
ted by the single surface to the intensity of the incident
light, the difference being much too slight to be directly
perceived by the eye; so that this result may be consi¬
dered as agreeing perfectly with Mr Arago’s observa-
tion. _
WTe may also obtain, from the analogy with the effects of
collision, an illustration of the intensity of the partial re¬
flection in different circumstances; although it is not easy
to say what ought to be the precise value of r in the com¬
parison. If we imagined the two mediums to diflei only
in density, while their elasticity remained equal, which is
the simplest supposition, the density must be conceived to
vary as the square of the velocity appropriate to the me¬
dium ; but the value of r thus determined makes the par¬
tial reflection in general much too intense, and it becomes
necessary to suppose it weakened by the intervention of a
stratum of intermediate density, such as there is every rea¬
son to attribute to the surfaces of material substances in ge¬
neral, from the considerations stated in the article Cohe¬
sion. However this may be, we shall in general approach
sufficiently near to a representation of the phenomenon,
by taking the mass r in the simple proportion of the re-
 4
fractive density : thus, in the case of wrater, making T — ^
0‘ + 1)2’ " \r +
/ y t !
jy ; and the sum of these is ^ ~ 1* v N°'v> when
• (r—V
we have for the energy of the first partial reflection^—j-j
an
impulse arrives at the last of a series of larger particles,
— i_ — -0204, while the result of Bouguer's experiments
49
and is reflected in an inverted form, if we substitute - for
,4
is -018; and the agreement is as accurate as could have
been expected, even if the whole calculation had not been
. „4 ./I A2 an imaginary structure. In the case of glass,'the difference
r, the energies will be in the proportion of -, and ( ~ —1J ’ is someWhat greater ; and it is natural to expect a greater
loss of light from a want of perfect polish in the surface;
for, taking r = we have n2 = *040, and Bouguer found
or of 4 r and (1 — r)2, which is the same as the former;
so that, according to this analogy, the subdivision of the
light at the second surface of a plate must be in the same
proportion as at the first. We may call this proportion
that of 77i2 to 772, ??i2 + 7i2 being equal to 1 ; wre have
then ?i2 for the energy of the first partial reflection, 7?i2n2
for the second, and m2/!4 for the third; for the first trans¬
mission, into the substance, 7?i2 ; for the second, out of it,
tti4 ; for the third, after an intermediate reflection, ?7i47i2 ;
and for the fourth, after two reflections, tiHti4 ; and the
elementary velocities in either medium, compared among
themselves, will be as the square roots of the respective
energies. But it may he proved that, in all collisions of
two moving bodies, each of the motions produces its effect
on the velocities after impulse, independently of the other;
the reflection only *025. The surface of mercury reflect¬
ed nearly *60 ; whence r should be about 8. Whether the
index of the refractive density can be so great as this, we
have no precise mode of determining; but there seems
to be something in the nature of metallic reflection not
wholly dependent on the density. Thus it may be ob¬
served, that potassium has a very brilliant appearance,
though its specific gravity is very low; at the same time,
its great combustibility might give it a much higher ran
among refractive substances than ^could otherwise have
been expected from its actual density.
Art. 7. (Sect. XIII.) Although the ingenuity of man
C H R
"onic. has not yet been able to devise any thing like a satisfac-
tory reason for the reflection of a polarised ray in one
case, and its transmission in another, yet several attempts
have been made, with various success, to reconcile the
different hypotheses of light with the other phenomena of
oblique refraction. The illustrious Mr Laplace has un¬
dertaken to reduce the laws of this refraction, according
to the projectile system, from the general doctrines of
motion; and he has sufficiently demonstrated that the
path followed by the light is always such as to agree
with the principle of the least action, supposing the law
of the velocities previously established ; or, in other words,
that the sum of the products of the spaces described, into
the respective velocities, is always the least possible. To
this demonstration it has been objected, that notwith¬
standing the complication of its steps, it is in fact nothing
more than the simple translation of the fundamental law
of Huygens into another language ; for it is assumed in
this theory, upon obvious and intelligible grounds, that
the path of light must always be such that the time may
be equal with respect to two neighbouring collateral parts
of the undulation, which is the well-known condition of a
minimum of the whole time employed ; and the time be¬
ing always expressed by the space divided by the veloci¬
ty, if we suppose the proportions of the velocities to be
inverted, as in the two theories respecting light, the ex¬
pression of the time in the one will be identical with that
of the action in the other; consequently the conditions
of the propagation of light, in the Huygenian doctrine,
must always imply the observation of the law of least ac¬
tion in the opposite hypothesis; and this general proposi¬
tion Mr Laplace has taken great pains to prove with re¬
spect to a particular instance, in which the Huygenian
calculation had been found, notwithstanding Newton’s
doubts, to agree perfectly with the phenomena. It has
also been observed, that the law of the least action is
wholly inadmissible as a fundamental principle of motion ;
that it is completely unphilosophical to multiply unne¬
cessarily the number of postulates or elementary laws;
and that although in many cases the principle may be
capable of being established as a derivative proposition,
yet, in order to demonstrate it, we must assume that the
velocity must be the same in all directions, between the
same parallel or concentric surfaces, or at any rate must
limit our reasoning by conditions incompatible with the
nature of the actions, to be considered as the foundation
of the laws of extraordinary refraction.
In this single point, the undulatory theory has every
possible advantage over its rival. For the difference of
the velocities in different directions, no force has been
assigned as a cause, in the projectile system, at all more
general than the individual directions of the rays with re¬
spect to the axis. But upon the hypothesis of undula¬
tions, it has been demonstrated,. without any gratuitous
supposition, that every lamellar or fibrous substance must
transmit every diverging impulse in the form of a sphe¬
roidal surface, supposing only the elasticity to act more
powerfully in one direction than another, as it naturally
must do in such circumstances. ( Quarterly Review, No.
C II R 651
iv.) And when we consider the experiments of Dr Brew- Chronicle,
ster and Dr Seebeck, which show that any compression
or extension whatever, acting in a given direction on any
transparent solid, is capable of occasioning those appear¬
ances of colour which prove the transmission of light by
an ordinary and extraordinary refraction, we cannot help
imagining that the cause of the elliptic refraction must
be of a nature more simple than is consistent with the
existence of a multiplicity of attractions, and repulsions,
and polarising powers, acting in all manner of directions,
with every possible variation of intensity, independently
of any assignable variation of the circumstances of the
light affected.
There is however another mode of considering the me¬
chanism of elliptic refraction, which is somewhat less simple
and elementary, but which affords us a further analogy to
the phenomena of polarisation by reflection and transmis¬
sion. If we suppose a doubling crystal to consist of a large
number of very thin plates, united by a medium differing
but little from them in refractive density, this pile will
completely polarise the transmitted light, as Malus and
Dr Brewter have shown, in a plane perpendicular to that
of the incidence, even when the inclination of the sur¬
faces is widely different from that which produces the
most complete polarisation at once ; and at the same time
a part of the light, partially reflected by each plate, will
be again reflected by the neighbouring surfaces into its
original direction ; nor will it be difficult to imagine that
the quantity of light thus twice reflected may, from some
unknown cause, be rendered ultimately equal to that of
the light simply transmitted, which, according to the laws
of polarisation, will never exceed half of the original beam.
Now the lengths of the paths of these two portions will
not only be different, but the difference will vary accord¬
ing to the direction ; for while the light simply transmit¬
ted proceeds to describe its path, with the uniform velo¬
city belonging to the mean of the two mediums, combin¬
ed always in a constant proportion, the light twice reflect¬
ed by each plate will be retarded most of all in the di¬
rection perpendicular to the plates, as in the case of the
colours of cbtnmon thin plates ; and in oblique directions,
the number of plates which it has to pass through in a
given space bd^ng as the cosine of the angle of incidence,
and the retardation in each plate being also as the same
cosine, neglecting the difference between the angles of in¬
cidence and redaction, which is supposed to be inconsi¬
derable, the wl^)le retardation will be as the square of the
cosine of the mclination to the axis, which is the well-
known proportidn of the difference of the diameters of a
circle, and of an ellipsis approaching near in it. We thus
obtain a general idea of the combination of two effects
which do not appear to be related in any other point of
view, a regular oblique refraction and a distinct polarisa¬
tion ; further than this, the comparison is by no means
completely satisfactory; and the great difficulty of all,
which is to assign a sufficient reason for the reflection or
non-reflection of a polarised ray, will probably long remain,
to morthy the vanity of an ambitious philosophy, complete¬
ly unresolved by any theory. (l. l.)
CHROMIUM. See Chemistry.
CHRONIC, among physicians, an appellation given to
diseases that continue a long time, in contradistinction
to those that soon terminate, and are termed acute.
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a species or
kind of history disposed according to the order of time,
and agreeing in most respects with annals.
652
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- Chronology, from yjm^' tirm> and ,Xo7os’ w0Jd ”r.' e~
logy, scription. is the science which treats of tune. Its object
is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have
occurred in the history of the world in the order ot then
succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between
The preservation of any record, however rude, of the
lapse of time, implies some knowledge of the celestial mo¬
tions, by which alone time can be accurately measured,
and some advancement in the arts of civilized life, which
could only be attained by the accumulated experience of
many generations. Before the invention of letters, the
memory of past transactions could not be preserved be¬
yond a few years with any tolerable degree of accuracy.
Events which greatly affected the physical condition of
the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep im¬
pression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth,
might be vaguely transmitted through several ages by
traditional narrative ; but intervals of time, expressed by
abstract numbers, and these too constantly varying, would
soon escape from the memory. The invention ot the art
of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and
permanent records for vague and evanescent tradition ; but
in the infancy of the world mankind had neither learned
to estimate accurately the duration ot time, nor to refer
passing events to a fixed and determined epoch. Writing
was practised many centuries before historians began to
assign dates to the events they narrated.
For these reasons the history of the early ages of the
world is involved in impenetrable obscurity, and chrono¬
logy, comparatively speaking, is only of recent date. A fter
political relations began to be established, the necessity
of preserving a register of passing seasons and years would
soon be felt, and the practice of recording important trans¬
actions must have grown up as a necessary consequence
of social life. But of these early records, how small a por¬
tion has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism ? fhe
annals of the early Greeks and of the Etruscans are irre¬
trievably lost. Of the chronicles which Manetho, high
priest of Sebenne, professed to have reduced from the
archives of the Egyptian temples ; of the histories ot San-
coniathon the Phoenician, ofBerosus,Hecat3eus, and others,
only a few mutilated fragments have been transmitted to
our times through the suspected relation of Josephus,
Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and other chronolo-
gers. The Gauls destroyed the records of ancient Rome.
The Romans, in their turn, extirpated the Druids of Gaul
and Britain, and obliterated the last vestiges ot their an¬
cient traditions. An Arab chief burned the library of
Alexandria, a Chinese emperor the histories of his own
country, and a Spanish soldier the paintings and hiero¬
glyphics of the palace of Montezuma.
In order to preserve an exact record of the succession
of events, some conventional epoch., or fixed point of time,
must be taken as the origin of the reckoning, and some
standard period assumed with which the successive inter¬
vals may be compared. It is a trite remark, that the sim¬
plest ideas are generally the latest in representing them¬
selves to the mind. Nothing seems more obvious than to
measure the longer intervals of time by the tropical revo¬
lutions of the sun, and to number the years in regular
succession. But this simple method was not adopted by
historians in the earliest ages. In the Scripture history
the lapse of time is frequently estimated by generations, or
reigns of kings, and not by exact numbers of years. The
historians of early Greece proceeded in a similar manner. Chrono-
Hellanicus regulated his narrative by the succession of logy,
the priestesses of Juno in the temple of Argos. Others Vs“"Y'w
reckoned by the ephori and kings of Sparta, or the archons
of Athens/ Ephorus, the disciple of Isocrates, who com¬
posed a chronological history of Greece, reckoned by ge¬
nerations. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus, who flourished
about a hundred years after the death of Alexander the
Great, first attempted to introduce precision into histori¬
cal records, by substituting numbers of years for genera¬
tions, reigns, or successions. (See Newton’s Chronology,
Introduction). Now, when time is measured by any of the
above methods, it is obvious that we can only approximate
to the intervals between successive events, from our know¬
ledge of the average duration of human life, and of kings
reigns, in the present state of the world. Chronologers
usually reckon three generations equivalent to a hundred
years, and Sir Isaac Newton allows eighteen or twenty
years to a reign or succession. In a great number of
years this estimate is probably near the truth, but it affords
very uncertain information with respect to short periods,
and none whatever with regard to the duration of an indi¬
vidual reign. It is to those loose methods of marking the
lapse of time that we must ascribe the great discrepancy
that exists among the chronological accounts of the early
ages of Greece and Rome.
Another great cause of uncertainty and confusion in
chronology has arisen from the diversity of epochs as¬
sumed by historians, and the practice, which has been
unhappily too prevalent, of shifting the origin of their eras
from one epoch to another. Having little intercourse with
each other, the different groups or communities into which
mankind were divided in early times, instead of agreeing
on a common epoch, began each to date the years from
some event, important perhaps in reference to its indivi¬
dual history, but of which other tribes were probably en¬
tirely ignorant, or which at least they regarded with indif¬
ference. Hence in ancient history we have the Olympiad
of Coraebus, the foundation of Rome, the era of Nabonassar
&c.; and in more recent times the Christian era, the He¬
gira, the era of Yezdegird, &c. Some centuries after the
introduction of Christianity, the various sects of Christians
began to found their eras on events connected with the
appearance of Christ, but without any regard to uniformity.
Some reckoned from the epoch of his conception, or the
annunciation; others from his birth, others again from
his passion, others from his ascension; and hence there
is very frequently the greatest difficulty in reconciling the
dates given by the historians and annalists of the middle
“in reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant
succession, the numbers denoting the years necessarily
undergo a constant and unlimited augmentation. But mle
nations, and illiterate people in general, seldom attach any
definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a prac¬
tice, very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods,
containing a moderate number of years, and to distinguisn
and reckon the years by their number in the cycle, me
Chinese, and some other nations of Asia, reckon not on y
the years, but also the months and days, by cycles of sixty.
The Saros of the Chaldeans, the Olympiad of the Gree s,
and the Roman Indiction, are instances of this mode o
reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly knovva *
Europe ; but most of them were invented for the purp
of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and wer
CHRONOLOGY.
653
•ono- rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than as
gy- chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very
great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imper¬
fectly expressed, and consequently form important ele¬
ments of chronology.
In the article Calendar, we have already treated of
that part of Chronology which relates to the measurement
of time, and explained with sufficient detail the principal
methods that have been employed, or are still in use, for
adjusting the lunar months to the solar year, as well as the
intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year ac¬
cording to the celestial motions. In the present article it
is our purpose to give an account of the different liras
and Periods that have been employed by historians, and
by the different nations of the world, in recording the suc¬
cession of time and events; to fix the epochs at which the
eras respectively commenced; to ascertain the form and
the initial day of the year made use of; and to establish
their correspondence with the years of the Christian era.
These elements will enable us to convert, by a simple
arithmetical operation, any historical date, of which the
chronological characters are given according to any era
whatever, into the corresponding date in the common era
of the Incarnation.
Julian Period.
Although the Julian period is not, properly speaking, a
chronological era, yet, on account of its affording consider¬
able facilities in the comparison of different eras with one
another, and in marking without ambiguity the years be¬
fore Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologers.
It consists of 7980 Julian years. The number 7980 is
formed by the continued multiplication of the three num¬
bers 28, 19, and 15, that is, of the cycles of the sun, of the
moon, and of the Indiction: hence, when the number of
any year in the Julian period is divided by one of these
three numbers, the remainder of the division will indicate
the number of that year in the corresponding cycle. The
first year of the Christian era had ten for its number in
the cycle of the sun, two in the cycle of the moon, and
four in the Indiction; but 4714 is the only number less
than 7980 which, on being divided by 28, 19, and 15, gives
the respective remainders 10, 2, and 4 (See Calendar).
Hence the first year of the Christian era corresponded with
the year 4714 of the Julian period. In order, therefore,
to find the year of our era corresponding to any other year
of the period, or the contrary, we have the following rule :
1. When the given year is anterior to the commence¬
ment of the Christian era, subtract the number of the year
in the Julian period from 4714, and the remainder is the
year before Christ; or subtract the year before Christ from
4714, and the remainder is the corresponding year in the
Julian period.
2. When the given year is after Christ, subtract 4713
from the year of the period, and the remainder is the year
of the Christian era; or add 4713 to the year of Christ,
and the sum is the corresponding year of the Julian period.
Olympiads.
The Olympic games, so famous in Grecian history, were
celebrated once every four years, between the new and
full moon first following the summer solstice, on the banks
of the river Alpheus, near the city of Pisa, in the Pelo¬
ponnesus, and lasted five days. They are said to have been
originally instituted by Hercules, at the funeral ceremonies
of Pelops, 1354 years before the Christian era; but they
seem to have been forgotten, or at least to have been dis¬
continued, during several centuries. They were afterwards
re-established by Iphitus, king of a canton of Elis, in con¬
cert with Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa, 844 years be¬
fore Christ, and 470 years from the time of their original
institution ; but it was not till upwards of a hundred years
after this time that they began to be used as a chronolo¬
gical epoch. It was then that the practice was adopted
of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by
the name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and
of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The
first who received this honour was Coroebus. The games
in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the prin¬
cipal epoch of Grecian history, were celebrated about the
time of the summer solstice, 776 years before the common
era of the Incarnation, in the 3938th of the Julian period,
and twenty-three years, according to the account of Varro,
before the foundation of Rome.
Form of the Olympic Year.—Before the introduction of
the Metonic cycle, the ordinary Grecian year consisted of
twelve lunar months, containing twenty-nine and thirty
days alternately; and in order to reconcile this with the
course of the sun, a thirteenth month was added, at first
every second year, and subsequently three times in eight
years. rIhe additional or intercalary month contained
thirty days, so that the Octaeteris, or period of eight years,
consisted of ninety-nine months, containing in all 2922
days, which is exactly equal to eight Julian years. The
years which contained the intercalary month were called
embolismic, and formed the third, fifth, and eighth of the pe¬
riod. Hence the Olympiads contained forty-nine and fifty
months alternately, the first four years of the Octaeteris
containing one intercalary year, and the second two; and
hence, also, the Olympic games were celebrated alternate¬
ly on common and embolismic years. It has been shown in
the article Calendar, that the Octaeteris fell short of the
actual length of ninety-nine lunations by a day and a half
nearly; at the end ot two periods, therefore, the moon’s
age was three days less than it had been at the commence¬
ment, and in order to restore the coincidence between the
civil month and the lunation, three days were added to the
last year of each second Olympiad. But this correction
introduced an error in respect of the sun, and caused the
solar year to commence three days too late. This error was
allowed to accumulate till the end of the fortieth Olym¬
piad, when a full month of thirty days was omitted, by
which means the solar and lunar years were adjusted, and
the forty-first Olympiad commenced with the same day of
the moon, and the same season of the year, as the first had
done 160 years before. According to this arrangement
the common years contained 354 days, and the embolismic
384; excepting however the concluding year of each se¬
cond Octaeteris, which contained 387 .days, and the last
year of each fortieth Olympiad, which had 357 days.
In the fourth year of the eighty-sixth Olympiad, Meton
published his celebrated cycle of nineteen years, which,
after receiving a slight correction from Calippus, continued
to be followed ever afterwards, so long as the practice of
dating by Olympiads continued in use. Before the intro¬
duction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began some¬
times with the full moon which followed, sometimes with
that which preceded, the summer solstice, on account that
the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354; but
subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced
with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the sol¬
stice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it
would be necessary to recommence for every year, and of
which the results differ from one another only by a few
days, chronologers in general regard the first of July as
the commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors,
however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome, and the his¬
torian Socrates, place its commencement at the first of
September; but they seem to have confounded the Olym-
Clirono-
logy.
654
CHRONOLOG Y.
Chrono- pic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the
l°Ky- Seleucidae.
It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and
periods begin with the first of July, the first six months of
a year of our era correspond to one Olympic year, and the
last six months to another. Ihus, when it is said that the
first year of the Incarnation corresponds to the first of the
195th Olympiad, we are to understand that it is only with
respect to the last six months of that year that the cor¬
respondence takes place. The first six months belonged
to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring
dates expressed by Olympiads to our eia, oi the contrary,
we must therefore distinguish two cases.
Isif, When the event in question happened between the
first oV January and the first of the following July, the sum
of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is al¬
ways equal to 776. I he year ot the era, theieloie, will
be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year
from 776. For example, Varro refers the foundation of
Home to the 21st of April of the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our
era. Since five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third
year of the sixth Olympiad is 5X4 + 3=23; therefore,
subtracting 23 from 776, wTe have io3, which is the yeai
before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred
by Varro.
2d, When the event took place between the summer sol¬
stice’ and the first of January following, the sum of the
Olympic year and of the year before Christ is equal to
777. The difference therefore between 777 and the year
in one of the dates will give the year in the other date.
Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little
before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is
required to-find the corresponding year in the Olympic
era. Subtract 413 from 777, the remainder is 364 ; and
364 divided by four gives 91 without a remainder; con¬
sequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the
ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is re¬
ferred by Thucydides.
If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in
one of the first six months of the Olympic year, that is to
say, between July and January, we must subtract 776 from
the number of the Olympic year to find the coi responding
year of our era; but if it took place in one of the last six
months of the Olympic year, or between January and July,
we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads sel¬
dom occurs in historical records after the middle of the
fifth century of our era.
The names of the months were different in the different
Grecian states. The Attic months, which were the most
usual, are as follows:
Hecatombeon. Gamelion.
Metageitnion. Anthesterion.
Boedromion. Elaphebolion.
Pyanepsion. Munychion.
Mcemacterion. Thargelion.
Poseideon. Seirophorion.
Era of the Foundation of Rome.
After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with
in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which
is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman his¬
torians. There are various opinions respecting the year
in which this event took place; but the authorities most
deserving of credit are the five following:
ls<, Fabius Pictor, who places the epoch of the founda¬
tion of Rome in the latter half of the first year of the
eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th of the
Julian period, and with the year 747 before Christ.
2d, Polybius, who places it in the second year of the
seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian Chrom
period, and 750 b. c. logy.
M, Cato, who places it in the first year of the seventh
Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and 751
b. c.
4('/q Verrius Flaccus, who places it in the fourth year
of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the
Julian period, and 752 b.c.
bth, Terentius Varro, who places it in the third year of
the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Ju¬
lian period, and 753 b. c.
A knowledge of these different computations is fre¬
quently necessary, in order to reconcile the Roman his¬
torians with one another, and even with themselves. Livy
in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he some¬
times follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the
account of Varro, which is also in general adopted by
Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows Cato. Mo¬
dern chronologers for the most part adopt the account
of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus,
where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome com¬
menced with the festival of the Palilia, in the consulship
of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now this consulship cor¬
responded with the 238th year of our era; therefore, de¬
ducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year
before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 21st of
April; all the accounts agree in regarding this date as
the epoch of the foundation of Rome.
The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year,
which was used in the transaction of public and private
affairs, and the consular year, according to which the an¬
nals of their history have been composed. From the time
of Numa the civil year always commenced with the ca¬
lends of January; but by reason ot the arbitrary manner
in which, till the time of Julius Caesar, their calendar was
regulated by the pontiff's, the civil months did not retain
a fixed place in the solar year, and the calends of Janu¬
ary successively passed into the different seasons. Hence
part of the Roman civil year corresponded to one Julian
year, and part of it to another. Thus, when the 1st of
January in the civil year corresponded with the Julian 1st
of September, the first four months of the civil year be¬
longed to one Julian year, and the last eight months to
the Julian year following. With regard to the consular
year (or year of the reign before the expulsion of the
kings) the confusion and uncertainty are still greater.
The epoch of the succession of a king regulated the com¬
mencement of the years of his reign, and the installation
of the consuls the commencement of the consular year.
The initial day of the consulate was never fixed, at least
before the seventh century of Rome, but varied with the
different accidents which in times of political commotion
so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the elec¬
tions. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally
speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years,
but also of twro civil years. The consulate is the date
employed by the Latin historians generally, and by many
of the Greeks, down to the sixth century of our era.
In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is
placed at the 21st of April; an event therefore which hap¬
pened in the months of January, February, March, or during
the first twenty days of April, in the year (for examp e)
500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the
time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last
month of the year. Many authors confound the year ot
Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin
on the 1st of January. Others again confound both tne
year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian year,
which in fact became the civil year after the regulation
of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want ot
C H R o
irono- attention, many writers also, particularly among the mo-
I'gT* derns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years,
Y'-' by making an entire Julian year correspond to an entire
Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same
epoch. Much attention to these particulars is required
in the comparison of ancient dates.
The Christian Era.
The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the In¬
carnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian
countries, and is even used by some eastern nations. Its
epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth
year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d from the foundation
of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually
supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but
there are various opinions with regard to the year in which
that event took place. The most probable is, that the
birth of Christ happened five years and seven days before
the initial day of the vulgar era. This method of dating
the years was introduced into Italy in the sixth century,
by Dennis or Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and
began to be used in France in the seventh, though it was
not generally followed in that country before the reigns of
Pepin and Charlemagne. In England it seems to have
been introduced by St Augustin. . Before its adoption the
usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the
years by their number in the cycle of Indiction.
In the Christian era the years are simply marked and dis¬
tinguished by the cardinal numbers; those before Christ be¬
ing distinguished by the characters b. c. (Before Christ), or
a.c. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ by a.d. (Anno
Domini.) This method of reckoning time is more commo¬
dious than those which employ cycles or periods of any
length whatever; and, provided the commencement of the
era had been placed at the creation of the world, or at some
point of'time prior to all historical records, it would have
satisfied, in the simplest manner possible, all the conditions
that are necessary for registering the succession of events.
But when the commencement of the era is placed, as in
the present case, at an intermediate period of history^
some inconvenience is felt with regard to the dates of
preceding events, on account of the interruption of the
numerical order. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by
the want of uniformity in the methods adopted by authors,
of numbering the preceding years. In order to preserve
uniformity in their computations, astronomers denote the
year which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year
previous to that by 1 b. c.; but chronologers, in confor¬
mity with common notions, call the year preceding the
era 1 b. c., the previous year 2 b. c., and so on. By reckon¬
ing in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular
succession of the numbers ; and in the years preceding
the era, the leap years, instead of falling on the fourth,
eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or ought to fall, on the first, fifth,
ninth, &c.
In the chronicles of the middle qges much uncertainty
frequently arises respecting dates, on account of the dif¬
ferent epochs that have been assumed for the commence¬
ment of the Christian year. Dennis, the author of the
era, thinking it more natural to reckon from the concep¬
tion, adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of
March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine months,
as the commencement of the first year of the era. The
epoch of Dennis therefore precedes that of the vulgar era
hy nine months and seven days. This manner of dating
was followed in some of the Italian states, and continued
to be used in Pisa even down to the year 1745. It was
also adopted by some of the Popes in their Bulls; and
there are proofs of its having been employed in France
about the middle of the eleventh century. Some chroni-
fOLOGY. 655
clers, who adhere to the day of the annunciation as the Chrono-
commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of March logy.
following our epoch, as the Florentines in the tenth cen-
tury. Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the sixth
and seventh centuries, make the year commence sometimes
with the 1st of March, like the Romans before the time
of Numa, and sometimes with the 1st of January. In
France under the third race of kings it was usual to begin
the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least
till the middle of the sixteenth century, tor an edict was
passed by Charles IX. in the month of January 1563, or¬
daining that the commencement of the year should thence¬
forth be considered as taking place on the first of-January.
An instance is given, in VArt de Verifier les Dates, of a
date in which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March ;
but it is probable that this refers to the astronomical year,
and that the 18th of March was taken for the day of the ver¬
nal equinox. In Germany, about the eleventh century, it
was usual to commence the year at Christmas; and this
practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian
cities, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
In England, the practice of placing the beginning of
the year at Christmas was introduced in the seventh
century, and traces of it are found to exist even in the
thirteenth. Gervais of Canterbury, who lived in the be¬
ginning of the thirteenth century, mentions that almost
all writers of his country had agreed in regarding Christ¬
mas day as the first of the year, because it forms as it
were the term at which the sun finishes and recommences
his annual course. In the twelfth century, however, the
custom of beginning the civil year with the day of the
Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and
continued to be generally followed from that time till the
reformation of the calendar in 1752. The'historical ycox-
ha?, always been reckoned by English authors to begin
with the first of January. The liturgic year of the church
of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.
A knowledge of the different epochs which have been
chosen for the commencement of the year in different
countries is indispensably necessary to the right inter¬
pretation of the ancient chronicles and annals, in which
the dates often appear contradictory, though correctly and
precisely marked. We may cite an example or two. It
is well knowm that the emperor Charlemagne was crowned
at Rome on Christmas-day in the year 800, and that he
died in the year 814, according to our present manner of
reckoning; but in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the
coronation of Charlemagfte is stated to have taken place
in the year 801, and his death in 813. Both these state¬
ments appear at first sight to be erroneous; but on at¬
tending to the different periods at which the year has
been supposed to begin, they will both be easily recon¬
ciled with the known facts. In the first case the annalist
supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accord¬
ingly reckons the 25th of December and all the following
days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the com¬
mon reckoning they would be referred to the year 800. In
the second case the year has been supposed to begin with
the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter ; consequently
the first three months of the year 814, reckoning from the
1st of January, would be referred to the end of the year
813. As another example, the English revolution is po¬
pularly called the revolution of 1688. Had the year then
begun, as it now does, with the 1st of January, it would
have been the revolution of 1689, that event having taken
place in February in the year 1689; but at that time the
year was considered in England as beginning on the 25th
of March. Another circumstance to which it is often ne¬
cessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the
alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the
656
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- Gregorian Calendar. The old style still continues to be used
h’gy" by the Russians and Greeks; and in order to conver t a
v—date expressed in this manner into the new style, it is ne¬
cessary to attend to the variation which takes place from
century to century, in the interval between the com¬
mencement of the Julian and Gregorian years. From the
reformation of the calendar in 1582 to the 29th of reb-
ruary 1700, the difference is ten days ; from the 1st of
March 1700 to the 29th of February 1800, it is eleven
days; from the 1st of March 1800 to the 29th February
1900 the difference is twelve days; and after the 1st
of March 1900, if the old style shall then continue to be
in use, the difference will be thirteen days, till the 29th
ter differ from each other only by 349 years. On account Chion
of their nearer agreement, and also of their greater anti- logy
quity, critics generally give the preference to the Hebrew v—
and Samaritan texts; and as it appears from a passage in
St Jerome, that in his day some manuscripts of the Sama¬
ritan agreed with the Hebrew in respect of Methusaleh
and Lamech (two out of the three cases in which it at pre¬
sent differs), chronologers usually adopt the Hebrew ac¬
count. The Latin or vulgate translation, which was de¬
clared authentic by the Council of Trent, is in entire con¬
formity with the Hebrew'.
The second age of the world is reckoned from the
deluge to the vocation of Abraham. It contains also ten
of February SlOO^as has been explained at length in the patriarchs (the Sep.uagin. reckons eleven) with respect
ot l eDruary a t ^ whoge the three accounts differ still more widely
than in the case of the antediluvian patriarchs. The fol¬
lowing are their names, with the age of each at the birth
article Calendar.
Era of the Creation of the World.
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time
were connected with certain Pagan rites and observances,
which the Christians held in abhorrence, these began at
an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning then-
years from the creation of the world. The chronological
elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their
computations for determining the epoch of that event
were derived from the Old lestament narrative, which,
though sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to deter-
mine°the lapse of time during the first two ages of the
world with considerable precision, has been transmitted
to us through three distinct channels, not only differing
greatly in respect of chronology, but totally irreconcilable
with each other. These are, first, the Hebrew text of the
Scriptures; second, the Samaritan text; and, third, the
Greek version of the Septuagint. Unfortunately no very
of his eldest son :
Hebrew.
Shem 100
Arphaxad  35
Cainan II.
Sal ah 
Eber  
Peleg 
Reu 
Serug 
Nahor  29
Terah  70
Abraham  75
30
34
30
32
30
Samaritan.
100
135
130
134
130
132
130
79
70
75
Total.
465
1115
Septuagint.
100
135
130
130
134
130
132
130
179
70
75
1345
Greek version ot me oepmagmi. umununauciy mu From the above sums we must deductthe age of Shem
conclusive reason can be given for preferring any one of when the deluge took place. I his was ninety-eight year .
conclusive reason can uc g y s a ;n^rvni hptwpcn the flood and the call of Abraham
these accounts to another. We have no concurrent testi¬
mony with which to compare them : it is not even known
which of them was regarded as the most probable by the
Jews themselves, when the books of the Old lestament
were revised and transcribed by Ezra; and the ordinary
rules of probability cannot be applied to a state of things
in which the duration of human life extended to nearly a
thousand years.
Between the creation and the flood ten patriarchs are
enumerated, whose names, with the age of each at the
The interval between the flood and the call of Abraham
is consequently, *
x Y ears.
According to the Hebrew account  367
According to the Samaritan 1017
According to the Greek 1243
In this case the Samaritan and Greek accounts differ
greatly from the Hebrew. Their difference from each other
is only 230 years; and if we reject Cainan II., whose name
does not appear either in the Hebrew or Samaritan text, the
enumerated, whose names, with me age ui eaeu at me uuco uwt   OQC;ivhp Rimnosed
birth of his eldest son, according to the three versions, are difference is only 100 years, whl^h eaS. [ ThPePnear
m Wrc arisen frnm the errors ot the copyists, me near
as follows:
Hebrew.
Adam 130
Seth 105
Enos  90
Cainan  70
Mahalaleel  65
Jared 162
Enoch  65
Methusaleh 187
Lamech 182
Noah 500
Samaritan.
130
105
90
70
65
62
65
67
53
500
Septuagint.
230
205
190
170
165
162
165
187
188
500
1207
2162
to have arisen from the errors of the copyists. The near
agreement of the Samaritan and Greek accounts renders
it probable that the Hebrew- text is in error. As another
reason for giving the preference to the Samaritan, it may
also be mentioned, that according to the Hebrew account,
the dispersion of the descendants of Noah, which took
place in the time of Peleg, must have happened about a
hundred years after the deluge ; and it can hardly be
conceived that in so short a space of time they should
have increased to so great an extent, that, as it is men¬
tioned, a single couqtry could not contain them. - c
cording to the Samaritan text, the dispersion took place
about 400 years after the deluge,—a space of Ome w uc
allows of a considerable increase in the number of the in¬
habitants of the earth. „ fLa
From this period the intervals of time between t
r ^ i * c« .• colnnm men-
Total 1556
Noah entered the ark when he was 600 years of age;
by adding, therefore, a hundred to each of the above x ium ; cPldom men-
sums, we have for the interval between the creation of principal events recorded in Scripture a
Adam and the flood, tioned in the same circumstantial manner and thee ^
Years. nologers who computed the succession o y were
According to the Hebrew account 1656 only to contend with the discordant readings, “
According to the Samaritan 1307 often obliged to assign arbitrary values to t le J
or other vague terms by which the time 18 c P • ‘
According to the Septuagint 2262
or oiner vague usiuib u.y i i , a uncertain
Hence it appears that the Greek version assigns to From computations founded on sue i oa®^a accord-
’ie Hebrew data, it would be in vain to look for agreement , ace
this period a duration of 606 years above the
account, and 955 above the Samaritan, while the two lat-
ta, it would oe in vam iu iuuiv mm -
rly the results not only present great discrepancy ,
CHRONOLOGY.
appear to be as numerous as the computations. Desvig-
noles, in the pieface to Ins Chronology of Sacred History,
asserts that he has collected upwards of two hundred dif¬
ferent calculations, the shortest of which reckons only
3483 years between the creation of the world and the
commencement of the vulgar era, and the longest 6984.
The difference amounts to thirty-five centuries. In the
following table we have inserted the results obtained by
some of the most eminent of the computers. The reader
who is desirous of more information on this subject may
consult the first volume of the Universal History, or L'Art
de Verifier les Dates, avant J. C. p. ix.
Table of the Years elapsed between Adam and the Birth of
Christ, according to the computation of the principal
Chronologers.
Alphonso X. king of Castile, in the tables ofl
Years.
o __      n
Regiomontanus  j 6^84
Sljidas 6000
Nicephoras, patriarch of Constantinople 5700
Riccioli, according to the Septuagint 5634
Clement of Alexandria 5624
The Septuagint of John Ernest Grabe (com-V
putation followed by the Russians) J
Julius Africanus 5500
The Ethiopians..   5499
Albumazar, an Arabian 5328
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea 5200
Authors oi' L'Art de Verifier les Dates 4963
Flavius Josephus the historian 4698
Riccioli, according to the Vulgate, 2d System...4184
Michael Moestlin 4079
Riccioli, 3d System 4062
John Muller, or Regiomontanus 4053
Archbishop Usher, in Moreri 4004
The same, in Chevreau   4000
Kepler, Petau, and Decker 3984
Philip Landsberg 3972
Gerard Mercator and Peter Opmeer 3966
Longomontanus, in the Astronomia Danica 3964
John Lightfoot 3960
John Pic, count of Mirandola 3955
Venerable Bede, in Chevreau 3952
Joseph-Juste Scaliger 3950
The same, in Chevreau 3947
St Jerome  
Mercator, 2d calculation 3928
James Gordon, a Scotch Jesuit 3880
Some of the Talmudists 3784
The modern Jews 3760
Abridged Chronology of the Jews 3670
Louis Lippoman, a Venetian 3616
All that can be gathered from these conflicting state¬
ments amounts to this, that the true epoch of the creation
of the world is utterly unknown. British chronologers in
general prefer the computation of Archbishop Usher, who
places the creation of the world, or rather of Adam, 4004
years before the vulgar era.
Jewish Year and Eras.
Before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, their
year commenced at the autumnal equinox ; but in order to
so emnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of
fn \°r Ahih' ‘n which that event took place, and which
a s about the time of the vernal equinox, was a/terwards
regarded as the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal
year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of the jubilees
and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient
VOL. VI.
year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time
of the autumnal equinox.
The ancient Jewish year was lunisolar, that is to say,
the months were regulated by the moon, and intercala¬
tions employed to preserve a correspondence between the
same months and the same seasons of the year. This
correspondence was implied in the ceremonials of their
religion. The passover began at the middle of the month
Nisan ; and, besides the paschal lamb, required the offering
of a sheaf of barley as the first fruits of the harvest. Pen¬
tecost, or the feast of weeks, which was celebrated fifty
days after the passover, required the offering of two loaves
as the first fruits of the wheat harvest; and the feast of
tabernacles, which was always celebrated on the 15th of
the month I isri, was at the end of the harvest. Hence
the passover could only be celebrated about the season
when the barley was ready to be cut, Pentecost after the
wheat was ripe, and the feast of tabernacles after the
vintage and the ingathering of the olives. These regula¬
tions rendered it necessary that the three great festivals of
the Jews should always occur at nearly the same seasons,
and consequently, that some sort of intercalation should
be employed for the adjustment of solar and lunar time.
But the methods employed for this purpose seem to have
been of the rudest kind,—founded on no astronomical cal¬
culation, and regulated by no fixed rule. The beginning
or end of the month was determined only by sight." When
a new moon became visible, a new month began. Expe¬
rience taught them that it was needless to look out for a
new moon before the 29th day of the month ; if a new moon
then appeared, the next day was the first of the following
month ; it not, they resumed their watch on the night fol¬
lowing, and if the moon was not then visible, they con¬
cluded that it must have been obscured by clouds, and
the following day was reckoned the first of the succeeding
month. Twelve months formed the ordinary year, but
every two or three years an intercalary month was added.
The rule which they followed with regard to the interca¬
lary month seems to have been this. When the 15th of
Nisan, which was the first day of unleavened bread, and
of the passover, would have occurred in the ordinary
course before the vernal equinox, an intercalary month
was inserted before Nisan, in consequence of which the
passover, with the feasts depending on it, was thrown
back a whole month. The intercalary month was called
ve-Adar, or second Adar, from its immediately following
Adar, the last of the twelve ordinary months.
\\ hile the year continued to be regulated in this uncer¬
tain and arbitrary manner, it is evident that uniformity could
only be preserved by conventional arrangements entered
into from year to year. Accordingly the Jews, after their
dispersion, were constrained to have recourse to the astro¬
nomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen,
in order that their religious festivals might be observed
on the same days in all the countries through which they
were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of
eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the
ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Chris¬
tians borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter.
rIhis cycle seems to be neither more nor less than the
Calippic period of seventy-six years, with the addition of
a Greek octaeteris, in order to disguise its true source,
and give it an appearance of originality. In fact, the
period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and the octae-
tei is 29 >2 days (see Calendar), the sum, which is
30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Ju¬
lian years. But the addition was very far from being an
improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a
difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes be¬
tween the places ot the sun and moon, which was the
4 o
657
Chrono-
«58
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono-
logy.
whole error of the Calippic period, this diffei ence, in the
period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day six hours
and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the commence-
ment of this cycle in the year 162 b. c. ; Pndeau* m the
vear 291 b. c. According to the account of 1 ndeaux, the
fifth cycle must have commenced in the year 46 of our
era; and it was in this year, according to St 1 rosperus,
that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle ot
eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uni¬
formly, for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the
council of Nice. T . . .. , •
Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation ot
the Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years,
and adopted that of Meton, by which their lun.solar year is
regulated at the present day. This improvement was first
proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school
of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in
the year 360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced
that form of the year which the Jews at present follow,
and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of t ic
IVIcssicili* #
The following are the names of the Jewish months, with
the number of days in each :
Days
1. Nisan, or Abib 30
2. Jyar, or Zius 29
3. Sivan 30
4. Thammuz 29
5.   30
6. Elul  29
Days.
7. Tisri 30
8. Marchesvan ...29 or 30
9. Chisleu 29 or 30
10. Thebet 29
11. Sebat 30
12. Adar 29
and, in intercalary years, Ve-Adar...  .30 _
When each of the two months Marchesvan and Chisleu
has twentv-nine days, the year of twelve months contains
only 353 days, and is called defective; when these months
contain each thirty days, the year contains 355 days, and
is called perfect; when the one contains twenty-nine days
and the other thirty, the year is common, and contains 3o4
days. These two months are variable, because certain
days of the week are regarded by the Jews as unlucky;
on such days it is not lawful to celebrate the feasts; and
as the passover begins on the same day of the week as that
with which the year began, when the first day ot the year
would fall, in the regular course, on one of the unlucky
days, the commencement of the year is postponed to the
day following. urn a
Till the fifteenth century the Jews usually followed
the era of the Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time
they general!}? employ a mundane era, and date from the
creation of the world, which, according to their computa¬
tion, took place 3760 years and about three months before
the commencement of our era. No rule can be given foi
determining with certainty the day on which any given
Jewish year begins, without entering into the minutiae
of their irregular and complicated calendar.
Egyptian Year and Canicular Period.
The ancient year of the Egyptians appears to have been
1 uni solar, and to have continued so till the reign of Hype¬
rion or Osiris. From that time they employed a solar
year, which consisted of 365days, or twelve months of thirty
days each, with five complementary days added at the
end of the last month. This was their religious year;
and as its commencement anticipated that ot the true
solar year by one day every four years, it was adhered to
long after they had discovered that the year consists of
365^- days, from superstitious notions, in order that each
of the seasons might in its turn be blessed by the enjoy¬
ment of the sacred festivals.
As the anticipation of a day every four years brought
back the commencement of the vague year to the same
place in the seasons in the space of 1461 years, it fol¬
lows that 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian
years. The period of 1461 Egyptian years is denominat¬
ed in chronology the Sothic or Canicular period, because
it commenced with the heliacal rising of the dog-star,
called in Egypt Sothis; that is to say, it commenced at
the time when that star begins to disengage itself from
the rays of the sun, and to be visible just before sunrise.
In the latitude of Lower Egypt the dog-star begins to rise
heliacally about the 20th of July.
The vague year of the Egyptians began with the month
of Thoth, or the 20th of July, in the year of our era 136,
which year, therefore, was the first of a Sothic period.
The same coincidence took place 1460 Julian years before
that time, that is to say, in the year 1325 before Christ.
The cycle which began 1325 b. c. is regarded by chrono-
logers as the second which was used in Egypt. Hence,
since 1335 + 1460=2785, the first must have commenced
in .the year 2785 b. c. according to the Julian computa¬
tion. In this first cycle we must place the principal events
of Egyptian history, such as the invasion of the shepherds,
the establishment of the Israelites in that kingdom, &c.
The names of the Egyptian months are,
1. Thoth. 7. Phamenoth.
2. Paophi. 8. Pharmuthi.
£ Athyr. 9- Pashon.
4. Cohiac. 1°- Pa.Ym-
5. Tybi. IE Epiphi.
6. Meshir. 12. Meson.
Each month contained thirty days, and the year, as
already stated, was completed by the addition of five sup¬
plementary or epagomenal days.
Chronc;
. V-
Era of Constantinople.
This era, which is still used in the Greek church, and
was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the
Great, dates from the creation of the world. The incar¬
nation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our
era, with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, l ie
civil year commences with the 1st of September; the
ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March,
sometimes with the 1st of April. It is not certain w ic-
ther the year was considered at Constantinople as begin¬
ning with September previous to the separation of the
Eastern and Western empires. , , , j
At the commencement of our era there had elapse
5508 years and four months of the era of Constantinople.
Hence the first eight months of the Christian year 1 coin¬
cide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while the last
four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore,
to find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year
in the era of Constantinople, we have the following rule:
If the event took place between the 1st of January anc
the end of August, subtract 5508 from the given year;
but if it happened between the 1st of September and the
end of the year, subtract 5509.
Era of Alexandria.
The chronological computation of Julius Afncanus was
adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly
reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to tne
birth of Christ; but in reducing Alexandrian dates to the
common era, it must be observed that Julius African
placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than
it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the mi ia y
of the Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexa -
drian era. This correspondence, however, continued on y
from the introduction of the era till the accession ot Dio¬
cletian, when an alteration was made by dropping ^
in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the thron
CHRONOLOGY.
•ono- of the Roman empire in the year of Christ 284. According
'gy* to the Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787
of the world, and 287 of the incarnation ; but on this oc¬
casion ten years were omitted, and that year was thence¬
forth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the
Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras
of Alexandria, the one being used before, and the other
after the accession of Diocletian. It is not very well
known for what reason the alteration was made ; but it is
conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new
revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was in¬
troduced into the ecclesiastical computation about this
time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to commence
with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact,
5777 being divided by 19, leaves 1 for the year of the
cycle. The Alexandrian era continued to be followed by
the Copts in the fifteenth century, and is said to be still
used in Abyssinia.
Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to
the common era by subtracting 5502, till the Alexandrian
year 5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting
5492; but if the date belongs to one of the four last
months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till
the year 5786, and 5493 after that year.
Mundane Era of Antioch.
The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed
also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by
the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an
Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the
fourth century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the
account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the
world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later, re¬
ferring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in
the common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from
the original era of Alexandria by ten years ; but after the
alteration of the latter at the accession of Diocletian, the
two eras coincided. In reckoning from the Incarnation,
however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch
being placed in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven
years later than in the mundane era of Antioch or in the
Christian era.
As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ
corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch
is found by subtracting 5492 if the event falls between
January and September ; from September to January
subtract 5493.
Era of Nabonassar.
This era is famous in astronomy, having been generally
j followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It had been in
use for some centuries among the Chaldean astronomers ;
for the ancient observations of eclipses, which were col¬
lected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alex¬
ander, and transmitted by him into Greece to Aristotle,
were for the greater part referred to the commencement
of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the
Babylonians. The epoch from which it is reckoned is
precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena
recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at
mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before
Christ. The year consisted of twelve months of thirty
days each, with five complementary days added at the
end. No intercalation was used; and it is therefore in
all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. From
this circumstance the initial day of the year falls one
day earlier every four years than the first of the Julian
year; so that 1460 Julian years are equal to 1461 Baby¬
lonian years. On account of this difference in the length
of the year, the conversion of dates according to the era
of Nabonassar, into years before Christ, is attended with
considerable trouble. The surest way is to follow a com¬
parative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with
certainty, unless we also know the month and the day.
The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era
of Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days ; but soon after
the reformation of the calendar by Julius Caesar, they
adopted, like the other Roman provincials, the Julian in¬
tercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded
to the 29th of August. In the year 136 of our era, the
first of Thoth, in the ancient Egyptian year, corresponded
with the 20th of July, between which and the 29th of
August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian
year must therefore have taken place about 160 years
before the year 136 of our era (the difference between
the Egyptian and Julian years being one day in four years),
that is to say, about the year 25 b. c. In fact, the first
of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the
Julian calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23, and 22 b. c.
Era of the Seleucidcc, or Macedonian Era.
The era of the Seleucidae dates from the epoch of the
first conquests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria, 311 years be¬
fore Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years
after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted
not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidae, but in gene¬
ral in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant;
was followed by the Jews till the fifteenth century; and is
said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day.
By the Jews it was called the Era of Contracts ; by the
writers of the books of Maccabees the Era of Kings. But
notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East during
a great number of centuries, the authors by whom it was
followed differ much with regard to their manner of ex¬
pressing dates, in consequence of the different epochs
which they adopt for the commencement of the year.
Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month
Elul, which corresponds to our September. The Nesto-
rians and Jacobites at the present day suppose it to begin
with the following month, or October. The author of the
first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with
the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second
book with the first Tishrin, or October. Albategnius, a
celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the 1st of Oc¬
tober. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfragan, date
from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was count¬
ed from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th
of the same month, and at Damascus from the vernal
equinox. These discrepancies with respect to the initial
day of the year render it extremely difficult to determine
the exact correspondence of Macedonian dates with those
of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still greater
by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the
year. Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use
the Egyptian or vague year of 365 days; Albategnius
adopts the Julian year of 365£ days. For all these rea¬
sons, it frequently happens that the date cannot be fixed,
unless some other chronological characters are given with
it than merely the month and the year.
According to the computation most generally followed,
the year 312 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st
of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our
era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common
era, subtract 311 years and four months.
The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and
their correspondence with the Roman months, are as
follows:
Syrian. Macedonian. English.
Elul. Gorpiaeus. September.
Tishrin I. Hyperberetaeus. October.
659
Chrono-
660
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono-
logy.
Syrian.
Tisbrin II.
Canun I.
Canun II.
Sabat.
Adar.
Nisan.
Jiar.
Haziran.
Tamus.
Ab.
Macedonian.
Dius.
Apellseus.
Audynaeus.
Peritius.
Dystrus.
Xanticus.
Artemisius.
Daesius.
Panaemus.
Lous.
English.
November.
December.
January.
February.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
August.
Era of Alexander.
Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chro¬
nological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, which
took place in the year 325 before Christ. The year is the
same as in the preceding era. This era has not been much
followed ; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may
not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidse.
Era of Tyre.
The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October,
or the beo-inning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetaeus,
in the year 126 before Christ. In order, therefoie, to re¬
duce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the
date is b. c., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed ac¬
cording to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the
acts of certain councils.
Caesarean Era of Antioch.
This era was established to commemorate the victory
obtained by Julius Cmsar on the plains of Pharsalia, on
the 9th of August in the year 48 b. c., and the /06th of
Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month Tish-
rin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gor-
piseus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference
of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Sy¬
rians and Greeks. According to the computation of the
Greeks, the 49th year of the Caesarean era began in the
autumn of the year preceding our history; and, according
to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the
first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius
in his Ecclesiastical History.
Julian Era.
The Julian era commences with the 1st of January,
forty-five years before Christ. It was designed to com¬
memorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius
Caesar.
Era of Spain.
The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was com¬
pleted in the thirty-ninth year before Christ, gave rise to
another era, which began with the first day of the follow¬
ing year, and was long followed in Spain and Portugal,
and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the
Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several
of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, aie
dated according to this era. After the ninth century it
became usual to join with it the year of the Incarnation in
public acts. It was followed in Catalonia till the year
1180, in the kingdom of Arragon till 1350, in Valencia till
1358, and in Castile till 1393. In Portugal it is said to
have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though
it would seem, that after the establishment of the Portu¬
guese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts
of that country than that of the Incarnation. As the era
of Spain commenced with the 1st of January, and the
months and days of the year are those of the Julian ca¬
lendar, any date is reduced to the common era by sub- Chroiw
trading thirty-eight from the number of the year.
Era of Actium.
This era was established to commemorate the battle of
Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the
year 31 before Christ, and in the 15th of the Julian era.
By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as com¬
mencing on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian
era, and the 30th b. c. The Egyptians, who followed it
till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from
the beginning of their month ihoth, or the 29th of Au¬
gust ; and the eastern Greeks from the 2d of September.
By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and
continued to be used till the ninth century. It must not
be confounded with the Caesarean era of Antioch, which
began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck
by^the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated
according to this era. Besides the era of Actium, there
was also an Augustan era, which commenced four years
later, or 27 b. c., the year in which Augustus prevailed
on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title
of Augustus, and confirm him in the supreme power of the
empire.
Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs.
We have already remarked that the Alexandiians, at
the accession of Diocletian to the throne of the Roman
empire, made an alteration in their mundane era, by strik¬
ing off ten years from their reckoning. The same event
furnished them with an opportunity of establishing a new
era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts.
It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of
the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was
the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of
Era of Martyrs, subsequently given to it in commemora¬
tion of the persecution raised by that prince against the
Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement
ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era; for it was
in this year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but
the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has
prevailed. In order to transfer a date from this era to
that of the Incarnation, it is necessary to recollect the form
of the Egyptian year. The ancient Egyptian year con¬
sisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Ju¬
lian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an
intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of
five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. In
consequence of this regulation the year is exactly similar
to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, how¬
ever, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is
the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation
takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of Au¬
gust. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian interca¬
lary period commence on the 29th of our August, and he
fourth commences on the 30th of that mont . e oie
end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, a
the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to
the 29th of August. Hence, to reduce a date according
this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for comm
years, to add 283 years and 240 days ; but if he date be¬
longs to the first three months of the year followi g
intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if ^ falls betwee,i
the 30th of August and the end of the year of the thi y
of the Julian cycle, we must add 283 years and 241 dg
We ought to remark, that the Ethiopians do not reckon
the years from the beginning of the era in a cons
series, but employ a period of d32 years, after t P ^
tion of which they again commence with unity.
the Dionysian, or Great Paschal Period, an
CHRONOLOGY.
-rono- by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is,
:gy. of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.
The following are the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months,
with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar,
or old style:—
' Mascaram...29th August. Magabit 25th February.
Tikmith 28th September. Miazia 27th March.
Hadar 28th October. Gimbot 26th April.*
Tacsam 27th November. Sene 26th May.
Tir 27th December. Hamle 25th June.
Yacatit 26th January. Nahasse 25th July.
The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th
of August. In intercalary years the first seven months
commence one day later. The Egyptian months, follow¬
ed by the modern Copts, agree with the above in every
respect excepting the names.
Indiction.
The cycle of indiction is a period of fifteen years, and
was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some
ages before the adoption of the Christian era. We are
unacquainted with the circumstances and the exact time
of its origin, but it was certainly not in use before the time
of Constantine ; and examples occur in the Theodosian
code of its being employed in dating the years under the
reign of Constance, who died 361 a. c. Three indictions
may be distinguished ; but they differ only in regard to
the commencement of the year.
1. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, which, like the Gre¬
cian year, commenced with the month of September. This
was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances
also in France.
2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction, so called
because its establishment is attributed to Constantine.
This was also called the Caesarean Indiction. It com¬
mences on the 24th of September, and it is not unfre-
quently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and
England.
3. The Homan or Pontifical Indiction, which began on
the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the
Christian year was held to commence on the one or other
of these days. It is often employed in the papal bulls,
especially after the time of Gregory VII.; and traces of
its use are found in some of the old French authors.
The first year of the first cycle of Indiction is generally
considered to correspond with the year 313 of the Chris¬
tian era. Some authors, however, regard it as having com¬
menced in 312, others in 314, and some also in 315. The
i number of cycles, however, is scarcely ever referred to,
but only the year in the cycle. Reckoning backwards
from 313, the first year of our era is found to be 4 in the
cycle of Indiction. Hence to find the Indiction correspond¬
ing to any year of the Christian era, add 3 to the date,
divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the Indiction.
If there is no remainder, the proposed year is the 15th or
last of the cycle.
Era of the Armenians.
The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the council of
fiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism
from the Greek church by condemning the acts of the
council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday the
9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil
affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the
Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on
the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as
the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days,
661
so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the Chrono-
same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The logy*
Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constan- v'—
tinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computa¬
tion in the same documents. In their correspondence and
transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era
of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.
To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Chris¬
tian era, we may proceed as follows. Since the epoch is
the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning
of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era;
and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian
intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of
Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days
from the commencement of the current year to the given
date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will
be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the
given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian
years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in
the Julian year, or old style.
In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the
11th of August. 1 o reduce a date expressed in this reckon¬
ing to the Julian date, add 521 years, and the days elaps¬
ed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both
inclusive, of the year 552; that is to say (since 552 is a
leap year), 223 days. In leap years, one day must be
subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and
10th of August.
The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months,
with their correspondence with those of the Julian calen¬
dar :—
1. Navazardi begins 11th August.
2. Hori 10th September.
3. Sahomi 10th October.
4. Die Thari  9th November.
5. Kagoths  9th December.
6. Aracz  8th January.
7. Malegi  7th February.
8. Arcki  9th March.
9. Angi  8th April.
10. Mariri  8th May.
11. Marcacz  7th June.
12. Herodiez  7th July.
To complete the year, five complementary days are
added in common years, and six in leap years.
Era of the Hegira.
The epoch of this era, which is universally used in all
Mahommedan countries, is Friday the 16th of July, a. d.
622—the day on which Mahommed fled from Mecca to
Medina. Some chronologers, however, and the Arabian as¬
tronomers in general, refer its commencement to the pre¬
ceding day; but though the flight of Mahommed probably
began on the evening of Thursday the 15th of July, it is
certain, from the comparison of modern dates, that the
present practice of the Mahommedans, in dating their civil
transactions, is to count from Friday the 16th of July 622.
It may be remarked that the civil day of the Mahomme¬
dans begins at sunset; the astronomers probably began
the day at noon.
The Mahommedan year is strictly lunar, and the civil
months are adjusted to the course of the moon, by means
of a cycle of 30 years, containing 19 common years of
354 days, and 11 intercalary years of 355 days; whence
the cycle contains 10,631 days, which amount to 29 Julian
years and 39 days. Each year is divided into 12 months,
containing alternately 30 and 29 days, excepting that the
last month of the intercalary year contains also 30 days.
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono¬
logy-
The intercalary years are the 2d, 5th, ah, 10th, 13t ,
16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th of the cycle.
The names of the Turkish months, with the numbei
days in each, are as follows :
Days
Moharem 30
Saphar 29
Rabiu 1 30
Rabiu II 29
Jomadhi 1 30
Days.
Regeb 30
Shaban 29
Ramadan 30
Shawall 29
jomaam   —  gq j ;n
Jomadhi II 29 Dhu 1 hajjah 29, and m
intercalary years 30
The months of the Hegira are composed of weeks of
seven days. The following are the names ot the days in
Turkish and modern Arabic :
Turkish. Modern Arabic.
Sunday Pazar gun Yom el-Ahad.
Monday Pazar ertesi Yom el-rhena.
Tuesday Sale Yom e-Thaleth.
Wednesday.....Charshambe Yom el-Arba.
Thursday Pershambe Yom el-Khamis.
Friday Juma, or Adina Yom el-Juma.
Saturday Juma ertesi Yom el-Ptfabt.
Such are the chronological elements by means of which
Mahommedan dates are reduced to the Christian era. As
the rules generally given for this purpose are attended
with ambiguity, and cannot be depended on to a day,
unless corrected by means of a subsidiary table, we wi
explain at length a method of proceeding by which the
correspondence between the two eras is established, with¬
out the slightest risk of ambiguity or mistake. 1 he sub-
iect is of some interest, in consequence of the era of the
Hegira being used over so large a portion of the world.
Having given a Mahommedan date to find the cone-
sponding date in the Christian era, ,1
] 1. Divide the number of years elapsed by 30; the quo¬
tient will be the number of cycles, and the remainder the
number of years elapsed since the beginning of the cur¬
rent cycle. Call the quotient A, and the remainder 15;
and let a; be the number of intercalary years in b. I hen
the number of days that have elapsed from the commence¬
ment of the Hegira to the beginning of the year nvwhich
the date occurs, is given by the formula,
10631 A + 354 B + *;
for 10,631 is the number of days in the cycle or interca¬
lary period, and 354 is the number of days in the common
lunar year. To the sum obtained from this formula add
the days since the beginning of the current year, and the
result is the number of days from the commencement of
the cycle to the given date.
2. To the number of days from the commencement ot
the Hegira to the given date, add the number of days be¬
tween the commencement of our era and the Hegiia, and
the sum is the number of days from the epoch ot the In¬
carnation to the given date. The number of days from
the becrinning of our era to the beginning of the Hegira is
22,7016; for  ,621 X 365 = 226665
in 621 years there are 155 leap years   155
from 1st of January to 15th July 622, inclusive U6
Sum 227016
3. It now remains only to reduce the sum thus obtained
to Julian years. For this purpose divide by 1461 (the
number of days in the Julian intercalary period), and call
the quotient C. Divide the remainder by 365, and call
the quotient D, and the last remainder y. Then 4 C + H
is the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the Chronoi
era, and y is the days elapsed of the current year. logy.
Examjjle. The treaty of peace concluded between the s^v^
emperor Charles VI. and Gianihi-Ali Pacha, ambassa¬
dor of the sultan of Constantinople, is dated the 15th of
Rabiu I., in'the year of the Hegira 1153; required the
year, month, and day, in the Christian era.
1 In this case the years elapsed are 1152; therefore,
30)1152(38 = A.
90
252
240
12 = B.
The intercalary years being the second, fifth, seventh,
tenth, thirteenth, &c., the remainder, 12, contains foui
intercalary years, whence a? = 4 ; therefore
y y 1()6>31 A = 10631 x 38 = 403978
354 B = 354 X 12 = 4248
/y» —— 4?
408230
Add days from first of Moharem to^ 74)
15th Rabiu I J
Days from the beginning of the Hegira 408304
2. Add  
From beginning of our era to the 1 635320
given date ; ; J
3 To convert this sum into Julian years ;
1461)635320(434 = C
5844
5092
4383
7090
5844
365)1246(3 = D
1095
151 -y
4 C + D = 4 X 434 + 3 = 1739.
Therefore, as 1739 years have elapsed, the date required
is the 151st day of the Christian year 1740. iSow since
1740 is a leap year, the 151st day is the 30th of May.
This, however, is in Old Style. Add eleven days for the
change of style, and we have the 10th of June.
It Results,7therefore, that the 15th of Rabiu P the
vf“ir of the Hegira 1153 corresponds with the iUth ot
June 1740 New Style. In this way any Mahommedan
date maybe reduced to the corresponding Christian date.
The arithmetical operation is extremely simple, an
never lead to ambiguity or error.
Era of Yezdegird, or Gelalcean Era.
This era commences with the elevation of Yezdegird
HI. to the throne of Persia, and dates from the
June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1075 a C.
the Persian year resembled that of the ancient gyi ’
consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but
time the Persian calendar was reformed by Gelal-Mm
Malek Schah, sultan of Khorasan and a method o inter^
calation adopted, which, though less convenient, s con
siderably more accurate than the Julian. The mte ry
period is 33 years; one day being added totheco ^
year seven times successively at the end of four j >
CHRONOLOGY.
rcno. the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the
gy. fifth year (See Calendar). This era was at one period
universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be
followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of
thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a dif¬
ferent name. According to Alfragan, the names of the
Persian months are as follows :
Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.
Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.
Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.
Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.
The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are
named Musteraca.
As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of
intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible
to assign exactly the .days on which the different years
begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the
year with September, in others they begin it with October.
We have stated that the era began with the 16th June
632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1075,
anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years.
In 443 years the anticipation would amount to about 112
days, and the beginning of the year would, in consequence,
be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year
632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631,
and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Per¬
sian year begins.
Chinese Chronology.
From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000
years b. c., the Chinese had two different years; a civil
year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astrono¬
mical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in
general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a
thirteenth was added, in order to preserve its correspon¬
dence with the solar year. Even at this early period the
solar or astronomical year consisted of 365^ days, like our
Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a
day being intercalated every fourth year.
According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divid¬
ed the day into 100 he, each he into 100 minutes, and each
minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to pre¬
vail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Je¬
suit Schaall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they
adopted the European method of dividing the day into
twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each
minute into sixty seconds. The civil day commences at
midnight, and ends at the midnight following.
Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty,
205 b. c., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with
the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun
enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with
our sign Pisces. From the same period also, they have
employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years,
a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are com¬
mon, containing twelve lunations each, and the remain¬
ing seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is,
however, not precisely known how they distributed their
months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed
them, great and small moons. This, with other matters
appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be re¬
gulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.
The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution
of the sun, with regard to the solstitial points, into twelve
equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten
hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is de¬
nominated a tze, is subdivided into two equal portions, called
tchong-ki and tsie-ki; the tchong-ki denoting the first half
of the fee, and the tsie-ki the latter half. Though the fee
are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet, what is remark-
663
able, though not peculiar to China, they give their name Chrono-
to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the l°gy-
name of the tchong-ki or sign at which the sun arrives
during that month. As the fee is longer than a synodic
revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a
tchong-ki during the same lunation ; and as there are only
twelve fee, the year can contain only twelve months having
different names. It must happen sometimes that in the
course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign ; in
this case the month is intercalary, and called by the same
name as the preceding month.
For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with
some other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of
sixty, by means of which they reckon their days, moons,
and years. The days are distributed in the calendar into
cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are distributed
into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has
a particular name; and as it is a usual practice, in men¬
tioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that
of the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great
facilities in verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology.
I he order of the days in the cycle is never interrupted
by any intercalations that may be necessary for adjusting
the months or years. The moons of the civil year are
also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty;
and as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the rea¬
son before stated, namely, that during one of these luna¬
tions the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve
regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed
every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1833
being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every
sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that
date, as 1828, 1823, &c., or 1837, 1842, &c., will also
commence a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In regard
to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each
has a distinct number or name which marks its place in
the cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to
dates, along with the other chronological characters of the
year, the ambiguity which arises from following a fluctuat¬
ing or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated. The present
cycle began in the }'ear 1804 of our era; the year 1832 is
consequently the 29th of the current cycle.
ihe cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles
or series of characters, one of ten and the other of twelve,
which are joined together so as to afford sixty different
combinations. The names of the characters in the cycle
of ten, which are called celestial signs, are,
1. Kea ; 2. Yich ; 3. Ping; 4. Ting ; 5. Woo ;
6. Ke ; 7. Kang ; 8. Sin ; 9. Jin; 10. Kwey.
And in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,
1. Tse ; 2. Tchow ; 3. Yin ; 4. Maou ; 5. Shin ; 6. Sze ;
7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Seo; 12. Hae.
The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the
sexagenary cycle, is formed by combining the first words
in each of the above series ; the second is formed by com¬
bining the second of each series, and so on to the tenth.
For the next year the first word of the first series is com¬
bined with the eleventh of the second ; then the second
of the first series with the twelfth of the second; after
this the third of the first series with the first of the second,
and so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of
the first series concurs with the last of the second. Thus
Kea-tse is the name of the first year, Yih-tchow that of
the second, Kea-seo that of the eleventh, Yih-hae that of
the twelfth, Ping-tse that of the thirteenth, and so on.
The order of proceeding is obvious.
In the Chinese history translated into the Tartar dia¬
lect by the orders of the emperor Kang-hi, who died in
1722, the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the
year 2357 b. c. From this it has been inferred, that the
664
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono¬
logy.
i . thp rpcnilar month. In some provinces of India, as in Ben- Chronc
Chinese empire was established previous to tliat > S m0nth commences with the day after the new logy,
but it is obviously so easy to extern the ^ tackwavds m, ^ northern provinces, it begins, W
indefinitely, that the inference can have very httle weight, moon, u .1^.. , , r..u 
which denote the 41st of the cycle. We must, therefore,
suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 b. c., or forty yea s
before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by
the authors of L’Art de Verifier les Dates. I he mathe¬
matical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial,
counted the first year of the first cycle ^om the eighty-
first of Yao, that is to say, from the year 2~ < i b. c.
Since the year 163 b. c. the Chinese writers have gene¬
rally dated the year from the accession of the reigning
emperor. An emperor, on his accession to the throne,
gives a name to the years of his reign. He ordains, for
example, that they shall be called i^t^- Infi
of this edict, the following year is called the first of la-te,
and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c. o
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor oi his
id te, v ’ . 1  .n„ll ^ollxirl anmp
as we have stated, with the day after the full moon.
From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evi¬
dent that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, nei¬
ther consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulat¬
ed by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the
sun and moon. The time of their commencement is dif¬
ferent on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no
means of knowing beforehand on what day any month be¬
gins, excepting by consulting his almanack. I he civil day
in all parts of India begins at sunrise.
The Hindu eras have been the subject of much contro¬
versy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the
duration of the world is limited to four t/uys or ages, three
of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the
hali-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only
which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the ^“JfpdbvTome the principal era of India, and comprehends several others
successor, to ordain that the years shall be calk y * mon use, as the era of Yicramaditya, of Sahvahana,
other appellation. The periods thus formed are called by
the Chinese Nien-hao. According to this method of dating
the years, a new era commences with every reign ; and t le
yea^corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found
when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with
their relation to the years of our era.
The Chinese chronology is discussed with ample deta
bv Freret, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions,
tom. xviii.; and an abridgment of his memoir is given in
UArt de Verifier les Dates (tom. n. p. 284, et seq. Ed. in
4to, 1818), from which the preceding account is princi¬
pally taken.
Indian Chronology.
The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by
the various nations of India resembles in its general fea¬
tures that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more com¬
plex by the intermixture of Mahommedan with Hindu
customs. Like the Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year,
which is generally followed in the transaction of public
business, especially since the introduction of European
power; and they have also a lunar year, which regulates
their religious festivals, and which they follow in their do¬
mestic arrangements. Their solar year, or rather sidereal
year, is measured by the time in which the sun returns to
the same star, and is consequently longer than our astro¬
nomical year, by the whole quantity of the precession of
the equinoxes. It is reckoned by the Hindus at 36o days,
6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, and consequently exceeds
a Gregorian year by one day in sixty years. I he Indian
zodiac is divided into twelve solar and twenty-eight lunar
signs; and the year begins with the sun’s arrival at the
first degree of the first sign. The month is the time the
sun takes to pass through one sign ; and as each sign con¬
tains the same number of degrees, the months vary some¬
what in length, according as the sun is nearer the apogee
or perigee. The longest month may contain 31 days, 14
hours, 39 minutes, and the shortest only 29 days, 8 hours,
21 minutes. The civil months, however, depend solely on
the moon ; though, with the same perversion of ingenuity
which we have already remarked with regard to the Chi¬
nese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example,
in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, of Salivahana,
the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.
The Kali-yug commenced in the year 3101 b. c. ihe
year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first
sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about
the 11th of April. Owing to the precession of the equi¬
noxes, the beginning of the year advances in the seasons
at the rate of about one day in sixty years.
The Era of Vicramaditya is reckoned from the year
b. c., which corresponds to 3045 of the Kali-yug. Th,18
era, the years of which are called Ibamvat, prevails chiefly
in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Gu-
zerat. Its name is derived from that of a soveieign of
Malwa, who, by defeating Soka, king of Delhi, acquired
possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the
year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession
or death of this prince, is uncertain. The years are rec¬
koned in the same manner as those of the Kah-yug; and
it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general, that
though some of them profess to be counted from the
deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all
commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in
his annual course through the zodiac.
The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 a. c., which cor¬
responds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 134 of the Vicra¬
maditya. The name is derived from Sahvahan, who is
said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Nor¬
sk-a, and to have been a liberal encourager of the arts
and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings
of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern pio-
vinces of Hindustan. The years are called Sana.
The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates
with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on
the natives of India by their Mahommedan conquerors. It
is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty
generally known over India. There are several eras of
this name : but the most common is that which is iccko
ed from the year 590 A. c. At Madras, the commence¬
ment of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July, k
Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon p
ceding the autumnal equinox. , . . , fl.nTT1
The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be denvea f
nese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example, f . .|ie r js measured by solar time, and
except in the east of Asia, they derive their names rom ^ J ’iff enti^elv fr0m the Mahommedan year
the solar signs of the zodiac. 1 he first civil month com
mences with the day after the full moon of that lunation
in the course of which the sun enters the first Hindu
sign, and so on with the others. When the/ sun enters
into no new sign during the course of a lunation, the month
is intercalary, and is called by the name of that which pre¬
cedes or follows it, which some prefix, to distinguish it from
rerSe dke;; entfrely from the Mahomjnedaa year
which is purely lunar. At the present time, the Bengalee
epoch is about nine years later than the Hegira , }
1245 of the Hegira having commenced m July 1 ! ’
the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. Ihe sideieal
year exceeds the lunar year by 10 days 211 hours nearly
consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be fo
uno-
CHRONOLOGY.
mb
that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira co¬
incided about the middle of the sixteenth century. His¬
tory is silent on the subject; hut it seems probable, that
though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in
India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to
disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions
of the year.
Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some
others which are less generally known, or which are fol¬
lowed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty
years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection
with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal
account, the first cycle began 3185 years b. c.; and the
year 1832 of our era is consequently the thirty-seventh of
the eighty-fourth cycle. In the Telinga account the first
cycle began 3114 b. c.; and the year 1832 is the twenty-
fourth of the eighty-third cycle.
We will conclude this part of the article with the fol¬
lowing table, showing the dates at which the different eras
above described respectively commenced.
Julian period began 4713 B. c.
Olympiad of Corcebus duly 776
Era of Rome, according to Varro 21st April 753
Jewish era October 3761
First Canicular period  2785
Era of Constantinople 1st September 5509
Era of Alexandria  5503
Mundane era of Antioch September 5493
Era of Nahonassar 26th February 747
Era of the Seleucidae September 311
Era of Alexander September 323
Era of Tyre 19th October 126
Caesarean era of Antioch October 48
Julian era 1st January 45
Era of Spain 1st January 38
Era of Actium 1st January 30
Era of Diocletian 29th August 284 a. d.
Era of the Armenians... 9th July 552
Era of the. Hegira 16th July 622
Era ofYezdegird 16th June 632
First Chinese cycle of sixty years 2277 b. c.
Kali-yug 3101
Era of Vicramaditya 56
Era of Salivahana  78 a. d.
Fuslee era 590
Bengalee era  593
The utility of chronological and synchronistic tables in
the illustration of history has been long perceived. Of the
more ancient writers who devoted their labours to this
object, the principal are, Diodorus Siculus, Julius Africa-
ftus, Eusebius of Caesarea, and George Syncellus, to whom
we are indebted for the preservation of some curious frag¬
ments of Berosus, Sanconiathon, and Manetho. The mo¬
dern works of this kind are exceedingly numerous. It will
be sufficient to refer the reader to Petau, de Doctrina Tem-
poris; Usher s Armales Veteris et Novi Testamenti; New¬
ton’s Chronology ; Blair’s Chronology and History of the
World; Playfair’s Chronology ; and the Tables Chronolo-
giques de VHistoire Ancienne et Moderne of Thouret; with¬
out mentioning a multitude of smaller tables, of various de¬
grees of merit. But the most complete work on chrono¬
logy is the Art de Verifier les Dates, an immense compila¬
tion, for which the student of history is indebted to the
Benedictines of the congregation of St Maur. We may
likewise mention, as a very extensive and useful work,
though printed in a most inconvenient form, the Tableaux
Historiques Chronologiques et Geographiques of Buret des
VOL. vi.
Longchamps, the second edition of which was published Chrono-
at Brussels in J 822. logy.
The subjoined table of political events has been com-
piled with great care for the present edition of the Ency¬
clopaedia. Though necessarily of limited extent, it will be
found to contain a useful summary of the principal events
of ancient and modern history. In the early period, the
dates are taken from Usher and Blair, as being those fol¬
lowed by the majority of chronologers. (s.)
A Chronological Table of the Principal Events of Poli¬
tical History, and of the most important Inventions and
Discoveries, from the Creation of the World to the Year
1832.
B. C.
4004 Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew
text of the Scriptures.
2349 Commencement of the Deluge.
22001 Kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt, sup-
2100 J posed to have been founded respectively by Nim
rod, Assur, and Menes.
2089 Kingdom of Sicyon established.
1981 Call of Abraham.
1856 Kingdom of Argos established by Inachus.
1764 Deluge of Ogyges.
1700 The shepherd kings possess Egypt.
1556 Cecrops, first king of Athens."
1503 Deluge of Deucalion.
1493 Cadmus comes into Greece.
1491 The Israelites leave Egypt.
1485 Danaus comes to Greece from Egypt.
1480 Troy built by Dardanus.
1453 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written.
1451 The Israelites enter Canaan.
1406 Minos reigns in Crete; gives laws to the Cretans.
1362 Pelops comes to Greece from Asia.
1352 Corinth said to be founded by Sisyphus.
1344 The kingdom of Mycenae begins.
1325 Isthmian games instituted.
1294 First colony from Italy to Sicily : second, 1264.
1263 The Argonautic expedition.
1257 Theseus unites the cities of Attica.
1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built.
1243 Evander conducts a colony of Greeks into Italy.
1225 to 1215 First and second wars of Thebes.
1193 The Trojan war begins.
1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks.
1104 The Heraclidae conquer the Peloponnesus.
1102 Sparta becomes a kingdom.
1079 Saul king of Israel.
1070 Athenians abolish regal government. Medon first
Archon. Codrus.
1055 David king of Israel.
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies.
1008 Dedication of Solomon’s Temple.
979 Rehoboam. Judah and Israel separate kingdoms.
974 Jerusalem plundered by Shiskah (Sesostris) king of
Egypt.
894 Gold and silver money coined at Argos.
884 Lycurgus reforms the republic of Lacedaemon.
869 Dido leads a colony of Phoenicians to Africa ; founds
Carthage.
821 Fall of Nineveh. Sardanapalus. Arbaces.
799 Kingdom of Lydia founded.
790 Pul founds a new Assyrian empire.
776 Commencement of the Olympic era.
760 The Ephori, popular magistrates, instituted at La¬
cedaemon.
758 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.
4 i*
I
666
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono-
iogy.
754 Athenians limit the office of archon to ten yeais.
Charops.
753 Rome founded by Romulus.
747 Nabonassar extends the Assyrian empire. Meues.
 Era of Nabonassar begins 26th bebruary.
746 Government of Corinth republican.
721 Captivity of the ten tribes of Israel.
711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. I he
Medes revolt. Deioces.
703 Corcyra (Corfu) founded by the Corinthians.
702 Deioces builds Ecbatana, the capital of Media.
685 Second Messenian war begins ; continues fourteen
684 Athenians make the arthonship annual. Creon.
681 Esarhaddon re-unites the kingdoms of Babylon and
Nineveh (Assyria). „ , .
670 Psammeticus king of all Egypt. Byzantium founded
by an Athenian colony. .
659 Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth. Pen-
ander.
635 Scythians get possession of Upper Asia; Cimmerians
of Lydia. Both are dispossessed (607) by Cyaxares.
625 Nabopolassar seizes Babylon ; renders himself inde¬
pendent.
624 Draco archon and legislator of Athens. _
606 Destruction of Nineveh by Nabopolassar king of
Babylon, and Cyaxares king of Media.
598 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem ; carries the Jews
into captivity. .
596 Perdiccas founds the monarchy of Macedonia.
594 Solon archon and legislator of Athens.
591 The Pythian games instituted in Greece.
588 First irruption of the Gauls into Italy.
580 Copper money coined at Rome.
571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. Egypt subdued.
562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis.
560 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens.
546 Kingdoms of Media and Lydia destroyed by Cyrus
king of Persia.
539 Marseilles built by the Phocaeans.
538 Babylonian empire subverted by Cyrus. The Jews
released from captivity.
534 The Jews begin to rebuild their temple; are en¬
gaged in this work nine years.
529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses king of
Persia.
525 Cambyses conquers Egypt.
510 The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens. Democracy
restored.
509 Tarquin expelled from Roipe. Consular substituted
for regal government. Brutus.
508 First alliance between the Romans and the Cartha¬
ginians.
  Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, subdues Thrace;
makes an unsuccessful invasionjaf Scythia.
504 The Athenians, by burning Sardis, embroil them¬
selves with the Persians.
498 Dictatorship instituted at Rome. Lartius.
493 The port of Piraeus built by the Athenians.
490 Battle of Marathon. Tribunes of the people created
at Rome.
486 Darius, king of Persia, succeeded by his son Xerxes.
483 Quaestors instituted at Rome.
481 Xerxes renews the war with Greece. .
480 Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. Leonidas.
Themistocles.
479 The Persians ravage Attica,—burn Athens,—suffer
defeats at Plataea and Mycale. Xerxes leaves
Greece.
B. c. _ Chroi,
476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. log;i
471 Volero renders more popular the election of consuls '"■•'y'
and other magistrates at Rome.
476 Battles of the Eurymedon. Persians defeated by
Cimon.
465 Third Messenian war begins; lasts ten years.
463 The Egyptians, assisted by the Athenians, throw
off the Persian yoke.
451 Roman decemvirate. Laws of the twelve tables.
449 Cimon negotiates a peace between the Greeks and
Persians.
448 First sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi.
Battle of Coronea.
445 Military tribunes substituted for consuls at Rome.
437 Censorship instituted. Pericles powerful at Athens.
431 Peloponnesian war begins ; continues twenty-seven
years.
421 Peace of six years and ten months between the
Athenians and Lacedaemonians; each continues
at wrar with the other’s allies.
416 Sicily becomes the field of the Peloponnesian war.
414 The Athenians are defeated before Syracuse.
409 The Carthaginians enter Sicily; are repulsed by
Plermocrates.
405 Battle of ALgospotamos. Usurpation of Dionysius.
404 Athens taken by Lysander. End of the Pelopon¬
nesian war. Government of the thirty tyrants.
401 Battle of Cunaxa, and death of the younger Cyrus.
Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks. Sparta in¬
volved in war with Persia.
  Persecution and death of Socrates. Expulsion of
the thirty tyrants. Thrasybulus.
The Lacedaemonians invade Asia. 395, Corinthian
alliance assists Persia. 394, Battles of Cnidos
and Coronaea. Agesilaus.
Peace of Antalcidas. Greek cities of Asia become
tributary to Persia.
385 Rome burnt by the Gauls under Brennus.
382 Lacedaemonians seize the citadel of Thebes ; (380)
are expelled by Pelopidas and Epaminondas.
376 Sea-fight of Naxos. Chabrias.
371 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra.
367 Institution of the praetorship at Rome. Licmian
law. Plebeian consul.
363 Battle of Mantinea. Death of Epaminondas.
359 Philip king of Macedon.
358 Greek social war. Battle of Methone.
357 Dionysius the Younger expelled from Syracuse.
356 Birth of Alexander the Great. Temple of Diana
at Ephesus burnt by Erostratus. Phocian or
sacred war.
350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt.
348 Philip of Macedon takes Olynthus. Sacred wai
en^s- r a
347 Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse;
finally expelled (343) by limoleon. , • .
343 War between the Romans and Sammtes begins;
continues with interruptions to 2/2.
340 Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians at Agrigentum.
338 Battle of Cheronaea. 337, Philip chosen to ea
the Greeks to the invasion of Persia. ^36, it
dered. Alexander. Darius Codomannus.
336 Alexander destroys Thebes; 335, Is chosen ge¬
neralissimo of the Greeks ; Marches into 8 ’
334, Defeats the Persians on the banks o
Granicus; 333, Again at Issus; 332, Subdue
Egypt and takes Tyre ; 331, Defeats the
sians at Arbela. 330, Darius is killed; end
the Persian empire.
396
387
CHRONOLOGY.
B. C.
328
Alexander invades India; penetrates to the Ganges;
^ his admiral, Nearchus, sails from the Indus to the’
Euphrates.
Death of Alexander at Babylon—an event followed
by wars among his officers, and the dismember¬
ment of his empire.
Restoration of Thebes.
Era of the Seleucidae.
Appian way and aqueducts constructed at Rome.
Demetrius Poliorcetes besieges Rhodes; restores
(303) the liberty of the Grecian cities.
Battle of Ipsus. Dismemberment of the empire of
Alexander completed.
Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea.
Law of Mcenius; the Roman senate bind them¬
selves to sanction all decrees of the people.
Astronomical era of Dionysius of Alexandria.
Alexandrian library founded.
Achaean league negotiated.
Pyrrhus, invited by the Samnite allies, invades Italy.
Battles of Lyris and Asculum.
Greek (Septuagint) version of the Scriptures made
by order of Ptolemy Philadelpbus.
Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus withdraws from
Italy.
Samnite war ended. Rome mistress of all the south¬
ern states of Italy.
Silver money first coined at Rome.
First Punic war begins. Chronology of Paros
(Arundel marbles) composed.
Regulus defeats the Carthaginians in the sea-fight
of Ecnoma; lands in Africa; reduces Clupea
and other towns; is vanquished (255) by Xan-
tippus, and taken prisoner.
Parthia, under Arsaces, becomes an independent
kingdom.
Catulus destroys the navy of Carthage. End of
first Punic war.
Plays (the composition of Livius Andronicus) first
acted at Rome.
Conquest of Spain attempted by the Carthaginians.
Temple of Janus shut; open since reign of Numa.
Sardinia and Corsica subdued by the Romans.
War between Sparta and the Achaean league ; ended
(222) by the battle of Sellasia. Cleomenes. Aratus.
to 220 Gauls repeatedly defeated and driven from
Cisalpine Gaul. Illyria subdued.
Hannibal the Carthaginian besieges Saguntum, and
brings on the second Punic war.
Hannibal leads an army from Spain into Italy, de¬
feats the Romans at Ticinum and Trebia; 217,
at Thrasymene; 216, at Cannae; 215, concludes
an alliance with Philip (2d) of Macedon.
Philip defeats the 2Etolians, allies of Rome. Mar¬
cellos takes Syracuse.
P. Scipio sent into Spain. Antiochus conquers
Judea.
Asdrubal, conducting supplies to Hannibal, is de¬
feated and slain at the Metaurus. Gold money
at Rome.
Scipio, having reduced Spain, carries the war into
Africa.
The Carthaginians recal Hannibal.
Battle of Zama. 201, Submission of Carthage. End
of second Punic war.
Defeat of Philip at Cynocephale. End of first Ma¬
cedonian war.
to 189 War between the Romans and Antiochus.
king of Syria. Battle of Magnesia.
324
315
312
311
304
301
300
286
285
283
281
280
277
274
272
266
264
256
250
241
240
237
235
231
227
225
219
218
212
211
207
204
203
202
197
192
188 Philopoemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus.
172 to 168 Second Macedonian war. Battle of Pydna.
Macedon becomes a Roman province.
170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem.
168 First library at Rome.
166 Judas Maccabaeus delivers the Jews from the Sy¬
rians.
149 Third Punic war begins.
147 Rome defends Sparta against the Achaean league.
144 Coiinth, ihebes, Chalcis destroyed. Greece becomes
a Roman province.
   Carthage destroyed. Carthaginian territory re¬
duced into a province.
141 War of Numantia.
135 to 132 Servile war in Sicily.
133 Tiberius Gracchus slain. Numantia taken. Perga-
mus annexed to the Roman empire.
121 Caius Gracchus slain.
117 Gallia Narbonensis becomes a Roman province.
Ill to 106 Jugurthan war. Metellus. Marius.
109 Cimbri and Teutones invade Gaul; 105, cut off a
Roman army of 80,000 on the banks of the Rhone.
102 Marius exterminates the Teutonic army at Aix, and
the Cimbrian (101) on the banks of the Athesis.
91 Italian (social) war begins; lasts three years.
88 Mithridatic war. Marian civil war.
87 Marius seizes Rome; 86, dies. Cinna.
84 Syila conquers and makes peace with Mithridates;
83, attacks the Marian party in Italy; 82, seizes
Rome, and is made perpetual dictator; resigns his
office (78).
77 Civil war of Sertorius in Spain, and of Lepidus and
Catulus in Italy. g
74 Mithridatic war renewed. Lucullus.
73 to 71 Servile war in Italy. Spartacus. Crassus.
67 Pompey reduces the pirates ; 64, subdues Mithri¬
dates and ligranes; 63, reduces Syria into a
Roman province.
62 Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero.
59 First triumvirate ; Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.
58 Caesar begins the conquest of Gaul; 55, invades
Britain. Crassus goes to Syria; slain (53) by
the Parthians.
52 Clodius murdered by Milo.
50 Subjugation of Gaul completed.
49 Civil war. Caesar drives Pompey from Italy, and
disperses his army in Spain.
— Commencement of the era of Antioch.
48 Battle of Pharsalia. Murder of Pompey in Egypt.
47 War in Egypt. Destruction of the Alexandrian
library. Defeat of Pharnaces.
46 African war. Cato. Reformation of the calendar;
this the year of confusion.
45 War in Spain; Battle of Munda. Caesar declared
perpetual dictator.
44 Caesar assassinated. Brutus. Cassius.
43 Battle of Mutina. Second triumvirate; Octavius,
M. Antony, Lepidus.
42 Battles of Philippi. The triumviri masters of the
empire.
40 Accommodation between Sextus Pompey and the
triumviri; broken, 39.
36 Pompey driven from Sicily; put to death.
35 Lepidus deprived of power.
32 War between Octavius and Antony,
31 Battle of Actium. . Era of the Roman emperors.
27 Name of Octavius changed, by the senate, to Au¬
gustus..
15 Rhaeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus.
667
Chrono¬
logy*
G68
Chrono-
CHRONOLOGY.
B. C.
12
10
8
4
A. D.
9
14
25
33
37
40
41
43
Pannonia subdued by Tiberius.
Temple of Janus shut. . .
Augustus corrects the calendar, suppressing the
intercalary days for twelve years.
Birth of Christ, four years before the vulgar eia.
Three Roman legions under Varus cut to pieces m
Germany.
Tiberius emperor of Rome.
End of the Olympiads.
Crucifixion of our Saviour.
Caligula emperor. „ , ™ • .•
The followers of our Saviour called Christians.
Claudius emperor. _ #
Expedition of Claudius to Britain. 44, Successes
of Plautius.
50 London founded by the Romans. 51, Caractacus
carried to Rome.
54 Nero emperor. „ r
61 Boadicea defeats the Romans. Suetonius 1 auhnus.
64 Rome set on fire—burned six days. First persecu¬
tion of the Christians.
66 Jewish war begins.
68 Galba emperor. 69, Otho—Vitelhus. 70, Vespasian.
Destruction of Jerusalem.
77 The Parthians ravage Armenia.
79 Titus emperor. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroy¬
ed by an eruption of Vesuvius.
80 Agricola completes the pacification of South Bri¬
tain.
81 Domitian emperor.
85 Agricola defeats the Caledonians ; circumnavigates
Britain.
88 Dacian war begins.
95 Second Christian persecution.
96 Nerva emperor. 98, Trajan. #
103 to 107 Dacia and other eastern countries subdued.
118 Adrian emperor. Conquests of Irajan abandoned.
Euphrates, eastern frontier.
120 Adrian’s wall (from Tyne to Solway) built.
132 to 135 Second Jewish war. Jews driven from their
country.
138 Antoninus Pius emperor. _
139 Lollius Urbicus subdues Britain to the Moray D'itri;
builds the wall of Antoninus between the Forth
and Clyde. _ _ .
161 Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus joint emperors.
163 Fourth Christian persecution.
166 to 178 War with the Marcomanni, Quadi, &c.
171 Death of Verus. Aurelius sole emperor.
180 Commodus. Goths seize the eastern part of Dacia.
189 The Saracens (now first noticed in history) defeat
the Romans.
193 Pertinax. Didius Julian. Pescenmus Niger. Sep-
timius Severus.
202 Fifth Christian persecution.
209 Severus rebuilds the wall of Antoninus (Graham s
Dyke). , ,
211 Caracalla and Geta emperors. 212, Geta murdered.
213 First mention of the Alemanni (Germans), a union
of tribes on the Upper Rhine.
217 Macrinus emperor. 218, Heliogabalus. 222, Alex¬
ander Severus. The Goths bribed not to molest
the empire.
226 Alexander defeats the Persians; 235, is murdered
by Maximin.
236 Sixth Christian persecution. 237, Defeat of the
Sarmatians.
238 Papienus and Balbinus joint emperors. Gordian.
A d. Chronti
242* Gordian defeats Sapor the Persian. Jogy-
244 Philip the Arabian emperor. _ . .
249 Decius emperor. Seventh Christian persecution.
First notice of the Franks, a union of tribes on the
Lower Rhine.
251 Vibius, Gallus, emperors. . . .. . .
253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c. break into Moesia and
Pannonia. .
254 Valerian emperor. 257, Eighth Christian persecu-
259 Sapor ravages Syria; takes Valerian prisoner. The
Germans advance to Ravenna.
260 Gallienus emperor. Thirty tyrants.
261 Sapor takes Antioch. 263, 'Hie tranks invade Gaul;
267, the Heruli Greece. _ „ ,
268 Claudius emperor; defeats (269) 320,000 of the
Goths and Heruli.
270 Aurelian emperor. .
271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage tne empire.
272 Ninth Christian persecution. . .•
273 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, defeated by Aurelian at
Edessa.
274 Silk brought from India.
275 Tacitus emperor. Goths seize Dacia.
277 Probus emperor; drives the Alemanni from Gaul;
defeats the Franks.
282 Carus, (284) Diocletian, emperors. The northern
nations redouble their attacks.
292 Partition of the empire by Diocletian.
298 Constantine Chlorus defeats the Alemanni near
Langres.
302 Tenth Christian persecution. r .Qn
304 Constantine and Galenus emperors. 306, Constan¬
tine (the Great) becomes sole emperor; stops
the persecution of the Christians. #
313 Constantine publishes the edict of Milan in favour
of the Christians ; defeats the Franks; also (3^1 j
the Saracens.
325 First general council meets at Nice.
329 Seat of empire transferred from Rome to Constan-
337 Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius joint
emperors. . n ,
350 Franks possess extensive settlements in Gaul.
357 Julian defeats the Germans at Strasburg.
361 Julian emperor; slain (363) in battle with the Per-
364 Valentinian emperor of the West. Valens, of the
373 Scriptures translated into the language of the Goths-
375 “ Migration of Nations.” The Huns cross the Don
376 Vakns™ws* the Goths to settle in Thrace. They
advance (378) to the gates of Constantinople.
379 Theodosius the Great emperor of the Last>in _
also of the West. Christianity becomes the reh
gion of the state. . ,
381 Second general council held at Conf }
383 Huns overrun Mesopotamia; are defeated by the
Goths; invade (395) the eastern proving
400 Alaric the Visigoth ravages Italy; is defeated ( )
406 Th J Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invade France and
Spain.
;410 Alaric sacks Rome.
'411 The Vandals established in Spain. d t0
420 Pharamond, first king of the hranks, supp
begin his reign.
424 Valentinian III. emperor of the West.
CHRONOLOGY.
rono* A. D.
ogy- 426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain.
429 The Vandals pass into Africa.
431 Third general council—held at Ephesus.
439 Vandals take Carthage; establish themselves in the
African province.
442 Theodosius II. concludes a disgraceful treaty with
Attila the Hun.
445 to 448 Attila ravages the eastern provinces; exacts
a tribute from the emperor; 450, invades Ger¬
many and France; sustains a defeat at Chalons.
451 Saxons assist the Britons against the Scots and
Piets.
  Fourth general council—held at Chalcedon.
452 Foundation of the city of Venice.
455 Rome sacked by the Vandals. Genseric.
468 The Visigoths expel the Romans from Spain.
470 iElla the Saxon occupies the kingdom of Sussex
defeats (471) all the British princes.
475 Romulus Augustulus last emperor of the West; de¬
posed (476) by Odoacer, king of the Heruli. Ex¬
tinction of the western empire.
481 Clovis king of the Franks.
485 Battle of Soissons. Syagrius.
488 Theodoric the Ostrogoth defeats Odoacer ; becomes
king of Italy.
497 Clovis, with his Franks, embraces Christianity; 500,
exacts tribute from the Burgundians; 507, sub¬
dues the Visigoths settled in Gaul; 510, makes
Paris the capital of France. 511, The kingdom
divided.
516 Computation of time by the Christian era introduced
by Dionysius Exiguus.
529 Belisarius defeats the Persians. Code of Justinian
published.
534 Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa destroyed.
537 Rome taken from the Ostrogoths; recovered (547)
by Totila.
540 Antioch destroyed by the Persians.
547 Northumbrian kingdom founded by Ida the Saxon.
550 Rise of the kingdom of Poland.
553 Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy destroyed by Narses.
559 France re-united under Clotaire.
568 The Lombards conquer Italy.
580 Latin ceases to be the spoken language of Italy.
585 Kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy established,
some before, others about this period. Britons
in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. Civil wars of
the Saxons begin.
596 Augustine the monk preaches Christianity to the
British Saxons.
602 Papal supremacy authorized by Phocas, emperor of
the East.
604 St Paul’s Church in London founded.
616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians under CosroesII.
622 Era of the Hegira, or flight of Mahommed from Mec¬
ca to Medina.
625 Constantinople besieged by an army of Persians,
Huns, and Sclavonians.
632 Abubeker—633, Omar, succeed Mahommed as ca¬
liphs of the Saracens.
636 Omar takes Jerusalem—640, Alexandria—orders
the Alexandrian library to be burnt.
648 The Saracens take Cyprus—653, Rhodes—658,
agree to pay the emperor tribute—669, ravage
Sicily—672, make a fruitless attack on Constan¬
tinople—675, fail in an attempt to establish them¬
selves in Spain.
680 Sixth general or oecumenical council of Constan¬
tinople.
669
D. Chrono-
690 Pepin d’Heristal (Maire du Palais) regent of logy-
France. .
698 The Saracens seize Carthage—699 and 700, sustain
defeats from the emperor of the East—713, make
themselves masters of Spain.
714 Charles Martel (Maire du Palais) regent of France.
718 Christian kingdom of the Asturias founded by Pe-
lagius.
729 The Saracens ravage France—are defeated (732)
by Charles Martel, in the battle of Tours.
742 Childeric III. (last of the Merovingian dynasty)
king of France.
749 The Abassidae caliphs of the Saracens.
751 Pepin (le Bref.) deposes Childeric, and founds the
Carlovingian dynasty of French kings.
754 Pepin takes Ravenna from the Lombards, and con¬
fers it on the pope—hence origin of the pope’s
sovereignty.
756 Abdarrahman king of Cordova. Didier last king of
Lombardy.
762 Almanzor caliph of the Saracens, makes Bagdad the
seat of his government.
767 The Turks (a Tartar tribe) ravage Asia Minor.
768 Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman kings of
France.
772 Charlemagne sole ruler.
774 Charlemagne subdues the kingdom of Lombardy—
778, Spain to the Ebro—779, Navarre and Sardi¬
nia—785, Saxony.
785 Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Saracens, ravages
part of the empire of the East—encourages science
among the Arabs.
787 The Danes pay their first visit to England. Seventh
general council—held at Nice.
794 Charlemagne defeats and disperses the Huns.
797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, and
Rhodes.
800 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Romans.
Clocks brought from the East to Europe.
814 Louis (le Debonnaire) emperor and king of France
—817, divides his dominions among his sons.
827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy
into one—England. The Danes begin to infest
the English coast.
838 Ethel wolf king of England. Tithes.
843 Kenneth M£Alpin reduces the whole of North Bri¬
tain into the monarchy of Scotland.
853 Separation of the Greek and Latin churches.
855 Kingdom of Navarre founded by Garcias.
855 Ethelbald and Ethelbert—866, Ethelred—872, Al¬
fred, kings of England. The Danes commit de¬
structive ravages.
874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. ,
875 Norway, Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides, sub¬
ject to Harold Harfager.
877 Louis (the Stammerer) emperor of Germany and
king of France. Hereditary feudal system be¬
gins to prevail in France.
878 to 890 Alfred the Great destroys the Danish power
in England; establishes a militia—a navy; di¬
vides England into counties, hundreds, &c.; pub¬
lishes a code of laws.
880 The Normans ravage France ; 885, besiege Paris.
886 University of Oxford founded by Alfred.
900 Louis IV. (last Carlovingian) emperor of Germany.
901 Edward the Elder king of England.
904 The Russians before Constantinople.
911 Conrad, duke of Franconia (a German), elected em¬
peror by the princes of the empire.
GTO
CHRONOLOGY.
C'hrono-
logy.
912 Rollo the Norman extorts a grant of the province
of Neustria (Normandy) from Charles the bim-
ple.
915 University of Cambridge founded.
928 Athelstan king of England. . , . ,
981 Rise of the republic of Pisa. Geneva in the hands
of the Saracens.
941 Edmund I.—948, Edred—955, Edwy—959, Edgar,
kings of England. Wolves extirpated by Edgar.
961 Candia retaken from the Saracens.
964 Otho the Great re unites Italy to Germany.
967 Antioch retaken from the Saracens.
970 Greenland discovered by Gunbiorn, an Icelander.
976 Edward II. and 978, Ethelred II., kings ot England.
977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the liul-
STciricins*
986 Louis V. (last Carlovingian) king of France.
987 Hugh Capet, count of Paris, ascends the throne ot
France—third dynasty. _
991 The arithmetical figures introduced into Europe by
the Arabians.
999 Boleslaus first king of Poland. _
1002 Massacre of the Danes settled in England, by Eth¬
elred ; the cause of an invasion by Sueno, king of
Denmark, in 1013, and by Canute, his son, in
1014.
1016 Edmund Ironside king of England. W ar with Ca¬
nute, king of Denmark.
1017 Canute becomes king of England.
1018 The Normans invade Italy.
1030 Caliphat of Cordova dismembered.
1036 Harold Harefoot king of England.
1039 Hardicanute (last Danish) king of England.
  Macbeth murders Duncan—usurps the throne of
Scotland. , Tr \ i •
1041 Edward the Confessor (son of Ethelred II.) king
of England. Danish power in England annihi¬
lated. , 1 1
1043 The Turks subdue Persia—1055, take Bagdad—
deprive the caliphs of temporal authority—suffer
them to retain the spiritual.
A. D.
1056 Milan a republic.
1057 Macbeth slain by the English. Malcolm Canmore,
son of Duncan, king of Scots.
1058 Guiscard the Norman expels the Saracens from
Sicily.
1062 A council of bishops decrees that the cardinals alone
shall nominate supreme pontiffs.
1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.
1066 Harold king of England. William, duke of Nor¬
mandy, disputes his title ; defeats Harold at Has¬
tings, and gains the crown.
1070 Feudal law introduced into England by WTlliam the
Conqueror.
1073 Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) publishes a bull
against the investiture and marriage of priests;
1076, excommunicates and deposes the emperor
Henry VI.
1079 Doomsday book begun by order of William the Con¬
queror—finished 1085 or 1086.
1085 Alphonso of Castile takes Toledo and Madrid from
the Saracens.
1086 Carthusian order of monks established.
1087 William II. (Rufus) king of England; Robert, his
brother, duke of Normandy.
1091 Saracens in Spain assisted by the Moors, who take
possession of their dominions.
1095 Council of Clermont. First crusade. Peter the
hermit.
1098 The crusaders take Antioch, and, 1099, Jerusalem;
erect a Christian kingdom ; Godfrey of Bouillon
sovereign. Knights of St John instituted.
1100 Henry I. king of England.
1102 Guiscard the Norman assumes the title of king of
Naples.
1106 Normandy re-annexed to England.
1108 Louis VI. of France incorporates towns ; abridges the
power of the feudal chiefs.
1110 Order of the Templars instituted.
1119 War between England and France. Battle of An-
deli.
1135 Stephen king of England.
1137 Pandects of Justinian discovered at Amalphi.
1138 Battle of the Standard; David First of Scots de¬
feated by the earl of Albemarle.
1139 Civil war in England between Stephen, and Matil¬
da, daughter of Henry L; 1141, Battle of Lin¬
coln.
1140 Canon law introduced into England. Faction of the
Guelphs and Ghibellines.
1147 Second crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux. Moscow
founded. Alphonso Henriquez takes Lisbon
from the Moors; assumes the title of king of
Portugal. .
1150 Study of civil law revived at Bologna. Scholastic
philosophy cultivated.
1152 Frederic Barbarossa emperor of Germany.
1153 Treaty of Winchester; compromise between Ste¬
phen and Prince Henry, son of Matilda.
1154 Henry II. ( Plan tagenet) king of England. Guelphs
and Ghibellines at war in Italy.
1157 Bank of Venice established.
1160 Religious sect of the Albigenses begins to attract
notice.
1163 London bridge built of stone. _
1164 Teutonic order of knighthood instituted in Ger-
  King of England attempts to retrench clerical usur¬
pations. Council of Clarendon. Becket.
1172 Ireland conquered by Henry II. Strongbow earl of
Pembroke
Chrono.
iogy.
H75 Division of England into four circuits ; appointment
of itinerant judges.
1179 University of Padua founded.
1180 Philip (Augustus) king of France. Guelphic party
repulsed. Bills of exchange in use.
1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin, sultan ol Egypt.
1189 Richard I. king of England. Third crusade ; the
leaders, Frederick of Germany, Richard or Eng¬
land, Philip of France.
1191 Ptolemais reduced by the crusaders; Battle ot As-
calon ; truce of three years, three months, three
weeks, three days, &c. with Saladin.
1200 Universities establishing in many large towns.—
First historical notice of the mariner s compass.
1202 Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, earl of Flanders;
bursts upon Constantinople. Baldwin becomes
emperor of the East.
1204 The inquisition established by Pope Innocent 111
  Provinces of Normandy, Anjou, &c. re-umteu
France. _ . .
1206 Gengis Khan. Mogul empire. Dispute betvv
John, king of England, and the pope; settle
1213. . . •
1208 London obtains a charter for electing its own mag
trates.
1210 Crusade against the Albigenses.
1212 Battle of Toledo ; Christians defeat the Moors.
to
C H R O N O L O G Y.
chrono¬
logy-
A. D.
Kmg of England becomes a vassal of the holy see.
1215 Magna Charta signed by John.
1216 Henry III. king of England.
1217 Fourth crusade, under Andrew, king of Hungary.
1218 Switzei land a province of the German empire.
1219 Damietta taken by the crusaders. 1
1222 Assembly of estates of France called a parliament
1236 St Louis king of France. Institution “of the mo-
nastic orders of St Dominic and St Francis
1227 Gengis Khan and the Moguls (Western Tartars)
overrun the empire of the Saracens. 7
1228 Sixth crusade under the emperor Frederic II.
1234 Inquisition committed to the Dominicans.
1237 Russia subdued by the Moguls.
1248 Seventh crusade under St Louis.
1254 Interregnum in Germany to 1273.
1256 Hanseatic league formed.
1258 Bagdad taken by the Moguls. End of the empire
of the Saracens.
1261 Battle of Largs. Norwegians defeated by Alexan-
dei III. king of Scots. Use of the mariner’s
compass known in France.
1264 Borough deputies sit, for the first time, in the Eno--
lish parliament. Earl of Leicester. Battle of
Lewes and (1265) of Evesham.
1266 Charles, count of Anjou, defeats Mainfroy, kin^ 0f
_ Naples and Sicily ; 1268, succeeds him'as king.
1272 Edward I. king of England. Florentine academy
founded.
1273 Rodolph of Hapsburg (first of the Austrian fami¬
ly) emperor of Germany.
1279 The Moguls subdue China.
1282 Sicilian vespers. King of Aragon obtains posses-
i oqq T7 fIOn Sicilj ; academy de Crusca instituted.
1283 Edward I. conquers Wales.
1290 Death ofMargaretofNorway queen of Scots. Com¬
petition of Bruce, Baliol, &c. for the crown. Ed¬
ward I. arbiter.
1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the cru¬
sades.
1292 Edward extorts an admission of his feudal superio¬
rity from the Scots barons; decides the dis-
puted succession in favour of Baliol.
1295 First English House of Commons assembled.
1296 Edward dethrones Baliol; attempts to annex Scot¬
land to his other dominions. Battles (1297) of
Stirling and (1298) Falkirk. Sir William Wal¬
lace.
1299 Othman (founder of the Ottoman empire) makes
Pi usa the seat of the Turkish power.
ISO! King of England’s eldest son created prince of
Wales. Spectacles used.
1305 Robert Bruce attempts to restore the independence
°* Scotland ; 1306, is crowned at Scone.
1307 Establishment of the Swiss republics. William Tell
Edward II. king of England.
1308 Pope transfers his residence from Rome to Avig¬
non. °
1310 Lincoln’s Inn Society established. Rhodes taken
by the knights of St John. Chimneys used in
domestic architecture.
1312 Order of Templars suppressed.
314 Battle of Bannockburn. Independence of Scotland
secured.
1319 Catalonia and Valencia united to Aragon. Uni-
. versity of Dublin established.
First treaty of commerce between England and Ve¬
nice.
1327 Edward III. king of England.
A. D.
1328 Philip of Valois king of France. Salic law
1329 David II. (Bruce) king of Scots.
1331 1 lie 1 eutonic knights settle in Prussia.
1332 to 1336 Crown of Scotland contended for by David
Bruce, and Edward, son of John Baliol. Battle of
Halidon Hill.
1336 Crown of France claimed by Edward III.—the cause,
10 war between France and England.
1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne.
Oil painting by John Van Eyk.
1341 Petrarch crowned at Rome.
1345 Canary islands discovered by the Genoese. Fire¬
arms in use.
!o!S ®attle.s °f Cressy ami Durham. Siege of Calais.
1347 Rienzi tribune of the people at Rome. University
ol Prague founded.
!o-? ?',der, of the Garter instituted by Edward III.
13ol John king of France.
1352 1 he 1 urks first enter Europe.
1355 The Golden Bull fixes the constitution of the Ger¬
man empire.
1356 Battle of Poictiers. Black Prince.
1357 Coals first used in London.
EfU’l0f1Bretigni- Aquitaine ceded to England.
1361 Ihe lurks conquer Adrianople ; settle in Europe;
establish the military order of Janizaries.
1362 Edward HI. abolishes the use of French in the
English courts of law.
Gmversities of’ Vienna and Geneva founded.
JTar between England and France renewed.
13^ Pope returns to Rome. Richard H. king of Eng-
i oryo rn ^and’ doctrines of Wickliffe propagated.
1378 Two popes, Urban VI. at Rome, Clement VII. at
Avignon.
1380 Tamerlane (or Timour) the Mogul conqueror, sub¬
dues Chorasan.
1381 Wat lyler and Jack Straw’s insurrection in Eng-
^ land. Bills of exchange used by the English.
1383 Cannon employed in the defence of Calais.
1384 First navigation act in England. Windsor Castle
built.
1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia.
1388 Battle ol Otterburn. Douglas. Percy.
1392 Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese.
1395 Hungarians defeated by the Turks.
1398 Delhi taken by Tamerlane.
1399 Henry IV. (of the house of Lancaster) king of Eng¬
land. Order of the Bath instituted.
1400 Wenceslaus, emperor of Germany, deposed by the
electoral princes.
1401 First final law against heresy in England. William
Sautre, a Wickliffite, the first victim.
1402 Battle of Homeldon ; 1403, of Shrewsbury.
Moguls under Tamerlane defeat the Turks under
Bajazet at Angoria ; 1405, death of Tamerlane.
1406 James I. king of Scots.
1411 University of St Andrews founded.
1412 Algebra taught in Europe by the Arabs.
1413 Henry V. king of England. Persecution of the
Lollards.
1414 Council of Constance deposes two popes. Pontifi¬
cate vacant for three years.
1415 Civil war of the Burgundians and Armagnacs in
France. Invasion of Henry V. Battle of Agin-
court. John Huss and (1416) Jerome of Prague
consigned to the flames for heresy by the coun¬
cil of Constance.
1417 First mention of the Bohemians or gypsies in Eu¬
rope. Paper made from linen rags.
671
Chrono-
logy.
672
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- A. D.
logy. 1420
1421
1422
1424
1425
1428
1430
1431
1432
1437
1439
1440
1442
1444
1445
1446
1450
1453
1454
1455
1456
1459
1460
1461
1464
1468
1470
1471
1474
1477
1479
1481
1483
1785
1486
1488
1491
A. D.
The island of Madeira discovered by the Portu-
1 gUest Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. regent of
The'Turks invest Constantinople; conclude a ten
years’ truce with the Christians.
Henry VI. king of England and (by treaty of Troyes)
of France. Charles VII. takes arms m support of
his claim to the crown of France. .
French and Scots defeated at Verneuil by the Duke
of Bedford. . , , t r ’
Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I.
Siege of Orleans ; raised by Joan oi Arc.
Charles VII. crowned at Rheims ; Henry VI. at
Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) burnt for sorcery.
Rise of the Medici family at hlorence.
The Azores discovered by the Portuguese.
Tames XX» Ivinw of* Scots# -
Temporary re-union of the Greek and Latin churc les.
Art of printing invented by John Guttenberg.
African slave trade commences.
Truce with Turkey broken by the Christians. Bat¬
tle of Varna. Scanderbeg trees Albania horn the
Turkish yoke. „
Constantine Palseologus last emperor of the East.
Vatican library founded at Rome.
Mahommed II. emperor of the Tuiks. _ .
The Turks take Constantinople, and extinguish the
eastern empire of the Romans. A standing army
established in France. The English retain Calais
alone of their continental possessions. War in
France at an end.
University of Glasgow founded. „ v , A
Civil war between the royal houses of York and
Lancaster, or “ war of the Roses. Battle of St
The Turks defeated before Belgrade by John Hun-
niades.
Engraving on copper invented.
James III. king of Scots. Battles of Northampton
and Wakefield. p
Edward (of the house of York) proclaimed king ot
England by his party. Battle of lowton. Louis
XL king of France.
Stages, diligences, and posts established in Franc .
The Orkney and Shetland islands united to the
kingdom of Scotland.
Edward IV. driven from England. Henry VI. re¬
stored to the throne.
Return of Edward. Battles of Barnet and Tewkes¬
bury ; destruction of the Lancastrian party. ^
Cape Verde Islands discovered by the Portuguese.
University of Aberdeen established. _
Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms ot
Aragon and Castile; establish the inquisition in
their dominions. Russia freed from Tartar sub¬
jection.
Death of Mahommed II. . c
Charles VIII. king of France. Edward V. king ot
England murdered. Richard III. king of Eng¬
land. .
Richard (last English king of the Plantagenet dy¬
nasty) is slain in the battle ot Bosworth. Plenry
earl of Richmond becomes king; styled Henry VII.
and 1487 Imposture of Lambert Simnel.
James IV. king of Scots. • . . .
Granada, the last possession of the Moors in Spain,
subdued by Ferdinand and Isabella. Bretagne,
the last independent fief in France, re-united to
Chrono.
iogy.
the crown. Opposition of Henry VII.; bought
off (1492) by the treaty of Estaples. _ ^
1492 Hispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher
Columbus.
1493 Maximilian I. emperor of Germany.
1494 Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. Continent of
America discovered by Columbus.
1496 Newfoundland discovered by Sebastian Cabot.
1497 Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, doubles the Cape of
Good Hope, and sails to the East Indies.
1498 Louis XII. king of France.
1499 North America discovered by Cabot. Execution
of Perkin Warbeck, pretended son of Edward IV.
Conquest of the Milanese by Louis XII.
1500 The Portuguese discover Brazil.
   to 1504 War between the kings of Trance and Spain
for the possession of Naples. Treaty of Blois.
Pope Julius II.
1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese.
1508 Julius II. forms the league of Cambray against Ve¬
nice. Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba colonized
bv the Spaniards.
1509 Henry VIII. king of England. Battle of Aignadel.
1510 JuliuJdissolves the league of Cambray ; acts against
his ally Louis XII. General wars.
  t0 1515 Goa, Malacca, r' -mus, conquered by the
Portuguese. Albuquerque.
1512 Council of Pisa. Navarre united to Spain. Battle
1513 Invasion of France by Henry VIIL Battle °^purs
Invasion of England by the Scots. Battl®
Flodden ; James IV. slam. James V. king of Scots.
South Sea entered by Nugnez Balboa.
1514 General pacification among the European Vowe^’
^ 515 Francis I. king of France. Invasion of Italy. Bat
tie of Marignan. The Milanese submit to France
1516 Charles of Austria (the grandson of Ferdinand)
kins: of Spain. .pi
1517 Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. Ihe
Turks end the sway of the Mamelukes in EC}P •
China visited by Ferdinand d’Andrada, a Portu-
1 518 Pone Leo X. condemns Luther s doctrines.
1519 Charles king of Spain is elected emperor of Germa-
nv Magellan explores the South Seas.
1520 Keformation in Switzerland. Zuinglms.
and Denmark united. Massacre of Stockholm by
1591 LuteScUed before the diet of Worms. Gustavos
Vasa king of Sweden. Cortez completes the
conquest of Mexico. General »ars renewed by
Charles and Francis. Ladrone and Philippine
islands discovered by Magellan.
1522 First voyage round the world P^^^e^by the
of Magellan s squadron. Rhodes taxen
Turks; also Belgrade in 1523.
1 523 The Spaniards subdue Chili.
1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace Lutheramsm.
  Battle of Biagrassa. Death of the ^heval‘er ? lf
1525 Grand Master of the Teutome order makes hunse
hereditary duke of Prussia. Battle ot Pavia
Captivity of Francis I. Turks ac-
1526 Trq^lSign^mSvia and Wallachia.
1527 ^“ade^le^ ^iz^bfgins tL con^of
Peru. The Bermudas discovered by Job
mudez, a Spaniard. _ -n ^ rnrabrav-
1529 The Turks threaten Vienna. Peace o
CHRONOLOGY.
673
rono- A. D.
;?• Diet of Spire. The reformers acquire the name
of Protestants. Papal opposition to the dissolu¬
tion of Henry VIII.’s marriage with Catherine of
Spain precipitates the reformation in England.
1530 Diet and confession of Augsburg. League of Smal-
calde. Secretary of state appointed in England.
1532 Treaty of Nuremberg; the German Protestants ob¬
tain liberty of conscience. Court of Session re¬
modelled by James V.
1533 Henry VIII. quarrels with the Holy See; 1534, is
declared by parliament “ The only supreme head
of the church of England upon earth.”
1534 Anabaptist republic at Munster. Jack of Leyden.
Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Tunis.
1535 Society of the Jesuits instituted by Loyola. Ex¬
pedition of Charles V. against Tunis.
1536 Renewal of war between Charles and Francis ; Mi¬
lan the cause. Invasion of France.
1538 Dissolution of all the monasteries in England. Eng¬
lish Bible read in the churches. Turks defeat
the Germans at Essek on the Drave. Barbarossa
ravages the coasts of Italy. Truce of Nice.
1540 Reformation at Geneva. Calvin. Variation of the
compass noticed by Cabot.
1541 Great part of Hungary subdued by the Turks.
Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Al¬
giers.
1542 Renewal of hostilities between France and the em¬
pire. The Turks allies of Francis. Henry VIII.
makes war with Scotland. Battle of Solway
Moss. Mary Queen of Scots. Japan visited by
Ferdinand Mendez Pinto.
1544 Battle of Cerisoles. Peace of Crespi.
1545 Battle of Ancrum Muir.
1546 Peace concluded between Charles V. and Turkey.
Council of Trent meets. Religious war in Ger¬
many.
1547 Battle of Mulhausen. Henry IL king of France;
Edward VI. king of England; Duke of Somer¬
set protector. Battle of Pinkey. Orange trees
brought from China to Portugal.
1548 The Interim published and enforced in Germany.
1549 English liturgy completed. Telescopes invented.
1551 War of Parma.
j 1552 The German Protestants assisted by Henry II. of
France. Peace of religion concluded at Passau.
War with France continues ; siege of Metz.
1553 Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England;
obliged to resign the crown to the Princess Mary.
Queen Mary attempts to restore the Catholic re¬
ligion, and (1555) persecutes the Protestants.
1555 Recess of Augsburg. Charles V. resigns the Spa¬
nish dominions to his son Philip, and Germany to
his brother Ferdinand. Truce of Vaucelles.
1556 War rekindled in Italy and the Low Countries.
Waigat’s Strait discovered by Stephen Borrough.
1557 England joins Spain against France. Battle of St
Quentin. Calais taken by the French.
1558 Elizabeth queen of England. Marriage of Mary
queen of Scots to the dauphin.
1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis. Francis II. kipg of
France.
1560 Charles IX. king of France. Struggle between
the French Catholic and Protestant parties com¬
mences. Papal jurisdiction abolished, and Pres¬
byterian worship established in North Britain by
the Scots Parliament. John Knox.
1561 Mary queen of Scots returns from France to her
own dominions. Persecution of the Dutch and
VOL. VI.
A. D.
Flemish Protestants by Philip II. of Spain ; the
cause (in 1566) of a war in the Low Countries.
1562 Religious war rages in France. Battle of Dreux.
1563 The Protestants obtain toleration.
1564 The Turks fail in an attempt to take Malta.
1565 Marriage of the queen of Scots to Lord Darnley.
Catholic or Holy League of Bayonne negotiated.
1566 Revolt of the Low Countries from Philip II. His
governor (Duke of Alva) commits great cruelties.
Flemish refugees establish manufactures in Eng¬
land.
1567 Religious war in France renewed. Battle of St
Denis. Lord Darnley murdered. A resignation
of the crown is extorted from Mary; her son is
proclaimed king (James VI.), and the Earl of
Murray appointed regent. Solomon Isles disco¬
vered by Mendana.
1568 Battle of Langside. Mary escapes into England;
is put under restraint by Elizabeth. Philip II.
employs the inquisition to exterminate the Moors
in Spain.
1569 The Regent Murray assassinated. French Pro¬
testants defeated at Jarnac and Moncontours.
1570 Treaty of St Germain en Laye. The French Pro¬
testants obtain an amnesty, liberty of conscience,
and other privileges. Queen Elizabeth excom¬
municated by the pope.
1571 The Turks conquer Cyprus; are defeated in the
naval action of Lepanto.
1572 Massacre of St Bartholomew. The Brille taken by
Flemish privateers (the Gueux).
1573 Siege of Haarlem. Requesens succeeds Alva in
the Low Countries. Siege of Rochelle. Toleration
granted to the French Protestants.
1574 Henry III. king of France. Africa invaded by Don
Sebastian, king of Portugal. Siege of Leyden.
1576 The Catholic league in France formed against the
Protestants. Frobisher’s Straits discovered by
Sir Martin Frobisher.
1578 Elizabeth supports the insurgents in the Low Coun¬
tries. The Spaniards are defeated at Rimenant.
1579 Union of Utrecht. Battle of Alcagar; king of Por¬
tugal slain.
1581 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. The world
circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. Parish
registers kept in England.
1582 Raid of Ruthven; James VI. seized by the Earl of
Gowrie. Reformation of the calendar by Pope
Gregory XIII.
1584 William Prince of Orange murdered. Siege of Ant¬
werp by the Duke of Parma. Virginia discovered
by Sir Walter Raleigh. Tobacco used in Eng¬
land.
1586 Babington’s conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth.
1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded. French Protest¬
ants defeat the army of the league at Coutras.
Davis’ Straits explored by John Davis.
1588 Spanish Armada sent to invade England.
1589 Plenry III. joins the Protestants under the king of
Navarre; besieges Paris; is assassinated. Henry
IV. (of Navarre) king of France. Coaches first
used in England.
1590 Henry obtains aid from England; defeats the army
of the league at Ivri. Telescopes first made.
1591 Elizabeth re-endows the University of Dublin.
1594 Earl of Tyrone’s rebellion in Ireland. Falkland
Isles discovered by Hawkins.
1595 The Dutch establish factories in Java.
1597 Watches brought to England from Germany.
4 «
Chrono-
logy.
674
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- A. D.
logy. 1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1608
1609
1610
1611
1614
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627-
1629
1631
1632
1632
Edict of Nantes in favour of the French Protestants.
Reduction of Cadiz by an English armament.
Peace of Yervins between France and 8pain.
Philip III. king of Spain. n
Eastern possessions of Spain and Portugal seized by
the Dutch. Earl of Essex sent to suppress ly-
rone’s insurrection in Ireland. T
Cowrie’s conspiracy in Scotland. English East In¬
dia Company established. Battle ot Nieuport.
Thermometer.
Ostend invested by the Archduke Albert.
Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.
Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland,
James VI. of Scotland becoming king of Great
Britain.
Ostend reduced by Spinola.
Gun-powder plot. . . „
English colonies settled in Virginia and New Eng-
Galileo constructs telescopes; discovers the satellites
of Jupiter; spots; rotation of the sun.
Spain acknowledges the independence of the United
Provinces. Evangelical union and Catholic league
formed in Germany. .
Henry IV. murdered by Ravaillac. Louis Alii.
kin0- of France. Hudson’s Bay discovered.
Baronets first created in England by James I.
Smolensko seized, and Moscow burnt by the Poles.
Logarithms invented by Napier of Merchiston. New
river brought to London by Sir Hugh Middleton.
The English establish factories in Amboyna, Banda,
&c. Baffin’s Bay discovered. Cape Horn.
Family compact of the Emperor Mathias ; alarming
to the evangelical union.
Beginning of the Thirty Years War. _ .
Ferdinand II. emperor of Germany. Circulation ot
the blood discovered by Dr Harvey. Vanini burnt
at Toulouse for atheism. .
Battle of Prague. Elector Palatine loses his domi¬
nions. Catholicism forced upon the Protestants
of Bearn. The French reformers take arms with
the intention of establishing a republic. The
English make a settlement at Madras.
Philip IV. king of Spain. Batavia built by the
Dutch. The English House of Commons claim
unlimited freedom of debate; beginning of the
disputes concerning privilege and prerogative.
Knights of Nova Scotia instituted by James I.
Peace between Louis XIII. and his Protestant
subjects. Edict of Nantes confirmed.
Massacre of the English settlers in Amboyna by the
Dutch.
Charles I. king of Great Britain. Barbadoes colo¬
nized by the English.
League of the Protestant princes of Germany against
the emperor. War between Louis XIII. and his
Protestant subjects renewed; the latter support¬
ed by England. Richelieu. Buckingham.
-8 Siege of Rochelle. English Bill of Rights.
France and (1630) Sweden join the enemies of the
emperor.
Battle of Leipsic ; Imperialists defeated. Descrip¬
tion of the Vernier published.
Battle of Lutzen ; Gustavus Adolphus slain. Chris¬
tina queen of Sweden. English non-conformists
emigrate in great numbers to North America, and
form many settlements.
to 1697 The Buccaneers wage implacable war with
the Spaniards in America.
Chrc i
Evangelical union disposed log'
A. D.
1634 Battle of Nordlingen.
to peace.
1635 Treaty of Prague. Sweden and France continue
the war. French academy instituted.
1637 Ferdinand HI. emperor of Germany.
1638 Bagdad taken by the Turks.
1639 The Scottish Covenanters take arms in defence of
Presbytery. Reflecting telescope constructed by
Mersenne.
1640 John, duke of Braganza, recovers the kingdom of
Portugal. Long Parliament assembled.
1641 Earl of Strafford beheaded. Irish rebellion; mas¬
sacre of the Protestants in Ulster.
1642 Civil war between Charles I. and the Long Parlia¬
ment. Battle of Edgehill. Van Diemen’s Land
and New Zealand discovered by lasman.
1643 Louis XIV. king of France. Anne of Austria re¬
gent. Battle of Rocroi. Solemn league and co¬
venant between the English and Scottish parlia¬
ments. Friendly Islands; Tasman. Barometer;
Torricelli.
1644 The Tartars subdue China. Battle of Marston
Moor.
1645 Execution of Archbishop Laud. Battle of iNaseby.
1646 Royalist force completely broken; Charles surren¬
ders to the Scottish army; civil war ended.
1648 Peace of Westphalia. War of the Fronde at Park
Exclusion of Presbyterians from the House of
Commons (Pride’s Purge). Rump Parliament.
1649 Charles I. beheaded. Monarchy abolished in Eng¬
land. Commonwealth. Prince of Wales assumes
the title of Charles II. The Covenanters declare
him king of Scotland. Cromwell storms Droghe¬
da and Wexford; 1650, defeats Charles at Dun¬
bar; and 1651, at Worcester. Commonwealth
recognised by every dependence of the British
kingdoms, and by foreign states.
1651 Office of stadtholder abolished by the Dutch. Eng¬
lish act of navigation passed.
1652 First war between the English and Dutch.
1653 Dissolution of the Rump Parliament by Cromwell.
 and 1654 The Dutch defeated in several naval ac-
tions.
1654 End of the commonwealth of England. Cromwell
lord protector. , .
1655 Persecution of the Waldenses. Cromwell joins
France in a war against Spain. Jamaica reduced
by Penn, an English admiral. Blake destroys the
shipping in the harbours of Tunis and (1657)
Santa Cruz. Fourth satellite of Saturn discover¬
ed by Huygens. Pendulum clocks made,
1656 Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, procures
a recognition of the independence of Prussia.
1658 Spaniards totally defeated near the Downs. Dun¬
kirk taken and delivered to the English. Richard
Cromwell lord protector of England. Copen¬
hagen besieged by Charles X. of Sweden.
1659 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spam.
Richard Cromwell resigns his office. Rump 1 ar-
F liament re-assembles. Micrometer; Huygens..
1660 Charles II. restored to the throne of Great Britain.
Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, am!
Poland. ,
1661 Sir Henry Vane, the Marquis of Argyle, and otliers,
executed for treason.
1662 Act of uniformity passed by the English Parhamen ,
two thousand clergymen in one day resign then
benefices. Dunkirk sold back to the French.
Royal Society of London instituted.
C H R O N
ono- A. D.
V' 1663 Carolina planted. Bombay taken by the English.
French academy of inscriptions instituted.
1664 to 1667 Second Dutch war. Many naval actions
fought; success various.
1665 Charles II. king of Spain. Great plague in London.
llotation of Jupiter, JMars, and Venus, observed
by Cassini.
1666 Great fire of London. Tea first imported into Eng-'
land. The academy of sciences instituted in
France. The Covenanters defeated on Pentland
Hills.
1667 Peace of Breda ; end of second Dutch war. Louis
invades the Spanish Netherlands. Triple alliance.
1668 Peace of Aix la Chapelle.
1669 Candia taken by the Turks. Cabal administration
in England. Secret treaty with France against
Holland. &
1670 English Hudson's Bay Company incorporated.
1671 The Danes seize the” island of St Thomas. Fifth
satellite of Saturn discovered by Cassini.
1672 Louis and Charles unite against the Dutch. Naval
action of Southwold. Louis overruns the greater
part of the seven United Provinces. Office of
stadtholder restored.
1673 Catholics excluded from office in Britain by the test
act. Spain and Germany support the Dutch.
French evacuate the United Provinces.
1674 Separate treaty concluded between Great Britain
and Holland. Louis continues the war alone.
Battle of Seneffe. John Sobieski king of Poland.
1674-5 Palatinate devastated by Turenne.
1676 Charles concludes a secret treaty with Louis; be¬
comes a pensioner of France. Carolina colonized
by the English.
1677 War between Russia and Turkey. Marriage of the
Princess Mary, presumptive heiress of the British
crown, to the Prince of Orange.
1678 A British force is raised to assist the Dutch, but im¬
mediately disbanded, through the influence of
French gold over the king and House of Com¬
mons. Peace of Nimeguen. Popish plot.
1679 Habeas Corpus act passed by the parliament of Eng¬
land. Rising of the covenanters in the west of
Scotland. Battle of Both well Bridge. Whig and
Tory become party names.
1680 Bill for excluding the Duke of York (because a
papist) from the succession passed by the Lower
and rejected by the Upper House. Pennsylvania
colonized.
1682 Peter the Great czar of Muscovy. Charters of Lon¬
don and other towns seized by Charles.
1683 Rye-House plot. Execution of Lord Russell and
Algernon Sydney. Turks defeated before Vienna
by John Sobieski.
1684 Louis XIV. acquires Strasburg and Luxemburg.
1685 James II. king of Great Britain. Louis XIV. re¬
vokes the edict of Nantes. Duke of Monmouth
invades the west of England. James suspends
the test act.
1686 Newtonian philosophy published. Air-pump,
j League of Augsburg against France.
1687 Expulsion of the president and fellows of Magdalen
College, Oxford.
1688 Declaration of general indulgence issued by James.
Prosecution of the primate and six bishops. Union
of all parties in defence of the constitution. Prince
of Orange lands in England. James escapes to
France. The Revolution.
1689 English and Scottish conventions settle the British
O L O G Y. 675
A" D* ttt.1i. Chrono-
crown on William and Mary, 13th February. Act
of toleration. Presbytery established in Scotland.
Battle of Killicrankie ; death of Dundee. Siege
of Londonderry.
1690 Battle of the Boyne. The English establish them¬
selves at Calcutta.
1691 Treaty of Limerick. Ireland renounces the autho¬
rity of James.
1692 Massacre of Glencoe. Battle of La Hogue. 'Re¬
duction of Namur by the French. Battle of Stein-
kirk. Hanover made an electorate.
1693 Funding system commenced. Bank of England
established.
1694 Triennial bill. Death of Queen Mary.
1695 Namur retaken by William.
1697 Peace of llyswick. Peter the Great defeats the
lurks and takes Azoph. Charles XII. king of
Sweden. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at
Zen ta.
1698 England, Holland, and France, concert a secret
treaty for the partition of Spain on the death of
Charles II. Charles makes a will in favour of
the Elector of Bavaria.
1699 Peace of Carlowitz between the Christian powers
and lurkey. Scots plant a colony at Darien.
^ Death of the Elector of Bavaria.
1700 Second partition treaty. Will of Charles in favour
of the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin.
Poland, Denmark, and Russia, form an alliance
against Sweden. Charles XII. takes Copenhagen.
Academy of Berlin. New Britain discovered by
Dampier.
1/01 Succession to the crown of Great Britain settled on
the Princess Sophia of Hanover and her protes-
tant heirs. Death of Charles II. of Spain. Duke
of Anjou proclaimed by the title of Philip V.
Ihe emperor disputes his claim, and takes the
field in Italy. Grand alliance. Battle of Narva ;
the Russians defeated by Charles XII. Death
of Janies II. His son acknowledged king of
Great Britain by Louis. England joins the grand
irmo a a iance* ^ar of the Spanish succession.
1702 Anne queen of Great Britain. Marlborough com¬
mander-in-chief of the allied army in Flanders.
Battle of kriedlingen; the imperialists defeated.
Spanish anu Trench fleet destroyed in the harbour
of \ igo. Charles XII. takes W arsaw; defeats
Augustus, king of Poland, at Clissaw ; enters Cra-
•n. C7°W' /i Frencl1 send colonies to the Mississippi.
1703 Duke of Savoy and king of Portugal join the grand
alliance. Villars defeats the imperialists at Hoch-
stet. Archduke Charles assumes the title of king
of Spain. C harles XII. defeats Augustus at Pul-
tusk. St Petersburg founded.
1704 Battle of Blenheim. Gibraltar taken ; French fleet
defeated off Malaga by Sir G. Rooke. Augustus
dethroned, and Stanislaus Leczinski chosen king
of Poland. b
1705 Joseph I. emperor of Germany. The Archduke
Charles, supported by a British armament, re¬
duces Valencia and Catalonia. The Russians,
enteiing Poland, are defeated and driven beyond
the Dnieper by Charles XII.
1/06 Battle of Ramillies. Siege of Turin ; raised by Prince
Eugene. Madrid taken by the English and Por¬
tuguese ; retaken by Philip. Majorca and Ivica
reduced by a British fleet. Battle of Frauenstadt;
Russians and Saxons defeated. Augustus acknow¬
ledges Stanislaus as king of Poland.
670
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- a. D. , c ,,
logy. 1707 Legislative union of England and Scotland nnally
arranged (March 6). Italian dominions of Spain
subdued by the allies. Battle of Almanza ; the
allies defeated. The French carry war into Ger¬
many ; penetrate to the Danube. Siege of iou-
lon. . .
1708 The Pretender makes a fruitless attempt to enter
the Forth with a French armament. Battle ot
Oudenarde. Siege of Lisle. Sardinia and Mi¬
norca reduced by the British. Charles XII. in¬
vades Russia.
1709 Louis XIV. offers the whole Spanish dominion to
the house of Austria, and large concessions to
the other allies ; these proposals rejected. Siege
of Mons. Battle of Malplaquet; the French
defeated, and Mons taken. Battle of Pultowa;
king of Sweden defeated by the czar. Augus¬
tus restored to the throne of Poland.
1710 Conferences of Gertruygdenberg. Douay, Aire, and
other places within the trench frontier reduced.
Battle of Almenara. The allies again at Madrid,
and again obliged by the French and Spaniards
to retire. Trial of Dr Saeheverel. Change of
the English ministry. Intrigues in favour of the
Pretender; abetted by the queen. The czar
conquers Carelia and Livonia. St Paul s Cathe¬
dral rebuilt. . . „ , ?
1711 Charles, competitor with Philip for the crown ot
Spain, becomes emperor of Germany. Secret
treaty negotiated between the trench and Enghs i
Courts. Creation of British peers to support the
. measure. The czar invades Turkey. Concludes
(to save his army from destruction) a disadvan¬
tageous treaty with the Porte. English South
Sea Company incorporated.
1712 The Duke of Ormond supersedes Marlborough ;
separates the British from the allied foices. ihe
French retake Douay and othei towns. _ _ _
1713 Treaty of Utrecht signed 31st March. Hostilities
continued by the emperor alone. Landau, Frey-
berg, and other towns reduced by the Fiench.
Pragmatic sanction.
1714 Treaty of Rastadt. George I. (elector of Hanover)
kino- of Great Britain. Louis XV. king ot France;
Duke of Orleans regent. Peter the Great defeats
the Swedes at Sea; subdues the isle ol Oeland.
1715 An army of Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, besieges
Stralsund; the defence conducted by Charles XIl.
Rebellion in Scotland. Battle of Slieriffmuir.
The Turks take the Morea from the Venetians.
Compensation pendulum ; Graham.
716 Charles XII. invades Norway. Bill for Septennial
parliaments passed by the British legislatuie.
Emperor supports Venice against Turkey. Bat¬
tle of Peterwaradin ; the Turks defeated.
1717 Prince Eugene invests Belgrade ; defeats the Turk¬
ish army; takes the town.
1718 Peace of Passarowitz. Turkey retains the Morea.
Quadruple alliance. England attacks Spain by
sea, France by land. Charles XIl. falls at the
siege of Frederickshall: his death followed by a
cessation of arms among the northern powers.
1719-20 Mississippi scheme in France. South Sea scheme
in England.
1720 Philip of Spain accedes to the terms of the quad¬
ruple alliance. Treaties of peace concluded by
the sovereigns of Hanover, Sweden, Prussia, and
Denmark. Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sar¬
dinia. Inoculation practised in England.
A. D. , • • rn Chror
1721 George I. supports Sweden against Russia. Ireaty i0gy
of Nystadt. Peter assumes the title “ Emperor
of Russia.” Ruin of the South Sea scheme. Great
mercantile distress in Britain.
1722 Peter the Great supports the schah of Persia against
the Afghans; obtains the cession of three pro-
« vinces on the shores of the Caspian. Jacobite
conspiracy in favour of the Pretender defeated.
1723 Duke of Orleans, regent of France, dies.
1724 Philip V. resigns the crown of Spain to his son
Louis; resumes it after his son's death. Aca¬
demy of sciences of St Petersburg instituted.
1725 Catherine empress of Russia. Treaty of Vienna
between the emperor and the king of Spain ; and
of Hanover between France, England, Holland,
Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, in opposition to
the former.
1726 A British fleet sent to blockade Porto Bello.
1727 Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. Congress of
Soissons. George II. king ot Great Britain. Peter
II. emperor of Russia.
1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland. Books
printed at Constantinople. Behring Strait dis¬
covered. .
1729 Peace of Seville concluded between trance, Spain,
and Great Britain. Corsica revolts from the Ge¬
noese. Rise of methodism in England; John
Wesley*
1730 The Persians under Kouli Khan defeat the Turks.
Aberration of the fixed stars observed by Dr
Bradley. Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
1731 Treaty of Vienna. Pragmatic sanction guaranteed
by the parties to the peace of Seville. Don Car¬
los, son of Philip V., succeeds to the duchies of
Parma and Placentia. .
1732 Culture of coffee introduced by the English into
their American settlements.
1733 Death of Augustus II. War for the crown of Po¬
land. Stanislaus the ex-king supported by Trance
and Spain ; the elector of Saxony by the emperor
and Russia.
1734 The French and their allies take Phihpsburg; pos¬
sess themselves of Naples and Sicily ; defeat the
imperialists at Bitonto, Parma, Guastalla. Ireaty
of commerce concerted between Great Britain
and Russia. < . , , ^
1735 Preliminaries of a treaty (Vienna) settled between
the courts of Paris and Vienna—Stanislaus to re¬
sign Poland and obtain the duchy of Lorraine—
the Duke of Lorraine, Tuscany—Don Carlos, the
kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in exchange for 1 ar-
ma and Placentia.
1736 Empress of Russia (Anne) commences hostilities
against Turkey; reduces Azoph; ravages the Cri¬
mea. Kouli Khan seizes the throne of 1 ersia;
takes the name “ Nadir Schah.” Porteous mob
at Edinburgh.
1737 Ockzakoff taken by the Russians.
1738 Definitive treaty of Vienna, between France an
Germany. The emperor joins Russia against iur
key. Nadir Schah subdues Candahar.
1739 The Turks defeat the imperialists in Hungary ; con-
on orl van tap-eons neace with Germany ana
elude an advantageous peace with Germany
Russia. Convention of Prado War between
Great Britain and Spain. Reduction of Porto
1740 Frederick III. (the Great) king of Prussia. Death
of the emperor Charles VI. Pragmatm sanction,
securing the hereditary dominions of Austna
'hrono-
ogy.
^—>
CHRONOL
A. D. A. D.
Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles, disregarded.
War of the Austrian succession.
174)1 Battle of Molwitz ; Frederick defeats the Austrians ;
receives the submission of Silesia. The elector
of Bavaria claims Bohemia and the imperial crown; 1750
gains the support of France; carries Prague by
assault; is crowned king of Bohemia. British
parliament grants a subsidy to Maria Theresa.
Sweden declares war against Russia; battle of
Wiimanstrand. Siege of Carthagena. Expedi- 1751
tion to the South Sea under Commodore Anson.
174)2 Elector of Bavaria chosen emperor (Charles VIE). 1752
British army sent into the Netherlands to support
Maria Theresa. The Austrians recover Linz; 1753
take Munich. Battle of Czaslau. Peace of Bres¬
lau between Austria, Prussia, and Poland. Re- 1754
treat of the French and Bavarians; siege of
Prague. Convention of Turin between Austria and
Sardinia. Austrian dominions in Italy attacked
by Spain ; with little success.
174-3 French driven from the Palatinate. Battle of Det-
tingen. French defeated by the British. Treaty 1755
of Worms between Austria and Sardinia. Family
compact; France and Spain. Peace of Abo;
Russia and Sweden. War between Nadir Schah
and Turkey. Society of Sciences of Copenhagen.
University of Erlangen.
1744) Invasion of England, in favour of the Pretender, at¬
tempted by France. War declared between France
and England. French and Spaniards overrun
Savoy. Treaty of Frankfort between France and
Prussia.
1745 Death of Charles VIE ; his son Maximilian Joseph 1756
consents to guarantee the pragmatic sanction, and
concludes peace with Maria Theresa. France and
Spain continue the war. Battle of Fontenoy.
Francis duke of Tuscany (husband of Maria The¬
resa) chosen emperor. Treaty of Dresden ; in¬
ternal peace of Germany restored. Prince Charles
Edward, grandson of James II. lands in Scotland ;
takes Edinburgh ; defeats the king’s army at Pres-
tonpans; marches into England. Habeas corpus
act suspended ; militia called out. Duke of Cum¬
berland takes the command of the army. The
prince retreats into Scotland.
1746 Siege of Stirling castle. Battle of Culloden. The
rebellion entirely suppressed. Flanders, Brabant,
and Hainault subdued by the French. Battle of 1757
Roucoux gained by the French, and of St Lazaro
by the Austrians. Ferdinand VI. king of Spain.
Genoa garrisoned by Austrians ; the garrison ex¬
pelled by the Genoese. Madras reduced by the
French.
1747 Neutral territory of the United Provinces invaded
by the French. Prince of Orange (William IV.)
declared stadtholder, and hostilities commenced
with France. Battle of Val; allies under the
Duke of Cumberland defeated. Bergen-op-Zoom
taken by the French. Siege of Genoa. French
defeated at sea; off Cape Finisterre by Admiral
Anson ; off Belleisle by Admiral Hawke. Nadir
Schah assassinated.
1748 Pondicherry in the East, Cuba and Hispaniola in the
West Indies, attacked by British armaments. Siege 1758
of Maestricht. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between
Great Britain, France, Spain, Austria, Sardinia,
and Holland.
1749 Kingdom of Afghanistan founded by Achmet Ab¬
dallah, a general of Nadir Schah. League of the
O G Y. 677
Chrono-
Pope, Venetians, &c. against Algiers. English logy,
and French in the East Indies take opposite sides
in a contest of native princes for the nabobship of
Arcot.
Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden and Den¬
mark concerning Holstein. Commercial treaty
between Great Britain and Spain. Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm. Royal Society of Gottin¬
gen. Westminster Bridge finished.
Siege of Arcot. Captain Clive. Death of Frederick
Prince of Wales.
New style adopted in Britain; September 2d reck¬
oned September 14th.
Hostilities in India continued; advantage generally
on the British side. British Museum established.
The French (having connected Canada and Louisi¬
ana by a chain of forts) attempt to circumscribe
the British American colonies; attack Nova Sco¬
tia and Virginia. War in India concluded; non¬
interference with native governments a stipulation
of the treaty.
Armaments sent by Great Britain and France to
support their respective American colonies. Ex¬
peditions of General Braddock against the French
posts on the Ohio, of Sir W. Johnson against
Crown Point, of General Shirley against Niagara,
—all unsuccessful. Maritime commerce of France
distressed by British cruizers. Treaty between
George II. and Russia for defence of Hanover.
Foundation of the Burman empire in the eastern
peninsula of India. Destruction of Lisbon by an
earthquake.
Kings of Britain and Prussia conclude a treaty for
the exclusion of foreign troops from Germany;
Austria, Russia, Sweden, and France, another
for the partition of Prussia. Minorca attacked by
the French. Declaration of war between Great
Britain and France. Militia bill; rejected by the
Peers. German mercenaries brought to defend
Britain from invasion. Admiral Byng attempts to
relieve Minorca; fails ; the island submits. Cal¬
cutta taken by the Soubahdar of Bengal; garri¬
son thrust into the Black Hole; 123 die of suf¬
focation. King of Prussia invades Saxony (be¬
ginning of the Seven Years’ War); takes Dresden ;
enters Bohemia; defeats the Austrians at Lowo-
sitz. William Pitt prime minister of George II.
Admiral Byng tried for misconduct off Minorca;
shot. French troops pass the Rhine to invade
Hanover. Pitt, opposing British interference with
the affairs of Germany, is dismissed from office.
Duke of Cumberland sent to defend the elector¬
ate. Battle of Reichenberg; the Austrians, re¬
pulsed by the Prussians, retreat to Prague. Bat¬
tle ; siege of Prague ; battle of Colin ; siege raised.
Memel taken by the Russians. Duke of Cumber¬
land repulsed and driven from the electorate.
Convention of Closter-Seven. Pitt reinstated.
Frederick gains the battles of Rosbach and Lissa;
the Russians return home. The Hanoverians rise
against the French. Colonel Clive recovers Cal¬
cutta ; defeats the Soubahdar of Bengal at Plassy;
lays the foundation of the British power in India.
The Hanoverians drive the French across the Rhine.
Britain and Prussia engage not to treat but in
concert, and the former grants the latter a large
subsidy. Battle of Crevelt; the French defeated
by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Battle of
Sangershausen; the prince defeated. Frederick en-
67S
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- A. D
logy.
ters Moravia; invests Olmutz; raises the siege to
oppose the Russians; defeats them at Zorndorff;
is defeated at Hochkirchen by the Austrians; ex¬
pels them from Silesia and Saxony. The works
of Cherburg demolished ; islands of Cape Breton
and St John on the coast of America, and French
settlements on the coast of Africa, reduced by Bri¬
tish armaments. Achromatic telescope ; Dollond.
1759 Frankfort on the Maine (a neutral city) seized by
the French. Battle of Minden ; French defeated
by Prince Ferdinand. Ihe Russians entei Sile¬
sia ; defeat Frederick at Cunersdorff. Guadaloupe
reduced. Battle of Quebec; death of General
Wolfe ; surrender of Quebec. British gain advan¬
tages in the East Indies ; take Surat. French fleet
under Conflans, destined for the invasion of Bri¬
tain, destroyed by Admiral Hawke ; another, un¬
der Thurot, pillages Carrickfergus; is captured
off the Isle of Man (February 1760).
1760 Three armies, Austrian, Russian, and Swedish, sur¬
round Frederick at Lignitz ; he defeats the Aus¬
trians, and prevents their junction. The Russians
pillage Berlin. Battle of Torgau ; the Austrians
again defeated. Siege of Quebec by the French ;
raised. Province of Canada submits to Britain.
Siege of Pondicherry. George III. king of Great
Britain. .
1761 Pondicherry taken; French power in India destroy¬
ed. Negotiations for a general pacification opened
at London and Paris. Belleisle reduced by a Bri¬
tish armament. Family compact of the Bourbons ,
Pitt proposes instant war with Spain; resigns;
Earl of Bute succeeds as premier. Negotiations
broken off. ,
1762 War declared by the courts of London and Madrid.
Spaniards invade Portugal; are expelled by Bri¬
tish assistance. Peter III. emperor of Russia: he
concludes an offensive and defensive alliance with
Sweden, a peace with Prussia. Catherine II. em¬
press of Russia; adheres to the peace, but with¬
draws her troops. The West India islands be¬
longing to France, the town of Havannah, with
a great part of Cuba, and the Philippine Islands,
belonging to Spain, subdued by British arma¬
ments. Preliminaries of a treaty signed at hon-
tainbleau (November 3).
1763 Treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg; France cedes to
Britain Canada, Cape Breton, St Vincent, Tobago,
and the coast of Senegal; Spain cedes Florida;
Prussia and Austria mutually restore conquests,
end of the Seven Years’ War. Parliaments of Paris,
Rouen, &c. declare against the arbitrary imposi¬
tion of taxes. Grenville administration formed.
Wilkes expelled from the Plouse of Commons.
1764 Stanislaus Poniatowski king of Poland. Byron s voy-
age. . c ,
1765 British government suggests the taxation of the
North American colonies. Stamp act. Opposition
of the colonies. Rockingham administration.^
1766 Repeal of the stamp act. Grafton administration.
Civil war in Poland arising out of religious dif¬
ferences. Death of James Stuart, son of James II.
1767 Jesuits banished from Spain and the Indies, Naples
and Sicily. British government imposes new taxes
on the American colonies. Russia and Prussia
interfere in the domestic broils and government
of Poland.' Otaheite discovered by Wallis.
1768 Riots at Boston in North America. Corsica ceded
by Genoa to France. War between Russia and
Turkey, arising out of the interference of the
former in the affairs of Poland. Royal Academy
established. Voyage of Bougainville.
1769 House of Commons annul the votes of the Middle¬
sex electors. Wilkes. Luttrel.
1770 Dispute between Great Britain and Spain respect¬
ing the Falkland Islands; compromised without
honour to Britain (1771). The Russians send an
armament into the Mediterranean ; obtain a foot¬
ing in the Morea; destroy the Turkish fleet off
Scio; subdue Moldavia and Wallachia. Black-
friars Bridge finished.
1771 House of Commons issue an order for the appre¬
hension of the printers and publishers of certain
parliamentary debates. Crosby, lord mayor, and
Oliver, an alderman of London, resisting the ex¬
ecution of the order, are sent to the Tower by
command of the house. From this period the
proceedings in both houses of Parliament have
been regularly reported in the newspapers. Mem¬
bers of the parliament of Paris deprived of their
offices, and banished to different parts of the coun¬
try. Turks defeated near Bucharest, and in the
Crimea. Cooke’s first voyage.
1772 Treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, for the
partition of Poland. British American colonies
claim the sole right of legislating for themselves.
1773 First partition of Poland. Society of the Jesuits
suppressed in France. Constitution of the Bri¬
tish East India Company settled by act of Parlia¬
ment, on nearly the existing basis. Assembly of
Massachusetts Bay pass a resolution against the
importation of tea; a quantity thrown into the
sea at Boston.
1774 Peace of Kainargi; the Crimea independent ^Rus¬
sian frontier advanced into Turkey. Port of Bos¬
ton closed by act of Parliament. Congress of
twelve provinces at Philadelphia. Louis X v I.
king of France. New Caledonia discovered by
1775 War of American independence. Battle of Bunker s
Hill. General congress, of thirteen . provinces.
Washington commander in chief. Louis XVI. re¬
stores the parliament of Paris. Spain engaged in
war with the Moors and Algerines.
1776 The United States of North America declare them¬
selves independent (July 4). Philosophical ad¬
ministration in France.
1777 Capitulation of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Al¬
liance between France and Switzerland.
1778 To prevent an alliance between the American com-
nies and France, the British government offer to
concede the right of self-taxation to the colonial
assemblies—without effect: the alliance is con¬
cluded. A British fleet is sent to cruise against
the French. War of the Bavarian succession;
Austria and Prussia the belligerents. Sandwich
Islands discovered by Cook. < . ,
1779 Treaty of Teschen between Austria, Prussia, an
Bavaria. Spain joins France in the war agains
Britain. Islands St Vincent and Grenada reduced
by the French. Holland refuses Britain the as-
sistance stipulated by treaty 1678. CaptamCook
- killed at Owhyhee. A1;
1780 WTar in India with the Mahrattas and Hy ■
Riots in London; Lord George Gordon. Sout
Carolina reduced. The Americans defeated a
Camden. Spanish fleet defeated off Cape b
Vincent, and French in the Amencan sea , y
Rodney. Armed neutrality; Russia, Denmark,
CHRONOLOGY.
hrono-
logy-
Sweden, Holland, Portugal, German and Italian
States, the parties. War declared against Holland.
ITSl St Lustatia and the colonies of Berbice, Essecjuiho,
and Demeraia taken from the Dutch. .Jersey in¬
vaded by France. Gibraltar besieged by Spain.
Minorca reduced by the French and Spaniards;
Tobago by the French. Army of Cornwallis sur¬
renders to Washington. Planet Uranus discover¬
ed by Herschell.
1782 House of Commons condemns the American war.
Rockingham ; Shelburne administration. Ireland
declared independent of the British parliament.
St Christophers reduced by the French. Their
fleet defeated by Rodney. Floating batteries em¬
ployed against Gibraltar destroyed by General
Elliot. Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, continues
the war in India. Revolutions attempted in Ge¬
neva and some of the Swiss cantons.
1783 Treaties of peace concluded between Great Britain
and her enemies. Independence of the United
States of America recognised. Washington pre¬
sident. The Crimea seized by Russia. Pitt admi¬
nistration.
1784i Peace concluded with Tippoo Saib. Board of con¬
trol established for regulation of affairs of India.
1785 German league. Treaty of commerce negotiated
with France; concluded in 1786.
1786 Death of Frederick the Great; Frederick William
^ succeeds. Contest for power between the stadt-
holder and the pensionaries of several of the
states of Hi Hand. Sinking fund established for
the extinction of the national debt of Great Bri¬
tain. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.
1787 Civil war in Holland. The stadtholder obtains aid
from Prussia; secures an extension of authority.
First assembly of the notables of France, at Ver¬
sailles. T urkey engaged in hostilities with Rus¬
sia and Austria.
178§ Second assembly of the notables. The Swedes at¬
tack Russia; the Danes Sweden. Oczakofftaken
from the 1 urks. Great Britain, Holland, and Prus¬
sia conclude a defensive alliance ; compel Sweden
and Denmark to abstain from hostilities. Prince
of Wales regent for four months. Charles IV.
king of Spain. Convict colony of Botany Bay
founded. Death of Prince Charles Edward Stu¬
art at Rome.
1789 Abolition of the slave trade proposed in the British
parliament. The states-general of France meet at
Versailles (May 5). French revolution. Constitu¬
ent assembly. Bastille destroyed (July IT) Na¬
tional guard instituted. Feudal privileges and
tithes suppressed. Jacobin club. Insurrection in
the Low Countries. Suwarrow defeats the Turks.
The Austrians take Belgrade.
1790 France divided into eighty-three departments. Re¬
ligious orders suppressed. Hereditarynobility abo¬
lished. Assignats. Civil constitution of the clergy.
Belgic confederation at Brussels. Alliance of Prus¬
sia with Poland and Turkey. Peace of Werela
between Russia and Sweden. Capture of Ismael
by Suwarrow. The Austrians enter Brussels. War
with Tippoo Saib renewed ; concluded 1792.
1791 Flight; arrest of Louis XVI. He is conducted to
Paris ; accepts the constitution of 1791. Legis¬
lative assembty. Party of the Girondists. Con¬
vention of Pilnitz. The pope issues a bull against
the civil oath of the French clergy. Peace of
Szistowa between Austria and Turkey.
A. D.
1792
1793
1794)
1795
1796
1797
France declares war against Austria. An Austrian
and Prussian army invades France. Thuilleries
attacked. Swiss guards massacred by an armed
mob. Royal authority suspended (Aug. 10).
Royal family imprisoned in the Temple (14).
Massacre of the state prisoners at Paris (Sept. 2
and 3). Battle of Valmy. National convention.
Abolition of royalty (21). Republic proclaimed.
Battle of Jemappes. Savoy incorporated with the
French republic. Peace of Jassy between Russia
and Turkey. Disturbances in St Domingo. City
of Washington founded.
Execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21). First coalition
against France. Reign of terror. Levy en masse
of all Frenchmen between eighteen and twenty-
five years of age. Toulon taken by the English.
Christian religion abolished. New era introduced,
to date from 22d Sept. 1792. Queen beheaded
x (Oct. 16). Toulon retaken from the English.
Bonaparte. Second partition of Poland. Pondi¬
cherry reduced by the English.
Fall of Robespierre. Struggle of the Poles against
Russia. Kosciusko. Habeas Corpus act suspend¬
ed. Telegraph invented. Victory of Lord Howe
(June 1). Exchequer bills issued. American mi¬
nister received at Paris. Retreat of the British
army in Flanders. Battle of Praga; 30,000 Poles
butchered by Suwarrow. Trial of John Horne
Tooke. The Duke of York leaves the Continent.
Missionary societies established in England.
Battle of Fleurus. Occupation of Amsterdam by
the French. Revolution in Holland ; United Pro¬
vinces dependent on France. Third and last par¬
tition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and
Prussia. End of the elective kingdom of Poland.
Peace of Basle between France and Prussia.
Death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. Peace
between France and Spain; St Domingo wholly
yielded to the former. Martinique, St Lucia,
Guadaloupe, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, taken
by the English. Belgium and Liege united to the
French republic. Insurrection of the 13th Vin-
demiaire (Oct. 5). Barras. Bonaparte. New Con¬
stitution. Councils of Ancients and Five Plun-
dred. Executive Directory. Polytechnic School.
National Institute of France. Mungo Park.
Italian campaign of Bonaparte. Battles of Monte-
notte and Monte-lezino (April 14). King of Sar¬
dinia cedes Savoy and Nice to the republic. Bat¬
tle of Lodi (May 10). Sovereigns of Naples and
Parma make peace. Conquest of the Milanese.
Cisalpine republic. Retreat of Moreau from the
Danube. Paul emperor of Russia. War between
England and Spain (Oct. 5). Battle of Arcole
(Nov. 15). Irish insurrection act. Lithography ;
Sennefelder.
Mutiny in the British navy. Battle of Rivoli. Part
of the papal territory ceded to France. Bonaparte
traverses the Tyrol; subdues Carinthia, Styria,
&c.; opens negotiations with the court of Vien¬
na at Leoben (April 18). Successes of Hoche and
Moreau on the Rhine; arrested by the negotia¬
tions. Venice revolutionized (May 12), and Ge¬
noa (21). Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St
Vincent. Trinidad taken by the English. Treaty
of Campo Formio (Oct. 7). French frontier ex¬
tended to the Rhine. Dutch fleet defeated off
Camperdown (Oct. 11). Britain menaced with
invasion. Rebellion in Ireland.
Clirono-
logy.
680
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono- a. D. x ^ ,
logy. 1798 Rome revolutionized (Feb. 15). The French sow
V—' discord in Switzerland. Geneva incorporated with
France. Helvetic confederation. Batavian repub¬
lic. Malta reduced, and Egypt invaded, by Bo¬
naparte. Battle of Aboukir; Nelson ; Brueys.
Rebellion in Ireland continues; 1000 French
. troops land; are taken prisoners. Russia and
Turkey unite against France. \accination; Jen-
1799 Austria and Naples renew the war. Naples taken
by the French. Forces of the republic under
Jourdan, Massena, and Moreau, pressed by the
Austrians and Russians in Switzerland, Germany,
and Italy. Syria invaded by Bonaparte. Siege
of Acre • Sir Sydney Smith. Defeat of the Turks
at Aboukir (July 25). Return of Bonaparte to
Europe. Capture of Seringapatam; fall ot Iip-
poo Saib ; partition of Mysore. Rome recovered
j^y Bie allies. I he English and Russians invade
Holland • give up 8000 French prisoners to obtain
a safe retreat (Oct. 18). French directory sub-
verted. Bonaparte first consul (Nov. 10). Death
of Washington. . .
1800 The Irish parliament vote for a legislative union be¬
tween Great Britain and Ireland. Bill, to effect
this, obtains the royal assent (July 2). Genoa
taken by the Austrians. Battles of Montebello and
(June 14) of Marengo. Prince ot Parma made
kino- of Etruria. Moreau penetrates into Bava¬
ria. Battle of Hohenlinden. Republic of the
seven Ionian Islands. First congress at Wash-
ino-ton. Royal institution founded.
1801 Treaty of Luneville (Feb. 9); Austria makes fur¬
ther concessions to France. Malta taken by the
English. Armed neutrality formed against Great
Britain by Russia. Battle of Alexandria (March
21). Death of Abercromby. Alexander emperor
of Russia (24). Addington administiation. Da¬
nish fleet attacked before Copenhagen by Lord
Nelson (April 2). Convention between Great
Britain and Russia, Sweden, and Denmark (June
17). French troops in Egypt agree to evacuate
the country (Sept. 2). Planet Ceres discovered
by Piazzi. , .
1802 Peace of Amiens (March 27). Catholicism re-esta¬
blished in France. Bonaparte first consul for life
(July 29.) French expedition against St Do¬
mingo ; Toussaint L’Ouverture. First consul gives
new constitutions to the French, Cisalpine, Ligu¬
rian, and Helvetian republics ; regulates the inter¬
nal arrangements of Germany. Legion of Honour
instituted. Planet Pallas discovered by Gibers.
1803 Disputes between the courts of London and Pa¬
ris (March). War renewed (May 16). Inva¬
sion threatened by France; preparations to re¬
pel it made in Britain. Insurrection in Ireland.
The French reduce Hanover. England declares
war against Holland. St Lucia, lobago, De-
merara, Essequibo, reduced by British arma¬
ments. St Domingo independent; Dessalines.
Marquis Wellesley defeats the native powers of
India. Concludes a treaty (Dec. 17), by which
the British possessions are greatly extended.
Treaty of neutrality between Great Britain and
Sweden. Louisiana acquired by the United States
of America.
1804 Conspiracy against the first consul. Duke D Eng-
hien seized in the territory of a neutral state
(Baden), and shot. Mr Pitt resumes office (May
A. n. Chrono-
7). Bonaparte emperor of the French. The em- logy
peror of Germany assumes the style “ Emperor ofY'*'
Austria.” Ohio a state of the North American
Union. Dessalines proclaimed emperor of Haiti.
Planet Juno discovered by Harding.
1805 Spanish South American fleet destroyed by a British
armament; war declared between the countries
(Jan. 24). Impeachment of Lord Melville for mis¬
application of public money. Catholic claims de¬
bated. Napoleon crowned king of Italy at Milan
(May 26). Genoa annexed to the empire (June
4). Coalition of Great Britain, Austria, and Rus¬
sia, against France. Napoleon crosses the Rhine,
compels General Mack, with 20,000 men, to sur¬
render at Ulm (Oct. 20). Battle of Irafalgar
(Oct. 21); the navies of France and Spain de¬
stroyed. Death of Nelson. The French enter
Vienna (Nov. 13). Battle of Austerhtz (Dec. 2).
Peace of Presburg (25). War with the Mahratta
chief Holkar; siege of Bhurtpore; peace (Dec.
24); the Company's territory extended.
1806 Cape of Good Hope reduced by the Finghsh (Jan.
18). Death of Mr Pitt (23). Administration of
Mr Fox and Lord Grenville. Slave trade restrict¬
ed. Acquittal of Lord Melville. The Prussians
take possession of Hanover. Joseph Bonaparte
king of Naples. Louis Bonaparte king of Holland.
British force lands in Calabria. Battle of Maida
( July 4). Confederation of the Rhine (12). Death
of Charles James Fox (Sept. 13). Negotiations
for peace broken off. King of Prussia declares war
against France (Oct. 9). Battles of Saalfeld, Jena,
Auerstadt. Capture of Berlin. Conquest of Silesia.
Invasion of Poland. Battle ot Pultus *. e
Continental System” published at Berlin. British
fleet sent into the Tagus. Chnstophe ruler ol the
black republic of Haiti.
1807 War between Russia and Turkey. England co-ope¬
rates with the former; sends expeditions to the
Dardanelles and Egypt. Act ot P^iamen^\°
abolish the slave trade sanctioned (March
Bill to remove Catholic disabilities brought for¬
ward by ministers ; opposed by the king ; change
of administration. Duke of Portland. Battle of
Evlau. Dantzic taken by the French (May 20).
Battle of Friedland (June 14). Conference of the
sovereigns of France, Russia, and Prussia, upon a
raft in tlie Niemen (25). Peace of Tilsit (July ?).
Jerome Bonaparte king of W estphalia. B°mba d
ment of Copenhagen; surrender of the Danish
fleet (Sept. 7). Invasion of Portugal by the
French; the royal family embark foi Braz .
French troops enter Spain; seize the strongest
towns. Kingdom of Etruria annexed to the em
pire. Planet Vesta discovered by Olbers.
1808 A new French nobility created by Bonaparte (Ja •>
Charles IV. of Spain resigns the sovereignty to
his son Ferdinand (March 19). Napoleon com¬
pels the resignation of both (May 5). Joseph
Bonaparte king of Spain. Murat king of Nap*e •
lunta of Seville proclaim Ferdinand \ 1L, decla
war against the drench (May 29) Sir Arthur M-
lesley in Portugal. Battles of Roleiaan
( Au<l 21). Convention of Cintra (30). British army
enters Spain. Battles of Durango, Espinosa, 1
dela. Conference of Napoleon and AK^ande t
Erfurt; produces offers ot peace to England, m
poleon joins the army in Spain. Madrid taken
(Dec. 4). The British retreat.
CHRONOLOGY.
C81
trono-
,'gy-
A. D.
1809 Battle of Corunna; fall of Sir John Moore (Jan. 16).
Convention between Spain and Great Britain.
Duke of York s direction of the army the subject
of parliamentary investigation. He resigns the of¬
fice of commander-in-chief. Abdication of Gus-
tavus IV. of Sweden ; Charles XIII. king. Soult
enters Portugal. Oporto taken. Battle of Medel¬
lin (March 19). Sir Arthur Wellesley opposes
Soult; recovers Oporto. Emperoi' of Austria de¬
clares war against France (April 8) ; invades Ba¬
varia ; battle of Eckmuhl; capitulation of Vienna
(May 13); Austrians repulsed in Italy; papal ter¬
ritory incorporated with the dominions of France
(17). Battle of Essling (21 and 22) ; of Wagram
(July 6); of Talavera (28). Insurrection in the
Tyrol; Hofer. British expedition to Walcheren.
Cayenne, Martinique, Ionian Islands, taken from
France. War between Russia and Persia. Bri¬
tain concludes treaties with Turkey and Persia.
Peace of Vienna between France and Austria
(Oct. 14). Defeat of the Spaniards at Ocana and
Alba de Tormes. Mr Perceval prime minister.
Jubilee.
1810 Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower by the
House of Commons. Napoleon marries Maria
Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria ; de¬
thrones his brother Louis; annexes the United
Provinces to France (July 1). The United States
of America prohibit all intercourse with Great
Britain and France. Marshal Bernadotte chosen
crown-prince of Sweden (Aug. 18). Massena re¬
duces Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida; battle of
Busaco (Sept. 27). Meeting of the Spanish cortes
(28). Siege of Cadiz. Isle of Bourbon, Mauri¬
tius, settlements in Madagascar belonging to the
French, Amboyna and Banda, to the Dutch, re¬
duced by British armaments. Mental derange¬
ment of George III. Prince of Wales regent.
1811 Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo (March 1).
Massena commences a retreat from Portugal (5).
Battle of Fuentes d’Honor; of Albuera (May 16).
The Spanish American colonies refuse submission
to the Cortes; claim independence. Java, with
all its dependencies, reduced by the British. Riots
at Nottingham.
1812 Ciudad Rodrigo stormed by Lord Wellington (Jan.
19). Constitutional code promulgated in Spain
(March 20). Badajos stormed (April 6). Assas¬
sination of Mr Perceval (May 11). Administration
of Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh. The United
States declare war against Britain (June 18);
invade Canada. Treaties of alliance ; Russia with
Sweden, with Great Britain, with the Spanish
Cortes; of peace, with Turkey, the Pruth the
frontier. War between France and Russia (June
24). Battle of Salamanca (July 22). Smolensko
taken (Aug. 18). Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7).
Entry of the French into Moscow (14); the city
burnt by the inhabitants. Napoleon offers peace;
retreats from Moscow (Oct. 22). Frost and the
Russians destroy the French army.
1813 Prussia joins the enemies of France (Feb. 22). Na¬
poleon enters Germany. Battle of Lutzen (May
2) ; of Bautzen (21 and 22) ; of Richenbach ; truce
(June 4); the French to occupy Silesia. Sweden
and Austria join the allies. England contributes
largely towards the expenses of the war. Battle of
Vittoria gained by Lord Wellington (June 21).
St Sebastian stormed (August 31). The allies
A. D.
VOL. VI.
resume hostilities with 180,000 men; Napoleon
with as many. Battles of the Katzbach (August
26); Dresden (September 4 and 5), &c.; Leipsic
(October 16, 18, 19). Bavaria joins the allies.
Lord Wellington enters France (October 18).
Battle of Hanau (October 30). Revolution in
Holland (November 16). Prince of Orange re¬
stored (December 2). British trade to India
partially opened.
1814 The allies invade France at different points ; after
many conflicts with various success, enter Paris
^ (March 31). Bonaparte abdicates (April 11);
embarks at Frejus for Elba (28). Louis XVIII.
enters Paris (May 3); Ferdinand VII. Madrid
(14). Peace of Paris between France and the
allies (30); France reduced to her limits on the
1st January 1792. King of Spain suppresses the
Cortes; re-establishes the Inquisition, Jesuits’
College, &c. Norway united to Sweden (August
14). City of Washington taken by the British
(24) . Congress of Vienna (September 26) ; Bel¬
gium united to Holland. Hanover a kingdom.
Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and Ame¬
rica (December 15).
1815 Congress of Vienna guarantees the integrity of the
twenty-two Swiss cantons; issues a manifesto
against Bonaparte on his return to France. Bona¬
parte leaves Elba (February 26) ; lands at Can¬
nes (March 1) ; enters Paris (21). Britain, Rus¬
sia, Austria, Prussia, bind themselves to bring
150,000 men each into the field against Bonaparte
(25) . Murat attacks the Austrians; loses the
battle of Tolentino (May 3), and the kingdom of
Naples (20). The three legations restored to the
Pope (29). Bonaparte leaves Paris (June 10) to
oppose the allies. Conflicts at Charleroi, Quatre
Bras, Ligny (15, 16, 17). Battle of Waterloo
(18). Bonaparte abdicates in favour of his son
(24). The allies enter France. Capitulation
of Paris (July 3). Return of Louis XVIII. to
the capital (8). Bonaparte surrenders to Captain
Maitland, H. B. M. S. Bellerophon (15). Ney,
Labedoyere, shot. Floly alliance concluded (Sep¬
tember 26). Bonaparte at St Helena (October
13). Ionian republic established (November 5).
New treaties, providing for the military occupation
of France by foreign troops for five years, and
further contracting the French frontier, conclud¬
ed between the allies and Louis XVIII. (Novem¬
ber 20). Congress of Vienna adjusts the boun¬
daries of the states formerly dependent on the
French empire; fixes the federative constitution
of Germany.
1816 Majority of thirty-seven in the House of Commons
against the property-tax (March 19). Princess
of Wales married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Co-
burg-Saalfeld (May 2). Bombardment of Algiers
by Lord Exmouth (August 27). Declaration of
South American independence issued at Buenos
Ayres. Duke of Cambridge governor-general of
Hanover (Nov. 2). Distress; riots in England.
Spa Fields Mob (December 2).
1817 Flabeas Corpus Act suspended (March 7). In¬
surrection at Nottingham. Convention between
Louis XVIII. and the pope; privileges of the
Gallican church secured. Spain disturbed, and
Portugal threatened with popular tumults. Wa¬
terloo Bridge opened (June 18). Bolivar supreme
chief of the government of Venezuela. Death of
4 R
Chrono-
logy.
682
CHRONOLOGY.
Chrono¬
logy.
Pindarri
A. D
the Princess Charlotte (November 6).
war in India; ended (December 17).
1818 Habeas corpus suspension act repealed (January
31). Bernadotte king of Sweden (February 30).
Censorship of the press enforced by Louis XV 111.
France, Spain, and the Netherlands, agree to
measures proposed by England for the suppression
of the slave trade. Duke ot Clarence marries the
Princess of Saxe-Meiningen ; Duke of Kent the
Princess of Saxe-Coburg (July 13). A papal
bull allows benefices in Spain to remain two years
vacant, and yields the revenues to the service ot
the government (August 12). Congress of Aix-
la-Chapelle (September 29). Army of occupation
withdrawn from France (October 9). Death of
Queen Charlotte (November 17).
1819 Southwark Bridge opened (March 26). Princess
Victoria born (May 23). Radical reform meetings
(June 23). Congress of Carlsbad (August 1).
Manchester massacre (16). Chili, Buenos Ayres,
Colombia, de facto independent. The “ Six Acts
sanctioned by the British legislature. Spain cedes
the Floridas to North America. New South
Shetland discovered.
1820 Revolution in Spain ; Constitution of J?12 Foc1^,™'
ed (January 1). Death of George III. (29). The
king of Spain swears to the constitution ; inquisi¬
tion suppressed (March 8). Expulsion of the
Jesuits from Russia (25). Revolution at Naples
(May 15). Carbonari. Constitutional junta m
Portugal (October 1). c
1821 Revolution in Brazil (January 1). Congress of
Leybach. Austrian army occupies Naples (»).
Disturbances in Piedmont; the king resigns in
favour of his brother (April 10). Death ot Na¬
poleon Bonaparte (May 5). Coronation of George
IV. (July 19). Austrian troops occupy the king¬
dom of Sardinia (29). George IV. visits Dublin
(August 17), and Hanover (October 10). Ca¬
tholic bill lost in the House ot Peers.
1822 The Greeks declare themselves free (January 1).
The Prince Royal of Brazil institutes a represen¬
tative government (February 16). Spanish Cortes
meet at Madrid (March 1). The Greeks victo¬
rious at Larissa, Salonica, and Thermopylse. ihe
king of Portugal swears to the new constitution
(October 1). Brazil independent; the Prince
Regent proclaimed emperor (12). Congress ot
Verona (20). Great distress in Ireland. George
IV. visits Scotland.
1823 Mediation of the holy alliance rejected by the
cortes of Spain (January 9) ; removal of Ferdi¬
nand to Seville, thence to Cadiz (March 20).
French army enters Spain (April 7), and Madnd
(May 23). The king of Portugal suppresses the
constitution (June 5). Cadiz invested by the
French (25). Guatemala proclaims its indepen¬
dence (July 20). Battle of the Trocadero before
Cadiz (August 31). Riego taken (September
15) ; executed at Madrid (November 27). Pro¬
ceedings of the cortes from 7th March 1820
annulled; end of the Spanish revolution (Octo¬
ber 1). Mexican constitution proclaimed (4).
The government of Great Britain' sends consuls
to the new states of South America.
1824 The English troops defeated by the Ashantees
(January 21). Bolivar dictator of Peru (February
10). Lord Hastings, the governor-general of In¬
dia, declares war against the Burmese (March 5).
Capture of Rangoon (May 5). The Ashantees
driven from Cape Coast Castle (July 22). Charles
X. king of France. Treaty between the United
States and Colombia (Oct. 3). Provisional govern¬
ment in Greece (12). The Turks evacuate Mol¬
davia (Nov. 23). Mechanics’ Institutions formed.
Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catholic rent.
1825 Great Britain concludes a treaty of commerce with
the united provinces of Rio de la Plata (February
2). Mr Adams president of the United States
of North America (9). Ibrahim Pasha invades
Greece (26). Convention concluded between-
Russia and Great Britain for the freedom of na¬
vigation, commerce, and fishery on the Pacific
Ocean, and the north-west coast of America (28).
Independence of St Domingo confirmed by the
king of France (April 17). Treaty between
Great Britain and Colombia (18). Ibrahim Pasha
defeats the Greeks near Forgi (19). Treaty be¬
tween Great Britain and Mexico (April 29).
Ports in the East Indies belonging to the Dutch
opened to the ships of all nations (July 21). Re¬
solution of the provisional government of Greece
to have recourse to the protection of England
(24). The provinces of Upper Peru declare their
independence, and take the name of the Bolivian
republic (August 6). Treaty of commerce and na¬
vigation concluded between Great Britain and the
Hanse Towns (September 26). The Spaniards
evacuate Mexico (November 18). Death of Alex¬
ander, emperor of Russia (December 1). General
Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome (1, 2,
5). Act against the Catholic association. 1 eti-
tions against the Corn Laws. Joint stock company
mania ; Commercial distress ; failures.
1826 War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres (January 6).
Bhurtpore stormed by the British troops under
Lord Combermere. Sir A. Campbell defeats the
Burmese near Malloun (20). Surrender of Callao
(23)• Peru evacuated by the Spaniards, treaty
of navigation between Great Britain and France
('26) Peace concluded between the East India
Company and the Burmese (February 24). Death
of John VI. emperor and king of Portugal. Don
Pedro grants the Portuguese a charter; confirms
the regency (April 26); abdicates in favour of
his daughter Donna Maria da Gloria (May 2).
Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and
Sweden (19). Departure of the Ottoman troops
from Wallachia. Opening of the first congress
of the Bolivian republic (25). Landing of t
Greeks near Salonichi; battle with Omer 1 as
/June 1). Importation of foreign silks into Great
Britain permitted from June 5. Insurrection o
the Janissaries at Constantinople. New organi¬
zation of the Ottoman army. De^at of the Ja¬
nissaries; suppression of the corps (14, lo,lfi>
Convocation of a general congress in Chili to f
a constitution (15). Death of ex-presidents
Adams and Jefferson on the fiftieth anniversary
of the declaration of North American independ¬
ence fJuly 4). The national congress constitu es
Clfih a coufederative state (11). Ashantees de¬
feated by the English ( August 7). Nationa
sembly of Greece called together in the Isle o
Paros (14). Bolivar president of Peru for Id
(19). Nicholas, emperor ot Russia, crow
Moscow (September 3). Russia declares
against Persia. Colombian flag admitted
C H R
C H R
hrono-
logj
S
rudim
A. D.
French ports (September 28). The infant Don
i jiguel takes the oath of fealty to the Portuguese
, constitution at Vienna (October 4). Lotteries
cease in England (18). Treaty between Great
Britain and Brazil for the abolition of the slave
trade. The Portuguese rebels take Lamego;
Portugal entreats the assistance of Great Britain
r-x (D,ec* 3)- English troops arrive at Lisbon (25).
1827 Death of the Duke of York (January 5). The Duke
of Wellington appointed commander-in-chief (22).
Lord Liverpool becomes incapable of transacting
public business (February 17). Subject of Ca¬
tholic claims brought before the House of Com¬
mons by Sir Francis Burdett; majority against
concession four (March 5, 6). Departure of the
Hecla, Captain Parry, from Deptford, on the
northern expedition (25). Mr Canning appointed
first lord of the treasury (April 10); the Duke
of Clarence lord high admiral (17). National
guard of France disbanded by Charles X. (April
30). Unitarian marriage bill assented to by the
House of Peers (June 26). Resolution of the
Bank of England to discount bills at four per
cent. (July 5). Death of Mr Canning (August
8). Lord Goderich appointed premier (11);
Duke of Portland president of the council (17)!
Retui n of Captain Parry from the northern ex¬
pedition (September 29). Battle of Navarino
(October 20). French chambers dissolved ; se¬
venty-six new peers created (November 5). The
bank of Lisbon suspends its payments (Dec. 7).
1828 Resignation of Lord Goderich (January 8). Duke
of Wellington premier. British troops withdrawn
from Portugal. Usurpation of Don Mio-uel. Fi¬
nance committee appointed (February ?5). Test
and corporation acts repealed (26). Law com¬
mission appointed (29). Catholic relief bill re¬
jected by the Upper House (January 9); majo¬
rity forty-four. Mr O'Connell, a Catholic, elect-
ed M. P. for the county of Clare. Catholic asso¬
ciation. Brunswick clubs.
1829 Settlement of the 'Catholic question recommended
in a speech from the throne (February 5). Ca¬
tholic association suppressed by act of Parliament
(March 5). Catholic relief bill receives the royal
assent (April 13). The Irish forty-shilling free¬
holders disfranchised. Agricultural distress. Par¬
tial disturbances in England (November and De¬
cember).
683
A. D.
Chrono¬
logy
1830 Measures of reform proposed in the House of Com¬
mons ; by the Marquis of Blandford (February 18), II
by Lord John Russell (23), by Mr O’Connell Chrudim'
(May 28), unsuccessfully. Death of George 1—~
IV (June 26); William IV. king of Great Bri¬
tain. Revolution of July, in France. Duke of
Orleans becomes “ King of the French.” Revo¬
lution in Belgium. Riots in England ; great de¬
struction of agricultural produce. Reform asso¬
ciations and political unions formed at Birming¬
ham, &c. Duke of Wellington resigns (Novem¬
ber 16). Earl Grey premier; Mr Brougham
lord high chancellor. Revolution of the 19th No¬
vember in Poland.
1831 Reform bill announced to the House of Commons
by Lord John Russell (March 1); read a first
time (14); frustrated in committee by a motion
of General Gascoyne; (Parliament dissolved);
debated in a new House of Commons from June
15 to September 22; carried by a final majo¬
rity of 109; rejected by the Peers (October J)
by a majority of forty-one. Parliament prorogued.
Riots at Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol. Prince
Leopold accepts the crown of Belgium. Warsaw
suirenders to the Russians; the Poles are re¬
duced to complete submission. Insurrection at
Lyons (November). Cholera Morbus breaks out
at Sunderland.
1832 The reform bill (introduced again into the House of
Commons December 12, 1831), is debated until
the 22d March; and endangered in the House of
Peers by a motion of Lord Lyndhurst (May 7).
Ministers resign. The House of Commons and the
country present to the king addresses expressing
confidence in the retired ministry. The Duke of
Wellington attempts to form an administration ;
fails; Earl Grey and his colleagues are recalled
(May 18). Royal assent given to the English
reform bill (June 7), to the Scotch (July 17), to
the Irish (August 7). Hereditary peerage abo¬
lished in trance. Prince Otho of Bavaria ac¬
cepts the sovereignty of Greece (May 7). Car-
list and republican insurrection in Paris (June 5,
6). The city declared in a state of siege. The
diet of Frankfort publishes resolutions abridging
the liberties of Germany (28). Don Pedro, ex¬
emperor of Brazil, lands at Oporto (July 9) ; civil
war for the possession of Portugal. Death of
young Napoleon (July 22).
CHRONOMETER denotes, in general, any instru¬
ment or machine used in measuring time, such as dials,
clocks, watches, and the like.
The term chronometer, however, is commonly used in a
more limited sense for a kind of clock, so contrived as to
measure a small portion of time with great exactness,
even to the sixteenth part of a second. There have been
several machines under this name contrived for measuring
time, upon principles very different from those on which
clocks and watches are constructed.
Chronometer, among musicians, an instrument in¬
vented by Loulie, a French musician, for the purpose of
measuring time by means of a pendulum. The form of
me instrument, as described by him, is that of an Ionic
pilaster, and is described by Malcolm in his Treatise of
Music, p. 407.
CHRUDIM, one of the circles into which the Austrian
kingdom of Bohemia is divided. It extends over 1196
square miles, and contained, in 1817, 248,750 inhabitants,
mostly of the Sclavonian race, as there are only a few Ger¬
man families on the frontier towards Moravia. The chief
part of the circle is on the western side of the Elbe. It is
well watered by various streams, which, when united, form
the river Chrudimka. The eastern part, which touches
the mountains of Gratz, is hilly and woody. The whole
is fruitful in corn, flax, and grass; and there are manufac¬
tories of woollen, linen, glass, earthenware, and paper.
The circle contains 13 cities, 25 market-towns, and 761
villages; and the number of dwelling-houses in 1817 was
42,850. &
. Chrudim, the chief place of the circle of the same name,
in Bohemia. It is on the river Chrudimka, is well built,
surrounded with walls, and contains a cathedral, a Capu¬
chin monastery, a high school, and 4514 inhabitants.
C H R
C H R
Chrysalis
A • KTr.ti.rnl TTistnrii a state XII. About this period Chrysoloras entered on the ca- Chryso.
CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in Natu J, reer of b]ic affairs. In 1408 he was at Paris in capa- Ion®
of rest and seeming insensibility, whlch bn , ci ofef!VOy from Manuel Palocologus, having been charg- II
and several other kinds of insects, pass t, pd with an important mission by the Greek emperor. In Cl r.'«>s>-
they arrive at their winged or most perfcc s a e. .. ^ 14)13 |ie acc0mpanied cardinals Chalanco and Zabarella
priest of ApoHo, a„a Mterof
seis. When Lyrnessus was taken, and i P . ]ace for tbe meeting of a general council, which had been
among the con<l“,:°,hsA;2es went to the Grecian camp demanded by this emperor. Constance was the town fix-
memnon; upon which Lliryses went to i \ i n anti thither Chrysoloras repaired, for the purpose
to solicit his daughter's restorat.on and when h, prayers ed upon and tue y , ^ tativ(! of the
proved fruitless, implored the a.d of Apollo, who vetted the of ass.stmg at t„e cou ^ ^ ^ ^ ing for the
Greeks with a plague, and obliged them to res oie ^ry . P ^ h w sudden]y cut 0ff, on the 15th
CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher, bor"^ ^olos in ^arge ot^n^ ^ for geventh of his age. The
Cilicia, was a disciple of C eanthus, successor of Ciiryso]oras are not numerous. The best known
wrote many books, several of which relate S* Greek grammar, published under the title of Erote-
of the philosophers dogmat.sed 0/0^ Li „r quesE, o^w^ch several editions, all now ex-
fatal necessity of every thing, 01 declai tremelv rare appeared in the fifteenth century. Theedi-
ously of the liberty of man, than the Stoics, partmularly * 77f ™^r2Ct“^a1507> of Aldus in 1512 and 1517,
Chrysippus, who was held of so much impoi ^ d f j t jn 1514 deserve to be particularly men-
them, is to give rise to the fover-bial remark, tha^but and of^ and a tract on pouring nut of
for Chrysippus, the I orch had never beem ^ Ho] gpirit are the only other known productions of
complained, as Cicero relates, that 11 which Chrysoloras, and the last still remains m manuscript,
arguments in favour of .^^P^^^/^hus furnished Chrysoloras, John, was the disciple and nephew of
he could not answer himself, and • j the preceding, not his son as some have supposed. He is
Carneades, their antagonist, wi a ?^Pfc’r'|j philoso- believed to have accompanied his uncle into Italy, and to
There has been preserved an apophthegm o^his pluloso^ believe^ ^ .f he did not ]ong follow his
pher, which does him honour. Being told t ^ V employment, for in 1415 we find that he had returned to
sons spoke ill of him, “ It is no matter, said e , Constantinople, whither Guarini addressed to him a let-
^oaorCbrySolori„a;a„dbeappearStohaveaicdab„ut
and presents a fine grass-green colour wit laj^i eons JIRYSOLORAS) Demetrius, supposed to have been born
fracture, and perfect transparency. Such speci nt Thessalonica devoted himself cliiefly to philosophy and
very rare, and the locality is qmte unknown but supposed = works have been preserved in
to be Upper Egypt. It occurs also m minute but P«feet s.e™udi a hundreli letters to the emperor
b^TgSZSn^t^w^ (See Bibliotheca Graca, tom.
into the composition of meteoric stones, and occurs mi- xl',?HRYSOPRASE, a name derived from the Greek,
bedded in the native iron discovered by PaUas m S bena 7 superior kind of prase. It occurs at Rose-
and also in the same substance, which has subsequent y § ^ 1 , |g0 at ]sjew pane, Vermont, North
been found at Attacama. Chrysolite is the softest o fa mu 7 ’ f appie.green colour, more or less in¬
gems, being scratched by quartz, and yielding to the file Amenca a fine.grained splintry frac-
Its specific gravity is 3-4 ; and, according to auque in, ’nearlv even, and occurs massive, in contemporaneous
-3iaSsaaB=:?ttTrr“^ Srsscwssstssasaa
Naming”8 He t ftTe ifeX tho^learnedGreks anadmixture of Ure oxide of nickel, as ascertained by the
who brought into Italy the language of Athens, and re- an".jfS|>yc()JqQM St John, a celebrated patriarch of
opened the sources of erudition. Born at Constantinople,
he was descended of an ancient and distinguished family, Constantinopk.a, ^ & family at Anti h
which had removed with Constantine tiom Rome to y , 344 f our era. He studied rhetoric under
zantium ; and he was sent by the emperor John Pakeolo- aai^e ^ ^j^gophy under Andragathus,after which he
gus to implore of the Christian princes succours of men «S0P
and money against the Turks. After an ah860^ of some augterities which iie practised having impaired his
years, Chrysoloras returned to Constantinople , but he , returned to Antioch, where he was ordained as
not remain long there, as the magistrates of Florence bealth’
&Sn^b^n“ydrar Cbry^ostom, whose fame had spread throughout the^wbofe
the death of Galea, in 1402, and the trouble, that broke 7^7 ^^^Vdie people7 The emperor Arcadius
out in Lombardy, forced hjm to quit Pavia, he retired to ol both the cle tJ P | d hi t0 leave Antioch
Venice, where he lived several years, and subsequently confirmed Uhs elec ion an^ to part
went to Rome, upon the invitation of Aretino, who had privately, wJlel^a^ ^ned as bishopL the 26th of Feb-
been his disciple, and who was then secretary to Gregory with him.. He was ordained as Disnop
C H U
hubb
surapa-
leer.
ruary 398, when he obtained an order from the emperor
against the Eunomians and Montanists; reformed the
abuses which existed amongst his clergy; retrenched a
great part of the expenses in which his predecessors had
lived, in order to enable him to feed the poor and build
hospitals; and preached with the utmost zeal against the
pride, luxury, and avarice of the great. But°his great
freedom of speech procured him many powerful enemies.
He differed with Theophilus of Alexandria, who caused
him to be deposed and banished ; but he was soon recalled.
After this, having declaimed against the dedication of
a statue erected to the empress, he was banished into
Cucusus in Armenia, a barren and inhospitable place;
and afterwards, whilst they were removing him from Pe-
tyus, the soldiers treated him so roughly that he died by
the way, in the year 407. The best edition of his works,
which are chiefly composed of Homilies on a great variety
of subjects, is that published at Paris in 1718 by Montfau-
con. “ Chrysostom,” says Fenelon, “ seeks no false orna¬
ments ; all tends to persuasion. Every topic is disposed
with this view. He knows well the Holy Scriptures, and the
manners of men. He enters into the heart, and renders
every thing sensible. He has high and solid thoughts,
and throughout he is a great orator.” Dialog, sur I'Eloq.
CHUBB, Thomas, a noted polemical writer, born at
East Harnham, a village near Salisbury, in 1679. He was
put as apprentice to a glover at Salisbury, and afterwards
entered into partnership with a tallow chandler. Being a
man of strong natural parts, he employed all his leisure in
reading ; and, though a stranger to the learned languages,
became tolerably conversant in geography, mathematics,
and other branches of science. His favourite study was
divinity; and he formed a little society for the purpose
of debating upon religious subjects, about the time that
the trinitarian controversy was so warmly agitated be¬
tween Clarke and Waterland. This subject, therefore,
falling under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological as¬
sembly, he, at their request, drew up and arranged his
sentiments upon it in a kind of dissertation, which was
afterwards published under the title of Hie Supremacy of
the Father asserted. He published afterwards a quarto
volume of tracts, which, Mr Pope informs his friend Gay,
he had “ read through with admiration of the writer,
though not always with approbation of his doctrine.” He
died a single man, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
CHUDLEIGH, a market-town of the hundred of Ex¬
minster, in Devonshire, 182 miles from London. It is si¬
tuated on the river deign, and has considerable woollen
manufactures. The market is held on Saturday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 1832, in 1821 to 2053,
and in 1831 to 2278.
CHULMLEIGH, a market-town of the hundred of
Witheridge, in Devonshire, 193 miles from London, on the
river Tow. I here are some woollen manufactures here. The
inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 1340, in 1821 to 1506,
and in 1831 to 1573.
CHUMBUL, or the Sumbul, a river of Hindustan,
which has its rise in the centre of the pi’ovince of Mal-
wah, within fifteen miles of the Nerbuddah. From thence
its course is due north, until it passes the city of Kotah ;
after which, being augmented by many smaller streams,
it turns more to the east, and falls into the Jumna twenty
miles from Etaweh. The course of this river is computed
at 446 miles, and the breadth of its channel at the ford
Kyteree, near Dhoolpoor, is three quarters of a mile.
This river is supposed by Major Ilennell tube the Sambus
of Arrian. It is now the boundary between the British
territories and those of Sindia to the south.
CHUMPANEER, a district of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gujerat, situated principally between the 22d
C H U
685
Chunar-
ehur.
and 24th degrees of north latitude, and bounded on the Chumpa
east by the province of Malwah. It has two very large ueer
boundary rivers, the Nerbuddah and the Mahy; and is,
besides, traversed by many smaller streams. It is chief¬
ly occupied by the Mahrattas, or by chiefs tributary to
them. J
Chumpaneer, the ancient capital of the above district,
situated sixty miles north-east from Broach. Chumpaneer
is a large mountain, or rather rock, rising 2500 feet above
the plains of Gujerat, one of the most level provinces of
Hindustan. To the northward of the mountain are the
remains of an ancient city, the ruins of which extend se¬
veral miles on each side of the mountain, and are at pre¬
sent covered with an impenetrable jungle, the abode of
tigers and bheels, a race of mountaineers who are much
addicted to plunder. I he town is inclosed within a small
space of an oblong figure, by a stone wall of good work¬
manship, which is three fourths of a mile long, and three
furlongs broad. The mountain is strengthened by two
forts; the upper deemed impregnable by the natives, and
containing a Hindu temple, while the defences of the
lower pait are extensive, and the whole of difficult ap¬
proach. In 1812 the town of Chumpaneer contained four
bundled houses, of which not more than one half were in¬
habited, principally by emigrants from other parts of Gu-
jerat. It is supposed to have been the capital of an an¬
cient principality long before the Mahommedan conquest;
and it was taken about the end of the fifteenth century, by
Mahmoud VII. after a siege or blockade of twelve years.
In 1534, it was taken by the Mogul emperor Humayon.
In 1582, it is described as a place of considerable strength,
surrounded by extensive ruins, Hindu as well as Mahom¬
medan. It was taken by the Mahrattas, who always con-
sideied it as a strong place, and had a good garrison in it.
It was taken from Sindia by the British in 1803, but was
restored to him the following year. It is 55 miles east by
north from Cambay. Long. 73. 37. E. Lat 22. 31. N.
CHUNAR, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Allahabad, situated between the 25th and 26th degrees of
north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the Ganges,
on the east by Caramnassa, on the south by the Soane,
and on the west by the Tonse. It was formerly part of
the zemindary of Benares, and was ceded to the English
in 1775, along with the whole province. The northern
and eastern parts are the most fertile, and carry on a
flourishing commerce and manufactures. Towards the
south, where the country is penetrated by the Vindhy
chain of hills, which extend so far across Hindustan, to the
north of the Nerbuddah, it is mountainous, woody, and
uncultivated. The chief towns are Chunar, Mirzapore,
Catrah, Luteefgur, and Bidzigur, which last is now in ruins.
CHUNARGHUR, a town and fortress of Hindustan,
in the province of Allahabad and district of Chunar, si¬
tuated on the south bank of the Ganges. The first is built
on the top of a solid rock, which rises abruptly from the
plain, and projects into the river. It is fortified all round
with a stone wall and small towers, and is a place of great
strength ; but its chief defence against escalade is a num¬
ber of large round stones, which are piled round the ram¬
part, ready to be hurled down on any rash assailant. It
has a small citadel, two good houses for the commandant,
and extensive magazines. This fortress has been sometimes
used as a state prison; but the rays of the sun reflected
from the rock render it very hot and unhealthy. The
town of Chunar consists of a straggling collection of native
huts and European dwellings. The batteries completely
command the navigation of the river, so that no vessel
can pass without inspection. Chunarghur is a very ancient
fortress, and there is no record of its original foundation.
The first time it is mentioned in Mahommedan history is
686
Chupmes-
saliites
II
Church.
C H U
in the year 1491, when it was in possession of Sing Joan-
pore. In 1530 it was the residence of Shere Khan, the
Afghan who expelled the emperor Humayon from Hin¬
dustan. In 1575 it was recovered by the emperor Akbar,
after a siege of six months. In 1763 it belonged to the
nuwab Shuja Addowleh; and it was then attacked by the
English, who were repulsed by the garrison rolling down
large stones on the storming party; but it was soon after
delivered up to the British without a siege, and has ever
since been garrisoned by their troops. Ihe lulls, which
approach very near the town, contain quarries of excel¬
lent freestone, which is in great demand at Benares and
other towns down the river. From these quamesahand-
some revenue arises to government. Since the British fron¬
tier has been extended farther north, Chunarghur has been
superseded by Allahabad as a military depot The ^vei¬
ling distance from Calcutta by Moorshedabad is 574 miles,
by Birboom 469 miles.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a sect among the Mahomme-
dans, who believe that Jesus Christ is God, and the true
Messiah, the Redeemer of the world, but without ren¬
dering him any public or declared worship.
CHIJPPARAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Allahabad, situated on the Bein Gunga river. It is
subject to the Mahrattas ; but having been assigned as a
iaghire to a chief of that nation, in reward for military ser¬
vice, it is now chiefly inhabited by Afghans. There are
iron mines in its vicinity, which yield a valuable produce,
great part of which is carried into the British provinces.
It is eighty-seven miles north from Nagpoor. Long, b .
2. E. Lat. 22. 22. N. .
CHUPRAH, a large town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Bahar, and chief town of the district of Sarun,
situated on the north bank of the Ganges. It was first
entered in 1757 by the British, in pursuit of a trench de¬
tachment under Mr Law, which had entered into the ser¬
vice of Shuja Addowleh. It is thirty-two miles vvest-north-
west from Patna. Long. 84. 46. E. Lat. ~5. 46. N.
CHUQUISACA, the capital city of Bolivia, in de¬
partment of Chuquisaca, is situated at an elevation of 9331
feet above the level of the sea. It stands upon a plain,
and is surrounded by a chain of eminences, which shelter
it from the winds. The climate is mild and healthy, the
temperature throughout the year presenting no great
variation; but in winter heavy storms are not unfrequent,
and the rains continue a considerable time. The vegeta¬
tion of the surrounding district is rich and luxuriant, and
accordingly it is looked upon as one of the gardens of Bo¬
livia which supply the necessaries of life to those inhabit-*
in" higher and less prolific regions. Chuquisaca foimerly
was named La Plata, from its contiguity to silver mines.
It was founded in 1539 by one of Pizarro s captains. In
4551 it was erected into a bishopric, and in 1608 was
raised to an archbishopric. The best houses are only one
story high, but they are roomy, and in general all have
gardens planted with European fruit trees. 1 he public
buildings of this city are, a royal university, a large and
handsome cathedral, a parochial church, five monastic es¬
tablishments, all spacious buildings, with splendid churches,
a conventual hospital, and three nunneries. The popula¬
tion, which consists of Creoles and Indians, amounts to
about 18,000. Lat. 19. 31. N.
CHURCH bas different significations, according to the
different subjects to which it is applied.
It is understood of the collective body of Christians, or
of all those on the face of the earth who profess to believe
in Christ, and to acknowledge him as the Saviour of man¬
kind. This is what the ancient writers call the Catholic
or Universal Church. Sometimes the word Church is
considered in a sense still more extensive, and divided
C H U
into several branches; as the church militant, which is Churoh.
the assembly of the faithful on the earth; and the church
triumphant, which is that of the faithful already in glory;
to which the Catholics add the church patient, which, ac¬
cording to their doctrines, is that of the faithful in purga-
tory. . , •
Church is applied to any particular congregation of
Christians who associate together and concur in the par¬
ticipation of all the institutions of Jesus Christ, with their
proper pastors and ministers. Thus we read of the church
of Antioch, the church of Alexandria, the church of Thes-
salonica, and the like. . .
Church denotes a particular sect of Christians, distm-
"uished by particular doctrines and ceremonies. In this
sense we speak of the Roman Catholic Church, the Greek
Church, the Reformed Church, the Church of England,
the Church of Scotland, and the like.
The Latin or Western Church comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north, and
all other countries whither the Romans cairied their lan-
„uage. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands, part of
Germany, and part of the north, have been separated from
this church ever since the time of Henry VIII., and con¬
stitute what we call the Reformed Church, and what the
Catholics denominate the Western Schism.
The Greek or Eastern Church comprehends the churches
of all the countries anciently subject to the Greek or East¬
ern empire, and through which their language was car¬
ried ; that is, all the space extending from Greece to Me¬
sopotamia and Persia, and thence into Egypt. This church
has been divided from the Roman Catholic ever since the
time of the emperor Phocas. . „ ^
The Gallican Church denotes the Church of trance
under the government and direction of their respective
bishops and pastors. This church has always enjoyed
certain franchises and immunities, not as grants from
popes, but as derived from her origin or foundation, and
which she has taken care never to relinquish. Ihese
liberties depend upon two maxims; the first of which
is, that the pope has no authority or right to command
or order any thing, either in general or m particular, in
which the temporalities and civil rights of the kingdom
are concerned; and the second, that notwithstanding the
pope’s supremacy is acknowledged in cases purely spiri¬
tual, vet in France his power is limited and icgu ate )
the decrees and canons of ancient councils received in
th The word Church is used to signify the body of eccle¬
siastics, or the clergy, in contradistinction to the laity.
Church is used for the place where a particular con-
greaation or society of Christians assemble for the cele¬
bration of divine service. In this sense churches are va¬
riously denominated, according to their rank, degree, d -
cipline, and the like, as the metropolitan church, the pa¬
triarchal church, cathedral church, parochial church, col¬
legiate church, and so on. . , „ , r„i.
In ecclesiastical writers we meet with Grand Churc,
which is used to signify the chief church of a pLcej
Thus, in the Greek liturgy, the church of St Sophia al
Constantinople, the see of the patriarch, founded b^ Con¬
stantine, and consecrated under Justinian, is denom
Grand Church. ,
The first church publicly built by the Christians is sup-
posed by some to have been that of St Saviour a ’
founded by Constantine ; while others contend that severs
churches abroad, called by the name of St e e >
were built in honour of that apostle during his
High Church was a denomination originally Sive
those otherwise called Nonjurors, who refused to acknow
ledge the title of William III. Prince of Orange, to tke
C H U
C H U
; urch-
urdens
lurch ill.
crown of Great Britain, under a notion that James II.
though excluded, was still their rightful sovereign. This
appellation was given them because they entertained high
notions of the dignity and power of the church, and the
extent of its prerogatives and jurisdiction. And those,
on the contrary, who disapproved of the succession and
obstinacy of the nonjurors, were called Low Churchmen,
being distinguished by their moderation towards dissent¬
ers, and less ardent in extending the limits of church au¬
thority. The denomination of High Churchmen is now
more generally applied to all who form lofty and ambi¬
tious conceptions of the authority and jurisdiction of the
church, and who would raise it to an absolute indepen¬
dence of all human power.
Church-Wardens (ecclesice guardiani) in the English
ecclesiastical polity, are the guardians or keepers of the
chinch, and the lepresentatives of the body of the parish.
They are sometimes appointed by the minister, some¬
times by the parish, sometimes by both together, as cus¬
tom directs.
CHURCHILL, John, Duke of Marlborough, and prince
of the holy Roman empire, a renowned general and states¬
man, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650. He was
eldest son of Sir W inston Churchill, who carried him ta
court while very young ; and there he was particularly no¬
ticed by James duke of York, afterwards king James II.
when only twelve years of age. In 1666, he was made an
ensign of the guards during the first Dutch war, and after¬
wards improved himself greatly in the military art at Tan¬
gier. In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the Duke of Mon¬
mouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries in the French
service, and was soon afterwards made captain in the
duke's own regiment. At the siege of Nimeguen, which
happened in that campaign, he distinguished himself so
much that he was taken notice of by the celebrated Mar¬
shall Turenne, who bestowed on him the name of “ the
handsome Englishman.” In 1673, he was present at the
siege of Maestricht, where he gained such applause that
the king of France made him a public acknowledgment of
his services; and the Duke of Monmouth, who had the
direction of the attack, told king Charles II. that he
owed his life to Mr Churchill’s bravery. In 1681, he
married Sarah, daughter and co-heiress, with her sister
the countess of Tyrconnel, of Richard Jennings, Esquire,
of Sandrich, in Hertfordshire. The Duke of York re¬
commended him, in a very particular manner, to the king,
who in 1682 created him Baron of Eyemouth, in the
county of Berwick, in Scotland, and made him colonel of
the third troop of guards. Soon after King James’s ac¬
cession, he was created Baron Churchill of Sandrich, in
the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general of his
majesty’s army in the west, where, when the Duke of
Monmouth attempted to surprise the king’s army while
the Earl of Feversham and the greater part of the officers
were in bed, he kept the enemy in play till the king’s
forces had time to form, and thereby saved the whole
army. When James showed an intention of establishing
the Catholic religion in Britain, Lord Churchill, notwith¬
standing the great obligations he owed to the king, thought
it his duty to abandon the royal cause ; but even then he
did not leave James without informing him by letter of
the reason for his so doing. Lord Churchill was graciously
leceived by the Prince of Orange, and employed by him
first to re-assemble the troop of guards at London, and
afterwards to reduce some regiments lately raised, and to
new-model the army; for which purpose he was invested
with the rank and title of lieutenant-general. In 1689, he
was sworn a member of the privy council, and one of the
gentlemen of the king’s bed-chamber; and on the 9th of
April following, he was raised to the dignity of Earl of
687
Marlborough, in the county of Wilts. He assisted at the Churchill
emanation of their majesties; and was soon afterwards
appointed commander-in-chief of the English forces sent
over to Holland, where he first laid the foundation of that
fame which was afterwards spread over all Europe. In
1690, he was appointed general of the forces sent to Ire¬
land, and made the strong garrisons of Cork and Kinsale
prisoners of war. In the year following, King William
showed the high opinion he entertained of Lord Marl¬
borough’s conduct, by sending him to Flanders to put all
things in readiness, and to draw the army together before
his arrival. In 1692, he was dismissed from all his employ¬
ments, and not long afterwards committed, with some other
peers, to the Tower, upon an accusation of high treason.
This, however, being afterwards found to be a false and
malicious report, the authors of it were punished. Marl¬
borough was soon restored to favour, and, in 1698, appoint¬
ed governor to the Earl of Gloucester; upon which occa¬
sion King William paid him this extraordinary compli¬
ment : “ My lord, make him but what you are, and my
nephew will be all I wish to see him.” The same day he
was again sw orn of the privy council; and in July follow¬
ing he was declared one of the lords justices of England,
for the administration of the government, with which great
trust he was three times successively invested in the
king s absence. In 1701, he was appointed general of in¬
fantry, commander-in-chief of the English forces, and am¬
bassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at the Hague.
Upon the accession of Queen Anne to the throne, he was
elected into the order of the garter, declared captain-
general of all her majesty’s forces, and sent as ambassador
extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Holland. His war¬
like exploits have been noticed under the article Britain ;
we shall therefore only mention in this place the rewards'
and honours conferred upon him for these brilliant achieve¬
ments. After his first campaign he was created Marquis
of Blahdford and Duke of Marlborough, with a pension of
L.5000 out of the post-office, to devolve for ever upon
those enjoying the title of Duke of Marlborough. In 1703,
he met Charles III., formerly emperor, proceeding to Spain,
who presented him with a sword set with diamonds. In
1704, having forced the enemy’s lines at Schellenberg,
he received a letter of thanks from the emperor Leopold,
written writh his own hand; an honour seldom conferred
on any but sovereign princes. After the battle of Blenheim
he received congratulatory letters from most of the po¬
tentates in Europe, particularly from the states-general,
and from the emperor, who desired him to accept of the
dignity of a prince of the empire; which, with the queen’s
leave, was conferred upon him by the title of Prince of
Mildenheim in the province of Suabia. After the cam¬
paign was ended, he visited the court of Prussia, where
he succeeded in suspending the disputes with the Dutch
about King William’s estate ; which wise conduct caused
the whole confederacy to acknowledge that the duke
had done the greatest service possible to the common
cause. Upon his return to England, the queen, to perpe¬
tuate his memory, granted the interest of the crown in
the honour and manor of Woodstock and hundred of
Wotton, to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705, he made
a tour to Vienna, upon the invitation of the emperor Jo¬
seph, who received him in the most gracious manner, and
made him a grant of the lordship of Mildenheim. After
the campaign of 1708, the speaker of the Flouse of Com¬
mons was sent to Brussels on purpose to compliment him;
and on his return to England he was again complimented
in the House of Lords by Lord Chancellor Cowper. After
the change of the ministry in 1710, his interest daily de¬
clined ; and in 1712, on the first day of the new year, he
was removed from all his offices. Finding all arts used to
688
C H U
Churchill, render him obnoxious to his native country, he visited his
principality of Mildenheim, and several towns m Uei ma¬
ny ; after which he returned to England, and arrived there
on the day of the queen’s death. Being welcomed by the
nobility and foreign ministers, he attended King George .
in his public entry into London, and was appointed cap¬
tain-general, colonel of the first regiment of foot guards,
one of the commissioners for the government of Chelsea
hospital, and master-general of the ordnance. Some years
before his death he retired from public business. He died
at Windsor Lodge in 1722, aged seventy-three, leaving be¬
hind him a very numerous posterity, allied to the noblest
and greatest families in the kingdom. Upon his de¬
mise, all parties united in doing honour, or rather justice,
to his merit; and his corpse was interred, on the Jth ot
August following, in Westminster Abbey, with all the so¬
lemnity due to a person who had deserved so highly ot
his country. The massive noble pile near Woodstock,
which bears the name of Blenheim House, may be just y
styled his monument; but without pretending to the gi t
of prophecy, one may venture to foretel that his glory will
long survive that structure ; and that as long as our his¬
tories remain, or indeed the histories of Europe, his me¬
mory will live and be the boast of Britain, which by his
labours was raised to be the first of nations, as during the
a<re in which he lived he was deservedly esteemed the
first of men. If he had foibles, such as are inseparable
from human nature, they were so hidden by the glare of
his virtues as to be scarcely perceptible, or were willingly
for<rotten. A certain parasite, who thought to please
Lord Bolingbroke by ridiculing the avarice of the duke,
C H U
him given by another celebrated political opponent, Lord Churchi;
Bolingbroke. Speaking, in his Letters on History, of the v—
consternation raised among the allies by the death of King
William, and of the joy which that event gave to the
French, his lordship observes, that “ a short time showed
how vain the fears of some and the hopes of others were.
By his death the Duke of Marlborough was raised to the
head of the army, and indeed of the confederacy; where
he, a new, a private man, a subject, acquired, by merit
and by management, a more deciding influence than high
birth, confirmed authority, and even the crown of Great
Britain, had given to King William. Not only all the parts
of that vast machine, the grand alliance, were kept more
compact and entire, but a more rapid and vigorous motion
was given to the whole ; and instead ol languishing out
disastrous campaigns, we saw every scene ot the war full
of action. All those wherein he appeared, and many of
those wherein he was not then an actor, but abettor, how¬
ever, of their action, were crowned with the most trium¬
phant success. I take, with pleasure, this oppoitunity ot
doing justice to that great man, whose faults I knew, whose
virtues I admired; and whose memory, as the gieatest
general and as the greatest minister that our country, or
perhaps any other, has produced, I honour.” _
Lord Chesterfield would have us believe that his re¬
markable personal accomplishments were the main instill¬
ments of his fortune. “ Of all the men,” says he, m his
Letters to his Son, “ that ever I knew in my life (and I
knew him extremely well), the late Duke ot Marlboiough
possessed the graces in the highest degree, not to say en¬
grossed them ; and indeed he got the most by them ; for
Lord Bolingbroke by ridiculing the avarice ot the ctuKe, U tra t0 the custom of profound histo-
'•as stopped short byhis brdshtp.tvho dryly =k^ XXtTTssL deep causes J great events)
« iqe was so very great a man, that I had forgotten he
had that vice.” . . . . •
Out of a variety of anecdotes concerning this illustrious
nersona-e, the following may here be noticed. One ot
the first things which he did, when very young, was to
purchase a box to put his money in; an indication of
the economical, not to say avaricious, temper which ac¬
companied him through life. Dr Joseph ^/arton re¬
lates, that on the evening of an important battle the duke
was heard to chide his servant for having been so extra¬
vagant as to light four candles in his tent when 1 rince
Eimene came to confer with him. Mr Richardson the
painter has recorded a pleasing instance of the duke s
calmness of disposition, for which, indeed, he was always
remarkable. “ The Duke of Marlborough, says the wri¬
ter “ riding out once with Commissary Marriot, near the
commissary’s house in the country, it began to rain, and
the duke called for his cloak, Marriot having his^ put
on by his servant immediately. The duke’s servant not
bringing the cloak, he called for it again, but the man was
nans, who always assign deep causes for great events)
to ascribe the better half of the Duke of Marlborough s
greatness and riches to those graces. He was eminenfiy
illiterate; wrote bad English, and spelled it still worse. He
had no share of what is commonly called parts; that is, he
had no brightness, nothing shining in his genius. He had,
most undoubtedly, an excellent plain good understanding,
with sound judgment. But these alone would probably have
raised him but something higher than they found him, which
was page to King James II.’s queen. There the graces pro¬
tected and promoted him; for while he wasan ensign of
the guards, the Duchess of Cleveland, then favourite mis¬
tress to King Charles II., struck by those very graces, gave
him L.5000, with which he immediately bought an annuity
for his life, of L.500, of my grandfather Halifax, which was
the foundation of his subsequent fortune. H.s figure was
beautiful; but his manner was irresistible by either ma
or woman. It was by this engaging graceful manner hat
he was enabled, during all his wars, to connect the various
and jarring ‘their
the man was ana jarring puw cm   ' j;
sti'n^iuzzling about the straps and buckle. . At last, as it
now rained very hard, the duke called agam, and asked P1™16 h" ient to (and he was oftenobh-
^t;;tviy7;.tbLdu,eX:°\nt"iii’rc:t:Vnd
The Duke of Marlborough, adds Mr Richardson, did by
nature and constitution what Seneca judged by philosophy
ought to be done : Quid est quare ego seryi mei hilarius
responsum, et contumaciorem vultum, flagellis et compedibus
^Various characters have been drawn of the Duke of
Marlborough. That by Dr Swift, in his History of the
four last Years of the Queen, has all the malignity and
meanness of a party pamphlet. He is even so foolish as to
insinuate that the duke’s military accomplishments were
problematical, and that he was destitute of personal cou¬
rage. Of a very different complexion is the character of
crown gray in business, and who had governed the re¬
public of the United Provinces for more than forty yea ,
was absolutely swayed by the Duke of Marlborough, wl
obtained a complete ascendency over him. He was alway^
cool; and nobody ever observed the 1 east variation ^
countenance : he could refuse more gracefu y ^
people could grant; and those who went away
themost dissatisfied as to the substance of.their busme ,
were yet personally charmed with him, and in so § ,
comforted by his manner. With all his gen en
gracefulness, no man living was more conscious ot Ins
tuation, nor maintained his dignity better.
C H U
urchin. cl That the Duke of IMarlborough,” says a commentator
on this passage^ “ was eminently distinguished for the
gracefulness of his manners, cannot be questioned; but
the Lari of Chesterfield appears to have attributed too
much to their influence, when he ascribes the better half
of the duke's greatness and riches to those graces. That
the uncommon gracefulness of his manners facilitated his
advancement, and contributed to the success of his neo-o-
tiations, may readily be admitted ; but surely it must have
been to much higher qualities that he owed the esteem
of King William and of Prince Eugene, his reputation
throughout all Europe, and his many victories and con¬
quests. It was not by a polite exterior that he obtained
his laurels at Schellenberg, at Oudenarde, at Ramillies,
and at Blenheim.”
An extensive work, entitled Memoirs and Correspon¬
dence of the Duke of Marlborough, by the Rev. W. Coxe,
was published at London in 1819, in 3 vols. 4to.
Churchill, Charles, a celebrated satirist, the son of Mr
Charles Churchill, curate and lecturer of St John’s, West¬
minster, was born in February 1731. He was educated at
Westminster school, and received some applause for his abi¬
lities fiom his tutors in that famous seminary. His capacity,
however, was greater than his application, so that he acqui¬
red the character of a boy who could do good if he would.
For want of proper skill in the learned languages, he was
rejected from Oxford, whither his father had sent him;
and probably this might have given occasion to the fre¬
quent invectives which we find in his works, against that
university. Upon his return from thence he again applied
to his studies in Westminster school, where, at seventeen
years of age, he contracted an intimacy with a lady, to
whom he was afterwards married, and their mutual regard
for each other continued for several years. At the usual
age of entering into orders, Mr Churchill was ordained by
the late Bishop of London, and obtained a small curacy in
Males of L.30 a year. Thither he carried his wife ; they
took a small house; and he passed through the duties of
his station with assiduity and cheerfulness. Happy had it
been for him had he continued there, to enjoy the fruits of
piety, peace, and simplicity of manners. He was beloved
and esteemed by his parishioners; and though his sermons
were rather above the level of his audience, they were
commended and followed. But endeavouring to advance
his fortune by keeping a cider cellar, it involved him in
difficulties which obliged him to leave Wales and proceed
to London. But his father having died soon afterwards,
he stepped into the church in which his parent had offi¬
ciated ; and in order to improve his income, which scarce¬
ly produced L.100 a year, he taught young ladies to read
and write English at a boarding-school, kept by Mrs
Dennis, where he behaved with the decency and decorum
which became his profession. His method of living, how¬
ever, bearing no proportion to his income, he contracted
several debts in the city; and being unable to pay them,
a jail, the terror of indigent genius, seemed ready to com¬
plete his misfortunes; but from this state of wretched¬
ness he was relieved by the benevolence of Mr Lloyd,
father of the poet of that name. Meanwhile Mr Lloyd,
the son, wrote a poetical epistle called the Actor, which
being read and approved by the public, gave the author
a distinguished place among the writers of his age. This
induced Mr Churchill to write the Rosciad. It first ap¬
peared without the author’s name ; but the justness of the
remarks, and the severity of the satire, soon excited pub¬
lic curiosity. 1 hough he never disowned having written
that piece, and even openly gloried in it, yet the public,
unwilling to give so much merit to one alone, ascribed it
to a combination of wits; nor were Messrs Lloyd, Thorn¬
ton, and Colman, left unnamed upon this occasion. This
VOL. VI.
C H U
689
Chuwal.
misplaced praise soon induced Mr Churchill to throw off Church-
the mask* and the second edition appeared with his name varil
at full length. As the Rosciad was the first of this poet’s
performances, so many are of opinion that it is the best.
His next performance was his Apology to the Critical Re¬
viewers. This work is not without its peculiar merit; and
as it vyas written against a set of critics whom the world
was willing enough to blame, the public read it with their
usual indulgence. But whilst his writings amused the
town, his actions disgusted it. He now quitted his wife,
with whom he had cohabited many years; and, resigning
his gown and all clerical functions, he commenced a man
of pleasure. To palliate in some measure the absurdities
of his conduct, he undertook a poem called Night, a poem
wiitten upon a general subject, indeed, but proceeding
upon false principles ; namely, that whatever our follies
aie, we should never attempt to conceal them. When this
and Mr Churchill’s other poems were shown to Dr John¬
son, and his opinion of them asked, he allowed them but
httle merit; which being told to the author, he resolved to
requite this private judgment with a public one. In his
next poem of the Ghost, therefore, he drew this gentle¬
man under the character of Pomposo ; and those who dis¬
liked Dr Johnson allowed it to have merit. The poems of
Night and the Ghost had not the rapid sale the author
expected; but his Prophecy of Famine soon made ample
amends for their failure. In this piece, written in the
spirit of the famous North Briton, he exerted his virulent
pen against the whole Scottish nation, adopting the pre¬
judices of the mob, and dignifying scurrility by the aid of
a poetic imagination. It had a rapid and extensive sale,
as had been prophesied by Mr Wilkes, who said before its
publication that he was sure it must take, as it was at once
peisonal, poetical, and political. Several succeeding pieces
were published, which, being w'ritten without effort, are
read without pleasure. His Gotham, Independence, and The
Times, seem to have been written by a man who merely
desired to avail himself of the avidity of the public curio¬
sity in his favour, and are rather aimed at the pockets than
the hearts of his readers. Mr Churchill died in 1764, of
a miliary fever, with which he was seized at Boulogne,
in France, vyhither he had gone on a visit to Mr Wilkes.
Several editions of his poems have been published both in
8vo and 12mo.
CHURCHYARD, a piece of ground adjoining to a
church, and set apart for the interment of the dead.
In the church of Rome such grounds are blessed or con¬
secrated with great solemnity. If a churchyard which has
been thus consecrated shall afterwards be polluted by any
indecent action, or profaned by the burial of an infidel, a
heretic, an excommunicated or unbaptized person, it must
be reconciled; and the ceremony of the reconciliation is
performed with the same solemnity as that of the blessing
or consecration. •
Churchyard, Thomas, a poet who flourished in the
reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Queen Mary, and
Queen Elizabeth. Fie wras born at Shrewsbury, and in¬
herited a fortune which he soon exhausted in a fruitless at¬
tendance on the court, by which he only gained thefavour
of being retained as a domestic in the family of Lord Sur¬
rey ; when, by his lordship’s encouragement, he commenced
poet. Upon his patron’s death, he betook himself to arms,
and was present in many engagements, in which he was
frequently wounded, and was twice made prisoner. He
published twelve pieces, which he afterwards printed to¬
gether in one volume, under the title of Churchyard’s
Chips; and also the tragedy of Thomas Moubrav, Duke
of Norfolk. He died in 1570.
CHUWAL, a district of Flindustan, in the province of
Gujerat, situated between the 23d and 24th degrees of
4 s
690
C I c
Chymologi north latitude, and about the 72d degree of east iongitude.
tl The Banass river bounds it on the north-west ; and t <
Cicacole. (jistrict adjacent to this river is low-marshy land, and s -
  *   ject to inundation. The country beyond tins has been but
imperfectly explored, and very little is known concerning
it. It is possessed by different independent chiefs.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to such naturalists
, dmnlnvfid their time in investigating the propel-
as have employed their time in investigating the propel
ties of plants from their taste and smell.
CHYTLA, in Antiquity, a liquor made of wine and oil,
and sometimes used in divination. . . c
CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a festival in
Bacchus and Mercury, which was kept on the 13th of the
month Anthesterion. . ,•
CIBBER, Colley, a celebrated comedian, dramatic
writer, and poet-laureat to George II., was born at Lon¬
don in 1671. His father, Caius Gabriel Cibber, was a na¬
tive of Holstein, and a skilful statuary, who executed t ie
basso relievo on the pedestal of the Monument, and the
two admired figures of lunatics over the piers of the gate
to Bethlehem Hospital in Moorfields. Colley, who deri¬
ved his Christian name from the surname of his mother s
family, was intended for the church, but betook himself
to the stage, for which he conceived an early inclination ;
but it was some time before he acquired any degree of
notice, or even a competent salary. His fi^t essay in
writing was the comedy of Love s Last Shift, ac ted in 1695,
which met with success, as did his own periormance of
the character of the fop he had delineated. From that
time, as he says himself, “ My muse and my spouse were
so equally prolific, that the one was seldom the mother of a
child, but in the same year the other made me the fathei of
a play. I think we had a dozen of each sort between us ;
of both which kinds some died in their infancy, and near
an equal number of each were alive when we quitted the
theatre.” The Careless Husband, acted in G04, met with
great applause, and is reckoned his best play; but none
was of more importance to him than the Nonjuror, acted
in 1717, and levelled against the Jacobites. I his laid the
foundation of the misunderstanding between him and Mr
Pope, raised him to be the hero of the Dunciad, and made
him poet-laureat in 1730. He then quitted the stage, ex¬
cept a few occasional performances, and died ID 1/0/. <-lD-
ber neither succeeded in writing nor in acting tragedy; and
his odes were not thought to partake of the genius or spi¬
rit which he showed in his comedies. His Life, written by
himself, is an exceedingly amusing work, and has often
been reprinted, in two vols. 8vo. The best edition of his
works is that of 1760, in five vols. l'2mo.
CIBORIA, in Antiquity, the large husks of Egyptian
beans, which are said to have been so large as to serve foi
drinking-cups ; whence they had their name ciborium, sig¬
nifying a cup in the Egyptian language. ,
CIBORIUM, in ecclesiastical writers, the covering for
the altar. This covering is supported by four high columns,
and forms a kind of tent for the eucharist in the Catholic
churches. Some authors call it turris gestatona,<iwl others
pyxis; but the pyxis is properly the box in which the eu-
is preserved*
CIBUS Ferialis, in Antiquity, an entertainment pecu¬
liar to a funeral; for which purpose beans, parsley, lettuce,
bread, eggs, lentils, and salt were in use. . .
CICACOLE, the largest and most northern division of
the country lying on the western side of the Bay of Ben¬
gal, called the Northern Circars. It was anciently called
Lulling or Calinga, and extends between the 17th and
20th degrees of north latitude, though it is not above one
degree in breadth. It is subdivided into two distiicts, one
of which lies between the river of Sellaveram on the south,
and that of Poondy on the north; while the cross hills
C I c
approaching the sea near both extremities form a kind Cicero,
of amphitheatre, inclosing a semicircular territory which
extends along the coast 180 miles, and stretches inland
to the high mountainous region on the west about sixty
miles. It comprises an area of 4400 square miles. I he
second subdivision of this province is of a ti iangular figure,
of which the longest side stretches along the shore about
eighty miles from Poondy to Moland, the southern fron¬
tier of Cuttack, and the shortest to the angle at Goomsur.
It contains an area of about 1600 miles, exclusively of that
portion of territory which in this district, as well as in all
others southward to the Godavery, extends in variable
breadths to the great ridge of inaccessible mountains on
the west. The climate of Cicacole, which forms so large
a portion of the Northern Circars, will be more particularly
described in the account of that country. In the mean
time, it may be observed that it is much moie temperate
in the hot season than to the south of the Godavery. This
country produces rice, bajarry, and maize, as well as other
species of grain.
The northern division of Cicacole, with a better soil
than is found in other parts of the Circar, is watered by
four rivers, which have their outlets in the lespective
ports of Vizagapatam, Bimlipatam, Cicacole, and Calinga-
patam, besides many lesser streams, which, though incon-
siderable at other times, overflow during the season of the
rains. In advancing northward, and in the territory of Je-
hapore, the river Ganjam, swelled by the union of various
streams and small rivers, fertilizes the country. The pro¬
vince of Cicacole is encroached upon by the hilly districts
from the west. It has few extensive plains, and its hills
increase in frequency and magnitude as they approach
the vast range of mountains that bounds this and other
districts to the north-west. This district was ceded to
the French by the nabob Salabut Jung, subahdar of the
Deccan, in the year 1753; at this time it extended from
the river Godavery to the Chilca Lake. It was conquer¬
ed by the British in 1759, to whom it was confirmed in
1765 by a grant from the Great Mogul.
CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated Roman
orator, was born in the year of Rome 647, or about 105
years before Christ. His father Marcus Tu bus, who was
of the equestrian order, took great care of his education,
which was directed particularly with a view to the bar.
On his first appearance in public, young 1 ully declaimed
with such vehemence against Sylla’s party, that it became
expedient for him to retire into Greece, where he attended
the Athenian orators and philosophers, and greatly im¬
proved both in eloquence and knowledge. Here he met
with his school-fellow Titus Pompomus, who, from his
love of Athens, and having spent a great part of his days
in that city, obtained the surname of Athens; and here
they revived and confirmed that noted friendship which
subsisted between them through life with unshaken con¬
stancy and affection. From Athens Tully Passed n °
Asia/and after an excursion of two years returned
Italy much improved by his travels.
Cicero had now established himself at Rome, where, afte
one year more spent at the bar, he obtained the dignity ot
questor. Among the causes which he pleaded before to
questorship, was that of the famous comedian Roscius,
whom singular excellence in his art had recommended
the familiarity and friendship of the greatest men in Rome
The questors were the general receivers or treasurers
the republic, and were sent annually into the province
assigned then, by lot. The island of Sicily happen d to
fall to Cicero's share, including that pait ot it, •
considerable enough to be divided into two Pr°v'n<?e ’
which was called Lilybmum. The office of que or lie re¬
ceived, not as a gift, but as a trust; and he acqu
C I c
cero. self so well in discharge of it, that he gained the love and
admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he left Sicily, he
made the tour of the island, in order to visit every thing
curious, especially the city of Syracuse, at which place he
pointed out the tomb of Archimedes to the magistrates,
who were showing him the curiosities of the place ; but, to
his surprise, he found that they knew nothing either of the
tomb or of him whose ashes it contained.
We have no account of the precise time of Cicero’s mar¬
riage with Terentia; but it is supposed to have been cele¬
brated immediately after his return from his travels to
Italy, when he was about thirty. Being now disengaged
from his questorship in Sicily, by which first step in the
legal gradation and ascent of public honours he had gained
an immediate right to the senate, and an actual admission
into it during life, he again settled in Rome, where he em¬
ployed himself constantly in defending the persons and pro¬
perties of its citizens, and indeed became a general patron
of causes. Five years had scarcely elapsed since Cicero’s
election to the questorship (this being the proper interval
prescribed by law before he could hold the next office),
when he was, in his thirty-seventh year, elected mdile by
the unanimous suffrages of the tribes, and in preference to
all his competitors. After Cicero’s election to the aedileship,
but before his entrance upon office, he undertook the fa¬
mous prosecution of Verres, the late praetor of Sicily, who
was charged with many flagrant acts of injustice, rapine,
and cruelty, during his triennial government of that island.
This was one of the most memorable transactions of his
life, one for which he was greatly and justly celebrated by
antiquity, and for which he will, in all ages, be admired and
esteemed by the friends of mankind. The result was, that,
by his diligence and address, he so confounded Hortensius,
though the reigning orator at the bar, and usually styled
the king of the forum, that his majesty had nothing to say
for his client. Verres, despairing of all defence, submitted
immediately, without waiting the sentence, to a voluntary
exile, in which condition he lived many years, forgotten
and deserted by all his friends. He is said to have been
relieved in this miserable situation by the generosity of
Cicero; but at length he was proscribed and murdered by
Mark Antony, for the sake of those fine statues and Co¬
rinthian vessels of which he had plundered the Sicilians.
After the usual interval of two years from the time of
his being chosen sedile, Cicero offered himself as a candi¬
date for the praetorship; and, in three different assemblies
convened for the choice of praetors, two of which were dis¬
solved without effect, he was every time declared the first
praetor by the suffrages of the centuries. He was now in
the full career of his fortunes, and in sight, as it were, of
the consulship, the grand object of his ambition ; and
therefore, when his praetorship terminated, he refused to
accept any foreign province, the usual reward of that ma¬
gistracy, and the chief fruit which the generality proposed
from it. He had no particular love for money, and no ge¬
nius for war; so that those governments had no charms for
him. The glory which he pursued was to shine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws; to teach the
magistrates how to execute, and the citizens how to obey
them.
Being now in his forty-third year, the proper age re¬
quired by law, he declared himself a candidate for the
consulship, along with six competitors, L. Sulpicius Galba,
L. Sergius Catilina, C. Antonius, L. Cassius Longinus,
Q. Cornificius, and C. Licinius Sacerdos. The first two
were patricians; the next two plebeians, yet noble; the
last two the sons of fathers who had first imported the
public honours into their families; Cicero was the only
new man, as he was called, among them, or person of the
equestrian rank. These were the competitors ; and in the
E R O,
competition the practice of bribing was carried on openly
and shamefully by Antony and Catiline. However, as the
election approached, Cicero’s interest appeared to be su¬
perior to that of all the candidates; for the nobles them¬
selves, though always envious of and desirous to depress
him, yet, considering the dangers which threatened the
city from many quarters and seemed ready to burst out
into a flame, they began to think him the only man quali¬
fied to preserve the republic, and to quash the cabals of the
desperate, by the vigour and prudence of his administra¬
tion. The method of choosing consuls was not by an open
vote, but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of wood dis¬
tributed to the citizens, with the names of the several
candidates inscribed upon each. But in Cicero’s case the
people were not content with this secret and silent way.
Before they came to any scrutiny, they loudly and uni¬
versally proclaimed Cicero the first consul; so that, as he
himself says, “ he was not chosen by the votes of parti¬
cular citizens, but by the common suffrage of the city; not
declared by the voice of the crier, but by that of the whole
Roman people.”
Cicero had no sooner entered upon his office than he
had occasion to exert himself against P. Servilius Rullus,
one of the new tribunes, who had been alarming the se¬
nate with the promulgation of an agrarian law; the pur¬
pose of which was to create a decemvirate, or ten com¬
missioners, with absolute power for five years over all the
revenues of the republic, to distribute them at pleasure to
the citizens, and to exercise other functions equally in¬
compatible with the existence of society. These laws used
to be greedily received by the populace, and were there¬
fore proposed by factious magistrates as often as they had
any point to carry with the multitude against the public-
good ; so that Cicero’s first business was to quiet the ap¬
prehensions of the city, and to baffle, if possible, the in¬
trigues of the tribune. Accordingly, in an artful and ele¬
gant speech from the rostra, he gave such a turn to
the inclination of the people, that they rejected this law
with as much eagerness as they had ever received one.
But the affair which constituted the great glory of his
consulship, and which has transmitted his name with such
lustre to posterity, was the skill he showed, and the un¬
wearied pains he took, in suppressing the conspiracy which
had been formed by Catiline and his accomplices for the
subversion of the commonwealth. For this great service
he was honoured with the glorious title of Pater Patrice,
or Father of his Country, a title which he retained for a
long time afterwards.
Cicero’s administration was now at an end; but he had
no sooner quitted his office than he began to feel the ef¬
fects of that envy which is the certain fruit of illustrious
merit. He was now, therefore, the common mark, not
only of all the factious, against whom he had declared
perpetual war, but of another party not less dangerous,
the envious, whose united malice never left him from this
moment till they had driven him out of the very city which
he had so lately preserved. Cicero, upon the expiration
of his consulship, took care to send a particular account
of his whole administration to Pompey, then occupied with
the Mithridatic war in Asia ; in hopes no doubt of prevent¬
ing any wrong impressions there from the calumnies of his
enemies, and of drawing from that commander some public
declaration in favour of what had been done. But Pom¬
pey being informed by Metellus and Caesar of the ill hu¬
mour which was rising up against Cicero in Rome, answer¬
ed him with great coldness, and instead of paying him any
compliment, took no notice at all of what had passed in
the affair of Catiline; an omission in regard to which Ci¬
cero expostulates with him in a letter which is still extant.
About this time Cicero bought a house of Marcus Cras-
692
CICERO.
Cicero.
sus, on the Palatine Hill, adjoining to that in which he had
’ always lived with his father, and which he is supposed to
have given up to his brother Quintius. The house cost
him a very large sum, and seems to have been one of the
noblest in Rome. The purchase of so expensive a house
led to some censure of his vanity, especially as it was ef¬
fected with borrowed money; a circumstance which he him¬
self does not dissemble, but observes jocosely, with refer¬
ence to it, that “ he was now plunged so deeply in debt,
as to be ready for a plot, only that the conspirators would
not trust him.”
The most remarkable event that happened in this year,
which was the forty-fifth of Cicero’s life, was the pollution
of the mysteries of the Bona Dea by Publius Clodius, a
crime which, by an unhappy train of consequences, involved
Cicero in a great and unexpected calamity. Clodius had
an intrigue with Caesar’s wife Pompeia, who, according to
annual custom, was now celebrating in her house those
awful sacrifices of the goddess, to which no male creature
was ever admitted, and where everything masculine was
so scrupulously excluded, that even pictures of that sort
were covered during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius s
imagination greatly to gain access to his mistress in the
midst of her holy ministry ; and with this view he dress¬
ed himself in a woman's habit, that by the benefit of his
smooth face, and the introduction of one of the female
servants, he might pass without discoveiy; but by some
mistake between him and his guide, he lost his way when
he came within the house, and fell unluckily among the
other female servants. Here he was detected by his voice,
and the servants alarmed the whole company by their
shrieks, to the great amazement of the matrons, who threw
a veil over their sacred mysteries, while Clodius found
means to escape. The story was presently spread abroad,
and raised a general scandal and horror throughout the
city. The whole defence which Clodius made when, by
order of the senate, he was brought to trial, was to prove
himself absent at the time when the offence was commit¬
ted ; for which purpose he produced two men to swear that
he was then at Interamna, distant about two or three days’
journey from the city. But Cicero being called upon to give
his testimony, deposed that Clodius had been with him that
very morning at his house in Rome. Irritated by this, Clo¬
dius formed a scheme of revenge. This was to get himself
chosen tribune, and in that office to drive Cicero out of the
city, by the publication of a law, which, by some stratagem
or other, he hoped to obtrude upon the people. But as all
patricians were incapable of the tribunate by its original in¬
stitution, so his first step was to make himself a plebeian,by
the pretence of an adoption into a plebeian house, which
could not yet be done without the suffrage of the people.
The first triumvirate had now been formed, being in reality
nothing else but a traitorous conspiracy of three of the most
powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from their country
by violence what they could not obtain by law. Pompey’s
chief motive was to get his acts confirmed by Caesar in his
consulship, which was now approaching ; Caesar, by giving
way to Pompey’s glory, thought to advance his own ; while
Crassus hoped to gain that ascendency by the authority
of Pompey and Ca-sar which he could not sustain alone.
Cicero might have made what terms he pleased with the
triumvirate, and even been admitted a partner of their
power, or a fourth in their league ; but he would not
enter into any engagements with the three, whose union
he and all friends of the republic abhorred. Clodius, in
the mean time, had been pushing on the business of his
adoption, which at last he effected, and began soon after¬
wards to threaten Cicero with all the terrors of his tribu¬
nate, to which he was now advanced without any oppo¬
sition. Both Caesar and Pompey secretly favoured his
scheme ; not that they intended to ruin Cicero, but only Cicero,
to keep him under the lash; and if they could not draw
him into their measures, or induce him at least to remain
quiet, to let Clodius loose upon him. Ceesar^in particu¬
lar, wanted to distress him so far as to force him to a de¬
pendence on himself; and hence, while he was privately
encouraging Clodius to pursue him, he was proposing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his security. But though his for¬
tunes seemed now to be in a tottering condition, and his
enemies daily gained ground upon him, yet he was un¬
willing to owe an obligation for his safety to any man,
far less to Csesar, whose designs he had always suspected,
and whose schemes he never approved. This stiffness in
Cicero so exasperated Caesar, that he resolved immediate¬
ly to assist Clodius with his whole power to oppress him;
while Pompey was all the while giving him the strongest
assurances that there was no danger, and that he would
sooner be killed himself than suffer him to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people with
several new laws, contrived chiefly for their advantage;
in the hope, no doubt, that he might thereby introduce with
a better grace the ground-plot of the plan for the banish¬
ment of Cicero. In short, having caused a law to be enact¬
ed, importing, that whoever had condemned a Roman citi¬
zen unheard should be banished, he soon afterwards im¬
peached Cicero upon the enactment. It was in vain that
the great orator went up and down the city soliciting his
cause in the habit of a suppliant, and attended by many of
the first young noblemen whom he had taught the rules of
eloquence ; those powers of speaking which had so often
been successful in defending the cause of others, seemed
totally to forsake him in pleading his own. He was banish¬
ed by the votes of the people four hundred miles from Italy;
his houses were ordered to be demolished, and his goods
set up to sale. It cannot be denied that, in this great cala¬
mity} he did not behave himself with that firmness which
might have reasonably been expected in one who had
borne so glorious a part in the republic, conscious of his
integrity, and suffering in the cause of his country; and
his letters are for the most part filled with such lamentable
expressions of grief and despair, that his friends, and even
his wife, were forced sometimes to admonish him to rouse
his courage, and to remember his former character. Atticus
was constantly putting him in mind of this, and sent him
notice of a report which had been brought to Rome by one
of Cassius’s freed-men, that his affliction had disordered his
senses. He was now indeed attacked in his weakest part,
the only place in which he was vulnerable. lo have been
as great in affliction as he was in prosperity, would have
been to exhibit a perfection not given to man ; yet his very
weakness flowed from a source which rendered him the
more amiable in all the other relations of his life; and the
same tenderness of disposition which made him love his
friends, his children, and his country, more passionately
than other men, caused him to feel the loss of them moie
sensibly. When he had been gone a little more than two
months, a motion was made in the senate by one of the
tribunes, who was his friend, to recal him, and repeal the
laws of Clodius, to which the whole house readily agreed.
Many obstructions, as may be easily imagined, were given
to it by the Clodian faction ; but this made the senate only
more resolute to effect the object proposed. They passed
a vote, therefore, that no other business should be done till
Cicero’s return had been carried; which it at last was, and
in so splendid and triumphant a manner, that he had rea¬
son, he says, to fear lest people should imagine that ne
himself had contrived his’late flight for the sake of so glo¬
rious a restoration. u- r r
Cicero, now in his fiftieth year^was restored to ms tor-
mer dignity, and soon afterwards to his former fortunes >
CICERO.
. satisfaction being made to him for the ruin of his estates
^ and houses, which last were rebuilt by himself with more
magnificence than before. But about this time he had
domestic grievances which touched him very nearly, and
which, as he signifies obscurely to Atticus, were of too de¬
licate a nature to be expressed in a letter: They arose
chiefly from the petulant humour of his wife, which began
to give him frequent occasions of chagrin ; and, by a series
of repeated provocations, confirmed in him the settled dis¬
gust which at last ended in a divorce.
In the fifty-sixth year of his age he was appointed pro-
consul of Cilicia, and his'administration there gained him
great honour. About this time the expectation of a breach
between Caesar and Pompey engaged the general atten¬
tion. Crassus had been destroyed with his army some
years before, in the war with the Parthians; and Julia, the
daughter of Caesar, whom Pompey had married, and who,
while she lived, formed the cement of their union, had also
died in childbed. Caesar had put an end to the Gallic war,
and reduced the whole province under the Roman yoke;
but though his commission was near expiring, he seemed5
to have no thoughts of giving up his command and return¬
ing to the condition of a private subject. He pretended
that he could not possibly be safe if he parted with his ar¬
my, especially while Pompey held the province of Spain,
the government of which had been continued to him for
five years. This tendency towards a breach Cicero learn¬
ed from his friends, as he was returning from his province
of Cilicia. But as he foresaw the consequences of a war
more clearly and fully than any of them, so his first reso¬
lution was to apply all his endeavours and authority to the
mediation of a peace; though, in the event of a breach,
he secretly determined to follow the fortunes of Pompey.
He clearly foresaw, and indeed declared without scruple
to his friends, that which side soever proved victorious,
the war must necessarily end in a tyranny. The only dif¬
ference, he said, was, that if their enemies conquered,
they should be proscribed ; if their friends, they would be
slaves.
He had no sooner arrived in the city, however, than he
fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil discord, and
found the war in effect proclaimed; for the senate had
just voted a decree that Csesar should disband his army
by a certain day, or be declared a public enemy; and
his sudden march towards Rome had effectually confirm¬
ed it. In the midst of all this hurry and confusion, Csesar
was extremely solicitous about Cicero; not so much to
gain him, for that was not to be expected, as to prevail
with him to remain neutral. He wrote to him several
times to this effect, and employed all their common friends
to press him with letters on the subject, but in vain; for
Cicero was impatient to join Pompey. In the mean time
these letters give us a most sensible proof of the high es¬
teem and credit in which Cicero was held at this time in
Rome; when, in a contest for empire, which force alone
was to decide, the chiefs on both sides were so solicitous
to gain a man to their party who had no peculiar skill in
arms nor talents for war. Pursuing, however, the result of
all his deliberations, he at length embarked to join Ppm-
pey, who had been obliged to quit Italy some time before,
and was then at Dyrrachium; and he arrived safely in
the camp with his son, his brother, and his nephew, thus
committing the fortunes of his whole family to the issue of
the cause. After the battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey
was defeated, Cicero returned into Italy, and was after¬
wards received into great favour by Caesar, who had now
been declared dictator the second time, with Mark Antony
as his master of horse. We may easily imagine, what in¬
deed we find from his letters, that he was not a little dis¬
concerted at the thoughts of an interview with Caesar, and
693
the indignity of presenting himself before a conqueror Cicero,
against whom he had been in arms; for although, upon
many accounts, he had reason to expect a kind reception
from Caesar, yet he hardly thought his life, he says, worth
begging, since what was given by a master might always
be taken away again at pleasure. But at their meeting
he had no occasion to say or do any thing below his dig¬
nity ; for Caesar no sooner saw him than he alighted, ran
to embrace him, and walked with him alone, conversing
very familiarly, for several furlongs.
Cicero, now in his sixty-first year, was at length forced
to part with his wife Terentia, whose humour and conduct
had long been disagreeable to him. She was a woman of
an imperious and turbulent spirit; and though he had
borne her perverseness in the vigour of health, and the
prosperous state of his fortunes, yet, in declining life, and
soured by a continual succession of mortifications from
abroad, the want of ease and quiet at home became no
longer tolerable to him. But he was immediately oppres¬
sed by a new and most cruel affliction, the death of his
beloved daughter I ullia, who died in childbed soon after
her divorce from her third husband Dolabella. She was
about thirty-two years old at the time of her death; and,
by the few hints which are left of her character, she ap¬
peals to have been an excellent and admirable woman.
She was most affectionately and piously attentive to her
father, and, to the usual graces of her sex, added the more
solid accomplishments of knowledge and polite letters,
which qualified her to be the companion and delight of his
age, and made her justly esteemed not only as one of the
best, but the most learned, of the Roman ladies. His af¬
fliction for the death of this daughter was so great, that
to shun all company as much as he could, he removed to
Atticus s house, where he lived chiefly in his library, turn¬
ing over every book he could meet with on the subject of
moderating grief. But finding his residence here too pub¬
lic, and being exposed to more society than he was able
to bear, he retired to Astura, one of his seats near An-
tium; a little island on the Latian shore, at the mouth of
a river ot the same name, and covered with wood and
groves cut into shady walks, forming a scene altoo-ether
the fittest to indulge melancholy, and to afford a free vent
to affliction. “ Here,” says he to Atticus, “ I live without
the speech of man. Every morning early I hide myself in
the thickest of the wood, and never come out till the even¬
ing. Next to yourself, nothing is so dear to me as this
solitude; and my whole conversation is with my books.”
Indeed his whole time was employed in little else than
reading and writing, during Caesar’s administration, which
he could never cheerfully submit to; and it was within
this period that he drew up one of the gravest of those
philosophical pieces which are still extant in his works.
Upon the death of Caesar, Octavius, his nephew and heir,
coming into Italy, was presented to Cicero by Hirtius and
Pansa, with the strongest professions on the part of the
young man that he would be governed entirely by his di¬
rection. Indeed Cicero thought it necessary to cherish
and encourage Octavius, if for nothing else, to keep him
at a distance from Antony; but he could not yet be per¬
suaded to enter heartily into his affairs. He suspected his
youth and want of experience, and that he had not strength
enough to deal with Antony; and, above all, that he had
no good disposition towards the conspirators. He thought
it impossible he should ever be a friend to them; and in¬
deed he was persuaded, that if ever he obtained the ascen¬
dency, his uncle’s acts would be more violently enforced,
and his death more cruelly revenged, than even by An¬
tony himself. Accordingly, when Cicero at last consented
to unite himself to Octavius’s interests, it was with no
othei view than to arm him with a power sufficient to con-
694
CICERO.
Cicero.
trol Antony, yet so checked and limited, that he should
not be able to oppress the republic.
In the midst of all this political bustle he still prosecuted
his studies with his usual application ; and, besides some
philosophical pieces, now finished his book of Offices, o t
Duties of Man, for the use of his son. However, he paid
constant attention to public affairs, and missed no oppor-
tunities, but on the contrary did every thing that human
prudence could suggest, for the restoration of the republic
indeed all the vigour with which the last effort was made
in its behalf, was entirely owing to his counsels and au¬
thority. This appears from the memorable Philippics
which from time to time he published against Antony, as
well as from other monuments of antiquity. But all was
in vain; for although Antony’s army was entirely defeat¬
ed at the siege of Modena, and many people were in con¬
sequence led to imagine that the war was at an end, and
the liberty of Rome established, yet the death of the co
suls Pansa and Hirtius in that action gave a fatal blow to
all Cicero's schemes, and proved the immediate cause o
the ruin of the republic. . . . , ,
Octavius having humbled the senate to his mind, march¬
ed towards Gaul to meet Antony and Lepidus, who had
already passed the Alps, and brought their armies into
Italy, in order to have a personal interview with him,
which, in fact, had been privately concerted for settling
the terms of a triple league, and dividing the power an
provinces of Italy among themselves. The place appoint¬
ed for this interview was a small island about two miles
from Bononia, formed by the river llhenus, which runs
near that city* Here they met, and spent thiee days in
close conference, adjusting the plan of t^'r accommoda-
tion ; ami tlie last thing they settled was the hstot a pro
scrintionof their common or individual enemies. Ihis,
as the writers tell us, occasioned much difficulty and warm
contests among them, till each in Ins turn consented to
sacrifice some of his best friends to the revenge and re¬
sentment of his colleagues. Cicero was at his fusculan
villa when he first received the news of the proscription,
and of his being included in it at the instigation and to
satisfy the vengeance of Antony. It was the design o
the triumvirate to keep it a secret, if possible, til the
very moment of execution, in order to surprise those
whom they had destined to destruction before they were
aware of their danger, or had time to effect their escape.
But some of Cicero’s friends found means to give bun
early notice of this infamous compact, upon which he set
forward to the sea-coast, with the design of transporting
himself beyond reach of his enemies. There, finding a ves¬
sel ready, he immediately embarked ; but the winds being
adverse, and the sea uneasy to him, after he had sai e
about two leagues along the coast, he was obliged to land,
and spend the night on shore. By the importunity oi l is
servants, however, he was forced on board again; but ic
soon afterwards landed at a country-seat of his, a mi e hom
the shore, weary of life, and declaring he was resolved to
die in that country which he had so often saved. Heie e
slept soundly for some time, till his servants once more
forced him away in a litter towards the ship, having heard
that he was pursued by Antony’s assassins. 1 hey had
scarcely departed when the assassins arrived at his house,
and, perceiving that he had fled, immediate y pursue
and overtook him in a wood near the shore. Their leader
was one Popilius Lenas, a tribune of the army, whose life
Cicero had formerly defended and saved. As soon as the
soldiers appeared, the servants prepared to defend their
master’s life at the hazard of their own ; but Cicero com¬
manded them to set him down and make no resistance.
The assassins soon cut off his head and his hands, with
which they returned to Rome as the most agreeable pie-
sent to their savage and remorseless employer. Antony, Cicero
who was then at Rome, received them with extreme joy,
rewarded the murderers with a large sum of money, and
ordered the head to be fixed upon the rostra between the
two bands,—a sad spectacle to the city, and which drew
tears from every eye. „ ’ , , ,
If we take an impartial survey of Cicero s conduct and
principles, avowed in his own epistolary correspondence,
and trace him through all the labyrinths of his contradic¬
tory letters, we shall perhaps find more to blame than to
admire ; and discover that the desire of advancing his for¬
tunes, and making himself a name, were, from his outset in
life the chief objects he had in view. The good of his
country, and the dictates of a steady unyielding virtue,
were not, as in Brutus and Cato, the constant springs of
his actions. The misfortunes which befel him after his con-
sulship developed his character, and showed him in his
true colours : from that time to his death, pusillanimity, ir¬
resolution, and unworthy repining, tainted his judgment,
and perplexed every step he attempted to take. He flat¬
tered Pompey and cringed to Caesar, while in his private
letters he abused both alternately and impaitially. He
acknowledges, in a letter to his friend Atticus, that, al¬
though he was at present determined to support the cause
of Rome and liberty, and to bear misfortune like a philoso¬
pher, there was one thing which would gain him over to the
triumvirs, and that was their procuring for him the vacant
augurship ; so pitiful was the bribe to which he would have
sacrificed his honour, his opinions, and the commonwealth.
Cicero’s death happened on the 7th of December, in the
sixty-fourth year of his age, about ten days after the settle¬
ment of the first triumvirate. As an orator he is thus cha¬
racterized by a popular writer : “ In all his orations his art
is conspicuous. He begins commonly with a regular exor¬
dium, and with much address prepossesses the hearers, and
studies to gain their affections. His method is clear, and
his arguments are arranged with exact propriety. In a su¬
perior clearness of method, he has an advantage over De¬
mosthenes. Every thing appears in its proper place. He
never tries to move till he has attempted to convince; and
in moving, particularly the softer passions, he is hig i y
successful. No one ever knew the force of words better
than Cicero. He rolls them along with the greatest beauty
and magnificence ; and in the structure of his sentences
is eminently curious and exact. He is always full and
flowing, never abrupt. He amplifies every thing; yet
though his manner is generally diffuse, it is often hap^i y
varied and accommodated to the subject, \\ hen an im¬
portant public object roused his mind, and demanded in¬
dignation and force, he departs considerably from that
loose and declamatory manner to which he at other hme
is addicted, and becomes very forc.b e and vehement.
This great orator, however, is not without his defects.
In most of his orations there is too much art, even earned
to a degree of ostentation. He seems often desirous ot
obtaining admiration rather than of operating conviction
He is sometimes, therefore, showy rather than sohd ami
diffuse where he ought to have been urgent His se
tenqes are always round and sonorous. They cannot be
accused of monotony, since they possess variety of cade ^
but from too great a fondness for magnificence he * cm
some occasions deficient in strength, ^
vices which he had performed to his country we 7
considerable, yet he is too much his own PaneSTns * Jde
cient manners, which imposed fewer restrain on die side
of decorum, may in some degree excuse, but cann
^ThelThav’e been many editions of all ’
and many also of his whole works. Their multip y
so great^hat we can only refer those who may wish for
C I c
;iano information in regard to them, to the works which have been
111 published on the bibliography of the classics, particularly
Dibdin’s fourth edition. We may, however, mention short-
ly some of the most useful editions. These are, the edition
of his treatises on Oratory, printed in usum Delphini, in
2 vols. 4to, in 1687 ; of his Letters, by Graevius, published
in 1677, in 2 vols. 8vo ; of his Orations, also bv Graevius,
published in 1699, in 6 vols. 8vo ; and of his Philosophical
Works, by Rath, published in 1808, in 6 vols. 8vo. One
of the best editions of his whole works is that of Olivet,
published at Paris in 1742, in 9 vols. 4to. The beautiful
edition published at Glasgow in 1749, in 20 vols. 12mo,
is a reprint of that of Olivet. Among the other editions
of note, may be mentioned that of Manutianus, which
is the editio princeps, Mediol. fol. 1498, 4 vols.; that of
Paul Manutius, which is deservedly held in high estima¬
tion, Venet. 1540-41, 10 vols.; that of R. Stephanus,
Paris, 1543, 8 vols.; that of Elzevir, beautiful and cor¬
rect, exhibiting the improved text of Gruter, Lugd. Bat.
1642, 10 vols.; those of Enesti, Lipsiae, 1737, Hal. Sax.
1758-74, one in 5 vols. and the last in 8; and the Bi-
pont edition, which professes to be formed on the basis
of the most popular ones, without the introduction of
either conjecture or novelty, 1780, 13 vols. In any fu¬
ture edition of the whole works of Cicero must be includ¬
ed the recovered portions or fragments of the celebrated
treatise on government (De Republica), for which the
world is indebted to the patient labour and sagacity of
Signor Angelo Mai, librarian of the Vatican, formerly of
the Ambrosian library at Milan. In a palimpsest volume,
containing various treatises of St Augustin, this learned
and ingenious person found that the prior writing, of much
greater antiquity, had consisted of the long-lost books of
Cicero De Republica, of which nothing had been known in
modern times, except the few fragments which had been
preserved in the writings of Macrobius, Lactantius, Au¬
gustin, Nonius, and others. From these rescribed pages,
a very considerable part of the first and second books of
this interesting treatise was found so perfect as to be al¬
most completely recovered by Signor Mai; and this he was
enabled to publish in 1821, with copious notes and illus¬
trations, with an accurate notice of all the chasms occur¬
ring from the loss of original leaves, and with such a resto¬
ration of the four remaining books as could be made from
the less perfect fragments of the manuscript, and from
the remains collected by Ligonius and other critics. This
is perhaps the most valuable contribution which has been
made to classical literature in modern times ; and it is suf¬
ficient to immortalize the learned, sagacious, and indefa¬
tigable scholar to whom we are indebted for it; consisting,
as it does, of no inconsiderable portion of that treatise,
which the contemporaries of the Roman orator and states¬
man all agreed in regarding as his masterpiece.
CICIANO, a town of Italy, in the province Terra di La-
voro, and kingdom of Naples, containing 3156 inhabitants.
CICISBEO, an Italian term, which in its etymology
signifies a whisperer; a term bestowed in Italy both on
lovers, and on those who to outward appearance act as
such, waiting on married ladies with as much attention and
respect as if they were their lovers. This Italian custom
has been spoken of very reproachfully by some writers ;
but Mr Baretti has taken great pains to vindicate it. He
ascribes it to a spirit of gallantry, derived from the age
ol chivalry, and much heightened and refined by the re¬
vival of the Platonic philosophy in Italy about the thir¬
teenth century, and by the verses of Petrarch to Laura,
and by his numerous imitators.
CICLUT, or Cicluch, a strong frontier town of Dal¬
matia, situated on the river Narentha, in longitude 18. 22.
cast, latitude 43. 29. north. It is surrounded with wralls
C I L
built in the ancient manner, and it was taken by the Ve¬
netians from the Turks in 1694.
CIDARIS, in Antiquity, the mitre used by the Jewish
high priests. The rabbin say that the bonnet used by
priests in general was made of a piece of linen cloth six¬
teen yards long, which covered their heads like a helmet
or turban ; and they allow no difference between the high
priest’s bonnet and that of other priests, except that the
one is flat, and in the form of a turban, whereas the one
worn by ordinary priests was somewhat peaked.
CIGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the province Bercelli
and kingdom of Sardinia, on the canal of Santhea. It
contains 3100 inhabitants.
CIGNANI, Carlo, an Italian painter, was born at
Bologna in 1628. He was the disciple of Albani, and was
esteemed by Pope Clement XL who nominated him prince
of the academy of Bologna, and loaded him with favours.
Cignani died at Forli in 1719. The cupola of La Madonna
del Fuoco at Forli, in which he represented Paradise, is
an admirable work. His principal pictures are to be found
at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, situated be¬
tween the 36th and 40th degrees of north latitude, and
bounded on the east by Syria, or rather by Mount Ama-
nus, which separates it from that kingdom ; on the west
by Pamphylia; on the north by Isauria, Cappadocia, and
Armenia Minor ; and on the south by the Mediterranean
Sea. The whole country was divided by the ancients
into Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Campestris; and the former
was called by the Greeks Petraia or Stony, from its abound¬
ing with stones.
According to Josephus, Cilicia was first peopled by Tar-
shish the son of Javan, and his descendants, and hence
the whole country was named Tarsus. The ancient inha¬
bitants were in process of time driven out by a colony of
Phoenicians, who under the conduct of Cilix first settled
in the island of Cyprus, and thence passed into the country
which, from their leader, they called Cilicia. Several other
colonies from different nations afterwards settled in this
kingdom, particularly from Syria and Greece, and hence
theCilicians in some places used the Greek tongue, in others
the Syriac; but the former was greatly corrupted by the
Persian, the predominant language of the country being a
dialect of that tongue. We find no mention of the kings
of Cilicia after their settlement in that country till the
time of Cyrus : to him, however, they voluntarily submit¬
ted, and continued subject to the Persians till the over¬
throw of that empire ; but they were governed, till the time
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, by kings of their own nation. After
the downfal of the Persian empire, Cilicia became a pro¬
vince of the kingdom of Macedon ; and, on the death of
Alexander, it fell to the share of Seleucus, and continued
under his descendants till it was reduced into a Roman
province by Pompey. As a proconsular province, it was
first governed by Appius Claudius Pulcher, and after him
by Cicero, who reduced several strongholds on Mount
Amanus, in which some Cilicianshad fortified themselves,
and held out against his predecessor. It was on this oc¬
casion that the division formerly mentioned, into Petrcea
and Campestris, took place. The latter became a Roman
province ; but the former was governed by kings appoint¬
ed by the Romans, till the reign of Vespasian, when the
family of Tracondementus being extinct, this part also be¬
came a province of the empire, and the whole was divided
into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda, and Isauria ; the first
including all Cilicia Campestris, the second the coast of
Cilicia Petrcea, and the last the inland parts of the same
division. It is now a province of Asiatic Turkey, and is
called Caramania, having been the last province of the Cara-
manian kingdom which held out against the Ottoman race.
cm
C I M
Cilicium CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a sort of habit made
II of coarse stuff, formerly in use among the Jews in times
Cimarosa. mourning and distress. It is the same with what the
4 Septuagint and Hebrew versions call sackcloth.
CIMABUE, Giovanni, a celebrated painter, born at
Florence in 1240, and the first who revived the art of paint¬
ing in Italy. According to the custom of the times, he paint¬
ed in fresco and in distemper ; colours in oil not being
then found out. He excelled in architecture as well as
in painting; and was concerned in erecting the edifice of
Sancta Maria del Fior at Florence, during which employ¬
ment he died, at the age of sixty, and left many disciples.
CIMAROSA, Domenico, a celebrated composer of mu¬
sic, was born at Naples in 1754. He first studied under
Aprile, but afterwards in the conservatory of Loretto, un¬
der Fenaroli, a pupil of Durante, who communicated to
him the principles of that great master. As indications of
bis extraordinary assiduity here, several stories are told of
his ingenious contrivances to study during the night, with¬
out awakening his schoolfellows who slept in the same dor¬
mitory. Having completed his education, and evinced de¬
cided proofs of musical genius, he was invited to Peters¬
burg by Catherine II., which was considered as highly ho¬
nourable to the young artist, the empress being then am¬
bitious to collect only the rarest talent, and had previously
received Trajetta and Paesiello, the two first composers of
the age, at her court. Before reaching Russia, Cimarosa
brought out several of his operas in the chief cities of
Italy, through which he passed, and acquired a renown
that paved the way for a most flattering reception in Pe¬
tersburg. He subsequently visited several of the German
courts, but seems to have delighted most in pouring out
the creations of his fancy to his own countrymen, who re¬
ceived them with inconceivable enthusiasm.
His operas are very numerous, and the greater part of
them excellent. He did ample justice to serious subjects;
but the opera bvffa was X\\s forte. The Matrimonio Segre-
to is accounted the chef d!oeuvre, not only of Cimarosa, but of
the Italian school. It continues to be performed in all the
cities of Europe where operas are established, and even to
this day charms the Neapolitans, the most insatiable thirst-
ers for musical novelty. His best opera seria, the Orazj
e Curiazj, is written with elegance and truth of expression.
The oratorio of the Sacrifice of Abraham is no less admi¬
rable for its sacred and impressive character.
The style of Cimarosa is characterized by the most strik¬
ing originality. His melodies are copious and flowing; his
harmonies abound with attractive and pleasing modula¬
tions, He has completely hit the beau ideal of the comic
opera. So intimately are sense and sound in accordance,
that the imagination is at once fascinated, amused, and de¬
lighted. He is full of vigour, tenderness, and graceful vi¬
vacity, always evincing the most correct and refined taste
and judgment. He has scattered the flowers ol his fancy
so lavishly, that one of his finales alone would furnish mat¬
ter for a whole opera.
Cimarosa contributed in no small degree to preserve,
and even add to, the graces of that pure and chaste spe¬
cies of composition which is so peculiar to the Italians,
and distinguishes their music from that of every other na¬
tion. From the principles of taste on which this style is
based, it will probably have a more lasting endurance than
the vapid and frittered music of the Rossinian school,
which, dwindling into inordinate insipidity, seems des¬
tined to enjoy only an ephemeral popularity. The revival
of the sterling compositions of the older masters will be
an era in musical history, from which the true lovers of
art may expect the best possible results.
Independently of his professional worth, Cimarosa was
much esteemed for his private virtues. Although the ri-
C I M
val of Paesiello and Guglielmi, he was always a favourite Cimbi
with their warmest partizans. He was kindly and soci-
able in his disposition, and composed his finest subjects in
the midst of his friends. It was after spending a fortnight
in doing nothing but walking about the environs of Prague,
that the air Pria che spunti in del VAurora suddenly en¬
tered his mind, when he was thinking nothing about it.
Like most men of genius, he was remarkably modest, and
replied to a painter who flatteringly told him he was su¬
perior to Mozart, “ I, sir! What would you say to the
man who assured you that you were superior to Rafaelle?”
A division of opinion existed for a long time as to which
was the greater composer, Mozart or Cimarosa. Napo¬
leon asked the musician Gretry, who answered,—“ Sire,
Cimarosa places the statue on the stage, and the pedestal
in the orchestra; whereas Mozart puts the statue in the
orchestra, and the pedestal on the stage.” The statue
being song, and the pedestal accompaniment, explains the
allegorical comparison ; but if Gretry meant to disparage
the vocal melodies of Mozart, he went too far, the world
having unqualifiedly assigned to them the palm of unri¬
valled beauty.
Cimarosa gave offence to the Neapolitan court by his
partiality to the French government, and narrowly escaped
an ignominious death. He was permitted, however, to die
peaceably at Venice in 1801, deplored by all lovers of the
musical art, which lost one of its highest ornaments in the
full vigour of life and intellect. {Diet. Historique desMu-
siciens ; Orloff, Histoire de la Musique en Italic, tome ii.;
Lettere di Giuseppe Carpani; Biographic Universelle.)
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the north¬
ern parts of Germany. They are said to have been de¬
scended from the Asiatic Cimmerians, and to have taken
the name of Cimbri when they changed their old habita¬
tions. WThen they first became remarkable, they inhabit¬
ed chiefly the peninsula now called Jutland, and by the
ancients Cimbrica Chersonesus. About 113 years b. c.
they left their peninsula, with their wives and diildren,
and joining the Teutones, a neighbouring nation, took
their journey southward in quest of a better country.
They first fell upon the Boii, a Gaulish nation situated
near the Hercynian forest; but here they were repulsed,
and obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces. The
republic being then alarmed at the approach of such mul¬
titudes of barbarians, sent an army against them, under
the consul Papirius Carbo. On the approach of the Ro¬
man army, the Cimbri made proposals of peace, which the
consul pretended to accept; but having thrown them into
a disadvantageous situation, he treacherously attacked
their camp. His perfidy was rewarded as it deserved;
the Cimbri flew to arms, and not only repulsed the Ro¬
mans, but, attacking them in their turn, utterly defeated
them, and obliged the shattered remains of their forces
to conceal themselves in the neighbouring forests. After
this victory, the Cimbri entered Transalpine Gaul, which
they quickly covered with slaughter and desolation. Here
they continued five or six years, when another Roman
army, under the consul Silanus, marched against them,
but this general met with no better success than Carbo
had done. His army was routed at the first onset, and
all Gallia Narbonensis was in consequence exposed to the
ravages of these barbarians.
About 105 years b. c. the Cimbri began to threaten the
Roman empire itself with destruction; and the Gaus
marched from all parts, with a design to join them in te
invasion of Italy. The Roman army was commandet y
the proconsul Caepio and the consul Mallius; but as t icse
two commanders could not agree, they were advise
separate and divide their forces. . I his advice prove
ruinous to the whole army. The Cimbri immediate ) e
,:imbri
C I M
. upon a strong detachment of the consular army, com-
J manded by M. Aurelius Scaurus, which they cut off to a
man, and made Scaurus himself prisoner. Mallius beini
greatly intimidated by this defeat, desired a reconciliation
with Csepio, but was haughtily refused. He moved nearer
the consul, however, with his army, in order that the ene¬
my might not be defeated without his having a share in the
action. The Cimbri imagining, by this movement, that the
commanders had made up their quarrel, sent ambassadors
to Malhus with proposals of peace ; and as they could not
avoid passing through Caepio’s camp, he ordered them to
be brought before him ; but finding they were empowered
to treat only with Mallius, he could scarcely be restrained
from putting them to death. His troops, however, forced
him to confer with Malhus about the proposals sent by
the barbarians ; but as Caepio proceeded to the consul’s
tent against his will, so he opposed him in every thino-
contradicted him with great obstinacy, and insulted him
m the grossest manner. The deputies, on their return,
acquainted their countrymen that the misunderstanding
between the Roman commanders still subsisted; upon
which the Cimbri attacked the camp of Caepio, and the
Gauls that of Malhus, both of which were forced, and the
Romans slaughtered without mercy. Eighty thousand
citizens and allies of Rome, with forty thousand servants
and sutlers, perished on that fatal day. In short, of the
two Roman armies, only ten men, with the two generals,
escaped, to carry the news of this dreadful defeat. The
conquerors destroyed all the spoil, pursuant to a vow they
had made before the battle. The gold and silver they
threw into the Rhone, then drowned the horses they had
taken, and put to death all the prisoners.
The Romans were thrown into the utmost consterna¬
tion on the news of so terrible an overthrow. They saw
themselves threatened with a deluge of Cimbri and Gauls,
numerous enough to overrun the whole country; but they
did not on that account despair. A new army was raised
with incredible expedition, no citizen who was able to
bear arms being exempted. On this occasion also, fencing-
masters were first .introduced into the Roman camp;
by which means the soldiers were soon rendered in a
manner invincible. Marius, who enjoyed at that time a
high reputation on account of his victories in Africa, was
chosen commander, and waited for the enemy in Transal¬
pine Gaul; but they had resolved to enter Italy by two
different routes; the Cimbri over the eastern, and the Teu-
tones and other allies over the western Alps. The Ro¬
man general, therefore, marched to oppose the latter, and
defeated the Ambrones and Teutones with great slaughter.
The Cimbri, in the mean time, entered Italy, and struck
the whole country with terror. Catullus and Sylla at¬
tempted to oppose them; but their soldiers were so inti¬
midated by the fierce countenances and terrible appear¬
ance of these barbarians, that nothing could prevent their
flying before them. Rome was now totally defenceless;
and had the Cimbri only marched briskly forward, they
would undoubtedly have become masters of the city; but
not having heard of the defeat of their allies by Marius,
they waited in expectation of being joined by the Am¬
brones and Teutones, till the senate had time to recal him
to the defence of his country. By their order he joined
his army to that of Catullus and Sylla, and upon this junc¬
tion he was declared commander-in-chief. The Roman
army consisted of 52,300 men. The cavalry of the Cim¬
bri were no more than 15,000, but their foot seemed in¬
numerable ; for, being drawn up in a square, they are said
to have covered thirty furlongs. The Cimbri attacked
the Romans with the utmost fury; but being unaccustom¬
ed to endure the heats of Italy, they soon began to lose
their strength, and were easily overcome. They had put
VOL. vi. ^
C I M
it out of their power to fly; for, that they might keep
heir ranks the better, they had, like true barbarians, tied
themselves together with cords fastened to their belts, so
that the Romans made a terrible havoc of them. The
battle therefore was soon over, and the whole day em¬
ployed in the most unsparing butchery. An hundred and
twenty thousand were killed on the field of battle, and
sixty thousand taken prisoners. The victorious Romans
then marched to the enemy’s camp, where they had a new
battle to fight with the women, whom they found even
more fierce than their husbands. From their carts and
waggons, which formed a kind of fortification, they dis¬
charged showers of darts and arrows on friends and foes
without distinction; and, finding themselves about to be
overpowered, they first suffocated their children in thqir
arms, and then put an end to their own lives. The great¬
er part of them hanged themselves on trees. One was
found hanging at a cart with two of her children at her
heels. Many of the men, for want of trees and stakes,
tied strings in running knots about their necks, and fast¬
ened them to the tails of their horses, and the horns and
feet of their oxen, in order to strangle themselves in that
way; and thus the whole multitude was destroyed
I he country of the Cimbri, which, after this terrible
catastrophe, was left a mere desert, was again peopled by
the bcythians, who, being driven by Pompey out of the
space included between the Euxine and the Caspian Sea
marched towards the north and west of Europe, subduing
all the nations they met with in their way. They con¬
quered Russia, Saxony, Westphalia, and other countries
as far as Finland, Norway, and Sweden. It is pretended
that Wodin, or Odin, their leader, traversed so many
countries, and endeavoured to subdue them, only with a
view to excite the people against the Romans; and that
t le spirit of animosity which he had excited operated so
powerfully after his death, that the northern nations com¬
bined to attack the empire, and never ceased their incur¬
sions until it was totally subverted.
CIMENA, a city of the intendancy of Calatanisetta, in
the island of Sicily. It is very unhealthy, though situated
on the side of a mountain. It is near the sea, on the river
Ciotta, and contains 6150 inhabitants.
CIMMERII, anciently a people near the Palus Maeotis.
They invaded Asia Minor 1284 years before Christ, and
seized upon the kingdom of Cyaxares. But after they had
been masters of the country for twenty-eight years, they
were driven back by Alyates, king of Lydia. This is also
the name of another nation on the western coast of Italy.
The country which they inhabited was supposed to be so
gloomy, that, to indicate great obscurity, the expression of
Cimmerian darkness” has been proverbially used; and
Homer, according to Plutarch, drew his images of hell and
Pluto from the gloomy and dismal country where they dwelt.
CIMOLIA Ierra, in Natural History, a name applied
by the ancients to an earth, at one time much employed
in medicine, but which in later ages has been supposed to
be no other than our tobacco-pipe clay and fullers’ earth.
The cimolia terra of the ancients was found in several
of the islands of the Archipelago, particularly in the island
of Cimolus, whence it derived its name. It was used with
great success in erysipelas, inflammations, and the like,
being applied by way of cataplasm to the part affected.
I he ancients also used, as we do, what we call cimolia, or
fullers’ earth, for the cleansing of clothes. This earth,
though so long disregarded, and by many supposed to be
lost, is yet very plentiful in Argentiere (the ancient Cimo¬
lus), Sphanto, and many of those islands. It is a marl
of a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, but very soft to the touch. It adheres firmly to
the tongue, and, if thrown into water, raises a little hiss-
4 T
G97
Cimena
. II
Cimolia
Terra.
698
C I N
Cimolia ing and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder. It
Alba makes a considerable effervescence with acids, and suffers
II no change of colour in the fire. These are the characters
Cinchona. of what tiie ancients called simply terra cimolia ; but be-
    sides this, they obtained from the same place another earth
which they called by the same general name, hut which
was distinguished by the epithet purple
This they described as fattish, cold to the touch, of a
mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard as a stone.
Cimolia Alba, the officinal name of the earth of which
we now make tobacco-pipes. Its distinguishing characters
are, that it is a dense, compact, heavy earth, of a dull
white colour, and very close texture, not easily frangible
between the fingers, and slightly staining the skin in hand-
lino-. It adheres firmly to the tongue, melts very slowly
in the mouth, and is not readily diffusible in water. It is
found in many places. That of the Isle of Wight is much
esteemed for its colour. It is found in great abundance near
Pole in Dorsetshire, and near Wedensbury in Staffordshire.
Cimolia Nigra is of a dark lead colour, hard, dry, and
heavy, of a smooth compact texture, and not viscid, it
does not colour the hands, crumbles when dry, adheres to
the tongue, diffuses slowly in water, and is not acted upon
bv acids. It burns perfectly white, and acquires a consi¬
derable hardness. The chief pits for this clay are near
Northampton, where it is used in the manufacture of to¬
bacco-pipes. It is also mixed with the critche clay of Der¬
byshire, in the proportion of one part to three, in the ma¬
nufacture of the hard reddish-brown ware.
CIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades and Hegisipyle.
He was famous for his debaucheries in his youth, and the
reformation of his morals when he arrived at years of dis¬
cretion. He behaved with great courage at the battle ot
Salamis, and rendered himself popular by his munificence
and valour. In one day he defeated the Persian fleet,
took two hundred ships, and totally routed their land
army. The money which he had obtained by his victo¬
ries, however, was not applied for his own private use, for
with it he fortified and embellished the city. Some time
afterwards he lost all his popularity, and was banished by
the Athenians, who had declared war against the Lace¬
demonians ; but he was recalled from his exile, and on his
return he effected a reconciliation between Lacedaemon
and his countrymen. He was afterwards appointed to
carry on the war against Persia in Egypt and Cyprus, with
a fleet of two hundred ships; and on the coast of Asia he
gave battle to the enemy, and totally ruined their fleet.
He died while besieging the town of Citium in Cyprus.
CINALOA, or Sinaloa, a province of Mexico,, in the
intendancy of Sonora, situated between New Biscay and
the Gulf of California. On the south it is bounded by Gua-
dalaxara and the ocean. It is about 300 miles in length
and 150 in breadth. The country is bare, destitute of tim¬
ber, and hilly. The air is dry, pure, and salubrious, ex¬
cept along the coast, where the ground is marshy, the sod
rich, and the atmosphere humid. The principal vegetable
products are maize, legumes, fruits, and cotton. Cinaloa
contains five towns, ninety-two villages, thirt}' parishes,
fourteen farms, and four hundred and fifty cottages. Ihe
population amounts to about 60,000, of whom not above
three twentieths are Spaniards.
CINALOA, or Sinaloa, the capital of the above pro¬
vince, is situated to the east of the port of Santa Maiia
d’Aome. It contains a population of 9500. Long. 106.
40. W. Lat. 26. 26. N. ,
CINCHONA, otherwise called Peruvian or Jesuits
Bark. According to some, the Peruvians learned the
use of this bark by observing certain animals affected with
•intermittents instinctively led to it; whilst others say, that
a Peruvian having an ague, was cured by happening to
C I N
drink of a pool which, from some trees having fallen into Cinchon,
it, tasted of cinchona; and its use in gangrene is said to —v>..
have originated from its curing one in an aguish patient.
About the year 1640, the lady of the Spanish viceroy, the
Countess del Cinchon, was cured by the bark, which has
therefore been called Cortexov Pulvis Comitissai Cinchona!,
Chinachina or Chinchina, Kinakina or Kinkina, Quina-
quina or Quinquina; and from the interest which the
Cardinal de Lugo and the Jesuit fathers took in its distri¬
bution, it has been called Cortex or Pulvis Cardinalis de
Lugo, Jesuiticus, and Patrum.
On its first introduction into Europe it was reprobated
by many eminent physicians, and at difterent periods long
afterwards, it was considered as a dangerous remedy;
but its character, in process of time, became universal¬
ly established. For a number of years the bark, which
was rolled up in short thick quills, with a rough coat, and
a bright cinnamon colour in the inside, which broke brit¬
tle, and had an aromatic flavour, a bitterish astringent
taste, with a degree of aromatic warmth, was esteemed
the best; though some considered the large pieces as of
equal quality. In the year 1779, the Hussar frigate took
a Spanish ship, loaded principally with Peruvian bark
which was much larger, thicker, and of a deeper leddish
colour, than that in common use. Soon after it was
brought to London, it was tried in St Bartholomew s hos-
pital, and in other hospitals about town, and was said to
be more efficacious than the quill bark, ibis put piac-
titioners upon examining into the history of the bark,
making experiments with it, and instituting comparative
trials of its effects with those of the bark in common use
on patients labouring under intermittent complaints, in
July 1782, Dr William Saunders published an account of
this red bark, in which he says that the small quill bark
used in England is either the bark of the young trees, or
of the twigs or branches of the old ones, and that the
large bark, called the red bark from the deep colour, is
the bark of the trunk of the old trees; and he mentions a
M’* Arnot, who had himself gathered the bark from the
trees in Peru, and M. Condamine, who gives an account
of the tree in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris for the year 1738; both of whom say, that, taking
the bark from an old tree effectually kills it, but that most
of the young trees which are barked recover, and continue
healthy; and that, for these reasons, the Spaniards now
barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though they
still imported into Spain some of the bark of the old trees
which they esteemed as much more efficacious than that
which was obtained from the young. From these accounts
Dr Saunders concludes, that the large red bark brough
to London in the year 1779 was of the same kind as that
used by Sydenham and Morton; as it answers to the de
scription of the bark used in their time, which is given by
Dale and other writers on the materia medica, who were
their contemporaries. Dr Saunders says, that it is n
only stronger and more resinous, but likewise more e
cioi and certain in its effect, than the common bark, and
that it had cured many agues after the other had fade •
A species of cinchona has also been discovered in the
West India islands, particularly in Jamaica. It ^accu¬
rately described by Dr Wright, under the tMe of
na Jamaicensis, in a paper published in t le beech
Transactions. In Jamaica it is called the sea-side beec,
and grows from twenty to forty feet in heig • ’
furrowed, thick outer bark is not used ; but the cErk^
brown inner bark has the common flavoui, wi
kind of a taste, at first of horse-radish and ginger>j? |Jut
coming at last bitter and astringent. t seems g „ e
more extractive matter than the cinchona officinalis.
of it was imported from St Lucie in consequen
C I N
iiichona. having been used with advantage in the army and navy
during war; and it has been treated of at considerable
length by Dr Kentish, under the title of St Lucia Bark.
The fresh bark is found to be considerably emetic and ca¬
thartic, which properties it is said to lose on drying.
The pale and the red are chiefly used in Britain. The
pale is brought to us in pieces of different sizes, either flat
or quilled, and the powder is of rather a lighter colour
than that of cinnamon. The red is generally in much
larger, thicker, flattish pieces, but sometimes also in the
form of quills, and its powder is reddish, like that of
Armenian bole. As already observed, it is much more
resinous, and possesses the sensible qualities of the cin¬
chona in a much higher degree, than the other kinds; and
the more nearly these kinds resemble the red bark, the
better they are now considered. The red bark is heavy,
firm, sound, dry, and friable between the teeth ; it does
not separate into fibres, and breaks, not shivery, but short,
close, and smooth. It has three layers ; the outer is thin,
rugged, of a reddish-brown colour, but frequently covered
with mossy matter ; the middle is thicker, more compact,
darker-coloured, very resinous, brittle, and yields readily
to the pestle ; the inmost is more woody, fibrous, and of a
brighter red.
Practitioners have differed much with regard to the
mode of operation of the Peruvian bark. Some have ascrib¬
ed its virtues entirely to a stimulant power. But while
the strongest and most permanent stimuli have by no means
the same effect with bark in the cure of diseases, the bark
itself shows hardly any stimulant power, either from its
action on the stomach, or on other sensible parts to which
it is applied. From its action on dead animal fibres, there
can be no doubt of its being a powerful astringent; and
from its good effects in certain cases of disease, there is
reason to presume that it is a still more powerful tonic.
To this tonic power some think that its action as an anti¬
septic is to be entirely attributed; but that, independent¬
ly of this, it has a very powerful effect in resisting the sep¬
tic process to which animal substances are naturally subject¬
ed, appears beyond all dispute, from its effects in resisting
putrefaction, not only in dead animal solids, but even in
animal fluids when entirely detached from the living body.
But although it be admitted that the Peruvian bark acts
powerfully as an astringent, as a tonic, and as an anti¬
septic, yet these principles will by no means explain all
the effects derived from it in the cure of diseases. Ac¬
cordingly, from no artificial combination in which these
powers are combined, or in which they exist even in a
high degree, can the good consequences resulting from
Peruvian bark be obtained. Many practitioners, there¬
fore, are disposed to view it as a specific. If by a specific,
however, we mean an infallible remedy, it cannot indeed
be considered as entitled to that appellation ; yet in as far
as it is a very powerful remedy, of the operation of which
no satisfactory explanation has yet been given, it may with
great propriety be denominated a specific. But whatever
its mode of operation may be, there can be no doubt that
it is daily employed with success in a great variety of dis¬
eases. The remedial value of quinine, particularly in the
form of a sulphat, is known to every one, and will be fully
explained in the proper place.
This bark was first introduced for the cure of intermittent
fevers; and in these, when properly exhibited, it rarely fails
of success. Practitioners, however, have differed with re¬
gard to the best mode of exhibition ; some prefer giving
it just before the fit, some during the fit, others imme¬
diately after it. Some, again, order it in the quantity of
an ounce between the fits, the dose being the more fre¬
quent and larger according to the frequency of the fits;
and this mode of exhibition, although it may perhaps some-
C I N 699
times lead to the employment of more bark than is neces-Cincinnati
sary, is considered as upon the whole preferable, from being II
best suited to most stomachs. The requisite quantity isCinnamon-
very different in different cases; and in many vernal inter-
mittents it seems even hardly necessary.
CINCINNATI, a city of the state of Ohio, in Hamil¬
ton county, on the northern bank of the river Ohio. It was
first laid out in the year 1789, and began to flourish after
the year 1794, since which period it has rapidly increased
in wealth, trade, and population. The city is pleasantly
and advantageously situated, partly on the first and partly
on the second bank of the river, the upper portion of it
being elevated fifty or sixty feet above the lower. The
central part of the town is very compact, and a great pro¬
portion of the bouses are handsomely built of brick. The
principal public buildings and institutions in 1829 were a
court-house, a jail, the medical college, the Cincinnati
college, an hospital, a museum, a city library, the appren¬
tices’ library, three market-houses, five insurance compa¬
nies, twenty-three places of public worship, five classical
schools, and forty-seven common schools. There were
published at the same period two daily newspapers, two
twice a week, and five weekly, besides other periodical pub¬
lications. Cincinnati is a place of great trade and exten¬
sive manufactures. The exports, of which the most con¬
siderable articles are flour and pork, amounted in 1826 to
1,063,560, and the imports to 2,528,590 dollars. There
are between thirty and forty manufacturing establish¬
ments, some of which are on a very extensive scale, and
their machinery is to a great extent moved by steam power.
The value of the manufactures in all the departments was
estimated, in 1828, at 1,850,000 dollars. The population
in 1820 amounted to 9642, and in 1829 to 24,148. Long.
84. 27. W. Lat. 39. 6. N.
CINCINNATUS,aRoman dictator, who was taken from
the plough to be advanced to the dignity of consul, in
which office he restored public tranquillity, and then re¬
turned to his rural employments. Being called forth a
second time to become dictator, he conquered the enemies
of Rome, and, refusing all rewards, retired again to his
farm, after he had been dictator only sixteen days. The
same circumstance occurred once more in the eightieth
year of his age. He died 376 years before Christ.
CINE AS, a Thessalian, the minister and friend to Pyr¬
rhus, king of Epirus. He was sent to Rome by his master
to sue for a peace, which he, however, could not obtain. He
told Pyrrhus that the Roman senate was a venerable as¬
sembly of kings ; and observed, that to fight with them was
to fight against another Hydra. He was of such a reten¬
tive memory, that the day after his arrival at Rome he
could call every senator and knight by his name.
CINERITIOUS, an appellation given to different sub¬
stances, on account of their resembling ashes either in
colour or consistence; hence it is that the cortical part of
the brain has sometimes got this epithet.
CINISI, atownof the intendancy of Palermo, in the island
of Sicily, situated in a fine plain under Mount Dell Ursa,
yielding wine and excellent figs, with 3400 inhabitants.
CINNAMON. The word cinnamon occurs in several
passages of the English version of the Old Testament.
Cinnamon was burnt on the funeral pile of Sylla and of Pop-
paea. The ancients obtained their cinnamon through Ara¬
bia, to which country it was brought probably from Ceylon.
In 1498, Vasco di Gama landed at Calicut, and from
that time the merchandise of India, which had formerly
been imported into Europe through the medium of the Ve¬
netians, took a different route, and was carried round the
Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese. The Portuguese
were the first Europeans who established a factory in Cey¬
lon. This they accomplished at Columbo in the early
•(00
C I N
Cinnamon, part of the sixteenth century, notwithstanding the oppo-
sition of the Arabian merchants, who carried on the trade
from Ceylon, and did all in their power to prevent the
establishment of the Portuguese. The Portuguese were
driven from Ceylon by the Dutch in 1656, and the Dutch
by the English in 1796. _ , , .
The Dutch were the first who cultivated the cinnamon
plant in Ceylon. They began to form plantations of cin¬
namon in 1765, and in 1778 Thunberg found these plan¬
tations extensive, and some of the plants or stools had a -
ready afforded bark three times. Before these plantations
were formed, the Dutch had been supplied with cinnamon
bark from the cinnamon plants that grew spontaneously m
the territory of the king of Candy. The part of the old
Dutch territory between Negumbo and Matura is that
which is best fitted for the cultivation of cinnamon.
Each cinnamon plant in the cinnamon gardens in Cey¬
lon affords, on an average, four tenths of an ounce of bark
every second year. But a cinnamon plant, in its most vi¬
gorous state, and carefully cultivated, produces twenty-
three ounces of bark every second year.
Besides the bark got from the cinnamon gardens, a
considerable quantity is also collected from spontaneous
plants. A great part of the interior of Ceylon is covered
with trees and brushwood. Where the declivities are
gentle, the cultivation of dry grain is practised, for this
purpose, the trees and brushwood are cut down, the trunks
and branches are burnt, and the ashes spread on the
ground; and on the soil thus prepared dry grain is sown.
The roots of the trees and bushes still remain in the ground.
One crop only is taken, and in a few years the ground is.
ao-ain covered with trees and brushwood. At the end of
fifteen or twenty years the same spot is treated as before,
for the purpose of yielding a crop of grain. A piece of
ground cultivated in this way is called a china. Upon
those chinas which have been recently cultivated, cinna¬
mon plants of a proper age for yielding cinnamon bark are
found growing spontaneously, and the bark of these cinna¬
mon plants is collected. But the best cinnamon bark is ob¬
tained from the plants cultivated in the cinnamon gardens.
These are restricted to a few in the neighbourhood of
Columbo, government wholly monopolizing both the pro¬
duction and sale of the article. When the island was trans¬
ferred from the East India Company to the king’s govern¬
ment, the former agreed to pay L.60,000 a year for 400,000
lbs. of cinnamon, to which quantity the exports were con¬
fined ; and subsequently the payment was raised to the
sum of L.101,000 a year. This agreement, however, was
afterwards broken off, and government now either sell the
article where it is grown, or export it to England, which
is most commonly done. In the year 1826, the revenue
derived by the Ceylon treasury from cinnamon, amounted,
it is said, to L.59,23l.4s. Id.; but it is sometimes above
and sometimes below that sum. from the expenses at¬
tending its cultivation and management, there remains but
little or nothing as a net surplus of profit. I he odious
system of monopoly which has been pursued with respect
to this article has greatly limited its sale, and consequent¬
ly its growth, which must weigh heavy upon the inhabi¬
tants of Ceylon. The natural cost of cinnamon, it is be¬
lieved, does not exceed sixpence or eightpence per pound,
and in London the following are the prices of the article,
which is divided into four different sorts. The first, duty
included, is worth from 8s. 2d. to 9s. 2d.; the second from
7s. 2d. to 8s. 2d.; and the third and fourth from 4s. 2d.
to 6s. 6d. Were a system of free competition to prevail,
not only the inhabitants of Ceylon, but also our own go¬
vernment, would be greatly benefited; and, besides, the
article would cease to be in England a luxury only within
the reach of the opulent.
C I N
The following is a table of the quantities of cinnamon
retained for home consumption, the rates of duty, and the
net amount of the duties in each year since 1819. In
1829 the duty was reduced, and the effect of this reduc¬
tion is very remarkable :—
Cinque
Ports
II
Cintra.
Quantities
retained for
Home Con¬
sumption in
the United
Kingdom.
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1820
1827
1828
1829
lbs.
13,0771
10,0184
12,002
14,507(4
14,225
13,7601
14,098 4
14,1554
14,4511
15,6964
45,921
Net amount of
Duty received
thereon.
U. s. d.
1037 1 1
1331 3 6
1503 18 2
1810 19 0
1767 0 7
1723 10 4
1706 0 2
1782 14 9
1807 19 7
1773 17 9
1342 8 4
Rates of Duty charged thereon.
Of the East Indies.
From April 10, 2s. 6d. per lb.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
From June 21, Od. per lb. from
British possessions.
Cinnamon grows on the IMalabar coast, and was collect¬
ed there in the dominion of the king of Iravancore by
the Dutch and the English. Of this trade an account is
given by Fra Paolo de San Bartolomeo, who resided in
that country in 1776. Cinnamon is collected in Sumatra.
It is also found in China, Borneo, and many of the eastern
islands. Peru is also said to yield it, and Bruce informs
us that it grows in the country between Cape Gardefau
and Melinda. But in no part of the world does it arrive
at such perfection as in Ceylon.
CINQUE Ports, five havens situated on the eastern
part of England, towards France, and thus called by way
of eminence, on account of their superior importance, as
having been thought by our kings to merit a paiticular
regard, for their preservation against invasion. Hence
they have a particular policy, and are governed by a
keeper with the title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Foils.
Camden tells us that William the Conqueror first appointed
a warden of the Cinque Ports ; but King John first grant¬
ed them their privileges, upon condition that they should
provide eighty ships at their own charge for forty days, as
often as the king should have occasion in the wars, he
being then straitened for a navy to recover Normandy.^ I he
five ports are Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and band-
wich. Thorn tells us that Hastings provided twenty-one
vessels; with twenty-one men in each vessel. To this port
belong Seaford, Pevensey, Hedney, Winchelsea, Rye, Ha-
mine, Wakesbourn, Creneth, and Forthchpe. Romney
provided five ships, with twenty-four men in each, io
this port belong Bromhal, Lyde, Oswarstone, Dangemares,
and Romenhal. Hythe furnished seven ships, with twenty-
one seamen in each. To this port belongs Westmeath.
Dover furnished the same number as Hastings. Io tins
port belong Folkstone, Feversham, and Marge. Lastly,
Sandwich furnished the same with Hythe. lo this port
belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.
The privileges granted in consequence of these services
were very great. Amongst others, they were eac 1 0
them to send two barons to represent them in parhamen ;
their deputies were to bear the canopy over t le mg
head at the time of his coronation, and to dine at tlie^P'
permost table in the great hall, on his right hand; }
were to be exempted from subsidies and other aids ; tne
heirs were to be free from personal wardship, notwd -
standing any tenure; they were to be impleaded in thei
own towns, and not elsewhere ; they were not to be liable
to tolls; and they had other privileges besides.
CINTRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Lstre
C I P
inyra madura, with 1900 inhabitants, a little to the north of
|| Lisbon. It is a most delightful spot, at the foot of a stu-
ipher. pendous rocky mountain, and contains a palace of Gothic
(architecture. A monastery near it is asserted to be at the
elevation of 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The
town is not large, but the variety of fruits which it pro¬
duces, and the salubrity of the air, render it a place of
considerable resort to the richer inhabitants of Lisbon. It
has attracted considerable notice, from being the spot
where was concluded a convention, by which the army of
France was permitted to retire from Portugal, after having
been defeated by an inferior British force at Vimiero.
CINYRA, in the Jewish antiquities, a musical instru¬
ment. This, and the Hebrew cinnor, which is generally
translated citlidva^ lyvn^ or ‘pscLltavxii'nx^ are the same. It
was made of wood, and was played in the temple of Jeru¬
salem. Josephus says that the cinyra of the temple had
ten strings, and that it was touched with a bow. In ano¬
ther place he says that Solomon caused a great number of
them to be made of a precious kind of metal called elec-
trum, thus contradicting the Scriptures, which inform us
that Solomon’s cinnors were made of wood.
CIOTAT, La, a maritime city of the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone, in France. It has a harbour formed
by two moles, and defended by a strong fort. It is the
great shipping place for fruits, red and white wines, olives,
and almonds. There are establishments for the construc¬
tion of vessels, and for the tunny and Sardinia fisheries.
Long. 5. 31. 43. E. Lat. 43. 10. 29. N.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic characters or
figures used in computation.
Cipher is also a kind of enigmatic character composed
of several letters interwoven, which are generally the ini¬
tial letters of the person’s names for whom the ciphers are
intended. These are frequently used on seals, coaches,
and other movables. Anciently, merchants and trades¬
men were not allowed to bear arms; but in lieu thereof,
they bore their ciphers, or the initial letters of their names,
artfully interwoven about a cross, of which we find divers
instances on tombs, and other monuments.
Cipher likewise denotes certain secret characters, dis¬
guised and varied, used in writing letters containing some
secret, and not to be understood except by those between
whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Guilletiere, in his Lacedcemon Ancient and Mo¬
dern, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the inven¬
tors of the art of writing in cipher. Their scytala, ac¬
cording to him, was the first sketch of this mysterious art.
The scytake were two rollers of wood, of equal length and
thickness ; one of which was kept by the ephori, the other by
the general of the army sent on any expedition against the
enemy. Whenever those magistrates meant to send any se¬
cret orders to the general, they took a slip of parchment and
rolled it close round the scytala which they had reserved,
and in this state wrote their instructions, which appeared
perfect and consistent while the parchment continued on
the roll; but when taken off, the writing was maimed, and
without connection, though it was easily retrieved by the
general upon his applying it to the scytala in his posses¬
sion. Polybius says that iEneas Tacitus had collected to¬
gether twenty different manners of writing, so as not to be
understood by any but those in the secret; and that part
were invented by himself, and part used before his time.
Trithemius, Baptista Porta, Vigenere, and P. Niceron, have
written expressly on the subject of ciphers.
As the writing in cipher has become an art, so the read¬
ing or unravelling thereof is called deciphering. The
rules of deciphering are different in different languages.
By observing the following, any one may read a common
cipher written in English.
c i R . 701
1. Observe the letters or characters that most frequent- Cipus
ly occur, and set them down for the six vowels, including ||
y ; and of these the most frequent will generally be e, and Sircars,
the least frequent u. ^°rt^rri-
2. The vowels that most frequently come together are
ea and ou.
3. The consonant most common at the end of words is
s, and the next frequent is r or t.
4. When two similar characters come together, they are
most likely to be the consonants/, l, or s, or the vowels e or o.
5. Ihe letter that precedes or follows two similar cha¬
racters is either a vowel, or Z, m, n, or r.
6. In deciphering, begin with the words that consist of
a single letter, which will be either, a, I, o, or fy.
7. Then take the words of two letters, one of which will be
a vowel. Of these words the most frequent are, an, to, be, by,
of, on, or, no, so, as, at, if, in, is, it, he, me, my, us, we, am.
8. In words of three letters there are most commonly
two consonants. Of these words the most frequent are,
the, and, not, but, yet, for, tho\ how, why, all, you, she, his,
her, our, who, may, can, did, was, are, has, had, let, one,
two, six, ten, &c. Some of these, and words of two letters,
will be found in every sentence.
9. The most common words of four letters are, this, that,
then, thus, with, when, from, here, some, most, none, they,
them, whom., mine, your, self, must, will, have, been, were,
four, five, nine, &c.
10. The most usual words of five letters are, their, these,
those, which, inhere, while, since, there, shall, might, coidd,
would, ought, three, seven, eight, &c.
11. Words of two or more syllables frequently begin
with double consonants, or with a preposition; that is, a
vowel joined with one or more consonants. The most
common double consonants are, bl, br, dr, fl,fr, gl, gr, ph,
pi, pr, sh, sb, sp, st, th, tr, wh, wr, &c.; and the most com¬
mon prepositions are, com, con, de, dis, ex, im, in, int, mis,
per, pre, pro, re, sub, sup, un, &c.
12. The double consonants most frequent at the end of
long words are, ck, Id, If mn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn, rp, rt, sm,
st, xt, &c.; and the most common terminations are, ed, en,
er, es, et, ing, ly, son, sion, tion, able, ence, ent, merit, full,
less, ness, &c.
By applying these rules, any common cipher written in
English maybe deciphered; and, mutatis mutandis, a cipher
written in any language may be evolved by an application
of the principle on which these rules are constructed.
CIPUS, in Antiquity, a low column, with an inscription,
erected on the high roads or other places, to show the
way to travellers, to serve as a boundary, or to mark the
grave of a deceased person.
CIRCARS, Northern, an extensive province of Hin¬
dustan, lying on the western side of the Bay of Bengal.
It is a narrow slip of territory, extending from 15° 2' to
the 20th degree of north lat., but is little more than one
degree in breadth. The sea bounds it on the east along
a coast 470 miles in length, from the port of Mootapilly
to the town of Maloud in Orissa, on the borders of the
Chilca Lake. From about fifty to seventy miles inland it
is divided from the province of Hyderabad by a range of
small detached hills, extending to the banks of the Goda-
very; and it is separated from Gundwana to the north of
that river by a great ridge of mountains, impassable, where
they have hitherto been explored, for horse or wheel-car¬
riage, and which are continued to the northern extremity
of the Circars at Goomsur. From this last place the same
unbroken chain curves to the eastward, and, together with
the Chilca Lake, forms an almost impenetrable barrier, fifty
miles in extent, to the north on the side of Cuttack, with
the exception of a tongue of land between Lake Chilca
and the sea. Towards the south the small river Gonde-
702
C I R
C I R
Circars,
Northern.
, .* rfcoir ot- IVTnnt-nnillv senarates this wards the hills; and it seldom produces more than oen Circara
zama, which empties itself at forms the most crop annually, which, as there is an abundant supply of Norther-
territory from the distnc s of Ongole, and ^e m^ crop a ^ ^ ri’ch> Xhe country is well watered by
definite modern frontier ot nno^nuarc miles of which running streams, many of which are divided artificially
The area of the prcais is , q cultivation or fal- into canals, and being conducted into tanks and reservoirs,
it is estimated thatmnly one fifth is in ig are thus rendered subservient to cultivation. The pro-
low, twice that portion in pa ’ , d vince accordingly abounds in all the different sorts of gram
occupied by woods, water, towns^ barren hdls, or a which have b|/n a,ready mentioned; it is properly the
waste three miles in ^adth which borders e 0f the Carnatic during the north-east monsoon,
extent of the coast. country for abou^^^ |ruits, roots, and greens are scarce, or reared with diffi-
miles inland is a level P^1"’ the°shore. Beyond culty, to the south of the Godavery; nor towards the north
terruptions in its greatest le g s ,, , it tj are t{iey s0 excellent as in some other provinces. Sugar
this about fifteen miles and cotin are also scantily produced in Rajemundry and
country is much more ele a , renfarlfably fertile. Be- Jehapoor. Tobacco and bay salt, of superior quality, have
ed with hills eas) of acces , ^ t0 tbe north lately been produced in such abundance as greatly to ex-
yond these tracts of plain an y & ’ . e(j tbe bome demand. The forests of Rajemundry, from
of the Godavery, a stlH ^^tch far inland. This the commencement of the hills along the banks of the
great ridge of mountains Godavery, yield an inexhaustible supply of the best and
region is poor, unhealthy, 7 are properly five; largest teak timbers; and if proper use were made of this
The grand divisions of t s p DrincLbv marked advantage, an article would be procured of great advan-
being so many portions of its g ’ P ^P w^gt t0 the tage to commerce. The cocoa and the palmyra, or, in the
by rivers running across fro G Mortizabad, more northerly provinces, the tree which produces the gum-
sea. Of these divisions the first is Guntoor or ivionizaDao, ^ ^ the^aterials from which are constructed about
the most southerly province, ounei on^^ ^ ^iles 500 of those unwieldy vessels with two masts, called doo-
river Kistnah, which, after ru & Mnhihar sena- nies, from 60 to 300 tons each. The domestic animals
from the Balaghaut Hl 3 f„„„d in this province are chiefly sheep and the larger
rates this province on the north horn the secona a , ^ horned cattle. The neighbouring sea and its
namely, Condapilly or Mustaphabac. numerous inlets abound with almost every species of In¬
division ; and these two divisions are adjacent to each other Stogeether with some that are common to Europe,
space"lyT„gt0bete»rXr Ktoah and GoTavery. The such as mullet, sole, and pomphlet, a small fish resembling
J „  l„ 1) tnwarrls the
fourth division, namely, Rajemundry, towards the south
is separated from Ellore in its greatest breadth by the
Godavery. The fifth division is Cicacole, the most north¬
erly of the whole. , . t
The climate of the Northern Circars, though it has a
general resemblance to that of Hindustan north of the
Kistnah, is still distinguished by local peculiarities arising
from its maritime situation, and the extent and position
of the inland hills. The periodical rain usually sets in
about the middle of June with a westerly wind, and con¬
tinues in moderate showers until the latter end of August,
a turbot.
Cotton is the staple produce, from which are fabricated
cloths of different degrees of fineness. Plain cloth, which
is valuable in foreign markets, is chiefly wrought in the
island of Nagar and its vicinity; it forms the groundwork
of the best printed calicoes in Europe, and of those beau¬
tifully painted ones called palampores in the districts of
Masulipatam. The coarser plain cloths, which are made to
the north and south of the Godavery, or coloured with chay
root, which is the madder of the East, and which grows in
most perfection in the pure sands annually oveiflowed by
like manner the vernal equinox terminates the harvest
south of that river for the different species of maize, as
well as of other grains, and peas. Ihen commences the
hot season, which is always moderate towards the northern
extremity of the Circars, near Ganjam, owing to the con¬
stant breezes from the sea. On the south the hot season
is moderated for two months by sea-breezes from the south
Godavery. Here ships of 500 tons are built, and about
50,000 tons of small craft are employed in the coasting
This province trades with Europe, with the neighbour¬
ing Indian ports, and with the inland provinces of the
Deccan. The European nations who have establishments
on the coast export the fine cotton manufactures, which
blowing along the shore; bufafterwards, until the period are also purchased by foreign “dve[*?”erf ^
of the rains, ihe wind blowing over a parched loose soil of these manufactures, and for salt, which ‘hef export,
great extent, and especially over the almost dry and sandy sure is frequentlybrought from Madras, the prim p I p t
fed of the Kistnah,tcomL so heated that it raises the of the Madras investment 0^^ b“a"f/™™Ts
thermometer for an entire week to 105, and frequently to in the Norther . ’ . ff’nf cmin to Ma-
110 degrees. In the hilly regions the air is in a remarkably chiefly in the exportation of various sor g ^ of
noxious state ; and throughout the different seasons of the dras, in return or w ^e rece officers
year the hill fever, which is prevalent, is frequently fatal cloths ; European and China goods foi the of
to strangers. It is generally ascribed to the state of the and others employed m that quarter, namely, ^
atmosphere, contaminated with the exhalations of a fertile various sorts, ale, brandy, Zoods received
soil pent up in valleys, or impeded in its circulation by per, steel, hardware, &c., also var o & jum
the luxuriant growth of plants, or by the trees with which from the East, such as betel-nut to a ^ a uan.
the villages are surrounded. All these provinces along cloves, benjamin, pepper, he iatevi0r bv the
the coast have a sandy soil, which improves gradually to- tity of arrack. The articles carr e
ircars,
i rthern.
C I R
native traders are salt, piece-goods of native manufac¬
ture, copper, and raw silk, the latter chiefly from Bengal,
in return for which are received cotton and wheat.
The native inhabitants of the Northern Circars, with
the exception of some thousand Mahommedans dispersed
throughout the principal towns, and in the army, are wholly
Hindus, and may, on a moderate computation, be esti¬
mated at two and a balf millions. I hey are composed of
the two nations of Telinga, and Oria, Woria, or Orissa,
formerly divided from each other by the Godavery, but,
since their union under the same government, a good deal
mixed among themselves, as well as with some of the
neighbouring tribes. They have each their peculiar dia¬
lect, apparently of the Sanscrit language, as well as their
peculiar rites, customs, and national traits. The four
great castes or divisions of the people are common in both
countries, but with less deviations from original institu¬
tions in Oria, where Brahminical abstinence from animal
food is very general among all the higher tribes. The
Brahmins continue to enjoy their pre-eminence and consi¬
deration among the other classes. The Rachewars, Ro-
wars, and Velmas, of which denominations the principal
Zemindars are composed, affect the warlike character and
manners of Rajpoots. The Rachewars are of the ancient
race of the Orissa sovereigns, who were forced to fly be¬
fore the conquering arms of the Mahommedans from the
plains to the highland woods. The Rowars, or Worians,
being petty chieftains of the military tribe, were enabled,
after the Mahommedan conquest, to acquire an indepen¬
dent jurisdiction in the mountainous tract to the west of
Cicacole. The Velmas are of Telinga origin; and being
driven from the Carnatic in the year 1662 by the Mahom¬
medans, established themselves on the borders of the
Krishna. The remainder are husbandmen, cow-herds,
weavers, artificers, all of the Sudra or last great caste.
The retail dealers form a third class.
It was not till the year 1471 that the Mahommedans
extended their arms to the Northern Circars. In 1541
they conquered Condapilly; and nine years afterwards
they extended their conquests over all Guntoor, and the
districts of Masulipatam. But the conquerors appear to
have acquired but a very imperfect possession of the coun¬
try, as it was again conquered from the Hindu princes of
Orissa about the year 1571, during the reign of Ibrahim
Kootub Shah of Hyderabad or Golcondah. In 1687 these
provinces, with the empire of Hyderabad, were added to
the extensive empire of Aurungzebe. But this monarch
was too busily employed in conquering the larger pro¬
vinces of the Deccan, and curbing the Mahratta power,
to regulate his conquest with due care. In 1724 the issue
of a great battle transferred in fact, though not in form,
these provinces from the house of Timour to that of Ni¬
zam ul Moolk, who reformed the administration of the
revenues and the civil and military establishment. He
was succeeded by his third son Salabut Jung, who being
indebted for his elevation to the French East Jndia Com¬
pany, in return for their services granted them the district
of Condavir or Guntoor, and soon afterwards the other
Circars. In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Ma¬
sulipatam, that great commanding bulwark, the dominion
of the maritime provinces on either side, from the river
Gondegama to theChilca Lake, was necessarily transferred
trom the French to the British. But they left them un¬
der the administration of the Nizam, with the exception
of the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were re¬
tained by the English East India Company. In 1765
Lord Clive obtained from the Mogul a grant of four of
the Circars, namely, the Cicacole, Rajamundry, Ellore,
and Condapilly, which in the following year was confirm¬
ed by a treaty entered into with the Nizam, who had by
C I R
this time superseded Salabut Jung in his authority. The
remaining Circar of Guntoor devolved to the East India
Company in 1788.
The local government of the Northern Circars, which
was continued under the management of the natives, was
superseded in 1769 by the appointment of chiefs and
councils; and this mode of government continued until
1794. At the same time the power of the Zemindars
was broken, and a more efficient mode of collecting the
revenue has since been adopted. In 1802 and 1804 a per¬
manent settlement of tbe territorial revenue was intro¬
duced, when the province was divided into five collector-
ships or districts, namely, Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Rajamun-
"jT’^Masulipatam, and Guntoor. (See Appendix to the
fifth Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of the
East India Company; J. Grant’s Political Survey of the
Northern Circars; C. N. White’s Minute ; Rennell’s i¥e-
moirof a Map of Hindustan ; Letter of Sir Thomas Mun-
ro, Bart. Sec.)
CIRCE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Sol and Per-
seis, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous
herbs. She was sister to JEtes, king of Colchis, and to
Pasiphae, the wife of Minos. She married a Sarmatian
prince of Colchis, whom she murdered to obtain the king¬
dom. She was expelled by her subjects, and carried by
her father to an island called iEasa, upon the coast of
Italy. Llysses, on his return from the Trojan war, visited
her coast; and all his companions, who ran headlong into
pleasure and voluptuousness, were changed by Circe’s
potions into filthy swine. Ulysses, who was fortified against
all enchantments by an herb called moly, which he had re¬
ceived from Mercury, went to Circe, and demanded sword
in hand the restoration of his companions to their former
state. She complied, and loaded the hero with pleasures
and honours. In this voluptuous retreat Ulysses had by
Ciice one son called lelegenus, or two according to He¬
siod, called Agrius and Latinus. For one whole year
Ulysses forgot his glory in Circe’s arms. At his depar¬
ture the nymph advised him to descend to hell, and to
consult the manes of Tiresias concerning the fates that
attended him. Circe showed herself cruel to Scylla her
rival, and to Picus.
CIRCENSIAN Games, a general term under which
was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece. Most
of the feasts of the Romans were accompanied with Cir-
censian games ; and the magistrates and other officers of
the republic frequently presented the people with these
shows, in order to procure their favour. The grand games
were held during five days, commencing on the 13th of
September.
CIRCLE, in Geometry, a plane figure comprehended
by a single curve line, called its circumference, to which
all right lines drawn from a. point in the middle, called
the centre, are equal to one another.
Circles of the Sphere are such as cut the mundane
sphere, and have their periphery either on its movable
surface, or in another immovable, conterminous, and equi¬
distant sm face. Hence arise two kinds of circles, mov¬
able and immovable. The first are those whose peripheries
are in the movable surface, and which therefore revolve
with its diurnal motion, as meridians, and the like. The
latter, having their periphery in the immovable surface, do
not revolve, as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels.
Circles of Altitude, otherwise called almucantars, are cir¬
cles parallel to the horizon, having their common pole in the
zenith, and still diminishing as they approach the zenith.
Diurnal Circles are immovable circles, supposed to
be described by the seven stars, and other points of the
heavens, in their diurnal rotation round the earth, or
704
Circles
II ,
Circoncel-
liones
C I R
rather, in the rotation of the earth round its axis. The
diurnal circles are all unequal; the equator is the largest.
Horary Circles, in Dialing, are the lines which show
the hours on dials; though these be not drawn circular,
but nearly straight. .
Circles of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic, are
o-reat circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic, passing
through the poles thereof, and through every star and
planet. They are so called, because they serve to measure
the latitude of the stars, which is nothing but an arch ot
one of these circles intercepted between the star and the
Circles of Longitude are several lesser circles, parallel
to the ecliptic ; still diminishing, in proportion as they re¬
cede from it. On the arches of these circles the longi¬
tude of the stars is reckoned.
Circle of perpetual Apparition, one of the lesser cir¬
cles, parallel to the equator, described by any point of the
sphere touching the northern point of the horizon, and
carried about with the diurnal motion. All the stars in¬
cluded within this circle never set, but are ever visible
above the horizon.
Circle of perpetual Occultation is another circle at a like
distance from the equator, and contains all those stars which
never appear in our hemisphere. "I he stars situated between
these circles alternately rise and set at certain times.
Polar Circles are immovable circles, parallel to the
equator, and at a distance from the poles equal to the
oreatest declination of the ecliptic. That next the north
pole is called the Arctic, and that next to the south pole
the Antarctic.
Druidical Circles, in British topography, a name given
to certain ancient inclosures formed by rude stones circu¬
larly arranged. These, it is now generally agreed, were
temples, and, as many writers think, also places of solemn
assemblage for councils or elections, and seats of judgment.
CIRCONCELLIONES, a species of fanatics, so called
because they were continually rambling round the houses
in the country. They took their rise among the Donatists
in the reign of the emperor Constantine. It is incredible
what ravages and cruelties these vagabonds committed in
Africa during a long series of years. Ih^y were illite-
rate savage peasants, who understood only the Punic lan¬
guage. Intoxicated with a barbarous zeal, they renoun¬
ced agriculture, professed continence, and assumed the
title of Vindicators of Justice, and Protectors of the Op¬
pressed. To accomplish their mission, they enfranchised
slaves, scoured the roads, forced masters to alight from
their chariots and run before their slaves, whom they oblig¬
ed to mount in their place; and discharged debtors, kill¬
ing the creditors if they refused to cancel the bonds. But
the chief objects of their cruelty were the Catholics, espe¬
cially those who had renounced Donatism. At first they
used no swords, because God had forbidden the use ot
one to Peter; but they were armed with clubs, which they
called the Clubs of Israel, and which they handled in such
a manner as to break a man’s bones without killing him
immediately, so that he languished a long time and then
died. When they took away a man’s life at once, they
looked upon it as a favour. They became less^ scrupulous
afterwards, and made use of all sorts of arms. I hen shout
was “ Praise be to God.” Jbese words in their mouths
were the signal of slaughter more terrible than the roar¬
ing of a lion. They had invented an unheard of punish¬
ment, which was, to cover with lime diluted with vinegar
the eyes of those unhappy wretches whom they had crush¬
ed with blows and wounds, and to abandon them in that
condition. Never was there a stronger proof of the hor¬
rors which superstition can engender in minds destitute of
knowledge and humanity. These brutes, who had made a
C I R
vow of chastity, gave themselves up to wine and all sorts of Circuit
impurities, running about with women and young girls as ||
drunk as themselves, whom they called sacred virgins, and Cn-cumc
who often carried about with them proofs of their inconti-
nence. Their chiefs took the name of “ Chiefs of the Saints.”
After having glutted themselves with blood, they turned
their rage upon themselves, and sought death with the same
fury with which they gave it to others. Some scrambled
up to the tops of rocks, and cast themselves down head¬
long in multitudes; others burned themselves, or threw
themselves into the sea. Those who proposed to acquire
the title of martyrs published it long before, upon which
they were feasted and fattened like oxen for the slaughter ;
and after these preparations they set out to be destroyed.
Sometimes they gave money to those whom they met, and
threatened to murder them if they did not make them
martyrs. Theodoret gives an account of a stout young
man, who, meeting with a troop of these fanatics, consent¬
ed to kill them, provided he might bind them first; and
having by this means put it out of their power to defend
themselves, whipped them as long as he was able, and
then left them tied in that manner. Their bishops pre¬
tended to blame them, but in reality made use of them to
intimidate such as might be tempted to forsake their sect,
and even honoured them as saints. They were not, how¬
ever, able to govern these furious monsters, and more than
once found themselves under the necessity of abandoning
them, and even of imploring the assistance of the secular
power against them. I he Counts Ursocius and Taurinus
were employed to quell them, and destroyed a great number,
of whom the Donatists made as many martyrs. Ursacius,
who was a good Catholic and a religious man, having Ibst
his life in an engagement with the barbarians, the Dona¬
tists did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect of
the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of these
bloody scenes during a great part of Constantine s life.
CIRCUIT, in Law, signifies the journey or progress
which the judges take twice every year, through the se¬
veral counties of England and Wales, to hold courts and
administer justice, where recourse cannot be had t0, the
king’s court at Westminster; and hence England is divided
into six circuits, viz. the home circuit, Norfolk ciicuit,
Midland circuit, Oxford circuit, Western circuit, and
Northern circuit. In Wales there are but two ciicuits,
those of North and South Wales. Two judges are assigned
by the king’s commission to every circuit.
In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court,
or court of justiciary, are divided into three separate
courts, consisting of two judges each; and the kingdom
into as many districts. In certain burghs of every tlis*
trict, each of these courts by rotation is obliged to hold
two courts in the year, in spring and autumn; which are
called Circuit Courts. One more is now held at Glasgow
during the Christmas recess. . ,
CIRCULAR, in a general sense, any thing that is de¬
scribed, or moved round; as the circumference of a circle,
or surface of a globe.
Circular Numbers, called also spherical ones, according
to some, are such whose powers terminate in the roots them¬
selves. Thus, for instance, 5 and 6, all whose powers end m
5 and 6 ; as the square of 5 is 25, the square of 6 is db, &c.
Circular Sailing is the method of sailing by the arcn
of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCUMCELLIONES. See Circoncelliones.
CIRCUMCISION, the act of cutting off the prepuce;
a ceremony of the Jewish and Mahommedan rehgions, n
which is cut off the foreskin of the males, who are to pi
fess the one or the other law. , , j
Circumcision commenced in the time of Abraham, an
was the seal of a covenant stipulated between God ana
C I R
C I R
705
mi i „ -     xiiuo mcy vv i itu UULV lUF
/ flie ceiemony, however, was not confined to the Jews, paste; tete for teste; fumes forfusmes, and the like: they
Herodotus and 1 hilo Judaeus observe, that it obtained also also use the circumflex in the participles; some of their
among t le Egyptians and Ethiopians. Herodotus says, authors writing cotineu, peu, others connit, pu, and so on.
that the custom was very ancient among each people; Father Buffer is at a loss for the reason of the circumflex
so that it was impossible to deteinune which of them bor- on this occasion*
rowed it from the other. The same historian relates, that The form of the Greek circumflex was anciently the
the inhabitants of Colchis also used circumcision; and same with that of ours, viz. a; being a composition or
hence he concludes that they were originally Egyptians, union of the other two accents ; but the copyists changing
He adds, that the f hcenicians and Syrians were likewise the form of the characters, and introducing the running
circumcised; that they borrowed the practice from the hand, changed also the form of the circumflex accent-
Egyptians ; and, lastly, tnat a little before the time when and instead of making a just angle, rounded it off, addino-
he wrote, circumcision had passed from Colchis to the a dash through too much haste, and thus formed an s laid
people living near Thermodon and Parthenius. horizontally, which produced this figure ~, instead of a.
Marsham is of opinion that the Hebrews borrowed cir- CIRCUMGYRATION, the whirling motion of any body
cumcision from the Egyptians, and that God was not the round a centre, as that of the planets round the sun
first author of the practice; citing Diodorus Siculus and CIRCUMLOCUTION, an ambages, or tour of words,
Herodotus as evidences on his side. rIhis latter proposi- used either when a proper term is not at hand by which to
non seems directly contrary to the testimony of Moses, express a thing naturally and immediately- or when one
who assures us that Abraham, though ninety-nine years chooses not to do it out of respect, or for some other rea-
of age, was not ciicumcised till he had received the ex- son. The word comes from circumloquor, I speak about
press command of God for the performance of the rite. CIRCUMPOLAR Stars, an appellation given to those
But as to the former position of Marsham, it will admit stars which, by reason of their vicinity to the pole, move
of more debate. The arguments on both sides may be round it without setting.
seen in one view in Spencer de Legibus Hebrceorum. CIRCUMPOTATIO, in Antiquity, a funeral feast pro-
Among the Jews, the time for pei forming this rite was vided in honour of the dead. Circumpotation was veryfre-
the eighth day, that is, six full days after the child was quent among the ancient Romans, as well as amon<>- the
born. The law of Moses ordained nothing with respect Athenians. Solon at Athens, and the decemviri at Rome,
to the person by whom, the instrument with which, or endeavoured to reform this custom, thinking it absurd
the manner how, the ceremony was to be performed; the that mirth and drunkenness should mingle with sorrow
instrument however was generally a knife of stone. The and grief.
child was usually circumcised at home, where the father or cfliCUMSCRIBED, in Geometry, is said of a figure
godfather held him in his arms, while the operator taking which is drawn round another figure, so that all its sides
hold of the prepuce with one han.d, cut it off with the or planes touch the inscribed figure,
other; a third person held a porringer, with sand in it, CIRCUMVALLATION, or Line of Cikcumvalla-
to .catch the blood; then the operator applied his mouth twn, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a para-
to the part, and, having sucked the blood, spat it into a pet, and thrown up quite round the besiegers’ camp. It is
bowl of wine, and threw a styptic powder upon the wound, formed by way of security against any army that may
This ceremony was usually accompanied with great re- attempt to relieve the place, and also serves to prevent
joicings and feasting; and at this time the child was desertion.
named in presence of the company. The Jews invented CIRCUS, in Antiquity, a large building, either round or
several superstitious customs at this ceremony, one of oval, used for exhibiting shows to the people. Some de-
which consisted in placing three stools; one for the cir- rive the word from Circe, to whom Tertullian attributes
cumcisor, the second for the person who held the child, the invention. Cassiodorus says that Circus is derived from
and the third for Elijah, who, as they supposed, assisted circuitu. The Romans, Servius observes, at first had no
invisibly at the ceremony. other circus than that formed by the Tiber on one side, and
The Jews distinguished their proselytes into two sorts, a palisade of naked swords on the other. Hence, accord-
according as they were circumcised or not; those who ing to Isidore, came the term ludi circenses quasi circum
submitted to this rite were looked upon as children of enses; but Scaliger ridicules this etymology.
Abraham, and obliged to keep the laws of Moses ; the un- The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arched
circumcised were only bound to observe the precepts of at one end, encompassed with porticoes, and furnished with
Noah, and were called Noachidce. rows of seats placed in an ascending order one over ano-
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general sense, denotes the ther. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank or eminence,
line or lines bounding a plane figure. However, it is ge- with obelisks, statues, and posts at each end. This served
nerally used in a more limited sense for the curve line for the courses of the bigae and quadrigae. There were
which bounds a circle, otherwise called a periphery; the no less than ten circuses at Rome. The largest, built by
boundary of a right-lined figure being expressed by the the elder Tarquin, and called Circus Maximus, was situ-
term perimeter. ated between the Aventine and Palatine Mounts. It was
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an instrument used by survey- so called, either because of its vast circumference, or bo¬
ors for taking angles. cause the great games were celebrated in it, or because
CIRCUMFLEX, in Grammar, an accent serving to it was consecrated to the great gods Vertumnus, Nep-
note or distinguish a syllable of an intermediate sound tune, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the Dii Penates of
between acute and grave, and generally somewhat long. Rome. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that it was three
The Greeks had three accents, the acute, the grave, and stadia and a half in length, and four jugera in breadth ;
the circumflex, formed thus, ', ', ~. The acute raises measures which, allowing to the Roman stadia 625 Roman
the voice, and the grave lowers it, while the circum- feet of twelve inches each, will give for the length 2187
flex is a kind of undulation or wavering of the voice, be- Roman feet, or somewhat more than three English fur-
VQL. VI.
706
CIS
C I T
Cirences¬
ter
II
Cister*
cians.
, , „ . , i^iio-pra tn uoon straw-beds, in tunics and cowls; they rose at mid- Ciste
L°n§rf ^ It was beautiffed and nfgbt to prayers; they spent the day in labour, reading, ||
be 240 Roman feet^ 960 Roman tec • _r^Y, # onri \r\ nil tlipir exercises tbev observed a ^tta.
enlarged by the Roman emperors, so. ?-s ^ ® continual silence. The habit of the Cistercian monks is a
250,000 spectators. The white robe in the nature of a cassock, with a black sea-
those of Augustus and Nero. The c n];ices pulary and hood, and it is girt with a wooden girdle. The
°f which some call the Circen- nuns wear a white tunic and a black scapulary and girdle.
ITie Crames oj me uircls, wn c in CISTERN denotes a subterraneous reservoir of rain
Zou?Tco= tl°e god of councils, and thence klso water, or a vessel serving as a receptacle for rain or other
called SLfZr They8 were also called Roman Games ^ fe Neapolitan pro-
« •lththe0R0manUpeople hor bTcmse ythey vi^ce Bari containing sk inhalants. /
being coeval with the Roma p p , ^ es helJ CITADEL, a fortified place, commonly of a pentago-
were established by the , feth were nal forraj with bastions at the angles of the pentagon, and
there, the great games, ludi mag , y hnilt on a convenient ground near a city, that it may com-
celebrated with ”“Verw"rhddTE™our offe mld.tfn^
gtlVdN^: ^w^Hhe eConsn„sWnTh„se who the garrison and enable it to hold out after the extenor
say that they were instituted in honour of s“"> con; "aTADINEScX akme given by some writers to the
found the PomVa crcenm, or procession ot the ecus, ;hich is fupposi t0 represcnt towns,
with the games. . ... . a . -r< nrW nalaces ruins, rivers, and the like. These delineations are
The games of the } or pr0ces- merely accidental, and are commonly much assisted by the
and re-establisbed by Rom’ athe5prelude, as imagination, though the natural lines of a stone may some-
sion was only a part of the games, » 1 , . • iuckilv enough represent the ruins of some ancient
it were, and consisting of a simple cavalcade o chariots ^ a river. in England there is a
Till the time of the elder Tarquin, t icy wei e ie 0l?septaria, or ludus Helmontii, which has sometimes
island of the Tiber, and were called Roman Games b^ ^ind ^^^rregular, delineations of this kind. The
after that prince had built the circus, being constantly beauWul, tl ou n me
held there, they took their name from the place where ^Tcatoet’and The Uke, owes a gJat deal to the
nbnromrh and market town of the skill of the workmen, who always pick out the proper
hundue^^f^ro^horim^inih^XmntyXGloucester, and piece, from the maf, aud dispose them m the work so as
T''
CIRRIPEDEb. bee Mollusca, inaex. Ani A • then declining into plains, it terminates at Thebes.
JuSrSfflWe ^ ^‘^Xuuuus'Vo^the f^te of Pcntheus and Actaeon,
hardy into Cisalpine and Transalpine. That which was fot or revek of tetchus. ; tn,me„t the
Cisafpine with regard to the Romans .s Transalp,ne w.th P™ gure’of wht^T^’t known Some think it re-
16 cTsLEu!' in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month of sembled the Greek delta ; brings!
their ecclesiastical and the third of their civd year, answer- form of J at diirerent times increased to eight,
“StDANA GalXa in Ancient Geography, a dis- nine, and lastly to twenty-four It was used in entertan,-
trict of Italfm thXsouth of the Bo, ocfupfed' by the ments and private houses and played upon with a plec
Gauls in the time of the kings of Rome, and separated tru” "VJpfl, orTnhabitant of a city, who is vested
from Liguria on the west, by the Iria, running from south CITIZEN, a native ormnaDitam o a v,
to north into the Po, and bounded on the south by the with the iree^p^disVn^ufshed from a stranger
Apennines, and on the east by the Adriatic. The term A c, teen '™X‘S()t“’°“ „ealth subject to ?he
is formed analogically, frequent mention being made in by birth by election,
Cicero, Tacitus, Suetonius, and ancient inscriptions, o Romans, fatl,ers! Tocon-
the Transpadani, which, with Cispadani, are terms used and sons may derive ‘"f'1’“arv t0bean in-
with respect to Rome. Ptolemy calls the C.spadana f'‘“te ^““foXk' bfen ol ed in one of the tribes, and
Gam Togata; it extended between the Po and Apen- W whom were granted
nines to the Sapis and Rubicon. , I? D c.aPaDie | riti/enshin were only honorary
CISTERCIANS, in Church History, a religious order the privileges of 1^“a" J a citizen of Rome.
founded in the eleventh century, by St Robert, a Benedic- cit^ens. u CASTELLO a city oTthe papal dominions
tine. They became so powerful that they governed almost CITTADIC > ) It stands on the
all Europe, both in spiritual and temporal concerns. Car- in Italy, in the c e eg< » j other churches,
dinal de Vitri, describing their observances, says, they wore Tiber, and contains a cathedral a J ^ ^ inhabitantg>
neither skins nor shirts, nor ate flesh, except in sickness ; twelve monasteries, nin^ . . j p and siik.
they abstained from fish, eggs, milk, and cheese; they lay who are employed in cultivating, wine, ,
C I T
intern CITTERN, a musical instrument resembling the guitar,
j| for which it has been frequently mistaken. Anciently it
City* was called the cistrum, and till latterly was held in great
contempt both in France and Britain. The practice on
this instrument being easy, it was formerly the amusement
and recreation of lewd women and their visitors, inso¬
much that in many of the old English dramatic writers it is
made the symbol of a woman who lived by prostitution.
It was also the common amusement of waiting customers
in barbers’ shops, as being the most easy of all instruments
to play on, and therefore it was thought that almost every
body could make use of it.
CITY, according to Cowel, is a town corporate, which
has a bishop and cathedral church, and is called civitas,
oppidum, and urbs ; civitas, because it is governed by jus¬
tice and order of magistracy; oppidum, because it con¬
tains a great number of inhabitants ; and urbs, because it
is in due form surrounded with walls.
Kingdoms have been said to contain as many cities as
they have sees of archbishops and bishops; but, accord¬
ing to Blount, city is a word that has obtained since the
Conquest; for in the time of the Saxons there were no
cities, but all the great towns were called burghs, and
even London was then called Londonburgh, as the capi¬
tal of Scotland is called Edinburgh. And long after the
Conquest the word city is used promiscuously with the
word burgh, as in the charter of Leicester, where it is
called both civitas and burgus; which shows that those
writers were mistaken who tell us that every city was or is
a bishop’s see, though with us the word city signifies such
a town corporate as has usually a bishop and a cathedral
church.
As to the ancient state of cities and villages, whilst the
feudal policy prevailed they held of some great lord, on
whom they depended for protection, and were subject to
his arbitrary jurisdiction. The inhabitants were deprived
of the natural and most unalienable rights of humanity.
They could not dispose of the effects which their own
industry had acquired, either by a latter will or by any
deed executed during their life. They had no right to
appoint guardians for their children during their minori¬
ty. They were not permitted to marry without purchas¬
ing the consent of the lord on whom they depended. If
once they had commenced a law-suit, they durst not ter¬
minate it by an accommodation, because that would have
deprived the lord, in whose court they pleaded, of the
perquisites due to him on giving his judgment. Services
of various kinds, no less disgraceful than oppressive, were
exacted from them without mercy or moderation. The
spirit of industry was checked in some cities by absurd
regulations, and in others by unreasonable exactions; nor
would the narrow and oppressive maxims of a military
aristocracy have permitted it ever to rise to any degree
of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was first established in Italy, ow¬
ing principally to the introduction of commerce. As soon
as they began to turn their attention towards this object,
and to conceive some idea of the advantages they might
derive from it, they became impatient to shake off the
yoke of their insolent lords, and to establish among them¬
selves such a free and equal government as would render
property secure and industry flourishing. The German
emperors, especially those of the Franconian and Suabian
lines, as the seat of their government was far distant
from Italy, possessed a feeble and imperfect jurisdiction
m that country. Their perpetual quarrels, either with
the popes or their own turbulent vassals, diverted their
attention from the interior policy of Italy, and gave con¬
stant employment for their arms. These circumstances
induced some of the Italian cities towards the beginning of
C I T
the eleventh century to assume new privileges, to unite to¬
gether more closely, and to form themselves into bodies
politic, under the government of laws established by com¬
mon consent. The rights which many cities acquired by
bold or fortunate usurpations, others purchased from the
emperors, who deemed themselves gainers when they re¬
ceived large sums for immunities which they were no longer
able to withhold; and some cities obtained them gratui¬
tously, from the facility or generosity of the princes on
whom they depended. The great increase of wealth
which the crusades brought into Italy, occasioned a new
kind of fermentation and activity in the minds of the peo¬
ple, and excited such a general passion for liberty and in¬
dependence, that before the conclusion of the last cru¬
sade, all the considerable cities in that country had either
purchased or extorted large immunities from the emperors.
Ibis innovation was not long known in Italy before it
made its way into France. Louis le Gros, in order to
create some power that might counterbalance those po¬
tent vassals who controlled or gave law to the crown, first
adopted the plan of conferring new privileges on the towns
situated within his own domain.. These privileges were
called charters of community, by which he enfranchised the
inhabitants, abolished all marks of servitude, and formed
them into coi'porations or bodies politic, to be governed
by a council and magistrates of their own nomination.
Ihese magistrates had the right of administering justice
within their own precincts, of levying taxes, and of em¬
bodying and training to arms the militia of the town, which
took the field when required by the sovereign, under the
command of officers appointed by the community. The
great barons imitated the example of their monarch, and
granted similar immunities to the towns within their terri¬
tories. They had wasted such great sums in their expedi¬
tions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to lay hold on
this new expedient for raising money by the sale of those
charters ot liberty. Though the constitution of commu¬
nities was as repugnant to their maxims of policy as it
was adverse to their power, they disregarded remote con¬
sequences in order to obtain present relief. In less than
two centuries, servitude was abolished in most of the cities
of France, which consequently became free coi'porations,
instead of dependent villages without jurisdiction or pri¬
vileges. Much about the same period the great cities
of Germany began to acquire like immunities, and laid
the foundations of their present liberty and independence.
The practice spread quickly over Europe, and was adopt¬
ed in Spain, England, Scotland, and all the other feudal
kingdoms.
The Spanish historians are almost entirely silent con¬
cerning the origin and progress of communities in that
kingdom; so that it is impossible to fix, with any degree
of certainty, the time and manner of their first introduc¬
tion there. It appears, however, from Mariana, that, in
the year 1350, eighteen cities had obtained a seat in the
Cortes of Castile. In Aragon, cities seem early to have
acquired extensive immunities, together with a share in
the legislature. In the year 1118, the citizens of Zarago¬
za had not only obtained political liberty, but they were
declared to be of equal rank with the nobles of the second
class ; and many other immunities, unknown to persons in
their rank of life in other parts of Europe, were conferred
upon them. In England, the establishment of communi¬
ties or corporations was posterior to the Conquest. The
practice was borrowed from France, and the privileges
granted by the crown were perfectly similar to those
above enumerated. It is not improbable that some of
the towns in England were formed into corporations un¬
der the Saxon kings ; and that the charters granted by the
kings of the Norman race were not charters of enfranchise-
70S
CIV
Ciudad ment from a state of slavery, but a confirmation of pnvi
Rodrigo leges which they had already enjoyed. I he English cities,
11 however, were very considerable in the twelfth century.
Civil Law. A clear roof 0f ^13 0CCurs in the history just referred to.
    1 Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a description
of the city of London in the reign of Henry II.; and the
terms in which he speaks of its trade, its wealth, and the
number of its inhabitants, would suggest no adequate idea
of its state at present, when it is the greatest and most
opulent city in Europe. But all ideas of grandeur and
magnificence are merely comparative. It appears from
Peter of Blois, archdeacon of London, who flourished in
the same reign, and who had good opportunity of being
informed, that this city, of which Fitz-St^Phe“ such
a pompous account, contained no more than 40,000 inha¬
bitants. The other cities were small in proportion, and
in no condition to extort any extensive privileges. _ I hat
the constitution of the burghs of Scotland in many circum¬
stances resembled that of the towns of France and England,
is manifest from the Leges Burgorum annexed to the Ke-
qiam Majestatem. _ . . .
CIUDAD RODRIGO, a city of Spain, in the province
of Leon, with 11,000 inhabitants. It is situated on the
right bank of the river Agueda, over which is a bridge of
ten arches, and which runs to the north-west, and falls into
the Duero. It is surrounded with some good pasture-land,
but the country around may be generally denominated ste¬
rile. It is a place of considerable military importance ; but
the narratives of its sieges must be sought for among the
warlike events of history in the article Spain.
Ciudad-Real, a city of La Mancha, in the province o
New Castile, in Spain, in latitude 39° 7'. It is situated
near the Guadiana, and is usually considered as the first
city of La Mancha. In its vicinity there are abundant mines
of lapis calaminaris, and a manufactory of tin conducted by
the government. This city is adorned by several monas¬
teries and a college, and has a poor-house and work-house
where wool and esparto are spun ; it also has several tan¬
neries and glove manufactories, and a market for asses and
mules. The number of its inhabitants is 8400.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name of the
animal from which it is taken, and to which it is peculiar.
C I v
Civet-Cat, the English name of the animal which pro- CiveM i
duces the civet. . • . n Jr
CIVIC Crown was a crown given by the ancient Ro-*-™1-
mans to any soldier who had saved the life of a citizen in
The civic crown was reckoned more honourable than
any other crown, though composed of no better materials
than oaken boughs. Plutarch, in his life of Coriolanus,
accounts for the use on this occasion of the branches of
the oak in preference to those of all other trees ; because,
says he, the oaken wreath being sacred to Jupiter, the great
guardian of the city, the Romans thought it the most pro¬
per ornament for him who had preserved the life of a citi¬
zen. Pliny, lib. xvi. cap. 4, speaking of the honour and
privilecres conferred on those who had merited this ciown,
says, They who had once obtained it might wear it al-
' ways.” When they appeared at the public spectacles, the
senate and people rose to do them honour, and they took
their seats on these occasions among the senators. They
were not only personally excused from all troublesome
offices, but the honour they enjoyed procured the same
immunity for their father, and grandfather by the fathers
S^CIVID ADE, a city of Italy, in the delegation Udine, of
the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. It is situated on the
river Natisone, over which is a bridge of 2b0 feet m length.
It contains a cathedral, seven churches, and 3600 mhabi-
taiCIVIL, in a general sense, something regarding the
policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or subjects of
the state; in which sense we say civil government, civil
law, civil right, civil war, and the like.
Civil, in a popular sense, is applied to a complaisant
and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourse of life.
See Civility. ,
Civil, in a legal sense, is also applied to the ordinary
procedure in an action relating to some pecuniary matter
or interest; in which sense it is opposed to criminal.
Civil Death, any thing that cuts off a man from civil
society ; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpetual ba¬
nishment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and excom¬
munication.
CIVIL LAW
Is a term applied by way of eminence to the municipal
law of the Romans. This system of jurisprudence has for
many ages been regarded as one of the most conspicuous
monuments of human wisdom and genius; and its power¬
ful influence on modern legislation has been felt and ac¬
knowledged by every civilized nation of Europe. Although
it has long ceased to retain the full authority of written
law, it can never cease to attract the attention, and to ex¬
cite the admiration, of lawyers who are capable of ascend¬
ing to this clear and copious fountain of juridical know¬
ledge. The study of the civil law may formerly have en¬
grossed a larger share of notice than it can justly claim ,
but there are many reasons for supposing that, in this
country at least, it is too much neglected, both by pro¬
fessional lawyers, and by those who aspire at the reputa¬
tion of general learning.
It is stated by Mr Hallam, that “ the stream of litera¬
ture that has so remarkably altered its channel within the
last century, has left no region more deserted than those
of the civil and canon law. Except among the immediate
ciples of the papal court, or perhaps in Spain, no man,
uppose, throughout Europe will ever again undertake
- study of the one; and the new legal systems, which
3 moral and political revolutions of this age have pro-
ced, and are likely to diffuse, will leave little influence
importance to the other.”1 But in all Catholic com¬
es, the canon law is a necessary study; and even the
■otestants of Germany think it a study which cannot be
fely neglected. When to a certain extent we recom¬
end the study of the canon as well as the cm! law, we
the same time make a clear distinction ie w
ility to be derived from the one and from the other A
miliar acquaintance with the civil law we are disposed to
gard as the best foundation of all juridical scie •
udent, duly initiated in classical learning, may
lire a concise and elegant mode of reasoning o g
farious topics of jurisprudence; and e ' . j j
miliar with those maxims of law which have extend
leir influence to all the civilized portions of Europe,
'his species of knowledge is therefore highly valuab
1 Haflam’s Hist, of the Middle Ages, vol. iii. p. 519.
CIVIL LAW.
i:H Law. itself, and it guides us to other knowledge, of more imme-
m-y-w7 diate application to the ordinary business of life. In se¬
veral countries, the civil law continues to be studied with
a degree of ardour which Mr Hallam could not fail to
consider as surprising, and perhaps preposterous. But the
canon law cannot claim the same pre-eminence, nor is it
to be recommended to students on account of its intrinsic
excellence: it is to be considered as the spurious offspring
of the civil law, and as having gradually attained its full
growth under the fostering care of priestly usurpation;
what is most valuable, it has derived from the Roman ju¬
risprudence, and its own peculiar maxims have all the
same general tendency towards the power and aggrandize¬
ment of the church.
In those countries most remarkable for the extent and
solidity of their erudition, namely, in Germany and Hol¬
land, the study of the civil law has long constituted an
essential branch of a liberal education ; and they persuade
themselves that many advantages result from such a plan
of study. Many of their professed scholars are excellent
civilians, and many of their professed civilians are excel¬
lent scholars. It is sufficiently obvious that those who
are acquainted with the phraseology and with the spirit of
the Roman law, will readily understand many passages of
the Latin classics which to others must remain obscure
and unintelligible. Even the poets admit of such illus¬
tration : Plautus, Horace, and Ovid may frequently be
explained from the writings of the civilians.1
These general assertions wdll best be confirmed by a
particular example; and the examples are so abundant
that the chief difficulty lies in the necessity of making a
selection. The subsequent passage in one of the epistles
of Pliny may however be regarded as sufficient for our
purpose. “ Tu quidem pro caetera tua diligentia admones
me, codicillos Aciliani, qui me ex parte instituit heredem,
pro non scriptis habendos, quia non sint confirmati testa-
mento: quod jus ne mihi quidem ignotum est, quum sit
iis etiam notum qui nihil aliud sciunt. Sed ego propriam
quandam legem mihi dixi, ut defunctorum voluntates,
etiamsi jure deficerent, quasi perfectas tuerer. Constat
autem, codicillos istos Aciliani manu scriptos. Licet ergo
non sint confirmati testamento, a me tamen, ut confirmati,
observabuntur.”2 This point of law, says Pliny, is even
known to those who are ignorant of every other; but it
seems nevertheless to have been completely misappre¬
hended by Dr Adam, who has thus stated the doctrine of
codicils : “ When additions were made to a will, they were
called codicilli. They were expressed in the form of a
letter addressed to the heirs, sometimes also to trustees
(ad fideicommissarios). It behoved them however to be
confirmed by the testament. Plin. Ep. ii. 16.”3 The first
of these sentences contains a definition of a modern co¬
dicil ; but, according to the civil law, a codicil was a less
solemn form of a will. It might be made by a person who
709
was either testate or intestate; in other words, it could Civil Law.
either accompany or subsist without a testament. A per-
son might leave several codicils; whereas no pagan, that
is, no person who was not a soldier, could leave more tes¬
taments than one. It was essential to the character of a
testament that it should institute an heir; but a codicil
was in all cases incompetent for that purpose, and could
only bequeath legacies and trusts: it therefore could not
disinherit one heir, or substitute another. As the law
stood in the age of Caius, a legacy bequeathed by a co¬
dicil, and not ratified by a testament, was null and void ;4
and, according to the doctrine which, in- more general
terms, was afterwards stated by Papinian, where the co¬
dicil was of a date prior to the will, it was held to be in¬
effectual unless confirmed by that will, or by another co¬
dicil.5 The notion of Dr Adam, that a codicil must suc¬
ceed a testament, and that it must nevertheless be con¬
firmed by a testament, cannot very easily be comprehend¬
ed ; but the statement of the ancient writer, when pro¬
perly understood, is easily reconciled to the doctrine of
the civilians. The individual whom he mentions had first
made a codicil, and afterwards a testament, and had ne¬
glected to confirm in the one a legacy which had been
bequeathed in the other: a direct bequest could not be
effectually made in this manner, but Pliny expresses his
determination to take no advantage of the legal informality.
The legislation of Rome under the regal dynasty must
have been extremely simple. Of this era however very
few reliques have been preserved, nor are the genuine
sufficiently distinguished from the spurious. The Leges
liegice have been collected by Lipsius,6 * * 9 10 and other men of
learning; and of the supposed laws of Romulus a separate
collection was published by Balduinus.7
After the expulsion of the last king, the want of a re¬
gular code of laws appears to have been felt by the Ro¬
mans, who were yet an inconsiderable and a rude people.
According to the uniform testimony of their own writers,
they had recourse to the expedient of sending a deputa¬
tion to Greece, in order to procure information respect¬
ing the laws of a kindred nation. The commonly received
account of this embassy was called in question by Giam¬
battista Vico,8 a professor of rhetoric, who ought to have
been a professor of law, at Naples: he has been followed
by Bonamy,9 Gibbon, Niebuhr, Wachsmuth, and many
other writers, both civilians and historians. The current
of opinion in Germany is decidedly in favour of his con¬
clusion, which however we are not yet fully prepared to
admit.10
It is stated by Livy, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
that ambassadors were sent to Greece, in order to collect
information respecting the laws of that country ; and the
same account, or nearly the same, is repeated by many other
ancient writers. Angelo Mai, adopting the opinion of Vico,
has urged as an objection against this account, that it is
1 The juridical science of Ovid has been illustrated in a work published under this title: “ Dissertatio philologico-juridica de in-
signi in poeta Ovidio Romani Juris Peritia, quam Thesibus suis inauguralibus adjectam voluit auctor J. van Iddekinge, J. U. D.”
Amst. 1811, 8vo.
2 Plinii Epistoke, lib. ii. ep. xvi. edit. Gesner. ■* Caii Institutiones, lib. ii. § 270.
s Adam’s Roman Antiquities, p. 50*. s Digest, lib. xxix. tit. vii. fr. 5.
6 Lipsii Opera, tom. iv. p. 277- Antverpue, 1637, 4 tom. fob
? Balduini libri duo in Leges Romuli, et Leges xii. Tab. quibus Fontes Juris Civilis explicantur. Paris. 1554, fol. This edition,
which is not the earliest, is subjoined to the author’s copious commentary on the Institutes.
8 J. B. Vico de Constantia jurisprudentis, p. 224. Neapoli, 1721, 4to. See likewise the same author’s Principj di Scienza nuova
d'intomo alia comune Natura delle Nazioni, tom. i. p. 120, ed. Milano, 1801, 3 tom. 8vo.—1'" Hoc opus, ’ says labroni, in allusion to
the latter work, “ ei in amore et deliciis fuit, et glorians affirmabat se posteris monumentum reliquisse, ex quo judicium facere pos-
sent, quantum in hoc studiorum genere valeret, quantumque elaborasset.” (Vitse Italorum Doctrina excellentium, tom. xii. p. 295.)
9 Dissertation sur 1’Origine des Loix des XII. Tables, par M. Bonamy : Memoires de 1’Academic des Inscriptions et Belles Let-
tres, tom. xii. p. 27. . . . .
10 On the subject of this controversy, two articles, written by Berriat St. Prix, may be found in that valuable repository the
Themis, ou Bibliotheque du Jurisconsults, tom. iv. p. 304. tom. vi. p. 269.
jjO CIVIL LA W.
O'vil Taw nowhere mentioned in the writings of Cicero d but if we instead of the entire collection. It is indeed stated by Civil L;:
were to admit the fact, it would not be necessary to ad- Livy that, after this calamity, an attempt was made by
^ mit the inference ; for Cicero might or might not find oc- public authority to recover the regal and decemviral laws ;10
casion to refer to an event which, so far as we can disco- and we learn from Cyprian that, during the third century,
ver no person regarded as doubtful. The following ex- the laws of the twelve Tables were still to be found en-
pressions however seem to contain a manifest allusion graved on tablets of brass.11 If then the laws themselves
to the influence of the Athenian upon the Roman laws: were rescued from the ruins of the city, is there any dif-
Adsunt Athenienses, unde humanitas, doctrina, religio, ficulty in imagining, or any absurdity in believing, that
fruge« iura, leges ortte, atque in omnes terras distribute their genuine history was likewise preserved Let us
putantur.”2 ’ This passage occurs in one of his orations ; even suppose that every written monument perished in
■md' in another work, Cicero notices the coincidence or the common wreck; yet the nation itself was not exter-
identity of certain decemviral laws with those of Solon.3 minated ; and the oral tradition of one generation became
In the subsequent passage, Tacitus evidently alludes to the lettered recoid of the next.
a fact which must have been considered as incontroverti- Some writers have involved the subject in unnecessary
bie • “ Creatique decemviri, et accitis quae usquam egre- doubt and difficulty, by misapprehending the real state
ma’composite: duodecim Tabulae, finis aequi juris.”4 The of the question ; for it has been seriously asked whether
younger Pliny thus addresses one of his friends : “ Habe the decemvirs transferred the entire laws of Solon to the
ante oculos, hanc esse terram quae nobis miserit jura, quae twelve Tables. If any person imagines that they trans-
leges non victa acceperit, sed petentibus dederit; Atbenas ferred the entire laws of Solon, or any other legislator,
esse, quas adeas ; Lacedaemonem esse, quam regas.'0 Pom- he manifestly entertains a very crude opinion ; and he
ponius has likewise adopted the same account: “ Postea, who opposes such an opinion, can only be thought to
ne diutius hoc fieret, placuit publica auctoritate decern combat a phantom. Let us examine the passage of Livy
constitui viros, per quos peterentur leges a Graecis civi- as our original text: “ Quum de legibus conveniret, de
tatibus et civitas fundaretur legibus.”6 Many other pas- latore tantum discreparet, missi legati Athenas Sp. Pos-
sa„es of ancient writers might be accumulated, not to tumius Albus, A. Manlius, Ser. Sulpicius Camermus ; jus-
strengthen the original authority on which we find the sique inclytas leges Solonis describere, et aliai um Gra'ciae
fact stated, but to evince that this fact was generally, if civitatum instituta, mores, juraque noscere. He soon
not universally admitted. afterwards states that those ambassadors were nominated
Dr Macieiowski, professor of the civil law in the unlvt-r- among the decemvirs for two reasons : “ His proximi le-
sity of Warsaw, has directed the edge of his criticism gati tres habiti, qui Athenas lerant; simul ut pro lega-
against the character of Livy and Dionysius as histo- tione tarn longinqua praemio esset honos; simul pentos
rians-7 and we are not unwilling to admit that on this legum peregrinarum ad condenda nova jura usm fore cre-
subiect his opinion is entitled to attention. The value debant.” Nothing can be more plain and intelligible than
and importance of Dionysius’s work for the early history this account. Three ambassadors, or as we might with
of the Roman law, has been discussed by Dr Schulin ;8 equal propriety describe them, three messengers, were
and with respect to the character of Livy, we only think sent to Greece, with instructions to procure a copy of
it necessary to remark that we regard him as no incom- the laws of Solon, and to acquaint themselves with the
petent authority for such a fact as he has recorded. Had laws and institutions of other states of Greece besides
the fact of such a mission been very absurd or very incre- Athens. In the commission for preparing a body of laws,
dible in itself, the state of the question would have been these three individuals were included, in order that tins
essentially different. It is further urged by the same honour might compensate them for their former labours,
learned professor, that all the ancient monuments of Ro- and that the knowledge which they had acquired of fo-
man history must have perished when the city was burnt reign jurisprudence might be rendered useful m the com-
by the Gauls. But it is not to be doubted that the laws pilation of a new body of laws. The expression ad con-
of the twelve Tables, or at least ample portions of them, denda nova jura certainly does not suggest the idea ol
survived the destruction of the city : those laws are re- transferring laws already made. If therefore any enquirer
peatedly mentioned by Cicero, as we should now mention should succeed in proving, what it will however be very
the Great Charter, not as what has existed, but as what difficult to prove, that there is not a single coincidence
still exists;9 at a later period they were the subject of between any existing fragment of the tvvelve fables, and
various commentaries, nor do we meet with any hint or any existing fragment of the laws of Athens or any other
suggestion that such commentaries related to fragments, state of Greece, no argument could thence be deduce
I Maius ad Ciceronem de llepublica, lib. ii. cap. xxxvi. p. 201. Ilomse, 1822, 8vo.
* Ciceronis Oral, pro Flacco, § 26. ^ Taciti Annal. lib. in. cap. xxvn.
6 D^geTtAiL^iftit! R^fr. 2* fi- XTheseXwords of Pomponius, as they now stand, are at variance with the account glven by Livy;
and Bynkershoek very ingeniously conjectures that they ought to be transposed in the following manner: Placuit publica aucton-
tate peterentur leges a Grsecis civitatibus, et decern constitui viros, per quos ciyitas fundaretur legibus. , . , pvnressed
* Macieiowski Opusculorum Sylloge prima, p. 102. Varsavue, 1823, 8vo. Having, in the first edition of his fXpi^Stled
his disbelief in the story of the embassy to Greece, his opinion was publicly controverted by Professor Ciampq in a
Novum Examen Loci Liliani, de Legatis, &c. Vilme, 1821, 8vo. To this antagonist he replies, but without mentioning
an Excursus ad Livii Historiarum lib. in. cap. 31. sqq. See likewise the second edition of his Histona Juris Romani, p. o4.
ib*JDeVDionysio Halicarnasseo Historico, pnecipuo Historic Juris Romani Fonte, Dissertatio inauguralis, in Heidelber-
gensi prsemio ornata: scripsit Phil. Frid. Schulin, Moeno-Francofurtanus, Juris utnusque Doctor. Heidelbergae, 1820, «o.
9 “ Discebamus enim pueri XII. ut carmen necessarium ; quas jam nemo discit.” _ (Cicero de Legibus, i . n. caP' „nf »
i o “ In primis fcedera et leges (erant autem ese duodecim Tabulae, et quaedam regiae leges) conquin quae compa i , J
(Livii Hist. lib. vi. cap. i.) Wpr iura
II “ Incisae sint licet leges duodecim tabulis, et publice aere praefixo jura praescripta sint, inter leges ipsas q j
peccatur.” (Cypriani Opera, p. 4. edit. Baluz. Paris. 1726, fol.) . _ . . • TfoW Seethe
12 Livii Hist. lib. iii. cap. xxxi.—According to some writers, they were partly indebted to the Greek coloni )
learned work of Dempster, De Etruria Regali, tom. i. p. 445.
CIVIL LAW.
;'il Law. against Livy’s account of the mission. The Romans, at
that period a rude and simple nation, were anxious to ob¬
tain some knowledge of the laws, customs, and institu¬
tions of a kindred people, before they attempted to reduce
their own laws to something approaching to a systema¬
tic form; and in order to procure this knowledge, they
adopted an expedient which must strike every person,
who reflects on the state of society at that remote era, as
the most obvious and practicable that could have been
devised. But of the new laws with which they thus be¬
came acquainted, it is evident that many were utterly to
be rejected, some to be abhorred ; and they might learn
what to avoid, as well as what to imitate. We might as
rationally expect one nation to adopt the entire language
as the entire laws of another nation. When the decemvirs
were employed in their important task, the city of Rome
had seen three centuries of years, and during that period
had partly been governed by written, and partly by un¬
written laws. It is therefore to be supposed that the
twelve Tables chiefly consisted of a digest of what was re¬
garded as the best portion of their municipal enactments
and customs: customary law, which acquires its vigour
and consistency in the early stages of society, was doubt¬
less a very essential part; and some modifications, perhaps
various regulations entirely new, might be derived from
a foreign source. This we conceive to be the authentic
history, and these the genuine effects, of the fitmous mis¬
sion into Greece; and in the general texture of this story
we find nothing that exceeds the limits of rational belief.
Dr Dunbar has well remarked that “ the Romans, while
yet a rude people, disdained not to appoint an embassy to
enquire into the jurisprudence of the Greeks, and to sup¬
ply, from that fountain, the deficiencies in their civil code.
This embassy seems to have been suggested by Hermo-
dorus, an exiled citizen of Ephesus, who afterwards emi¬
nently assisted in interpreting the collection of laws
brought from Greece. His public services met with a
public reward. A statue was erected to him in the Co-
mitia at the public expense; an honour which the jea¬
lousy of Rome would have denied to a stranger in a less
generous age. But, at this period, she acted from a nobler
impulse ; and the statue erected to Hermodorus was erect¬
ed, in reality, to her own honour. Yet the name of this
Ephesian, which casts a lustre upon Rome, seemed to cast
a shade upon his native city; and that people, according
to Heraclitus, deserved to have been extirpated to a man,
who had condemned such a citizen to exile.”1 This agency
of Hermodorus is not mentioned by Livy: but the erec¬
tion of his statue is recorded by the elder Pliny ;2 and his
connexion with the decemvirs is likewise stated by Pom-
ponius : “ Et ita ex accidentia appellatae sunt Leges duo-
decim Tabularum : quarum ferendarum auctorem fuisse
decemviris Hermodorum quendam Ephesium, exulantem
in Italia, quidam retulerunt.”3 By the word auctor, as
used in this passage, we are evidently to understand a
person who advised or influenced the decemvh's; and ac¬
cording to Pliny, his services were those of a translator or
expoundei’. It is therefore highly probable that he was
711
chiefly employed in expounding to them the Greek laws, Civil Law.
of which they had obtained a transcript. As he appears
to have been a person of superior talents,4 his own com¬
ments might be useful and important; but we are by no
means inclined to estimate his services so highly as Pro¬
fessor Gratama, who represents him as the real author of
the laws of the twelve Tables.5 *
Before we dismiss the history of the twelve Tables, we
are tempted to notice an opinion which another modern
author has delivered respecting one of their enactments.
“ Ancient histories,” says Lord Karnes, “ are full of in¬
credible facts that passed current during the infancy of
reason, which at present would be rejected with contempt.
Every one who is conversant in the history of ancient na-
tiorxs, can recal instances without end. Does any person
believe at present, though gravely reported by historians,
that in old Rome there was a law for cutting into pieces
the body of a bankrupt, and distributing the parts among
his creditors? 5 I his is the speculation of an ingenious
man, who is sometimes too precipitate in his conclusions.
Armaeus Robertus7 and Heraldus8 have each proposed a
mitigating interpretation of this law of the twelve Tables:
Bynkershoek was solicitous to prove that the creditors
were entitled to divide, not the body, but the price of the
insolvent debtor ;9 and his opinion has been adopted by
the learned Dr Taylor,10 and by some other civilians. But
this opinion can neither be reconciled with the obvious
meaning of the words, nor with the ancient mode of un¬
derstanding them.11 Those who consider such an enact¬
ment as altogether incredible, ought at the same time to
consider the real character of the Roman people at that
period of their history. They certainly were not distin¬
guished by the gentler virtues ; and if their laws were al¬
together silent as to the treatment of debtors, we ascer¬
tain from other sources of information that it was extreme¬
ly harsh arid cruel. In more rude communities, where
commex-ce is almost entirely unknown, and where the poor
are completely subjected to the rich, the insolvent debtor
is very apt to be treated as a criminal. In ancient Rome,
we know fx-om historical records, not merely from the let¬
ter of the law, that he might be reduced to the condition
of a slave; and it is obvious to every person acquainted
with ancient history, that the unrelenting treatment of
debtors was a ground of open dissension between the dif¬
ferent orders of the people. The same laws which con¬
ferred on the father of a family the power of life and death
over his wife and children, and which awarded capital
punishment against the author of a satirical poem, may
without much difficulty be conceived to have disposed of
a poor debtoi-’s person in the most summary manner.
It was in the 302d year from the building of the city
that the decemvirs were appointed, and were invested with
extraordinary powers, for the purpose of compiling a body
of laws. They accordingly completed ten tables, which
in the following year were confirmed by the comitia cen-
turiata; but as some deficiencies were still to be sup¬
plied, decemvirs were again created, and the labour was
thus brought to a conclusion. The laws of the twelve
1 Dunbar’s Essays on the History of Mankind in rude and cultivated Ages, p. 161. Lond. 1780, 8vo.—See likewise Dr Wallace’s
Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind in antient and modern Times, p. 238. Edinb. 1753, 8vo.
2 “ Fuit et Hermodori Ephesii in Comitio, legum quas decemviri scribebant interpretis, [statua] publice dicata.” (Plinii Natur.
Hist. lib. xxxiv. cap. xi.)
3 Digest, lib. i. tit. ii. fr. 2. § 4. 4 See Menagii Observationes in Diogenem Laertium, p. 393.
5 Serpii Gratama Oratio de Hermodoro Ephesio vero XII. Tabularum Auctore. Groningse, 1817, 4to.
6 Karnes’s Sketches of the History of Man, vol. iii. p. 253.
7 Iloberti Rerum Judicatarum libri iv. f. 137- b. edit. Paris. 1597, 4to.
8 Heraldi de Rerum Judicatarum Auctoritate libri ii. p. 518. Paris. 1640, 8vo.
2 Bynkershoek Observationes Juris Romani, lib. i. cap. i.
10 Taylori Commentarius in L. Decemviralem de inope Debitore in partis dissecando. Cantabrigiae, 1742, 4to.
11 Dr Yalpy, a learned divine, has confuted the opinion of Bynkershoek and Taylor, in a long note subjoined to his Sermons preach,
ed on public Occasions, vol. ii. p. 1. Lond. 1811, 2 vols. 8vo.
CIVIL LAW.
Tables were illustrated by the commentaries of several an¬
cient lawyers, and among the rest by Antistius Labeo and
Caius: the fragments of those laws have been collected
and explainedCby many of the moderns, by Baldumus,
Raevardus, Marcilius, Augustinus, Gravina, Funccius, liou-
chaud, and others d but the most able and conspicuous
labourer in this province is the younger Gothotredus,
whose edition of the Theodosian Code has rendered his
name illustrious in the history of jurisprudence.
Law assumed the form of a science during the latter
ages of the republic; and jurisprudence, like philosophy,
was at length subdivided into sects.3 The chief splen¬
dour of the Roman lawyers is to be traced from the reign
of Augustus to that of Alexander Sever us ;4 and the last
name of great celebrity is that of Herennius Modestinus.-’
With this pupil of Ulpian, the oracles of the civilians be¬
came mute :(! the succeeding lawyers are only known as
compilers or expounders; and although the law was long
afterwards taught at Rome, Constantinople, and Berytus,
we cannot in those declining annals discover any vestiges
of ancient genius. The reign of Constantine was not con¬
spicuous for legal science; and by fixing the seat of em¬
pire at Byzantium, he diminished all the chances or pio-
babilities of improvement. To the great body of those
who inhabited the new metropolis, the language m the
law was a foreign language ; nor was this the only circum¬
stance unfavourable to the cultivation and progress of ju¬
risprudence. . . .
It is well known that the decisions of certain lawyers
obtained the force of law.7 In a rescript of Constantine,
dated in the year 327, we find the highest authority as¬
cribed to the opinions of Julius Paulus,8 who flourished at
the close of the second and the commencement of the
third century. After an interval of nearly one hundred
years, appeared another imperial constitution, intended to
regulate the number and weight of legal opinions. In the
iud'J-es themselves very little confidence seems to be re¬
posed, nor is it difficult to imagine that their general me¬
rits are not undervalued : they are bound to decide points
of law, according to the number of accredited opinions ;
when the numbers are equal, and the decision of rapi-
nian can be produced on one side of a question, Ins au¬
thority must be allowed to preponderate, “ qui, ut singu-
los vincit, ita cedit duobus and it is only in the case of
a perfect equilibrium of legal opinions, that they are left
to the full exercise of their own discrimination.9 I his ar¬
rangement is so entirely mechanical, that it is manifestly
adapted to the lowest standard of attainment in those en-Civil Lav
trusted with the administration of the law. _
Of the writings of the ancient lawyers, innumerable
fragments are incorporated in the Pandects, and various
others have been collected by Schulting. I he recent dis¬
covery of several reliques of the Roman law has given a
fresh impulse to the continental civilians. New portions
of the Theodosian Code have been brought to light by
Clossius and Peyron. To the Vatican Fragments, pub¬
lished by Angelo Mai,10 we can only make a transient al¬
lusion ; but the recovery of the long-lost Institutes of
Caius is too remarkable an event to be noticed in the same
manner. An unsatisfactory abridgement of these Insti¬
tutes had long been known ; but the genuine text of Caius
was not discoVered till the year 1816. In the library of the
chapter of Verona, the celebrated Niebuhr, author of the
Roman history, found a juridical manuscript of great an¬
tiquity ; and when a short extract was communicated to
Savigny, he easily ascertained that it formed a portipn of
the original work of this ancient lawyer, who flourished
about the age of Antoninus. In the course of the follow¬
ing year, the Royal Academy of Berlin dispatched to Ve¬
rona two distinguished members of the university, Pro¬
fessor Goschen, a civilian, and Professor Bekker, a plnlo-
loger, entrusted with the important commission of exe¬
cuting a transcript of the manuscript; and in the perfor¬
mance of this very formidable task, they were greatly
aided by the spontaneous and indefatigable services of
Dr Bethmann Holweg, who was afterwards appointed a
professor of law at Berlin. The manuscript is a codex re-
scriptus, and to a considerable extent bis rescriptus ; nor
is it easy to conceive the difficulty of deciphering an an¬
cient relique in this condition. Without the aid of a che¬
mical process, it would have been impossible to succeed
in the attempt to read what had thus been written and
erased.11 According to the opinion of Kopp, the learned au¬
thor of the Palceographia Critica, who is allowed to possess
great knowledge of ancient monuments, the manuscript
must have been written before Justinian’s reformation of
the law.12 After much laborious preparation, the Insti¬
tutes of Caius or Gaius were published in the most able
and satisfactory manner by Professor Gbschen,13 who, since
that period, has been removed to the university of Got-
tino-en, where he now lectures to numerous auditories.
He&published a second edition in 1824, and several other
editions have already appeared. Although the manu¬
script has been exposed to frequent and material mutila-
. See Dirksen’s Uebersicht der bisherige,. Versuche zur Kritik und HereteUung dee Teste, der Zwolf-Tafel.Fragmente. Leipzig,
18f Golhofredus's ***** XII. T.Uar„,n are to be found in bis Potties }mtoor Jon, CitMis. Geneva:, 1653, «o. The, are reprint-
ed among his Opera Juridica minora. Lugd. Bat. 1733, fol. TWvUaa T 1728 8vo.
*. jurisconsultorum veterutn, a Bernardo Butilio, Joanne
Bertrando, et Guilielmo Grotio conscripts.” Hals Magd. 1718, ^ . ... d ,, others by Brenkman, in a work en-
ti,;"s terc—‘"s-"Lusd- ^
sentential eoncormnt, id quod ita sentiunt, iegis yicem obtmet; in which the
3 cl's0 TKThe h£; !? th“aSn law.’ Retire their discover,, this rescript of Hadrian was totally unknown
to modern civilians. _ t 9 Cod Theodos. lib. i. tit. iv. p. 24. edit. Wenck.
: ^:£ai“RL?nrm8r3sr^ »V * ^1. ^ *• —„« .*»«*»«
Kiiniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschafteu aus den Jahren
1816-1817, 8.307. Berlin, 1819, 4to. Themis, tom. i. p. 287- Goesehem prst. m und Goschen, Bd. iv. S. 480.
i * Zeitschrift fur geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft, herausgegeben von ^v gy^ y nensis nunc primum editi. Eerohm,
i3 Qaii Institutionum commentarii iv. e codice resenpto Bibliothecs Capitulans veronensis nu p
1820, 8vo.
CIVIL LAW.
Law. tions, much remains to instruct and to interest the learn-
enquirei ; and tiie book has accordingly been received
by the foreign civilians with a degree of ardour and exul¬
tation, not easily conceived by those who are unacquaint¬
ed with the pi ogress of such studies among some of the
continental nations. Its value in elucidating the history
of the Roman law has been discussed by Schrader.1 Cains
has aheady been illustrated in many other publications,
and, in some of the German universities, has been illus¬
trated in separate courses of lectures. It may safely be
affirmed, that the discovery of the Institutes of Caius
forms a mew era in the history of jurisprudence.
Before we proceed to mention the legislative labours of
Theodosius, it will be proper to state that, in the compi¬
lation of a code of laws, he had been preceded by two pri¬
vate lawyeis, Gregorius or Gregorianus, and Hermogenes
or Hermogenianus, for their respective names are not
completely ascertained.2 From the order in which their
codes are mentioned by ancient writers, it is to be infer¬
red that the labours of Gregorius preceded those of Iler-
mogenianus. Some fragments of both codes have been
preserved by Anianus.3 Gregorius appears to have col¬
lected the imperial constitutions belonging to the inter¬
mediate reigns, from Hadrian to Constantine the Great.
Hermogenianus is supposed to have formed a supplemen¬
tary collection; and the remaining fragments consist en¬
tirely oi the constitutions of Dioclesian and Maximinian.
Of the former of these compilers, the personal history is
involved in complete obscurity. According to the con¬
jectures of modern civilians, the latter must have flourish¬
ed in the reign of Constantine; and he is supposed to be
the same Hermogenianus whose works are quoted in the
Pandects. Both compilations are apparently to be consi¬
dered as the undertakings of private individuals: the an¬
cient commentator on the Theodosian Code has indeed
averred that their authority is confirmed by a law, “ sub
titulo de Constitutionibus Principum et Edictis,”4 and Go-
thofredus has naturally enough relied on this averment;
but the commentator probably alluded to a constitution
which has recently been discovered, and which certainly
affords no adequate support to such an opinion. The em¬
peror merely declares his resolution of forming a collec¬
tion of imperial constitutions, “ ad similitudinem Grego-
rmniatque Hermogeniani Codicis:” he thus acknowledges
the propriety of such a model, but is silent with respect
to any public sanction of those antecedent codes.5 It is
however probable that they obtained some degree of au¬
thority in the forum.6 This circumstance may naturally
be imputed to the intrinsic value of such a collection of
laws; and we may conceive the two codes to have ob¬
tained the same degree of authority as might belong to
the publication of an English author, who had prepared a
digest or an abridgement of the Statutes. In either case
the credit of the compiler must depend, not upon any for¬
mal sanction, but upon the fidelity with which he is ge¬
nerally believed to have executed his undertaking.
It appears to have been the original intention of Theo¬
dosius to compile two codes, arranged according to diffe¬
713
rent plans ; but his second code was never completed, nor Civil Law.
is it easy to conjecture what specific plan he had contem-
plated. The emperor had thus divulged his intention in
the year 429, and the 1 heodosian Code received his sanc¬
tion on the fifteenth of February 438. I his code of laws,
which is sometimes erroneously ascribed to Theodosius
the Great, derived its origin from his grandson Theodo¬
sius the younger. On the decease of the first Theodosius,
the Roman empire was divided between his two sons, the
provinces of the east being allotted to Arcadius, those of
the west to Honorius. From the sovereign of the east
descended Theodosius the Second: after the death of his
father and of his uncle, he again united the dominions
which had thus been partitioned ; but conferring the titles
of Caesar and Augustus upon Valentinian the Third, who
married his daughter Licinia Eudoxia, he assigned to him
the western provinces of the empire. This son-in-law',
who became his successor at Constantinople, was likewise
bis cousin, being the son of Constantins Caesar, and of
Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius the Great.
The compilers of the code were eight in number, and,
as Gothofredus has remarked, they all occupied stations
which required an acquaintance with the laws. Antio-
chus, who was placed at their head, has been confounded
by him, as well as by Heineccius, with Antiochus the
eunuch, and likewise with a third individual of the same
name.7 8 By a constitution, which has lately been dis-
coveied, and which bears the date of 435, the emperor
had invested these commissioners with power to retrench
what was superfluous, to add what was wanting, to change
what was ambiguous, and to correct what was incongru¬
ous.3 Justinian afterwards invested his commissioners
with more ample powers : they were even authorized to
consolidate several constitutions into one; and we may
presume that neither of the two codes exhibited the im¬
perial laws, or at least a large proportion of them, in their
original state. In the novel which sanctions the Theodo¬
sian Code, the emperor evidently admits that the com¬
pilers whom he had employed were not mere copyists :
“ Manet igitur, manebitque perpetuo, elimata gloria con-
ditorum, nec in nostrum titulum demigravit nisi lux sola
brevitatis.”
This code contains the edicts and rescripts of sixteen
emperors; and its chronology extends from 312 to 438,
thus embracing a period of 126 years. It commences
wdth the reign of the first Christian emperor, and there is
a systematic exclusion of the constitutions issued by the
military adventurers who, during that interval, were finally
unsuccessful in their attempts to usurp the government;
but the selection is not limited to the constitutions of the
Christian princes, for here we find the apostate Julian
among other imperial lawgivers. The code is divided into
sixteen books, and the laws which compose each title are
arranged in chronological order.
The body of laws thus prepared by the emperor of the
east was immediately adopted by the emperor of the
west. A very curious document, containing the “ Gesta
in Senatu Urbis Romae de recipiendo Theodosiano Co-
1 Was gewinnt die Itomische Rechtsgeschichte durch Caius Institutionen ? untersucht von Eduard Schrader, Pr0fe«sor in TLi*
bingen. Heidelberg, 1823, 8vo—The learned author has prosecuted similar enquiries in an article entitled “ Neuentdeekte Quellen
ixonnscher Rechtskunde,” which occurs in the Kritische Zeitschrift f ur nechtswusemcliaft, Ed. i. S. 137. Elvers has nuhlished a verv
useful work under the title of Promptuarium Gaianum. Gostingce, 1824, 8vo. ^
2 Gothofredi Prolegomena ad Codicem Theodosianum, cap. i. Schultingii Jurisprudentia Ante-Justinianea, p. 683. Menami
uuns Civilis Amcenitates, cap. xi. Reinoldi Opuscula Juridica, p. 404. ' C. F. Pohlii Hissertatio de Codicibus Greo-oriano atone
tt^nnogenian0. Lipsise, 1777, 4to. " 4
681. Lugd. Bat. 1717, 4to. Jus Civile Ante-Justinianeum, tom. i. p. 263.
- Schultingii Jurisprudentia Ante-Justimanea, p.
Berolini, 1815, 2 tom. 8vo.
4 Cod. Theodos. lib. i. tit. iv. 1. 1.
5 Theodosiani Codicis genuini Fragmenta, p. 6.
6 Heineccii Hist. Juris Civilis, p. 478. edit. Ritter.
VOL. VI.
7 See Ritter ad Novell. Theod. p. 6.
8 Codicis Theodosiani Fragmenta inedita, p. 29.
4 x
14
CIVIL LAW.
Civil Law. dice,” has been discovered by Clossius. At this period
' the Roman senate only exhibited a shadow ol its foimei
greatness: the stern and dignified republicans bad Ion
been supplanted by the minions of an imperial court; and
a senate, possessing a very slender remnant of authority,
had been embodied in each of the two great divisions of
the empire.1 The senate of Rome having assembled on
this occasion, one of the consuls Anicius Acihus Glabno
Faustus, proceeded to acquaint the fathers with the le& s
lative enterprize of the one emperor, and the zealous
concurrence of the other. “ Quam rem seternus pr.nceps,
dominus noster Valentinianus, devotione socu, attectu tilu
comprobavit.” He afterwards read the constitution, which
has already been mentioned, relative to the project ot
forming two different codes ; and this recitation was suc¬
ceeded by many exclamations in the highest strain ot
loyalty. In the midst of various expressions of kindness
and regard for the consul, the senators hazarded a few sug¬
gestions respecting the custody and transcription of this
new code of laws ; but we perceive no vestiges ot free dis¬
cussion, or of real deliberation, which always implies the
power of adopting either the one or the other of two con¬
flicting opinions. They might presume to regulate cer¬
tain matters of detail, but were without any real influence
in the administration of public affairs. In the instance
now before us, their chief functions were manifestly con¬
fined to the ready approval of what the consul informed
them was the will of the emperor.
The Theodosian Code was thus promulgated in the
western, as well as in the eastern empire. The Gothic
conquerors of the west permitted their Roman subjects
to enjoy the benefit and the protection of their own laws ;
and a compendium of those laws was soon prepared un¬
der the auspices of Alaric king of the Visigoths, whose
dominions comprehended certain provinces ot Spain and
Gaul.2 This collection contains an abridgement of the
three codes of Gregorius, Hermogenianus, and Theodo¬
sius, together with some novels, or new constitutions, and
an epitome of the Institutes of Caius, extracts from the
Sententiae of Paulus, and from the books of Papiman. It
was completed in the year 506, “ regnante dom.no Ala-
rico reo-e, ordinante viro inlustri Goiarico comite; and
we must apparently conclude that the superintendence ot
the work had been committed to Goiaric, who was doubt¬
less an officer of the king’s court. But it has for several
centuries been known under the title of Aniani Brev ia-
rium, or the Abridgement of Anianus. The different
copies appear to have been attested by his signatuie,
and, according to the opinion of Gothofredus, he presents
himself, not as the compiler of the book, but merely as
the king’s referendary.3 “ Anianus, vir spectabilis, ex
pra?ceptione D. N. gloriosiss. Alarici regis, hunc Codicem Civil La,;
de Theodosianis legibus, atque sententiis juris, vel diveisis
libris electum, Aduris anno xxii. eo regnante, edidi atque
subscripsi.” This attestation is followed by a date, which
states the day of the month, and repeats the year of the
king’s reign; and such a date we may suppose to apply
to the act of verifying the copy, not to that of compiling
the work itself. We might indeed have expected to find
the words “ edidi atque subscripsi” arranged in a different
order, “ subscripsi atque edidi; but this remark is alike
applicable, whether we conceive Anianus to have been
the compiler, or merely the collater. To the formation
of this collection it is highly probable that several indivi¬
duals contributed their assistance, under the general direc¬
tion of Goiaric.4 To all the books contained in the col¬
lection, with the exception of the epitome of Gains, is
added an interpretation or explanation. The manuscripts
of the Theodosian Code do not all contain the same ex¬
planation, and two different explanations are sometimes
subjoined to the same law. It appears from the aucton.
tas, or royal sanction, that explanations were inserted by
order of King Alaric, and we must suppose others to have
been derived from a different source. This ancient com¬
mentary is to be found in Gothofredus s edition of the
Theodosian Code ; and a very cursory inspection of it
seems to have betrayed Sir Edward Sugden into the error
of supposing that code partly to consist of a digest of the
public laws, and partly of the discussions of private law¬
yers5 This commentary obtained so much credit, that it
appears in some measure to have superseded the text
When the writers of the middle ages quote the Iheodo-
sian laws, they very commonly refer, not to the text, but
to the commentary. Such ancient explanations as these
are not without some degree of interest or utility; thoug
they cannot but be supposed to bear sufficient marks o
the age to which they belong. .
It is only in this ancient abridgement that a consider¬
able proportion of the Theodosian Code has apparently
been transmitted to our time.7 For the first edition of the
Code, which was printed at Basel in the year 1528, we
are indebted to the commendable zeal of Joannes Sichar-
dus. He had access to several manuscripts; but all ot
them appear to have been so defective, that very many
titles are not to be found in his publication, and indeed
several books present themselves in the most mutilated
form. He has subjoined the ancient interpretation foptber
with a collection of the Novella Constitutiones of 1 heoclo-
sius, Valentinian, and other emperors. His edition is
without annotations, but in the margin he has inseited
various readings. After an interval of twenty-two yeais,
a more complete edition of the Theodosian Code was puD-
i M. C. Cuvtii Commentarii de Senatu Romano post Tempora Reipublicse liberse, p. 206. Halse, 1708, 8vo. Del Senato Roma
°^r^lG.ULi^neri*Coi^enUrii0de'Origine^t ^ogr^Lgum Juriumque Germamcorun,, part. i. p. 280. Lipsi*, 1J87-03. 2
^^ Gotliofredi Prolegomena, cap. v. Bru„quem Dis—
ad Historiam et Jurisprudentiam spectantia, p. 68. Hake Mage. // ■> 1 s jurisvrudentui Ante-Justhiianea, praef- anti
Mittelalter, Bd. ii. S. 42 The more common opinion is however maintained by Schulting, J P cironius “ ut illo uterentur
“ Hugo, to/date J***. ItecM., S. 732. “Codicem Theodos.anum
quod Anianius cancellarius suns Aduris promulgavit, cum interpretatiombus suis, sub titulo Legis Romanse t
Canonici, p. Tolosae, 1645, fob)
4 We therefore adopt the opinion of Gothofredus
proper sense of the word ederc : “ Anianus vir sped . _
edidit; et monente Oruntio episcopo librum Joannis Chrysostonn
Ecclesiasticis, p. 101. edit. Fabricii.) , . , T , ann- P„n
* Sugden’s letter to James Humphreys, Esq. p. 53. third edit. Lond-■ ternretationibus non ineptis.” (Augustinus
« This collection of laws, says the archbishop of larragona, is accompame merits and defects of these interpretations
de Nominibus Propriis ™ Florentini, not- col. 27- Tarracone, 1579, fob) , ^^^^ Je Bd ib S 54.
are minutely discussed by Gothofredus, Prolegomena, cap. vi. bee likewise Savigny s Geschit > • Haubold’s Opuseula,
7 Respecting the newly discovered manuscripts of this Breviarium, the reader will find much information
vol. ib p- 89?. and in the preface to the same volume.
CIVIL LAW.
c Law. lished at Paris by Jean du Tillet, or Tillius, who has how-
w~«-/ ever omitted the ancient commentary. In 1566, an edition
was published at Lyon by Cujacius, who, among other
appendages, has subjoined the ancient commentary, and a
collection of the Novels. According to the title-page, the
sixth, seventh, eighth, and sixteenth books, “ nunc pri-
mum prodeunt, caeteri aucti sunt innumeris constitutioni-
bus.” Another edition by the same illustrious civilian, but
without his name, was published at Paris in 1586; and,
in the course of the same year, his name appeared in the
title of an edition printed at Geneva. These were follow¬
ed by other editions of the Theodosian Code; and all the
editions include other reliques of ancient jurisprudence.
But the great expounder of the Theodosian Code was
Jacobus Gothofredus, or Godefroy, who was born at Ge¬
neva in 1587, and died there in 1652. Having at an early
age been appointed to a law-professorship in his native
city, he acquired a very high reputation as a lawyer of
deep and extensive erudition, and in this respect he is
only equalled by Cujacius. To his ample stores of philo¬
logical learning he added a masterly knowledge of history,
both civil and ecclesiastical; his industry appears to have
been indefatigable, and his reading unbounded. Uniting
with his other qualifications a complete knowledge of an¬
cient jurisprudence in all its branches, and applying to his
multifarious investigations an acute understanding and a
sober judgment, he has produced various works which
rise very far above the ordinary standard ; but the great
and lasting monument of his talents and learning is his
edition of the Theodosian Code, on which he bestowed
the assiduous labour of thirty years. Thirteen years after
his death, it was published under the superintendence of
Antoine Marville, professor of law in the university of
Valence, who with no small assiduity and perseverance
digested his papers into a proper form.1 If the illustrious
civilian of Geneva had himself prepared this edition for the
press, it would doubtless have appeared to greater ad¬
vantage; but even in its present state it is a work of the
highest value to the lawyer and to the historian; it is in¬
deed an immense storehouse of juridical and historical
knowledge. The commentator has collected a stupendous
mass of learning, and his information is derived from every
accessible source. To the text of the Code he subjoins
the ancient explanation: this is followed by his notes, in
which he adverts to the various readings, to the emenda¬
tion of the text, and to the parallel or conflicting passages
in the Theodosian or Justinian laws; and the illustration
of each title is completed by his ample commentary, in
which he discusses the scope and tendency of the various
enactments, and pours around every subject of importance
an immense stream of erudition, drawn from the deepest
recesses of jurisprudence and history. But in addition to
his perpetual commentary, he has composed different
tracts which greatly contribute to the elucidation of this
collection of laws. “ Immortale opus est,” says Hugo,
“ quod Gothofredus perfecit, in quo neque praeivit ei quis-
quam neque ejus vestigia premere ausus est. Nemo Co-
dicem Theodosianum illustrare studuerat; qui primus id
consilium cepit, ita quoque perfecit, ut praeter spicilegium
nil prorsus superesse videretur.”2
715
About seventy years after the appearance of this edi- Civil Law.
tion, the Theodosian Code, with the commentary of Go-
thofredus, was republished by John Daniel Ritter, who
commenced his undertaking when he was professor of
philosophy at Leipzig, and completed it after he had been
appointed professor of history at Wittemberg.3 For a task
of this kind he possessed eminent qualifications ; being
familiarly acquainted with the Roman law and history, he
was equally conversant with ancient literature, and he
displayed the talents of a skilful critic.4 To his edition he
has added various prefaces, and many shorter notes, and
has corrected the text by the collation of manuscripts,
and of the former editions. He has reprinted the spurious
appendix published by Sirmond, a French Jesuit of un¬
common erudition ;5 and to the Novels, which had receiv¬
ed no illustration from Gothofredus, he has subjoined
many annotations.
The discovery of the Institutes of Caius gave a renovat¬
ing and powerful impulse to the civilians of the continent;
and the recesses of many libraries were explored, in the
eager expectation of detecting other reliques of ancient
jurisprudence. In the public library at Turin, Professor
Peyron discovered a mutilated and undescribed volume in
large octavo; and on a more particular examination he
found that it was a palimpsest. This volume, as he is led
to conjecture, had formed a part of the literary reliques
collected in the monastery of Bobbio, which was founded
by St Columbanus, a native of Ireland, about the begin¬
ning of the seventh century. The second writing consist¬
ed of Julius Valerius’s Latin version of a narrative of the
exploits of Alexander the Great, written by a Greek bear¬
ing the name of TEsop. On the application of a proper acid,
this version, written with evanescent ink, was very easily
effaced, and the more ancient writing became disentan¬
gled. Peyron supposes that this manuscript of the Code
was transcribed during the earlier part of the sixth cen¬
tury ; but, according to Mai, the peculiarities of writing
rather belong to the century following. In this manner
are preserved thirteen leaves, comprehending portions of
the first five books, and two pages which contain a frag¬
ment of the sixth book of the Theodosian Code. Nor are
these leaves without mutilation : the vellum, in the course
of its preparation for a new purpose, has been cut at one
side, so that in one page the beginning, and in another the
end of the lines, are regularly shorn away ; and, in some
instances, the tops or bottoms of the leaves are likewise
curtailed.6
About the same period when Peyron made this dis¬
covery at Turin, a similar discovery was made at Milan by
Dr Clossius, who is now a professor of law in the univer¬
sity of Dorpat. In the Ambrosian Library he found a
quarto volume, containing the treatise De Officiis, and
several of the orations of Cicero, the Institutes of Justi¬
nian,7 a portion of Aniani Breviarium, and Rhythmus de
Assumptione Virginis Marian. The manuscript, which he
supposes to belong to the middle of the twelfth century,
is written in small, regular, and not inelegant characters,
but with pale ink; and the different works contained in
the volume appear to have been transcribed by the same
hand. The “ Gesta in Senatu Urbis Roma; de recipiendo
1 Codex Theodosianus, cum perpetuis commentariis Jacobi Gothofredi, &c. Lugduni, 1665, 6 tom. fob
- Hugonis Index Editionum Fontium Corporis Juris Civilis, p. 187.
3 Lipsiae, 1786-45, 6 tom. fob Ritter’s edition was soon afterwards reprinted in Italy. Mantuoe, 1740-50.
4 See Ruhnkenii Opuscula, tom. ii. p. 770.
s Appendix Codicis Theodosiani novis Constitutionibus cumulatior; opera et studio Jacobi Sirmondi, Presbyteri Societatis lesu
Parisiis, 1631, 8vo.
6 Codicis Theodosiani Fragmenta inedita: ex codice palimpsesto Bibliothecae R. Taurinensis Athenaei in lucem protulit atque il-
lustravit Amedeus Peyron, Liriguarum Orientalium Professor. Augustae Taurinorum, 1824, 4to.
7 Prodromus Corporis Juris Civilis, a Schradero, Clossio, Tafelio, Professoribus Tubingensibus, edendi, p. 53. Berolini, 1823, 8vo.
716
CIVIL LAW.
Civil Law. Tlieodosiano Codice,” which we have already recommeno-
''“'■'Y''*’' ed to the notice of our readers, cannot but be regarded as
a very curious document; and, besides this historical ie-
lique, he has rescued from oblivion a considerable num¬
ber of constitutions, chiefly belonging to the first book of
the Theodosian Code.1 The new materials thus prepared
by Peyron and Clossius, have been incorporated with the
older stock, and have received much additional illustration
from Dr Wenck, the late eminent professor of the civil
law in the university of Leipzig.9 The first five books of
the Code, which long appeared so defective and mutilat¬
ed, are now exhibited in a form materially improved ; nor
will his annotations be despised, even by such readers as
are most familiarly acquainted with those of Gothofredus
and Ritter. His notes are sufficiently copious, and afford
abundant proofs of the extent of his erudition, and the
soundness of his judgment.
After the interval of a century, the example of Theodo¬
sius was followed by Justinian. To ten individuals learned
in the laws he in the year 528 entrusted the important
task of compiling a new code ; and at the head of this
commission he placed Tribonian, who makes so conspi¬
cuous a figure in the history of his reign.3 The materials
for their undertaking wrere contained in the three codes
which have already been mentioned, and in the constitu¬
tions of the intervening emperors. Their collection in¬
cludes the edicts and rescripts of a long series of princes,
from Hadrian to Justinian; and they were authorized to
• select what was most important, to retrench what was
superfluous, to rectify what was erroneous, and even to
consolidate several constitutions into one. This task they
performed with sufficient dispatch: the new code, which
was to supersede all the former, received the imperial
sanction on the 7th of April 529. But soon attei its
completion, Justinian found it necessary to issue fifty new
decisions, for the purpose of reconciling conflicting prin¬
ciples ; and having in the course of a very few years pro¬
mulgated various other constitutions, he granted ii com¬
mission to Tribonian and other four persons to revise the
code, and insert the additional laws in their proper places.
The first edition was suppressed, and the new edition,^
Codex repetita:prcelectionis, was sanctioned on the I6th of
November 534. It is divided into twelve books, and each
book into a variety of titles.
During this interval, however, Tribonian had been ei>
gaged in a w'ork of greater difficulty. On the 15th of
December 530, he had been appointed, along with six¬
teen associates, to prepare a general digest of legal
science, not from the edicts and rescripts of the empe¬
rors, but from the writings of those lawyers who enjoyed
the highest reputation in the forum.4 The work which
they thus compiled contains a very copious collection of
legal principles and legal discussions, exhibiting one of
the most remarkable specimens of ancient genius and
ancient wisdom. It is divided into fifty books. Dr Bluhme Civil Las
has with much labour and ingenuity attempted to ascer-
tain the general principle of arrangement in the titles of
which the different books are composed; and his theory
has obtained the approbation of Hugo, and other most
competent judges. He supposes that the commissioners
appointed by Justinian were divided into three sections,
and that to each section was assigned the task of extract¬
ing the proper materials from a particular series of works.
We are thus to expect a triple series in each title : the
deviations from this general plan he conceives to be but
inconsiderable; and for particular modifications he disco¬
vers an obvious and intelligible reason. The first series
commences with the commentaries on Sabinus, the second
with those on the Edictum Perpetuum, and the third with
the works of Papinian. Pie has pursued his enquiries
through many minute details, in which we cannot at pre¬
sent accompany him, but must content ourselves with
referring to his elaborate Ordnuny der Fragmente in den
Pandectentiteln.5
After the completion, but before the publication of the
Digest or Pandects, the emperor employed Tribonian,
Theophilus, and Dorotheus, to prepare a short and elemen¬
tary work as a standard introduction to the study of the
law. This work is professedly compiled from more an¬
cient treatises of the same nature, and particularly from
the Institutes of Caius, whom Justinian styles “ Caius
noster.” The discovery of this latter work is of great
importance in illustrating the text of the imperial Insti¬
tutes, which Ivave for so many centuries retained their
place in the schools of jurisprudence, and have so gene¬
rally served as models to those who in modern times have
undertaken to write elementary treatises of law. “ This
little work,” says Dr Bever, “ is so truly admirable, both
for its method and conciseness, as well as for the elegance
of its composition, that it has been imitated by almost
every nation in Europe, that hath ever made any attempt
to reduce its own laws to a regular and scientific form. 6
It is worthy of remark, that those who are unacquainted
with the Institutes and Pandects, are unacquainted with
the full compass of the Latin language.7 The terse and
appropriate phraseology with which they so frequently
abound, was transfused from the productions of a purer
age ; nor is it wonderful that they should occasionally be
debased by a grosser mixture. “ It is remarkable,” as
Mr Hume has observed, “ that in the decline of Roman
learning, when the philosophers were universally in¬
fected with superstition and sophistry, and the poets and
historians with barbarism, the lawyers, who in other
countries are seldom models of science or politeness, were
yet able, by the constant study and close imitation of
their predecessors, to maintain the same good sense in
their decisions and reasonings, and the same purity in
their language and expression.” 8
1 Theodosiani Codicis genuini Fragmenta : ex membranis Bibliothecae Ambrosianse Mediolanensis nunc primum edidit Waltherus
Fridericus Clossius, Phil, et J. U. Doctor, et Juris Professor Publicus Ordinarius in Itegia Universitate Tubingensi. iubingee,
* Codicis Theodosiani libri V. priores : recognovit, additamentis insignibus aWalthero Friderico Clossio et Amedeo Peyron re-
pertis aliisque auxit, notis subitaneis, turn criticis turn exegeticis, nec non quadruplici appendice instruxit Car. r net. Lnr
AYenck, Antecessor Lipsiensis. Lipsise, 1825, 8vo. . .
3 J. P. de Ludewig Vita Justiniani atque Theodone Augustorum, nec non Tribomam. Halae balieee, 1751, 4to.
4 Guil. Grotii Vitae Jurisconsultorum quorum in Pandectis extant Nomina. Lugd. Bat. 1890, 4to.^ _
5 Zeitschrift fur geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft, herausgegeben von Savigny, Eichhorn und Gbschen, Bd. iv. ts - t-
likewise an article by Hugo, in the Thdmis, ou Bibliotheque du Jurisconsulte, tom. iii. p. 278. Bluhme’s speculations have no
tained the same approbation from Dr Tigerstrbm, De Ordine et Historia Digestorum libri duo, p. 481. Berolim, 1829, 8vo.
6 Bever’s Hist, of the Legal Polity of the Roman State, p. 480. Lond. 1781, 4tq. _ . , -nnterus.
7 Opuscula varia de Latinitate Juriseonsultorum veterum : junctim edidit, et animadversiones adjecit Carolus Andreas „ .
Lugd. Bat. 1711, 8vo. Ge. Casp. Kirchmaieri Opuscula AH. rarissima de Latinitate Digestorum et Institutionum. >
1772, 8vo.
8 Hume’s Hist, of England, vol. iii. p. 300.
Ll Law
h—'
The Institutes were sanctioned on the 21st of Novem¬
ber 533 ; and on the IGth of December, the emperor issued
two constitutions, the one in Latin and the other in Greek,
by which he confirmed the Institutes, Code, and Pan¬
dects, and imparted to them the force and validity of law
in the forum, and commanded them to be taught in the
schools of Lome, Constantinople, and Berytus. Justinian
survived till the year 565, and during that long interval
he promulgated many new laws. A collection was at
length formed of his Novels, or new Constitutions, to the
number of one hundred and sixty-eight. The <weatest
part of them appear to have been originally written in
Greek; some were however written in Latin, and others
were at the same time exhibited in both languao-es.1 These
are followed by thirteen Greek edicts of Justinian, which
properly conclude the Corpus Juris Civilis, although the
common editions comprehend various Novels of Leo,2 and
some other emperors, together with other ancient docu¬
ments, all of which are only to be considered as appen¬
dages.
The task of compiling the Institutes, as we have already
seen, was committed to Tribonian, Theophilus, and Doro-
theus, of whom the two latter are described as antecessores,
or public professors of law. Whether one of these was
the same Theophilus who wrote a Greek paraphrase of the
Institutes, has been long and much disputed among civi¬
lians ; to recapitulate all the arguments which have been
urged on both sides of the question, would require too
much time and space ; we shall therefore content ourselves
with stating, that we are strongly inclined to adopt the
opinion of those writers who maintain their identity, and
with referring the more curious reader to the ample discus¬
sions of Mylius and Reitz.3 Theophilus was a professor
at Constantinople, and Dorotheus at Berytus. During the
reign of Justinian, the two imperial cities, together^with
Berytus, were the only places, within the limits of the em¬
pire, where public schools of law were established, or in¬
deed where law was permitted to be publicly taught.4 Be¬
rytus, which the emperor describes as a most beautiful
city, was situated on the coast of Syria: here a school of
jurisprudence was founded during the third century, and
it was long frequented by a numerous train of students;
but its prosperity was first interrupted, and was finally
subverted, by some of the great convulsions of nature. In
the year 384 the town was greatly injured by an earth¬
quake, and in 554 it was visited by another earthquake,
which left it a heap of ruins., Some professors and a
multitude of students perished in this common calamity :
the surviving professors transferred their school to Sidon,
and the surviving inhabitants made a vigorous effort to
raise a new city from the ruins of the old ; but another
calamity awaited them, and this famous seat of jurispru¬
dence was totally consumed by fire.5
The paraphrase of Theophilus is of great utility and im¬
portance in explaining the text of the Institutes. He has not
CIVIL LAW.
servilely confined himself to the original, and his work in a
great measure supplies the place of a perpetual commentary.
It is a book indispensably necessary for every more learned
and inquisitive student of the civil law. This paraphrase
is not indeed entirely free from errors : Reitz conjectures,
and not without a considerable degree of plausibility, that
Theophilus had dictated it to the students of Constanti¬
nople, in the exercise of his functions as a public expound¬
er of the law; and that for its transmission to posterity
we are solely indebted to copies taken by his auditors, and
uncorrected by himself. To this valuable relique the
attention of modern lawyers was first directed by Angelo
Poliziano, who died at a premature age in the year 1494.
He was a person of singular talents and attainments, who
only required a greater length of days to have earned the
highest reputation. To the celebrity of an Italian and La¬
tin poet, and of a classical critic, he was solicitous to add
that of a civilian; and he was likewise the first individual
who attempted a collation of the renowned Florentine ma¬
nuscript of the Pandects.6
Of the Pandects, different Greek versions have been
mentioned by different writers. One version has been as¬
cribed to lhalelaeus, who was an antecessor in the time of
Justinian; but Pohl and Heimbach have shewn that there
are no sufficient grounds for believing that he undertook
such a task.7 Another translation is mentioned by Matth-
aeus Blastares as having been executed by Stephanus, an
advocate of Constantinople, who had been conjoined with
Iribonian in the commission for compiling the original
work. The Code was likewise translated into Greek : the
translator is supposed to be the person who, in the scholia
of the Basilica, is repeatedly described as Kudizeurrig. To
many of the judges, as well as the suitors, in the eastern
empiie, Latin must evidently have been an unknown
tongue. When the seat of empire was transferred from
Rome to Byzantium, the first emperors were anxious to
transfer the use of the Roman language, and for a consi¬
derable time this continued to be at least the language of
the court. Teachers of Roman eloquence were establish¬
ed in the second metropolis, and they doubtless found
many pupils among the youth who aimed at a fashionable
education, or were ambitious of preferment; but it was not
to be expected that the great body of the people should
be induced to unlearn one language, and to acquire ano¬
ther.
During the interval which elapsed between the reign of
Justinian and that of Basilius, there were many Greek
writers on the Roman law; and not a few names have been
recovered from the wreck of time by Lambecius, Suares,
Asseman,8 and other learned enquirers. Basilius, who has
obtained a conspicuous place among the legislators of the
empire, derived his lineage from Armenia, but was himself
born in Macedonia, and is commonly known by the name
of Basilius the Macedonian. He rose from an origin suf¬
ficiently humble, and after having been a groom, he be-
717
Civil Law.
* F. A. Biener’s Geschichte der Novellen Justinian’s. Berlin, 1824, 8vo.
Hahi’ 1779 e8v0de N°VeUiS Leonis AuSusti et Fhilosophi, earumque Usu et Auctoritate liber singularis: edidit C. F. Zepernick.
Theophilus; sive de Gnecarum Juris Institutionum earundemque Auctoris Historia, /Etate, Auc-
line fi6’ 1S’ ISsevis, liber singularis. Lugd. Bat. 1761, 8vo. lleizii Praef. in Theophilum, p. xxv. Of this work of My-
TI ■’ ih- edlV°n aPP?ared at Leipzig in 1730. The entire tract may be found in Reitz’s edition of Theophilus, tom. ii. p. 1034.
//‘T,.’ inTth.e opinion of Haubold, is unequalled by any similar publication, except Ritter’s edition of the Theodosian Code,
(institutiones Juris Romani Litterarue, p. 205. Lipske, 1809, 8vo.)
* Const, omnem rcip. § 7- ad Antecessores.
tns Hei“ i^t^i' ^is, P‘ ed^’ RMei\ Lugd. Bat. 1748, 8vo. But see more particularly “ Johannis Strauchii Bery-
s • f11, ^od‘ de Metropoli Beryto Dissertatio pUblica.” Brunsvigie, 16G2, 4to.
, Bandinj, Rjigionamento Istorico sopra le Collazioni delle Florentine Pandette fatte da Angelo Poliziano. Livorno, 1762, 4to.
ouaresn iNotitia Basilicorum, recensuit C. F. Pohlius, p. 66. Lipsiae, 1804, 8vo. Heimbach de Basilicorum Origine, Fontibus,
acnolns, atque nova Editione adornanda, p. 25. Lipsiae, 1825, 8vo.
8 Assemani Bibliotheca Juris Orientalis Canonic! et Civilis. Romae, 1762-6, 5 tom. 4to.
718
CIVIL LAW.
Civil Law. came sovereign of the east. The eastern empire, in which
  ' the Greek language was vernacular, was governed by a col¬
lection of laws chiefly written in Latin ; and the diffuen
versions which had been executed were without the sanc¬
tion of public authority. It was therefore his object to se¬
lect such enactments as were still in force, and having di¬
gested them into the form of a regular code, to invest them
with the imperial sanction. This great undertaking he did
> not live to complete. He died in the year 886 and was
succeeded by his son Leo. surnamed the I hilosopher. I he
body of Greek laws was completed under his direction : the
date of its promulgation has not been ascertained ; but as
the student is referred to it in Leo’s Ecloga which was
written in the year 910, the Basilica must have been m
circulation before that period. Leo ended his reign and
his life in the year 911, and was succeeded by his son
Constantinus Porphyrogennetus, when only seven years of
ao-e From this learned prince the Basilica appear to
have received their final revision. Theodorus Balsamon,
in his commentary on the Nomocanon of Photius, de¬
scribes the revised edition as rw reXsurcaw avaxa6a^iv :
and, according to the opinion of Heimbach, it was not di-
vulsed before the year 945.2 . ,
ft has long been a current opinion that, in the western
empire, all knowledge of the civil law became extinct, and
was not revived till after the lapse of severa^ centuries.
“ All the world knows,” says Lord Karnes, that the
Roman law, after being buried in oblivion for ages, came
to be restored in Italy by an accident. I he very books of
that law were understood to be lost past recovery, til a copy
of the Pandects was found in the town of Ama phi anno
1197 s by Lotharius the emperor when he took that town,
in the war he carried on against Rodger king of Sicily and
Naples The knowledge of it increased so fast, that it
was taught publicly by Vacariusat Oxford about the year
1150, during the reign of king Stephen. I his was as
swift a progress as any science can be supposed to ™ai^e'
A more recent writer has added something to the old stock
of speculation. “ The fortunate, or perhaps unfortunate
discovery of the Roman code, at Amalfi in Italy, produced
a irreat change in the institutions of almost every country
in Europe. The dignified clergy of that day immediately
perceived how advantageous the adoption of the regula¬
tions of Justinian would prove to them; and the popes,Civil
who then pretended to dispose of the throne of the Cae-
sars, were eager to support the arbitrary edicts of empe¬
rors, who, like themselves, affected to think that both their
persons and their rescripts were inviolable. The neigh¬
bouring countries cheerfully submitted to the change, and
thus engrafted slavery and the civil law on that even-
handed Gothic jurisprudence, which had ensured freedom
to all the northern nations.”6 This philosophic specula¬
tor, who thus attempts to twist a rope of sand, has not
even arrived at the point of distinction between the Pan¬
dects and the Code. So true it is that when an English
writer ventures to speak of the Pandects, he geneially
finds his way to be dark and slippery. #
It was maintained by laurellus, Augustinus, Brenk-
man, and other learned civilians, that all the copies of
the Pandects known to be extant are derived from this
famous manuscript, which was first deposited at Pisa, and
afterwards removed to Florence.7 This opinion was zeal¬
ously opposed by the Abate Grandi, professor of mathe¬
matics in the university of Pisa, whose Epistola de Pan-
deeds was first printed in the year 1726.6 I he course of
his enquiries also led him to call in question the tradition¬
ary tale respecting the marvellous resuscitation of the Ro¬
man law after the siege of Amalfi. Various writers had in¬
cidentally maintained the opinion which he adopts; and it
had recently been maintained in a separate work by D As¬
ti.9 The story of the manuscript seized as a warlike booty,
he treats as a mere fiction; and Muratori has remarked,
that the earliest authority for this anecdote of the siege is
Raynerius de Grancis, a writer of the fourteenth century.
To Grandi’s work, which attracted no small degree of at¬
tention, an answer was published by Bernardo Panucci,
professor of the civil law at Pisa ;10 nor was the mathema¬
tician tardy in replying.11 Tanucci soon prepared a copi¬
ous rejoinder.12 Grandi continued the controversy, under
the assumed name of Bartolo Luccaberti ;13 and his anta¬
gonist concluded his exertions, by enlarging his first epis¬
tle, and translating his second defence into Latin. In
these disquisitions, they were succeeded by Schwartz, a
learned German, who rejected the notion that all the mo¬
dern copies of the Pandects are derived from the bloren-
tine manuscript.15 Brenkman, who had devoted so much
Law
* Yoelli Bibliotheca Juris Canonic! veteris, toirn ii* p» i
» IrTthe^ate^of^lds grand'dLcOTery there'seems^cfl^e an ernn^o^teii years, for the' siege of Amalfi is commonly referred to the
\?£z
* Karnes’s Essays upon several Subjects concerning British AnLquiUes p. lo. E -7 7,
‘ Stephens’s Memoirs of John Horne 1’ooke, vol. n. p. Jf’ Kemina Dissertatio de Amalphi. Traj. ad Rhen.
i Brenkmanni Historia Pandectarum, sen latum Exemp c di i ^ delie Pandette di Giustiniano Imperatore. Lucca,
1722, 4to. Flaminio dal Borgo, Dissertazione sopra 1 Istoria de Codiu 1 isam aene rm
rs were seconded by a learned professor of divinity at > Pt reverendiss Patrem D. Guidonem Grandi.” This epistle has
ii Epistola de veteribus Pisance Civitatis Constitutis, ad s. et reverendiss 1 atrem g ^ .
lechU Epistola de veteribus Pisanae Civitatis Constitutis, aa ‘ tom. 4to. , .
in0ndate da' Bartan
to be^real'perTon'' ’’see Eckhardi Hcrmeneutica Juris, p. 70, edit. Walchii. Lipsi^ lbON i'VO. Et in qua confutantur quae
- Tanusif Epistola de Pandectis Pisan is, in Amalphitana Direptione mventis, ^ •pL]^^™lo0XaurelUo>Set Henrico Brencmanno.
Guido Grandius, Cremonensis Abbas, et Antecessor in 1 isano Gymi- , PP t transiation of his Defesa seconda.
adliuc extant, e Florentine manavermt. Al-
torfu, 1733» 4to.
d
c i y
il State time and attention to this manuscript,1 and had formerly
|| maintained the opposite opinion, endeavoured to refute the
ivo11- arguments of Schwartz as well as Grandi ;2 and the same
cause, which we do not however espouse, was after a short
interval defended by Guadagni, professor of the civil law
at Pisa.3 But the history of the Roman law during the
middle ages has recently been investigated with so much
ability, and with such perseverance of research, that on
this subject the labours of all previous writers appear to
be of little comparative value: Savigny’s work is indeed
one of the most remarkable productions of the age in
CIV 719
which we live.4 Five volumes have already been publish- Civray
ed, and his extensive plan is not yet completed. The ex- II
tinction of the Roman law with the western empire, and^ac*cn?ai1*
its accidental revival after the lapse of six hundred years,
will henceforth be viewed as one .of the numerous ro-
mances of history ; but the researches of this very able
man, we are sorry to add, are little known or appreciated
in England, where the legend of Amalfi is permitted to
retain much of its original freshness, and where historical
jurisprudence is more imperfectly understood than in any
other learned country of Europe. (x.)
Civil State, in the British polity, one of the general
divisions of the laity, comprehending all orders of men,
from the highest nobleman to the meanest peasant, who
are not included under the military or maritime states;
though it may sometimes include individuals of these
classes, as well as of the clergy; since a nobleman, a
knight, a gentleman, or a peasant, may become either a
divine, a soldier, or a seaman. The division of this state
is into nobility and commonalty.
Civil Year is the legal year, or annual account of time,
which every government appoints to be used within its
own dominions; and it is so called in contradistinction to
the natural year, which is measured exactly by the revo¬
lution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, means one belonging to or con¬
nected with the civil law, and is more especially applied to
the doctors and professors of this system of jurisprudence,
who are accordingly denominated civilians.
CIVITA CASTELLANA, a city of the papal domi¬
nions, in the delegation Viterbo, containing 3000 inhabi¬
tants. It is supposed to be the ancient Vegi.
CIVITA DI PENNA, a city, the chief place of a dis¬
trict in the Neapolitan province of Abruzzo Ulteriore. It
contains 8869 inhabitants, who are generally very poor and
idle.
CIVITAVECCHIA, a delegation of the papal domi¬
nions, being the smallest division of this class. It ex¬
tends over only 180 square miles, or 115,200 acres. It
contains one city, one market-town, five villages, and
19,200 inhabitants. The capital of the delegation is a
city of the same name, situated on the sea shore. It is
fortified, and is the station of the papal fleet, as well as
the port from which the chief productions of the southern
part of the territory of the church is exported. These con¬
sist of corn, alum, aniseed, wool, and wood, but are very
insignificant in amount; and as the place is unhealthy,
the port is very little visited. The city contains 7110 in¬
habitants. It is in long. 11. 39. 25. E. lat. 42. 5. 24. N.
CIVOLI, or Cigoli, Lewis, an Italian painter, who bore
the family name of Cardi, was born at the castle of Cigoli,
in Tuscany, in the year 1559. His Ecce Homo, which he
performed as a trial of skill with Barochio and Michael An¬
gelo de Caravaggio, was judged better than those execut¬
ed by his competitors. He excelled in designing, and was
employed by the popes and princes of his time. He died
at Rome, in the year 1613.
CIVRAY, an arrondissement of the department of Vi¬
enne, in France, containing 460 square miles. It is divid¬
ed into five cantons, and these again into forty-eight com¬
munes, the inhabitants of which amount to 38,000. The
chief place, which gives its name to the arrondissement, is
situated on the right bank of the Charente, in a fertile dis¬
trict. It contains 328 houses, and 1500 inhabitants. In
the neighbourhood there are considerable quarries of mar¬
ble. Long. 0. 9. E. Lat. 46. 10. N.
CLACKMANNAN, the capital of the shire of the same
name, is pleasantly situated on an eminence gently rising
out of a plain stretching from east to west, to the height
of 190 feet above the level of the Forth. It consists of one
long street, which runs up the acclivity to the gate of the
park surrounding Clackmannan tower. This building is
tall and impressive; but it is now deprived of the palace
of Robert Bruce; and the family house of Bruce of Clack¬
mannan, with the gardens which formerly adorned it, is
unfurnished, and will probably go fast to decay, from the
property of it being disputed. The church of Clackman¬
nan, which is situated a little south of the principal street,
is rather a handsome modern structure, in the Gothic style.
The population amounted in 1821 to 4056, and in 1831
to 4266.
CLACKMANNANSHIRE, one of the counties of Scot¬
land, situated between 56° 5' and 56° 14' north latitude,
and between 3° 33' and 3° 56'west longitude from Green¬
wich, is bounded on the south and south-west by the river
Forth, which separates it from Stirlingshire, by Fifeshire
on the south-east, and in every other quarter by Perth¬
shire. It is the smallest county in Scotland, being little
more than eight miles in length, and, at a medium, six miles
and a half in breadth ; thus extending over fifty-two square
miles, or 33,280 acres. But its value is much greater
than in the ratio of its extent. About three fourths of its
surface are under cultivation, a greater proportion, with the
1 Gebaveri Narratio de Henrico Brenkmanno, de Manuscriptis Brenkmannianis, et suis in Corpore Juris Civilis Conatibus et La-
boribus. Accedunt Mantissa de libro longe rarissimo. Bibliotheca Antonii Augustini, et Vita Henrici Newtoni. Gottingse, 1764, 4to.
—With the view of studying the Florentine manuscript, Brenkman made a journey to Italy, and was enabled to obtain access to the
precious relique through the influence of the English envoy Dr Newton. To this study he devoted several years, but he only lived
to execute a part of his plans. Newton, who was much connected with the scholars of the age, received the honour of knighthood,
and became judge of the high court of admiralty. He is the author of a collection ot\ Epistolce, Orationes, et Carmina. Lucte, 1710,
4to. Some notices of the author may be found in Mr Dunster’s edition of “ Cider, a poem in two books, by John Philips,” p. 174.
Lond. 1701, 6vo.
2 Brenkmanni Epistola ad v. c. Franciscum Hesselium, qua examinantur praecipua Capita Epistolas v. c. D. Guidonis Grandi de
Pandectis, nec non Dissertationis similis argument!, auctore v. c. Christiano Gotlib. Schwarzio. Traj. ad llhen. 1735, 4to.
3 Guadagni de Florentino Pandectarum Exemplar!, an sit Imperat. Justinian! Archetypum, et an ex eo ceteri, qui supersunt,
Pandectarum libri manaverint Dissertatio. Ilomae, 1752, 8vo—This dissertation was inserted in Gori’s Symboloe Litterarice, dec. ii.
vol. iv.; and some copies were published in a separate form. Guadagni is likewise the author of a work entitled Ad Grceca Pandectarum
Dissertationcs. Pisis, 1786, 4 to.
4 Savigny’s Geschichte des Kiimischen llechts ini Mittelalter. Heidelberg, 1815-29, 5 Bde. 8vo.
'20
CLACKMANNANSHIRE.
Clackman- exception of East Lothian, than that of any other county
nanshire. of Scotland; and it abounds in the useful minerals, which
have long been wrought upon a very extensive scale.
Between the Ochil Hills, which form the noi them boun¬
dary of this district, tand the rich alluvial tracts on the
banks of the Forth, which winds along in a very irregu¬
lar line on its opposite extremity, there is a considerable
variety of surface. An elevated ridge rises on the west,
and, running through the middle of the county, spreads
itself gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, skirt-
in^ the alluvial or carse lands on the south, and the vale
of1 Do van on the north. And still farther to the north,
the Ochil Hills, the highest of which, Bencloch, in the
parish of Tillicoultry, rises nearly 2500 feet above the
level of the sea, form a very picturesque landscape, hav¬
ing their generally verdant surface broken by bold pro¬
jecting rocks, and deeply indented ravines, the beds of
many a pellucid stream, with coppice and thriving plan¬
tations occasionally interspersed. Ihese hills protect the
lower grounds from the piercing winds which blow from the
north and north-east, and give Clackmannanshire some ad¬
vantage, in regard to climate, over the adjoining counties.
The only streams worthy of notice which traverse this
county are the Dovan and the Black Dovan, or, as they
are often called, the North Devon and South Devon. I he
Dovan rises in the county of Perth, and, descending with
impetuosity from the Ochils, where its course is to the
east, makes a very sharp turn towards the west, and, pro¬
ceeding placidly in that direction through the pleasant
vale already mentioned, falls into the Forth at the village
of Cambus. Exclusive of its windings, the course of this
river is more than twenty-six miles, tnough the distance
in a direct line from its source to its embouchuie does not
exceed six miles. It has long been remarkable for the
deep and dark chasms which it has worn in the rocks, and
through which it flows in the earlier part of its couise, being
in some places hardly visible, ihe Devils Mill, so called
from the supposed resemblance of the sound of the watei
to that of machinery ; the Rumbling Bridge, & very narrow
and unguarded pass across a chasm ninety feet deep ; and
the Cauldron Lynn, where the water is perpetually agitat¬
ed in the immense cauldron-like excavations which it has
formed in the rock, have been frequently visited by the
lovers of natural scenery. I hough this river is liable to
be suddenly swelled by rains, and frequently descends in
torrents overflowing its banks, it is in general of no gieat
depth, but might be rendered navigable for small vessels
at a moderate expense, to the effect of bringing 10,000
acres of coal within reach of water-carriage.
The Black Dovan has its source in the county of Fife,
flows westward in a direction nearly parallel to the IFovan,
and falls into the Forth near Clackmannan. This river is
extensively employed in turning mills and coal engines, its
whole course being over coal strata. In a dry season it
is an inconsiderable stream, the greater part of its wateis
being then collected into reservoirs for the supply of ma¬
chinery.
The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary
of this county. Ships of 500 tons burden run up as far
as Alloa. Its windings, or links as they are called, are
very remarkable. The distance from the quay of Alloa
to that of Stirling, measured in the middle of the stream,
is seventeen miles, and to the bridge of Stirling it is nine¬
teen and a half, whereas the distance by land from the
latter place to Alloa does not exceed seven miles. A
little above Alloa there are three islets in the river, the
largest containing more than seventy acres. A remark¬
able ledge of rock stretches across the Forth below the
two smaller islets, which obstructs the passage of vessels
of more than sixty tons burden, and where it is fordable
at low water of spring tides. The breadth at this place Cfackmar.
being only about 500 yards, it was long since proposed to nanshire.
throw a bridge over it, the expense of which was estimat-
ed at L.70,000. Mr Rennie, the celebrated engineer,
made a survey with a view to a bridge at tjie Alloa ferry,
which he declared to be practicable at an expense of
L. 150,000 ; a work which has never been attempted. The
passage, however, has of late been improved by means of
new piers and a steam boat. The estuary of the Forth,
for several miles above and below Clackmannan, exhibits
a singular phenomenon in its tides, which rise there from
sixteen to twenty-two feet. During neap tides in good
weather, and sometimes also during spring tides, if the
weather be uncommonly fine, after the water has flowed
for three hours, it retires in an hour and a half, nearly as
far as the line from which it had begun to flow, but returns
immediately, and, in an hour and a half more, reaches
the same height it had attained before. Ibis flux and re¬
flux takes place both in the flood and ebb tides, so that
double the usual number of tides occur in this part of the
river. In very boisterous weather, however, these lechy
tides, as they are called by sailors, are not regular, the
Water then only rising without any peiceptible cunent,
as if two tides were acting against each other.
The soils of the arable land of Clackmannanshire are in
general productive and well cultivated; though the greater
part of the elevated range which is interposed^between
the carse lands on the Forth, and the vale of Dovan at
the base of the Ochils on the north, consists of inferior
soils, often incumbent on an impervious clay. _ All the
crops commonly raised in Scotland grow luxuriantly on
either side of this tract, which also contains within itself
a considerable proportion of valuable soil. From the ren¬
tal of the abbacy of Cambuskenneth, founded in 1147, it
appears, that wheat wras cultivated on the links of the
Forth at a very early period; yet it is certain that fifty
years ago fields of this grain were only occasionally to be
met with in the county. As a proof how early and well
the carse lands near Alloa had been cultivated, it may be
mentioned, that more than a century ago some farms in
that quarter paid as much grain and Other kinds of pro¬
duce, in name of rent, as the present money-rent of simi¬
lar soils would purchase at the average prices of the last
twenty-five years. Ihe farms would be thought small m
other counties; few of the arable ones exceeding 200
Scotch or 250 English acres, and the ihr greater number
being below 100 acres. The rent of the county was re¬
turned to the collector of the property-tax for the year
ending in April 1811, at L.32,047. 12s., so that, after mak¬
ing allowance for that part of the surface which is covered
by water, or otherwise altogether unproductive, every acre
must have paid at least 20s. upon an average of all soils
and situations. At the same time, the rent of the houses
was stated at L.2827. 5s. The old valuation, by which the
land-tax and county-rates are apportioned, is L.26,482. iUs.
lOd. Scots, or L.220G. 17s. 7d. sterling, of which some¬
what more than a third belongs to estates held under entail.
The richest carse land under current leases now
lets for three bolls a Scotch acre, half wheat and halt
barley, payable by the fiars, and in the measure of the
county. Good carse land commonly rents at three bolls
an acre, one of which is wheat, one barley, and one oats.
The first effective thrashing machine in Scotland was con¬
structed at Kilbagie, in the parish of Clackmannan, m
1787, by Mr George Meikle, the son of its celebrated in¬
ventor ; and the last one, it is believed, at winch om
Meikle himself worked, is on the estate of the Fall.°
Mar, near Alloa. One of the greatest disadvantages which
the agriculture of this district labours under is the want
of limestone, of which, however, very large quantities aie
.cfcman-
nshire-
brought from Dunbar and other places on the Forth, and
afterwards calcined in the county, where coal is always
plentiful and cheap. Limeshells are also imported to
a considerable extent from the Earl of Elgin’s works in
Fife.
This small county is rich in minerals. Silver, copper,
lead, iron-ore (hematites), cobalt, and arsenic, have all
been discovered in the Ochil Mountains, between Airthry
and Dollar; but, after having been wrought for a time
with little success, the labour was discontinued. The
operations, however, were not conducted upon an exten¬
sive scale ; in no instance did the miners penetrate below
the level of the plain from which the Ochils rise; and it
is still believed that these hills abound in valuable metal¬
lic veins, ready to reward more skilful and enterprising
adventuieis. dhe hazard would be in working for silver,
as it is found chiefly in detached nodules. Ironstone is
wrought to a considerable extent for the Devon iron-works,
in the parish of Clackmannan. It is found either in strata^
01 in detached oblate balls, imbedded in the schist, and
yields from 25 to 30 per cent, of iron. That obtained from
the mine now opened at Vicar’s Bridge, near Dollar, af¬
fords, it is said, above 40 per cent. Tbe quantity of iron¬
stone extracted in 1830 was 14,500 tons.
Ihe Abbey Craig, near Stirling, a great mass of green¬
stone rock, crystallized in the internal structure, and rude¬
ly columnar in its external appearance, deserves to be par¬
ticularly noticed, in this view of Clackmannanshire, from its
having afforded a very useful substitute, in the manufac¬
ture of flour, for the French bur-stones, which it was so
difficult to procure during the late war. This discovery
was made by a miller of the name of James Brownhill,
then employed at the Alloa mills. Several hundreds of
these millstones are now working both in England and
Scotland, and are found to be in some respects superior
to the burs. I he Society for the Encouragement of Arts
in London presented this ingenious person with a hundred
guineas for his discovery, after they had received the most
satisfactory proofs of its great importance.
Coal has been wrought for two hundred years in this
county. 'Ihe quantity at present annually obtained may
be estimated at 160,000 tons, of which a great part is
shipped for Leith, Dunbar, Tay water, and foreign ports.
In the scale of working, the collieries stand thus : 1. Al¬
loa ; 2. Sauchy ; 3. Clackmannan ; 4. Dollar ; 5. Tillicoul¬
try ; 6. Kennet. It is all either cubical or slate coal, both
being often found in the same bed, of an open burning
quality ; and no smithy or caking coal has yet been dis¬
covered. The thinnest seam which has been wrought is
twenty-seven inches thick ; and in a depth of 105 fathoms
there are nine seams of more than this thickness. The pit
opened this year (1832) at Hill End, near Clackmannan,
contains a seam six feet eight inches in thickness. The
strata which compose the coal-field are varieties of sand¬
stone, argillaceous schistus, fire-clay, and argillaceous
ironstone. Limestone is found among the lowmst veins of
the coal strata. Organic remains of shell-fish and plants
abound in them; and of the latter, many are of a kind
now found only in the equatorial regions. Carbonic acid
gas, termed choke-damp, is the most abundant of the noxi¬
ous vapours found in the coal mines of this field. Hydro¬
gen gas, or inflammable air, was never known here till late¬
ly, and it is still in small quantity. The great coal-field of
Scotland, which passes in a diagonal line from the mouths
of the Forth and Tay to the Irish Sea, is bounded by the
Ochils. No coal has been found to the north of them,
excepting at Brora, in the county of Sutherland.
Machinery for drawing water from the mines was con¬
structed and much improved in this county, before the
invention of the steam-engine. The Alloa colliery is drain-
VOL. VI.
CLACKMANNANSHIRE.
ed by an overshot water-wheel, 30 feet diameter, which
lifts the water from the depth of 300 feet. The Sauchy
collieries are drained by powerful steam-engines; that
employed by the Devon Company is capable of raising
10,000,000 gallons of water in twenty-four hours, from
the depth of 280 feet. At the Alloa colliery there is an
improved cast-iron railway, of about two and a half miles
in length, upon which a horse takes down eight waggons
with as many tons of coals. The general price paid for
working great coal is from 2s. to 3s. per ton; and thesel-
ling price on the hill 6s. 8d., which is said to yield but a
very small return to the coal-master.
At the Alloa colliery the Avorkmen have fora great num¬
ber of years had a court, composed of five of their own
number, appointed annually by the proprietor of the works.
By this court all differences amongst themselves are set¬
tled. The highest fine exacted is half a guinea, and all
the fines are put into a general fund for the support of the
poor.
Under the head of manufactures, the distilleries of this
county form by far the most prominent and considerable
blanch. In this small district there were, twenty years
ago, no fewer than six large distilleries. Of these, Kilba-
gie and Kennetpans paid to government an excise-duty
greatei than the land-tax of Scotland; the former alone
paying no less at one time than about half a million sterling.
Previously to 1788, the quantity of grain annually consume^!
at Kilbagie exceeded 60,000 bolls (45,000 quarters) ; while
7000 cattle and 2000 swine were fattened upon the grains
and dreg. The saving in the stock of food for man, ef¬
fected by the stoppage of the distilleries, is therefore much
less considerable than has been imagined; an acre of bar¬
ley used in distillatipn yielding nearly as much animal food
as an acre of middling pasture. It is understood that cat¬
tle may be fattened in a complete manner, in the propor¬
tion of two, of 50 stones avoirdupois each, for every gallon
of a still, when working from grain; affording the means,
at the same time, of enriching the soil for future crops,
by the abundance and good quality of the manure they
produce. The effects which distilleries produce on the
morals of the neighbourhood is another question.
Ihe other manufactures of Clackmannanshire, though
numerous, are not conducted upon so very extensive a
scale. At the Devon iron-works, already noticed, about
sixty tons of pig iron are prepared weekly, only a small
part of which is used by the foundery at these works. In
the parish of Dollar, on the banks of the Dovan, a bleach-
field was established in 1787, of which the water and the
machihery are excellent. The cloth bleached here con¬
sists chiefly of the fine table linen manufactured at Dun¬
fermline. There is a very complete set of corn-mills at
Alloa, and there are mills for various purposes in several
parts of the county. In the same town, and in the neigh¬
bourhood, there are five breweries, a glass work, a copper
work, a rope and sail manufactory, a tannery, a tile and
brick work; and this year (1832) a steam-engine manufac¬
tory has been commenced.
The port of Alloa is well situated for commerce, and has
a substantial well-built quay, and, a little above the har¬
bour, a dry dock capable of receiving vessels of large bur¬
den ; the depth of the water at spring-tides being sixteen
feet, and the width of the gates thirty-four and a half.
There is a custom-house here, which comprehends the
ports of Stirling and Kincardine, and Clackmannan Pow,
and at which 155 vessels were registered in 1831, carry¬
ing 19,000 tons, and navigated by 1020 men. There are
cleared outwards annually, on an average, from 1100 to
1200 vessels, carrying 55,000 tons, and employing about
3300 seamen; and inwards, about 700 vessels, carrying
32,000 tons, and 1800 men. The principal exports are
4 Y
721
Clackman¬
nanshire.
79*2
i —-
C L A
C L A
Clackman- coals, about 65,000 tons, pig and cast iron, ales for Lon-
nanshire don, and British spirits. In 1830, 430,000 gallons of spi¬
ll rits were shipped for the English market; and m the same
Clairault. ^ the excise duties, customs, and taxes received in Al-
loa, and paid into the exchequer, amounted to L.244,097.
The annual imports consist, for the most part, of gram for
the distilleries and breweries, of which a great proportion
is barley from the county of Norfolk, and goods from Leith,
Glasgow, Greenock, and London. Timber, iron, and other
commodities, are occasionally imported from the Baltic.
The establishment of packets betwixt Alloa and Leith is
likely to prove of much benefit to this district, from t le
low rates at which goods are transported. A most conve¬
nient and expeditious conveyance for passengers, by means
of steam-boats, has been recently introduced, with great
success, between Newhaven and Alloa, and other places
on the Forth.
Among the antiquities of this county may ne mention¬
ed the ruins of Castle Campbell, originally called Castle
Gloom, in a singularly wild and almost inaccessible situa¬
tion, within a recess of the mountains, above the village
of Dollar. The period of its erection and its early history
are unknown. It became the property of the Argyll fa¬
mily in 1465, from whom it derived its present name, and
was the ordinary residence of Archibald earl of Aigy
at the time of the Reformation. In this stronghold John
Knox found a temporary retreat. In 1644 it wax burned
by Montrose, and since that time it has been suffered to
remain in ruins. The tower of Alloa, built prior to the year
1300, the residence of the Erskines, earls of Mar, and
now belonging to the representative of that noble family,
is in good preservation. -The walls are eleven feet in
thickness, and the highest turret is eighty-nine feet above
the ground. The tower of Clackmannan was long the seat
of the chief of the Bruces after the failure of the male
line. There is a charter, dated the 9th of December 13o9,
quoted by Douglas, in which Dgvid II. grants to Sir Ro¬
bert Bruce, whom he there styles his dearly beloved re-Clackman-
lation, the castle and manor of Clackmannan, with divers nanshire
other lands within the county. Since the death of Henry If
Bruce of Clackmannan, in 1772, leaving no male repre-
sentative, it has been made a question whether the Earl
of Elgin or Bruce of Kennet be now the chief of that
royal race. .
Clackmannanshire sends a member to parliament, con-
iunctly with the county of Kinross. By the reform bill,
there are annexed to Clackmannanshire, for the purposes
of election, the parishes of Culross and Tullyallan, former¬
ly comprehended in the county of Perth; Alva, formerly
belonging to Stirling ; and the Perthshire portion of Logie
This arrangement will increase the population to 21,392
souls. Clackmannanshire thus comprehends eleven pa¬
rishes, the constituency of which, as determined by the
sheriff, is as follows:—
Alloa parish 1
Clackmannan    o0
Dollar 
Logie, part of 
Tillicoultry  ^
Alva 
Culross  ^
Tullyallan 
491
There is no royal burgh in this county. Clackmannan,
which gives its name to the county, is the only town m it
besides Alloa deserving of notice.
There is no legal assessment here for the poor. Hie
total number of poor in 1812 was 193, who rece.ved
L.677 or nearly L.3. 10s. each, from interest of money,
collections at the church doors, and voluntary contribu¬
tions by the heritors and inhabitants. Ihe population of
Clackmannanshire in 1811, 1821, and 1831, .s exlnb.ted
in the following abstracts:—
HOUSES.
YEARS,
1811
1821
1831
1995
2145
2391
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
OCCUPAXIO-NS.
PERSONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
2781
2881
3354
99
62
85
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
280
434
385
893
1418
1302
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
Males.
1608
1029
1665
5715
6356
7095
Females.
Total of
Persons.
6295
6907
7634
12,010
13,263
14,729
CLAGET, William, an eminent and learned divine,
born in 1646. He was preacher to the society of Grays
Inn, which employment he exercised unt-1 his death in
1688, when he was also one of the king s chaplains. Arc i-
bishon Sharp gives him an excellent character, and Bisnop
Burnet has ranked him amongst those worthy men whose
lives and labours contributed to rescue the church fiom
the reproaches which the follies of others had drawn upon
it. Dr Claget published several things, but his principal
work is bis “ Discourse concerning the Operations ot the
Holy Spirit.” He was one of those divines who made
a resolute stand against the designs of James II. to in¬
troduce popery. Four volumes of his sermons were pub¬
lished after his death by his brother Nicholas Claget,
archdeacon of Sudbury, father of Nicholas Claget, after¬
wards bishop of Exeter.
CLAIR Obscure. See Claro Obscuro.
CLAIRAULT, Alexis-Claude, of the French aca¬
demy of sciences, born at Paris in 1713, was one of the
most illustrious mathematicians in Europe. He read to
the academy in 1726, when he was not thirteen years old,
a memoir upon four new geometrical curves of his own
invention ; and supported the character of which he had
thus laid the foundation by various publications from h
to time. He published, Recherches sur les Courbes adoub^
courbure, Paris, 1731, in 4to ; Elemens de Ge^ie^l; \
in 8vo; Theorie de la Figure de la Terre, 1743’ n ’
Siemens d'Algebre, 1746, in 8vo; Wewede la Fnm
deduiie du seul principe de Vattraction, 1754, in 8vo,
orie du Mouvementdes Cometes,\ ans, 1/60. I4e '? . ,
cerned also in the Journal des which he furms
ed with many excellent articles. He died in 1765 at
comparatively early age of fifty-two. He was onejHhe
academicians who were sent into Lapland * ation
degree of the meridian, with a view to the deter
of the figure of the earth. _ . , srtment of
CLAMECY, an arrondissement in the depaitn
the Nievre, in France, extending over 596 squa
rr
c h A C L A 723
.imping It is divided into six cantons, and these into ninety-seven
|| communes, with 61,334 inhabitants. The chief place, of
4»Per- the same name, stands at the junction of the Beuvron and
Xon^ the Yonne. It contains 770 houses and 5300 inhabitants.
In the neighbourhood coal-mines are worked, and there
is some trade in spinning and weaving cotton. Long.
3. 26r 6. E. Lat. 47. 27. 37. N.
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of board
with the grain to another piece of board across the grain.
Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamped, to prevent
their warping.
CLANDESTINE, any tiling done without the know¬
ledge of the parties concerned, or without the proper so¬
lemnities. Thus a marriage is said to be clandestine when
performed without the publication of banns and the consent
of parents.
CLANS, in history, and particularly in that of Scotland,
tribes or septs. The nations which overran Europe were ori¬
ginally divided into many small tribes ; and when they came
to parcel out the lands which they had conquered, it was
natural for every chieftain to bestow a portion, in the first
place, upon those of his own sept or family. These all
held their lands of him; and as the safety of each indi¬
vidual depended on the general union, each small society
clung together, and was distinguished by some common
appellation, either patronymic or local, long before the in¬
troduction of surnames or ensigns armorial. But when these
became common, the descendants and relations of every
chieftain assumed the same name and arms with him ;
other vassals were proud to imitate their example; and
by degrees the same distinctions w^ere communicated to
all those who held of the same superior. Thus clanships
were formed; and in a generation or two, that consan¬
guinity which was at first in a great measure imaginary
was believed to be real. An artificial union wras convert¬
ed into a natural one. Men willingly followed a leader
whom they regarded both as the superior of their lands
and the chief of their blood; and served him not only
with the fidelity of vassals, but with the affection of friends.
In the other feudal kingdoms, wre may observe such unions
as we have described, imperfectly formed; but in Scot¬
land, whether they were the production of chance, or the
effect of policy, or strengthened by preserving genealo¬
gies both genuine and fabulous, clanships were universal.
Such a confederacy might be overcome, but it could not
be broken ; and no change of manners or government has
been able, in some parts of the kingdom, to dissolve asso¬
ciations which are founded upon prejudices so natural to
the human mind. It is easy to imagine how formidable
were nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that
cause just and honourable which their chief approved, were
ever ready to take the field at his command, and to sacri¬
fice their lives in defence of his person or of his fame.
Against such men a king contended with great disadvan¬
tage ; and that cold service which money purchases, or
authority extorts, was not an equal match for the ardour
and zeal generated by this patriarchal brotherhood in arms.
Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption of
the Roman colonia; but Mr Whittaker asserts that it is
purely British, and signifies a family or sept.
CLAPHAM, one of those large villages touching on
London, which contains the residences of the more wealthy
citizens. It is situated in the hundred of Brixton, of the
county of Surrey, and distant three miles from the bridges.
The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 5803, in 1821 to 7151,
and in 1831 to 9958.
CLAPPERTON, Hugh, a distinguished African tra¬
veller, was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in the year
1788. His father was a respectable surgeon in the town
where the subject of this memoir w^as born, but having a
very numerous family to support, the future traveller re- Clapper-
ceived but an indifferent education. When able to do ton-
little more than read and write, he was placed under a
mathematical teacher, from whom he acquired a know¬
ledge of practical mathematics, including navigation and
trigonometry. At the age of seventeen he was bound as an
apprentice on board a large vessel which traded between
Liverpool and North America, and in this situation he con¬
tinued for some years, distinguishing himself thus early
by his ability, coolness, and intrepidity. A circumstance
which it is unnecessary to mention here compelled him to
change his berth in the merchant trader for one on board
a tender lying at Liverpool. From this vessel he re¬
moved to the Clorinde, where his intelligence and activity
soon raised him to the rank of midshipman. In 1813,
Clapperton, with a number of other young men of the
same standing with himself in the navy, were ordered to
Plymouth dock-yard to acquire a knowledge of the im¬
proved cutlass exercise, then newly introduced. When
their own instructions were completed, these individuals
were distributed as teachers over the fleet, and it fell to
the lot of Clapperton to be appointed to the Asia, the flag¬
ship of Vice-admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane. Early in
1814 this vessel sailed for Bermuda, and, during the voy¬
age, besides being distinguished as an excellent drill ser¬
geant, our future traveller, by his many excellent and fas¬
cinating qualities, rendered himself beloved and respected
by all on board, including the admiral, who honoured him
with his warmest friendship and patronage. Clapperton,
however, was ordered to the Canadian Lakes, then likely to
become the scene of important operations. Here he was
promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and soon afterwards to
the command of a schooner. In the year 1817, when the
flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned to his na¬
tive country on half pay. But we must now hasten to view
him in a new career, that of African discovery, where he
has won for himself an honourable niche in the temple of
fame ; and where all those excellent and ennobling quali¬
ties of which we have but the earnest, though a propiti¬
ous one, in the naval officer, were to reach their climax in
the intelligent and enterprising traveller.
In the year 1820, Clapperton removed to Edinburgh,
where he contracted an intimacy with the late Dr Oudney.
It was this gentleman who first directed his attention to
the cause in which both were destined to perish. After the
return of Captain Lyon from his unsuccessful attempt to
penetrate through Northern Africa, the British govern¬
ment determined to send out a second mission for the pur¬
pose of exploring this quarter of the globe. Dr Oudney was
appointed to proceed to Bornou as consul, and Captain
Clapperton went along with him as a companion. Colo¬
nel Denham was also added to the expedition.
After having arrived at Tripoli, they set out early in
1822, in a line nearly south to Mourzook, where they ar¬
rived on the 8th of April. Circumstances having pre¬
vented them from proceeding any farther this season,
Clapperton with his friend Oudney made an excursion to
the westward of Mourzook, into the country of the Tua-
ricks, which they penetrated as far as Ghraat, in the
eleventh degree of east longitude.
On the 29th of November, Clapperton, with his fellow-
travellers, set out for Bornou, and on the 17th of February
1823 reached Kouka, the capital of the country. They
were well received by the sultan; and here Clapperton
and Oudney remained until the 14th of December, when
they set out for the purpose of exploring the course of
the Niger. The travellers arrived in safety at Murmur,
where Oudney breathed his last in the arms of his com¬
panion. The loss of this enterprising individual was felt
by Clapperton as severe and afflicting in the extreme.
724
C L A
Clare.
Clapper- Alone, however, he penetrated as far as Sackatoo, a large
ton city in lat. 13. N. and long. 6|. E. which was the extreme
point of the expedition in that direction. _ Circumstances
prevented him from proceeding to the Niger, which was
only five days’ journey to the westward. He according y
returned to Kouka, where he was rejoined by Denham,
who scarcely knew him, from the ravages which disease
had made upon his frame. The two travellers then set out
for Tripoli, which they reached in January 182o, and from
thence proceeded to England, where they arrived on tire
1st of June. , . .
The result of this expedition was a work containing the
travels of Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney ; but it was
not the fortune of the subject of this memoir to see the
publication of it. Immediately after his return he was
requested to take the management of another expedition
to Africa, which he accepted, and set out on the 27th ot
August 1825, in company with three other individuals
ancf Richard Lander his servant, an enterprising youth.
On this occasion our traveller landed at Badagry, in the
Bi"ht of Benin, and immediately commenced ms journey
into the interior, along with Lander and two of the indi¬
viduals who had sailed with him from England. Both
of them, however, soon fell victims to the hardships of the
journey. In January 1826, Clapperton reached Katunga,
the capital of Youriba, and soon afterwards crossed the Ni¬
ger at Boussa, the place where Park met his untimely fate.
In July he arrived at Kano, a city which he had previ¬
ously visited. Here he left his servant with the baggage,
and proceeded alone to Sackatoo. It was the wish o
Clapperton to obtain permission from Bello, the sultan ot
Sackatoo, to visit Timbuctoo, and revisit Bornou. But
his plans were all frustrated in consequence of Bello having
engaged in a war with the scheik of Bornou. To the lat¬
ter individual Clapperton bore considerable presents from
the king of England. Our traveller was detained by bad
health for several months at Sackatoo ; but in the mean
time the sultan had privately inveigled Lander to join his
master with the baggage, in order that the presents might
be intercepted ; and Lander arrived at Sackatoo in Novem¬
ber, to the no small astonishment of Clapperton. I he
baggage was immediately seized in the most shameless
manner, and the travellers were expressly prohibited from
proceeding to Bornou. . .
For some months Clapperton enjoyed tolerable health,
but on the 13th of March 1827 he was suddenly attacked
with dysentery. It is unnecessary to trace the progress
of the disorder which finally carried off this enterprising
traveller. He lingered on until the 13th of April, when
he expired in the arms ot his faithful seivant. . .
Although Clapperton failed in the main object of his
ambition, which was afterwards accomplished by his ser¬
vant, he has done much to reform the geography of North¬
ern Africa. (See the article Africa of this work.) In
stature Clapperton was tall; in disposition warm and be¬
nevolent ; in temper mild and cheerful. “ No one, says
his servant Lander. “ could be better qualified than Cap¬
tain Clapperton, by a fearless, indomitable spirit, and utter
contempt of danger and death, to undertake and cany
into execution an enterprise of so great importance and
difficulty as the one with which he was intrusted. He
studied the African character in all its phases ; in its mo¬
ral, social, and external form; and, like Alcibiades, ac¬
commodated himself with equal ease to good^ as well as
bad fortune.” On the return of Lander to England he
published a work entitled “ Records of Captain Clapper-
ton's last Expedition to Africa,” which appeared in 1830,
in 2 vols. 12mo.
CLARE, a market-town of the hundred of Resbndge,
in the county of Suffolk, on the river Stour, fifty-five miles
C L A
from London. The market is held on Friday. The inhabi¬
tants amounted in 1821 to 1487, and in 1831 to 1619.
CLARE, the most northern of the six counties which
form the province of Munster in Ireland, is bounded on
the north by the bay and county of Galway; on the east
by Lough Dearg and the river Shannon, which separate
it from the county of Tipperary; on the south by the
estuary of the Shannon, which flows between it and the
counties of Limerick and Kerry ; and on the west by the
Atlantic Ocean. Its greatest length, measured in a north¬
eastern direction from Loophead to Scariff Point in Lough
Dearg, is seventy miles ; and its breadth, from Blackhead
in Galway Bay to Limerick city, forty-five miles. Its sur¬
face comprehends 802,352 acres, of which 524,113 are cul¬
tivated, 259,584 are mountain and bog, and 18,655 are co¬
vered with water. • .
According to Ptolemy, this county was anciently the
residence of the tribe ot the Gangani; afterwards it was
called Tuadmuin or Thomond, which signifies North Mun¬
ster, and was also known by the appellation of O Briens
Country, from the family of that name which then pos¬
sessed, and still continues to retain, considerable influ¬
ence there. In 1565 it was made shire ground, by the
name it still retains, at which time it was annexed to
Connaught, but was restored to Munster in 1602. The
county is now divided into nine baronies, viz. 1. Bun-
ratty ; 2. Burren ; 3. Clonderalaw; 4. Corcomroe ; 5. Ibric-
kan; 6. Inchiquin; 7. Islands; 8. Moyarta; and 9. Jul-
lagb. These baronies are subdivided into seventy-six
parishes, besides two parts of parishes, the remainders of
which are in the adjacent counties of Galway and Lime-
In the ecclesiastical arrangements of Ireland, Clare is
considered as forming part of the diocese of Killaloe, which
also extends over the greater part of the county of Iip-
perary, and some small portions of the King’s County and
of those of Galway and Limerick. Killaloe, near the
western bank of the Shannon, is the episcopal seat, at a
small distance from which stands Clarisford House, the
bishop’s residence, built in the middle of a very beautiful
demesne. The diocese of Kilfenora, anciently called
Fenabore, and which has long been united with the pre¬
ceding, comprehends the baronies of Burren and Corcom¬
roe, and is the smallest see in Ireland. The town of Kil¬
fenora is remarkable only for its cathedral, the nave of
which is full of old family memorials. A figure of St
Feighan, the founder, is to be seen at full length in the
choir. In the same cathedral are seven crosses, each
formed of a single stone, and carved with antique de¬
vices. The yearly value of the united dioceses, including
mensal lands, according to a return made to parliament m
1831, amounts to L.4600.
The surface of the country is hilly, and in some parts
mountainous, but nowhere rising to heights of very great
elevation. A considerable portion is covered with bog, par¬
ticularly in the western baronies of Moyarta and Ibrickan.
Bogs are frequent also in the mountainous districts m
other parts, except in the limestone barony of Burren.
has been remarked that the large tracts of rocky coun¬
try, which must always be used for grazing, and the
require but a very small population, enjoy but a scan y
supply of this valuable material for fuel. The inhabUan s
of seVeral parts of Burren import it from the opposlte
shores of Connemara. Generally speaking, 11
parts of the county are mountainous, with tracts ot ncn
pasture lands interspersed; the west abounds with bog,
and the north is rocky, and best adapted forgrazing
In the southern part, along the banks ot the
Shannon, are bands of rich low grounds, called carcass ,
of various breadth, and indenting the land in a gre
Clare.
CLARE.
are. nety of soapes. That^ part called Tradree, properly
Tradruihe, or the King s Land, a name supposed to be
attached to it in consecjuence of its being the patrimony
of the celebrated Lnan Boroimhe, is proverbially rich*
These carcasses are distinguished, from the nature of
their respective substrata, into black and blue ; the former
is more esteemed for tillage, the latter for meadow. In¬
deed this county seems to be distinguished from most
others in Ireland, by the peculiarity of containing such a
variety of soils, from the rich lowland carcass to the light
mountain gravel, as to include a gradation fitted to po-
duce all the necessaries and many of the luxuries of civi¬
lized life. Every quality of ground exhibits itself, from
the shores of the Atlantic, in regular progressive chains
of varied productive fertility, from the luxuriant lowlands
of Tradree to the rocky pasturages of Barren. The tra¬
veller cannot but be struck with the wonderful contrast
between the clilf that frowns over the vale of Glanagarud,
where the eye looks in vain for the scanty herbage that
maintains the goats on its summit, and the banks of the
Shannon, whose fertility cannot be exhausted by the most
numerous herds of cattle, or by the uninterrupted tillage
of many years.
The climate is remarkably healthy. The strong gales
from the Atlantic, though unfriendly to planting, insomuch
that trees sixty miles inland, if not sheltered, incline to¬
wards the east, seem to produce no injurious effects on
the human constitution. Yet low fevers are common,
and often pass through whole parishes, cutting off num¬
bers ; but their frequency and malignity are attributed
more to the slovenly habits and want of cleanliness too
prevalent among the peasantry, than to any insalubrity in
the climate. The frequent use of ardent spirits also con¬
tributes its baleful agency to increase the extent and vi¬
rulence of this awful visitation.
Besides the Shannon, a portion of which forms the east¬
ern and southern boundaries of the county, the most con¬
siderable river is the Fergus, which rises in the barony of
Corcomroe, and after flowing through Lough Inchiquin and
several other smaller sheets of water, passes through En¬
nis, where it is joined by the Clareen ; then, expanding into
a large and beautiful estuary, studded with picturesque
islands, it unites itself with that of the Shannon. The
Fergus is navigable for vessels of two hundred tons, ten
miles up to Clare, and for small craft to Ennis. In con¬
sequence of the many mountain streams with which it is
fed, it is subject to floods, by which the low carcass lands
on its borders are frequently overflowed, and much injury
is done to the stocks of hay and cattle. The Ougarnee
joins the Shannon near Bunratty Castle, as does the Black-
water near Limerick. The former of these rivers presents
peculiar advantages for extensive manufactures. The
supply of water is equal to any expenditure, and in some
parts the fall is so rapid that a mill could be erected at
every hundred yards. The Ardsallas and Clareen are
branches of the Fergus. The Innistymon river divides
the baronies of Ibrickan and Islands, and falls into Lisca-
nor Bay. The Boagh or Bow forms part of the boundary
between this county and Galway. A large stream rising
in Mount Callan forms Lough Dulogh, and disembogues
itself into the Atlantic.
The lakes are very numerous, amounting to upwards of
an hundred, to which names have been given. The prin¬
cipal are Lough Graney, Lough Tedane, and Lough Inchi¬
quin. They are, however, more celebrated for their pic¬
turesque beauties than their extent. Lough Terroig rests
on the summit of the Slieveboghta mountain, in Tullagh ba¬
rony ; a stream from it feeds the beautiful Lough Graney,
or Lake of the Sun, and, after a serpentine course of seve¬
ral miles, flows into the Shannon at the bay of Scariff.
Besides the perennial lakes, large accumulations of water
occur, either forced upwards from under ground of a high¬
er level, or produced by collections of surface water drain¬
ing down from more elevated spots. These dry up in
summer, and are called turloghs or loghans. On the
subsiding of the water, its place is supplied b}' a copious
growth of fine grass, that affords pasturage to numerous
herds and flocks. Many of these turloghs admit of easy
drainage.
Although mineral and metallic substances have been
found in many places throughout the county, they do not
show themselves in sufficient abundance at any one spot
to induce the application of capital for their extraction.
The principal are lead, iron, and manganese. Copper
pyrites occurs in several parts of Burren. Coal has been
discovered, but the seams are too thin to warrant the ex¬
pectation of profit from their working on a large scale.
Limestone is very general. Flags, easily quarried, and
raised in blocks or slabs of considerable size, are procured
near Kilrush ; they are curiously connected by serpentine
insertions between the layers. Thin flags, used for cover¬
ing houses, are raised near Innistymon, as are slates for
the same purpose in several places. A species of very
fine black marble has been discovered near Ennis. It
takes a high polish, and is free from the white spots with
which the black Kilkenny marble is marked.
The mineral springs, which are found in many places,
are chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdownvarna has long
been celebrated for its medicinal qualities, particularly in
biliary obstructions : it is ferruginous, with an astringent
taste and strong smell, yet not fetid. It possesses the
additional advantage of being contiguous to the sea, thus
affording the valetudinarian the option of sea-bathing, if
deemed advisable. There are chalybeate springs of less
note at Scool, Cloneen, Kilkishen, and Cassino, near Mil-
toun Malbay. Springs called by the people holy or
blessed wells, are common ; but their efficacy in perform¬
ing cures in inveterate maladies is every day less valued.
One of these, near Tomgraney, called St Cullen’s, is re¬
markable for the purity of its water: it was formerly
overshadowed by a magnificent oak, the stump of which,
measuring sixteen feet in circumference at four feet from
the ground, still exists. At St Giaran’s Well, near Ennis,
are the relics of a very large ash-tree.
This county, in common with most other parts of Ire¬
land, is deficient in timber. Many miles square present
themselves to the view, with scarcely the vestige of a tree
to vary the monotony of the scene. This is the more to
be deplored, because even the most rocky tracts admit
of being planted, as the fissures of the limestone generally
have a perpendicular direction, and are usually filled with
a rich black earth. It is also well known that many tracts
now bare of trees, and affording but a scanty herbage for
sheep, were once covered with woods ; and in spots where
the soil is protected from the invasion of sheep and goats,
plants of oak, quicken, hazel, and other species of useful
timber, shoot up spontaneously, which, if properly pro¬
tected and nurtured, would in a few years clothe these
naked cliffs with an abundant and profitable foliage.
Several proprietors have latterly been active in remedying
this defect. The most extensive modern plantations are
at Cratilow, near Limerick, where several hundred acres
have been judiciously planted.
The results of inquiries respecting the population, at
different periods, partly by private individuals, partly by
order of government, give the number of houses as fol¬
lows, whence, as the number of souls in each is now uni¬
versally estimated at 5f, or 6 at the utmost, the total
number of individuals in the county can easily be calcu¬
lated.
726
C L A R E.
Clare.
Houses.
1712  8,602
1732  6,313
1754 10,014
1777 12,564
Houses.
1791 18,050
1812 29,050
1821 35,373
1831 
The enumeration of the population, taken by autho¬
rity of parliament, exhibits the following results :
Souls. Souls. Souls.
1812...162,402 1821...208,089 1831...258,262
The county was represented in the imperial parliament
by three members ; two for the county at large, and one
for Ennis. The new arrangements under the reform act
have made no change in this particular. The number of
electors, previously to the disfranchisement of the forty¬
shilling freeholders, was 8557 ; subsequently to that period
it was reduced to 1604 ; under the provisions of the reform
act it amounts to 2515.
The peasantry possess most of the qualities, habits, and
prejudices, usual among the agricultural classes throughout
the south and west of Ireland. Under the ordinary cir¬
cumstances of society, when not exposed to the influence
' of some unusual excitation, they are kindly and well-man¬
nered towards each other, and hospitable to strangers,
their intercourse with whom is marked, from the lowest
ranks to the highest, with an almost undeviating civility
and readiness to oblige. Ihe cottages of the labouring
classes are usually built of stone without cement, some¬
times with sods, and thatched with straw, or, in lieu of it,
with fern rushes, sedge, or even potato stocks. I heir
fuel is exclusively turf, drawn from their owTn extensive
bogs, or from the neighbouring shores of Galway. Iheir
usual food is potatoes, with milk in summer. On the sea
coast their fare is occasionally improved by the addition of
fish. Almost every cottar has a small garden planted with
cabbage, varied, perhaps, with a small patch of onions or
parsnips.
Their usual clothing is frieze wrought at home by the
women of the family, whose industry generally enables
them to produce an additional quantity for sale. The wo¬
men used to wear petticoats of home-dyed red flannel ; but
the introduction of cotton cloths is rapidly excluding all
other kinds of manufactures for female dress here as well
as elsewhere.
The state of education, as far as it has been ascertained
from the returns of the census of 1821, and the reports of
the parliamentary commissioners in 1824-6, gives the fol¬
lowing numbers of pupils:—
Males. Females.
Sex not
ascertained.
Total.
1821 8,159 3,794 11,953
1824 13,382 6,463 206 20,051
Of the number specified in the latter of these statements,
695 were of the established church, and 19,366 Roman
Catholics. The total number of schools was 315, of which
249 were supported wholly by the fees of the pupils, wEose
number amounted to 15,070; the remaining 66 schools,
containing 6320 pupils, were supported either by grants
of public money, or by voluntary contributions of societies
or individuals of various religious persuasions.
Though, from the general description already given of
the soil and surface of the country, it would appear to be
better adapted to grazing than tillage, yet in the richer
lands the latter is carried on extensively, and the modern
improvements in agriculture are rapidly gaining ground.
Dairies are numerous. Spade culture is still practised in
the mountainous and rocky parts: some of the best corn
is raised in this expensive and laborious manner. At llala-
hine, an establishment combining agriculture and manu¬
factures, on a plan somewhat similar to that proposed by Clare.
Mr R. Owen, late of Lanark, is successfully carrying on
under the superintendence of the proprietor, J. S. \ande-
leur, Esq. If the county be remarkable for the raising of
any produce not in general cultivation elsewheie, it is for
that of onions. Around Ennis this vegetable is raised in
great quantities, and the very superior attention it requires
gives employment to numerous labourers.
& The usual rate of wages for field work is from 8d. to lOd.
per day. Rut employment is not abundant, except in
spring and autumn, at which seasons the number of hands
is insufficient for the demand. Near the sea good land
is let to the peasantry to raise potatoes, at L.3. 10s. to
L.4 per acre. This land they manure with sea-weed and
sea-sand. In the interior potato ground is let without
manure at from L.5 to L.7, and with manure at from L.10
to L.12 per acre. After paying for his cabin and potato
garden, the labourer has very little remaining to purchase
necessary apparel for himself and his family.
The general term for leases is three lives, or thirty-one
years. ^Bishops’ land is let for twenty-one years, with li¬
berty to renew annually, or at other periods, on payment
of a proportionate fine. Much property is held by this
uncertain and discouraging tenure. ^ Some landloids le-
tain a right of planting on the tenant’s land, allowing him
the value of the part so planted. From a return very late¬
ly made as to the residence of the landed proprietors, it
appears, that of sixty-three, the number stated m the re¬
turn, forty-eight are’'resident on their respective estates,
nine reside in other parts of Ireland, and six only are ab¬
sentees. Yet this county has been as much disturbed of
late years, and the peasantry are in as great a state of des¬
titution, as in those in which absenteeism is prevalent.
The names of the absentees are the Marquis of Lans-
downe, the Earl of Egremont, the London Mercers com¬
pany, Morrugh O’Brien, William Casey, and Ciosdaue
Morony, Esqrs. . . ,
Besides the manufactures for home consumption already
mentioned, flannels and friezes are largely made for sale.
In the western parts coarse yarn stockings are manuiac-
tured by hand, in such quantities as to be the common
medium of barter. Coarse linens for sacks and packing
are also fabricated. A species of coarse hat is manufactured
near Scariff. Kelp is made in large quantities along the
sea-shore; but in consequence of the negligent manner
in which it is prepared, and of the fraudulent practice o
mixing with it a particular kind of stone, hence called
kelp-stone, its value in the general market is consider¬
ably less than that made in Scotland or other parts ot ire-
la The fisheries ought to be a source of much wealth and
comfort to the inhabitants of a district so contiguous to the
sea; yet such is by no means the case. Kilrush is the only
harbour which engages largely in them. Here the herring-
fishery is carried on, yet not to a great extent, lushing
piers have within these few years been built in severa
suitable situations. Shell-fish, especially oysters, crabs, and
lobsters, abound. The salmon-fishery of the Shannon
very productive. Eels form a material article of consump¬
tion and traffic. They are found in every stream; yet tne
weirs constructed for their capture are thought to piot u
more injury, by the floodings arising from the water thrown
back from them on the cultivated land, than bene
the fish caught by them. .
The amusements in which the country people c n y
dulge are hurling matches, here called goals, in which feats
of surprising strength and activity are performe .
are nothing more than night-meetings at pub ic-1 >
where they give themselves up to conversation, dancing,
and drinking. A curious custom prevails m some parts.
C L A
iren- the head of* every beast that is slauglitered is given to the
•us. blacksmith, a usage probably originating in a remuneration
1 for the use of his sledge and arm in knocking down the
animal. In many places it is customary among the lower
classes to call the gentry by their abbreviated Christian
names, without any addition of family name or title, and
this is done with no intention of insult or degradation.
The county abounds with remains of antiquities, both
military and religious. Of the former there are still visi¬
ble 119 fortified castles, seven of which are inhabited.
Raths are to be found in every part; they are generally
round, composed either of large stones without mortar, or
of earth thrown up and surrounded by one or more ditch¬
es, on which was formerly placed a staked hedge. The
list of abbeys and other religious houses formerly existing
here, some of which are now only known by name, com¬
prehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are,
Quin, said to be the finest and most perfect specimen of an¬
cient monastic architecture in Ireland ; Corcomroe, Ennis,
in which a very fine window of uncommonly elegant work¬
manship is still to be seen; and Inniscattery, situated on
an island in the Shannon, said to be founded by St Sena-
nus, and particularly noted for the total exclusion of fe¬
males from its precincts. In the island is a round tower.
Four others are to be found in various stages of preserva¬
tion, at Drumclieve, Dysert O’Dea, Kilnabay, andlnniscal-
tra. Cromlechs are found chiefly in Barren, though there
are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is’formed
of a stone forty feet long and ten broad." The celebrated
tomb of Conan, on Mount Callan, is still extant. Near the
same place is a monument, called Darby’s and Graney’s
Bed, to which the very singular custom is attached, that if
a young woman goes thither with a stranger, she is bound
to grant him any favour he asks.
There are no towns of considerable size or importance in
the county. Ennis, the assize town, contains a population
not muchexceeding 7000souls. It is situated atthejunction
of the Fergus and Clareen, about ten miles from the entrance
of the joint stream into the Shannon. It is a post, market,
fair, and borough town, and the only one which sends-a re¬
presentative to parliament. The electors, under the new
arrangement, amount to 237. The public buildings are,
the parish-church, adorned with a handsome steeple ; a Ro¬
man Catholic chapel, and a Methodist meeting-house. The
market-house is a very fine building, as is the new jail,
which is constructed according to the modern ideas of pri¬
son discipline. The latest reports to parliament describe
it as holding a distinguished place among the best regu¬
lated establishments of this class. The town is a mart for
flannels and linen ; it is also the seat of an extensive corn-
trade. A school, on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, has
been established here, besides which there are several pri¬
vate seminaries of education. The navigation of the river
is obstructed by a bar which prevents the ingress of large
vessels ; but this defect, it is said, could be remedied at an
expense of about L.10,000. Kilrush, on the estuary of the
Shannon, is the next town of importance. Its population
is about 4000, and from its situation and good harbour,
aided by the exertions of a resident and improving land¬
lord, it is yearly increasing in wealth and importance.
Dutton’s Statistical Survey of Clare; Shaw Mason’s
Parochial Account of Ireland ; Bog Reports ; Erck’s Ec¬
clesiastical Register; Parliamentary Papers; Reports of
the Commissioners of Education ; Returns under the Popu¬
lation Act; Reports of the Society for the Improvement of
Prison Discipline.
CLARENCIEUX, the second king at arms, so called
from the Duke of Clarence, to whom he first belonged;
for Lionel, third son to Edward III. having by his wife the
honour of Clare in the county of Thomond, was afterwards
’ declared Duke of Clarence, which dukedom subsequently Clarendon
escheating to Edward IV. he created this earl a king at II
arms. His office is to marshal and dispose of the funerals CIarigatio-
of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, and esquires,
on the south side of the I rent; and hence he is some¬
times called surroy or south-roy, in contradistinction to
norroy.
CLARENDON, Constitutions of, certain constitu¬
tions made in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1164, in a parlia¬
ment held at Clarendon, by which the king checked the
power of the pope and his clergy, and greatly narrowed the
total exemption they claimed from secular jurisdiction.
Clarendon, Earl of See Hyde.
CLARET. See Wine.
C LARI AC, a city of the department of the Lot and
Garonne, in France, on the right bank of the Lot, con¬
taining 5068 inhabitants, extensively occupied in the cul¬
tivation of hemp and flax.
. CLARICHORD, or Manichord, a musical instrument
in the form of a spinet, but now out of use.
It has forty-nine or fifty stops, and seventy strings,
which bear on five bridges, the first of which is the high¬
est, while the rest diminish in proportion. Some of the
strings are in unison, their number being greater than that
of the stops. I here are several little mortises for passing
the jacks, armed with brass-hocks, which stop and raise
the chords instead of the feather used in virginals and
spinets ; but what distinguishes it most is, that the chords
are covered with pieces of cloth, which render the sound
sweeter, and deaden it so that it cannot be heard at any
considerable distance ; and hence it is particularly in use
among nuns, who learn to play, and yet are unwilling to
disturb the silence of the dormitory.
CLARIFICATION, the act of cleaning or purifying
any fluid from heterogeneous matter or feculencies.
I he substances usually employed for clarifying liquor
are the albumen of eggs, blood, and isinglass. The first two
are used for such liquors as are clarified whilst boiling hot;
the last for those which are clarified in the cold state, such
as wines, and the like. The whites of eggs are beaten up
into a froth, and mixed with the liquor, when they unite
with and entangle the impure matters that float in it; and
presently growing hard by the heat, carry these impurities
up to the surface in the form of a scum, no longer disso¬
luble in the liquid. Blood operates in the same manner,
and is chiefly used in purifying the brine from which salt
is made. Great quantities of isinglass are consumed for
fining turbid wines. For this purpose some throw an en¬
tire piece, about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cask;
by degrees die glue dissolves, and forms a skin upon the
surface, which at length subsiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previously dissolve the isinglass, and having boiled it down
to a slimy consistence, mix it with the liquor, roll the
cask strongly about, and then suffer it to stand to settle.
Neumann questions the wholesomeness of wines thus pu¬
rified, and assures us that he himself, after drinking only
a few ounces of sack thus clarified, but not settled quite
fine, was seized with sickness and vomiting, followed by
such a vertigo, that he could not stand upright for a mi¬
nute together. I he giddiness continued, with nausea and
want of appetite, for several days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony which
always preceded a formal declaration of war. It was per¬
formed in this manner: Four heralds crowned with vervain
were sent to demand satisfaction for the injuries which
had been done the Roman state. These heralds having
taken the gods to witness that their demands were just,
one of them, with a clear voice, demanded restitution with¬
in a limited time, commonly thirty-three days; and if this
C L A
C L A
oeriod expired without restitution being made, then the Cartesian principles, and very ill translated into Latin.
later Mutov prince of the heralds, proceeded to the Clarke gave a new translatton, and added to it such notes
pater pair aim, ui pimcc   calculated to lead students insensibly to other
Clarke:
enemy’s frontiers, and declared war. .
CL ARION, a kind of trumpet, the tube of which is nar¬
rower, and the tone acuter and shriller, than that ot t ic
common trumpet. It is said that the claiion now use
among the Moors, and the Portuguese who borrowed it
from the Moors, served anciently for a treble to seven a
trumpets, which sounded tenor and bass.
CLARISSES, an order of nuns so called from their
as were calculated to lead students insensibly to other
and truer notions than could be found there. “ And this
certainly,” says Bishop Hoadley, “ was a more prudent
method of introducing truth unknown before, than to at¬
tempt to throw aside this treatise entirely, and write a hew
one instead of it. The success answered exceedingly well
to his hopes; and he may justly be styled a great bene¬
factor to the university in this attempt. For by this means
ni APTQKKS nn order or nuns so ctuieu num —  ~ j . , * . ^ -i i i
an o ghe wag bom in the town of the true philosophy has, without any noise, prevailed; and
lounder ot Clata 01 ot L- cl . ...  ii ♦nic Uo., ti-,0 tmnclntinn nf Rnhaiilt. is. p-enerallv sneak-
Asgisa in Italy; and having renounced the world to de
dicate herself to religion, gave birth to this order in the
year 1212; which comprehends not only those nuns who
follow the rule of St Francis, according to the strict let¬
ter, and without any mitigation, but likewise those who
observe the same rule softened and mitigated by severa
nones. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexico tor
the king of Spain, Isabella of Portugal, wife ot the emperor
Charles V. sent thither some nuns of the order ot St Llaia,
who made several settlements there. Near their monas¬
teries were founded communities of Indian young women,
to be instructed by the clarisses in religion, and in such
works as were suitable to persons of their sex. Ihese
communities were so considerable that they usually con¬
sisted of four or five hundred. .
CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a preacher and writer ot con-
. • r* /''Il 1 _ TT    1 ,itvrv Frit*
to this day the translation of Rohault is, generally speak¬
ing, the standing text for lectures, and his notes the first
direction to those who are willing to receive the reality
and truth of things, in the place of invention and romance.”
Whiston relates, that in 1697, while he was chaplain to
Moore, bishop of Norwich, he met young Clarke, then
wholly unknown to him, at a coffeehouse in that city,
where they entered into a conversation about the Car¬
tesian philosophy, particularly Rohault’s Physics, which
Clarke’s tutor, as he tells us, had put him upon translat¬
ing. “ The result of this conversation was,” says Whis¬
ton, “ that I was greatly surprised that so young a man
as Clarke then was should know so much of those sublime
discoveries, which were then almost a secret to all but to
a few particular mathematicians. Nor do I remember,”
continues he, “ above one or two at the most, whom I had
CLARKE, DR bAMUEL, a F^c . met with, that seemed to know so much of that phi-
siderable note the re.gn of 11. was, ^ , as Clarke.” This translation of Rohault was first
interregnum, and at dm t^ P Member 1660, he, in printed in 1697, 8vo. There have been four editions of
St Denne* rink, ,,pr:„n m;n;sters nresented an ad- it, in every one of which improvements were made, espe-
the name ot the Tt on if StTof con- daily in the last in 1718, which has the following title:
defence? He waf one of the commissioners of the Savoy, JaJbi Rohavlti Physica. Latine vertit, recensmt^etvbe^
rioribus jam Annotationibus, ex illustrissimi Isaaci Newtoiii
Philosophia maximam partem fiaustis, amplijicavit et orna-
vit S. Clarke, S. T. P. Accedunt eliam in hac quarta edi-
tione novee aliquot tabulce ceri incism, et Annotationes mid-
turn sunt uuctce. Dr John Clarke, dean ot Saium, andour
author’s brother, translated this work into English, and
science, xac ^    - -
and behaved on that occasion with great prudence and
moderation. He sometimes attended the church as a
hearer and communicant, and was much esteemed for his
great probity and industry by all who knew him. I he
most valuable of his numerous works are said to be his
Lives of the Puritan Divines and other persons of note, —~ . ' .
twenty-two of which ate pn-tted m yd thoughts t0 divinity; and
t'w A *c "folio - amUi'if Marrow of Ecclesiastical History, in order to qualify himself for the sacred function, he stu-
ter Age, lono , anu nis . c t]ie old Testament in the original Hebrew, the New
m Ci ark1? Samuel the son of the former, was fellow of Testament in the original Greek, and the primitive Chns-
p C K k Cambridge but was ejected from his tian writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chaplain
Slowship'lb" refusing to take the engagements, as he ?vas to Moore, bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards Hs
also afterwards from his rectory of Grendon in Bucking¬
hamshire. Fie applied himself early to the study of tlie
Scriptures; and his Annotations on the Bible, printed to¬
gether with the sacred text, us highly commended by Dr
Owen, Mr Baxter, and Dr Calamy. He died in 1701,
aged 75. . .
Clarke, Dr Samuel, a celebrated English divine, was
the son of Edward Clarke, Esq. alderman of Norwich, and
one of its representatives in parliament for several yeais,
having been born there on the 11th October 1675. He w as
instructed in classical learning at the free school of that
town; and in 1691 removed thence to Caius College in
Cambridge, where his uncommon abilities soon began to
display themselves. Though the philosophy of Descartes
was at that time the established philosophy of the unl*
versity, yet Clarke easily mastered the new system of
Newton ; and with a view to his degree in arts, performed ton, near ivui wu;.., a— ^ ‘‘” 1n"when the bishop
a public exercise in the schools upon a question taken ie^'vedP'rS0"ff7^ to preach
from it. He contributed neatly to the establishment ot resided at Norwich. In 170J he lwas ^PP0inIoecU.llippRpintT
the Newtonian philosophy0by an excellent translation of, Boyle’s lecture; and ‘he be ’0 well, and
and notes upon, Rohault’s Physics, which he finished be- and Attributes o ot. n appointed to
fore he was twenty-two years of age. The system ot na- gave such big i sa is ac ion, c _ when he chose
tural philosophy then generally taught in the university preach the same lecture the "!,Xt ’ d Reveaied Re-
was that written by Rohault, founded altogether upon for his subject the Evidences of Natural and
constant 'friend W patron. In 1699 he published two
treatises ; one entitled “ Three practical Essays on Bap¬
tism, Confirmation, and Repentance;” and the other,
“ Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor,
or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which relates to the Writ¬
ings of the Primitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New
Testament.” In 1701 he published “ A Paraphrase upon
the Gospel of St Matthew which was followed, m 170.,
by the “ Paraphrases upon the Gospels of St Mark and
St Luke,” and soon afterwards by a third volume upon St
John. They were subsequently printed together in two
volumes 8vo; and have since passed through several edi¬
tions. He intended to have treated in the same manner
the remaining books of the New Testament, but something
accidentally interrupted the execution of his design.
Meanwhile Bishop Moore gave him the rectory of Dray¬
ton, near Norwich, and procured him a parish m that.c‘ty’
CLARKE.
Clarke, ligion. These sermons were first printed in two distinct
volnmes; the first in 1705, and the second in 1706.
Ihey have since been printed in one volume, under the
general title of “ A Discourse concerning the Being and
Attributes of God the Obligations of Natural Religion,
and the 1 ruth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation
in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles
of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed Re¬
ligion.” Clarke having endeavoured, in the first part of
729
his work, to show that the being of a God may be de¬
monstrated by arguments a priori, unluckily involved him-
self in the censure which Pope in the following lines pro¬
nounced upon this method of reasoning:  ° 1
Let others creep by timid steps and slow,
On plain experience lay foundations low,
By common sense to common knowledge bred.
And lost to nature’s cause, through nature led".
AH-seeing in thy mists, we want no guide,
Mother of arrogance, and source of pride !
We nobly take the high priori road,
And reason downward, till we doubt of God.
On this passage we have the following note : “ Those who,
from the effects in this visible world, deduce the eternal
power and godhead of the First Cause, though they can¬
not attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet discover
so much of him as enables them to see the end of their
creation and the means of their happiness ; whereas they
who take this high priori road, as Hobbes, Spinoza, Des¬
cartes, and some better reasoners, for one that goes right,
ten lose themselves in mist, or ramble after visions which
deprive them of all sight of their end, and mislead them
in the choice of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would
not have denied this; and the poet perhaps would have
spared his better reasoners, and not have joined them with
such company, had he collected our author’s apology for
using the argument a priori. “ I he argument a posteriori”
says he, “ is indeed by far the most generally useful argu¬
ment,^ most easy to be understood, and in some degree
suited to all capacities; and therefore it ought always to
be insisted upon. But for as much as atheistical writers
have sometimes opposed the being and attributes of God
by such metaphysical reasonings as can no otherwise be
obviated than by arguing a priori, therefore this manner
of arguing also is useful and necessary in its proper place.”
To this may be added the answer which he made to Mr
Whiston, as narrated by the latter in his Historical Me¬
moirs. “ When Clarke brought me his book, I was in my
garden against St Peter’s College in Cambridge, where I
then lived. Now I perceived that in these sermons he had
dealt a great deal in abstract and metaphysical reasoning.
I therefore asked him how he ventured into such subtle¬
ties, which I never durst meddle with ; and showing him
a nettle, or some contemptible weed in my garden, I told
him that weed contained better arguments for the being
and attributes of God than all his metaphysics. Clarke
confessed it to be so; but alleged for himself, that since
such philosophers as Hobbes and Spinoza had made use of
those kind of subtleties against, he thought proper to show
that the like way of reasoning might be made better use
of on the side of religion; which reason or excuse I al¬
lowed to be not inconsiderable.”
In 1706 he published a letter to Mr Dodwell, in which
all the arguments in his epistolary discourse against the
immortality of the soul are particularly answered, and the
judgment of the fathers, to whom Mr Dodwell had appeal¬
ed concerning that matter, is truly represented. Bishop
Hoadley observes, that in this letter he answered Mr Dod¬
well in so excellent a manner, both with regard to the
philosophical part, and to the opinions of some of the pri¬
mitive writers, upon whom these doctrines were fixed, that
VOL. VI.
it gave universal satisfaction. But this controversy did Clarke,
not stop here; for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a
second to Dodwell, went much farther into the philosophy
of the dispute, and indeed seemed to produce all that
could possibly be said against the immateriality of the
soul, as well as the liberty of human actions. This en-
larged the scene of the dispute, into which our author en-
tered, and wrote with such clearness and demonstration,
as at once showed him greatly superior to his adversaries
in metaphysical and physical knowledge, and made every
intelligent reader rejoice that such an incident had hap¬
pened to provoke and extort from him that abundance of
stiong reasoning and perspicuity of expression, which
v,eie indeed very much wanted upon this intricate and
obscure subject. Clarke’s letter to Dodwell was soon fol¬
lowed by four defences of it, in as many letters to the
author of “ A Letter to the learned Mr Henry Dodwell,
contaming some Remarks on a pretended Demonstration
of the Immateriality and natural Immortality of the Soul,
in Mr Clarke’s Answer to his late Epistolary Discourse.”
ihey were afterwards printed together; and the Answer
to I oland’s Amyntor added to them. In the midst of all
these labours he found time to show his attachment to
mathematical and physical studies, as well as exact know-
iedge.and skill in them. And his natural affection and
capacity for these studies were not a little improved by
the friendship of Sir Isaac Newton, at whose request he
translated his Optics into Latin in 1706. With this ver¬
sion Sir Isaac was so highly pleased, that he presented
him with the sum of L.500, or L.100 for each child, Clarke
having then five children.
I his yeai also, Bishop Moore, who had long formed a
design of fixing him more conspicuously, procured for him
the rectory of St Bennet’s, Raul’s Wharf, London ; and
soon afterwards carried him to court, and recommended
him to the favour of Queen Anne, who appointed him one
of her chaplains in ordinary; and, in consideration of his
great merit, and at the request of the bishop, presented
him to the rectory of St James’s, Westminster, when it
became vacant in 1709. Upon his advancement to this
station, he took the degree of doctor in divinity; and on
this occasion the public exercise which he performed
for it at Cambridge was prodigiously admired. The ques-
tions which he maintained were these : 1. Nullum fidei
UiristiarKB dogma, in sacris scripturis traditum, est rectce
rahoni dissentaneum ; no article of the Christian faith, de¬
livered in the Holy Scriptures, is disagreeable to right
reason : 2. Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest
esse religio; without the liberty of human actions, there
can be no religion. The same year he revised and correct¬
ed Winston’s English translation of the Apostolical Con-
titutions. Whiston tells us, that his own studies havino-
been chiefly directed to other things, and having rendered
him incapable of being also a critic in words and languages,
he desired his great friend and critic Dr Clarke to revise
that translation, which he was so kind as to agree to.
In 1712, he published a most beautiful edition of Caesar's
Commentaries, adorned with elegant engravings. It is en¬
titled C. Jidii Caisaris quae extant, accuratissime cum libris
editis et mss. optimis collata, recognita, et correcta ; accesse-
runt annotationes Samuelis Clarke, S. T. P. item indices
locorum, rerumque et verborum, utilissimce. It was print¬
ed in 1712, folio, and afterwards, in 1720, 8vo, and dedi¬
cated to the great Duke of Marlborough ; “ at a time,” says
Bishop Hoadley, “ when his unequalled victories and suc¬
cesses had raised his glory to the highest pitch abroad,
and lessened his interest and favour at home.” In the
publication of this book the doctor took particular care of
the punctuation. In the annotations he selected what ap¬
peared the best and most judicious in former editions, with
4 z
CLARKE.
some corrections and emendations of his own interspersed-
The same year, 1712, he published his celebrated book
entitled The Scripture Doctrine of the Irimty, which is
divided into three parts. The first contains a collection and
explication of all the texts in the New 1 estament relating
to the doctrine of the trinity ; in the second the doctrine
is set forth at large, and explained in particular and dis¬
tinct propositions ; and in the third, the principal passages
in the liturgy of the church of England relating to tne
doctrine ofUie trinity are considered. Winston informs
us that some time before the publication of this book, a
message was sent to him from Lord G^°^in ^nd ^
ministers of Queen Anne, importing, lhat the allairs
of the public were with difficulty then kept m the hands
of those that were for liberty ; that it was therefore an un¬
seasonable time for the publication of a b«ok that wou
make a great noise and disturbance; ana that therefore
they desired him to forbear till a fitter opportunity shouk
offer itself;” which message,he adds, the doctor paid no
regard to, but went on according to the dictates of his
own conscience with the publication of his book. The
ministers, however, were right in their conjectuies; for
the work made noise and disturbance enough, and occa¬
sioned a great number of books and pamphlets, written by
himself and otheis. i, , • i. .pp
Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which the
Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity occasioned ; it rendeied
its author obnoxious to the power eccesiastical, and his
book was complained of by the lower house of convocation.
The doctor drew up a preface, and afterwards gave several
explanations, which seemed to satisfy the upper house,
at least the affair was not brought to any issue, the me
bers appearing desirous if possible to prevent dissensions
In^lTT5°and 1716, he had a dispute with Leibnitz relat¬
ing to'the principles of natural philosophy and religion;
and a collection of the papers which passed between them
was published in 1717. In 1718, he was presented by
Lord Lechmere, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancas¬
ter, to the mastership of Wigston’s hospital in Leicester.
In 1724, he published seventeen sermons preached on
several occasions, eleven of which were never before
printed; and tlte year following, he gave to 'he world a
sermon, preached at the parish-church of St James s,
upon the erection of a chanty school for the education of
women servants. In 1727, upon the death of Sir Isaae
Newton, he was offered by the court the place of Master
of the Mint, worth, comrhunibus anms, L.12UU or lu.iouu
a vear. But to this secular preferment he could not recon¬
cile himself, and therefore absolutely refused it. Whiston
seems to wonder that Clarke’s eulogists should lay so htt e
stress upon this refusal, as either not to mention it at all,
or at least very negligently ; while “ he takes it, he says,
“ to be one of the most glorious actions of his life, and to
afford undeniable conviction that he was in earnest in his
religion.” In 1728 was published “ A Letter from Lr
Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadley, F.R.S. occasioned by
the controversy relating to the Proportion of Velocity
and Force in Bodies in Motion; printed in the 1 hiloso-
nhical Transactions. , , , <-tt
In 1729, he published the first twelve books m ilomei s
Iliad. This edition was printed in quarto, and dedicated
to the Duke of Cumberland. The Latin version is almost
entirely new, and annotations are added at the bottom of
the pages. Homer, Bishop Hoadley tells us, was Clarke s
.admired author, even to a degree of something like enthu¬
siasm, hardly natural to his temper ; and in this reeling he
went a little beyond the bounds of Horace s judgment,
and was so unwilling to allow the favourite poet ever to
nod, that he has taken remarkable pains to find out, and
give a reason for every passage, word, and title that could
create any suspicion. “ The translation, adds the bishop,
a with his corrections, may now be styled accurate; and
his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a treasury of gram¬
matical and critical knowledge. He was called to his task
by royal command ; and he has performed it in such a
manner as to be worthy of the young prince for whom it
was laboured.” The year of its publication was the last of
this great man’s life. Though not robust, he had always
enjoyed a firm state of health, without any indisposition
bad enough to confine him, except the small-pox in his
youth, till Sunday the 11th of May 1729 when going out
in the morning to preach before the judges at Sergeants
Inn, he was seized with a pain in his side, which render¬
ed it impossible for him to perform the office he had been
called to discharge, and which quickly became so violent
that he was obliged to be carried home. He went to bed,
and thought himself so much better in the af ternoon, that
he would not suffer himself to be bled; against which re¬
medy he entertained strong prejudices. But the pain
returning violently dbout two the next morning, bleeding
became absolutely necessary; he appeared to be out of
danger, and continued to think himself so, till the Satur¬
day “morning following, when, to the inexpressible surprise
of all about him, the pain removed from his side to ns
head, and, after a short period of suffering, took away his
senses to such a degree, that they never again returned.
He continued breathing till between seven and eight o clock
of the evening of that day, which was May the 1 uh w~9,
and then expired, in his fifty-fourth year. . . .
Soon after his death were published, from Ins original
manuscripts, by his brother Dr John Clarke, dean o Sa-
rum, An Exposition of the Church Catechism, and ten
volumes of sermons, in 8vo. His Exposition is composed
of those lectures which he read every Thursday morning for
some months in the year, at St James s church. In the
latter part of his time he revised them with great care,
and left them completely prepared for the press. Three
years after his death appeared also the last twelve books
of the Iliad, published in 4to by his son Mr Samuel Clarke,
who informs us in the preface, that his fathei had finished
the annotations to the first three of these books, and as
far as the 359th verse of the fourth; and had revised the
text and version as far as verse 510 of the same book.
Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even Pla}’ful ^posi¬
tion. An intimate friend of his, the Reverend Mr Bott,
used to relate, that once when he happened to call for him,
he found him swimming upon a table. At another time,
when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and several men of
ability and learning were together, and amusing
selves with diverting tricks, Dr Samuel Clarke, lo°^ g
out at the window, saw a grave blockhead appioaching
to the house; upon which he cried out, “ Boys, boys, be
wise here comes a fool.” This turn of his mind has since
been confirmed by Dr Warton, who, in his observations
upon the line of Mr Pope,
Clarke.
Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,
says, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of ro-
mances; that Newton once studied astrology; that D
Clarke valued himself on his agility, and >- ] y
amused himself in a private room of his house in eap.nB
over the tables ^^ h^-
was a great epicure f VY ith lespect ro wnm
corded of Dr Clarke, we can scarcely Persu“le °f“ h a
to consider it as a frailty. To be possessed ol such af
temper as he was, must have been no small de
happiness; as it probably enabled lum to pursue h,s
poriant and serious studies with greater vivacity an
gour. To be capable of derivmg amusement Item trim
C L A
larke. circumstances, indicates a heart at ease, and may gene-
rally be regarded as the concomitant of virtue.
Clarke, William, an English divine, was born at Hagh-
mon Abbey, in Shropshire, in 1696, and, after a grammati¬
cal education at Shrewsbury School, was sent to St John’s
College, Cambridge, of which he was elected fellow in
1716, B. A. in 1731, and M. A. in 1735. He was pre¬
sented by Archbishop Wake, in 1724, to the rectory of
Buxted in Sussex, at the particular recommendation of
Dr Wotton, whose daughrer he had married. In 1738 he
was made prebendary and residentiary of the cathedral
church at Chichester. Some years before this he had
given to the public a specimen of his literary abilities, in
a preface to his father-in-law Dr Wotton’s Leges Walliai
Ecclesiastics et Civiles Hocli Boni, et aliorum, Wallis
Principum. There is reason likewise to surmise, that an
excellent Discourse on the Commerce of the Romans, which
was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Elements of the
Civil Law, might have been written by our author. It
came either from his hand or from that of his friend Mr
Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gentleman’s Miscellaneous
Tracts. But Mr Clarke’s chief work was, The Connexion
of the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins, tracing the anti¬
quities, customs, and manners of each people from the ear¬
liest times, particularly the origin of feudal tenures, and of
parliaments, and illustrated throughout with critical and
historical remarks on various authors, both sacred and
profane. This work was published, in one volume quarto, in
1767 ; and its appearance from the press was owing to the
discovery made by Martin Folkes, Esq. of the old Saxon
pound. It was dedicated to the Duke of Newcastle,
whose beneficent disposition is celebrated for having con¬
ferred obligations upon the author, which were not the
effects of importunity. Mr Clarke’s performance was per¬
used in manuscript by Arthur Onslow, Esq. Speaker of
the House of Commons, who honoured him with some
useful hints and observations; but he was chiefly indebt¬
ed to Mr Bowyer, who took upon him all the care of the
publication, drew up several of the notes, wrote part of
the dissertation on the Roman sesterce, and formed an
admirable index to the whole. Mr Clarke’s last promo¬
tions were the chancellorship of the church of Chichester,
and the vicarage of Amport, which were bestowed upon
him in 1770. These preferments he did not long live to
enjoy, departing this life on the 21st of October, in the
following year. He had resigned, in 1768, the rectory of
Buxted to his son Edward. In Mr Nichols’s Anecdotes
of Bowyer, there are several letters and extracts of letters
written to that learned printer by Mr Clarke, which dis¬
play his character to great advantage as a man of piety, a
friend, and a scholar.
Clarke, Edioard Daniel, a celebrated traveller and
mineralogist, was born at Willingdon, in the county of
bussex, on the 5th of June 1769. He received the rudi¬
ments of his education at Uckfield, and at ten years of
age he was removed to the grammar school of Tunbridge,
where, however, it does not appear that his progress was
very satisfactory. In the spring of 1786 he obtained the
office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge ; and
the year following he lost his father, after which he had
to struggle with many difficulties. He never rose to any
thing like scholastic eminence ; his favourite pursuits were
of a different character, being principally literary. In 1790
he took his degree, and shortly afterwards obtained the of¬
fice of private tutor to the Honourable Henrj'Tufton, nephew
to the Duke of Dorset. In 1792 he was fortunate enough to
obtain an engagement to travel as a companion with Lord
Berwick, through Germany, Switzerland, and the classic
ground of Italy. This was a most fortunate appointment.
It opened up to him a means of gratifying a passion for
C L A
731
travel, which reigned paramount in his mind over every Clarke,
other. After crossing the Alps, and visiting a few of the
principal cities of Italy, including Rome, he repaired to
Naples, where he remained nearly two years. During
his stay he made several excursions to Vesuvius, in one of
which, during an eruption, he narrowly escaped the fate
of Pliny the Elder. He had the daring hardihood to
ascend to the edge of the crater while it belched forth its
broad columns of liquid fire, which glowed with all the
splendour of the sun.
Mr Clarke finally returned to England in the summer
of 1794, after having been disappointed in the expectation
of undertaking a journey to Egypt and the Holy Land.
He soon afterwards undertook the care of a young gentle¬
man, with whom he continued about tu elve months. After
unsuccessfully attempting a periodical work, he became a
tutor in the family of Lord Uxbridge, with one of the mem¬
bers ot whose house he made a tour of Scotland, keeping
a regular journal, as was his usual custom wliile travelling,
and noting down every remarkable object or event which
occurred during his journey. The next circumstance of
his life which it is necessary to record was his connection
with a young gentleman of Sussex, whose studies he super¬
intended for a j'ear at Cambridge, and afterwards accom¬
panied in his travels over a considerable portion of the Con¬
tinent. This was the most important event of his life, and
laid the foundation of his future fame.
Mr Clarke and his friend Mr Cripps set out from Cam¬
bridge in May 1799, and after traversing Norway and
Sweden, proceeded to Russia, from thence through the
Crimea to Constantinople, then to Rhodes, and afterwards
t0 Egypt, where, however, their stay was short, the coun¬
try being still, in the possession of the French. From
Egypt they set out for Palestine; and, after visiting Jeru¬
salem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and other remarkable places,
they returned to Aboukir Bay. Subsequent to the capi¬
tulation ot Alexandria, Mr Clarke was of considerable use
in securing for England the statues, sarcophagi, maps,
manuscripts, &c. which had been collected by the French
savans. Greece was the next country visited by our in¬
defatigable travellers. From Athens they proceeded by
land to Constantinople through ancient Thrace ; and, after
a short stay in that city, they directed their course home¬
wards, through Rumelia, Austria, Germany, and France,
and arrived in England after an absence of upwards of
three years.
Mr Clarke, who had now obtained an immense reputa¬
tion, took up his residence at Cambridge, where, with very
few intervals of absence, he continued to reside till the dav
of his death. Cambridge was indebted to him for a statue
of Ceres which he had sent home from Greece; and, to
show the sense which was entertained of his merits, and
the value placed upon the relict of antiquity with which
he had presented the university, he received from it the
degree of LL.D. In 1805 he published a “ Disserta¬
tion on the Sacrophagus in the British Museum,” which
gave considerable satisfaction to the learned. He had
now formed a matrimonial alliance, and also entered into
orders, shortly after which event he received a living, and
about three years afterwards a secdnd. Towards the
end of 1808 Dr Clarke was further honoured with the
Professorship of Mineralogy, then first instituted. Thus
were his most sanguine wishes crowned with success ; and
his perseverance and talents rewarded with one of the
highest honours which the university could bestow. The
manuscripts which he had collected in the course of his
travels were sold to the Bodleian Library for L.1000, and
by the publication of his travels which next followed, and
which came out volume by volume, he realized altogether
a clear profit of L.6595.
♦
732
C L A
C L A
Claro-
Obscuro
Clasmium
Besides regularly delivering his lectures on mineralogy,
and discharging the duties of his clerical office, Dr Claike
occupied himself with various other pursuits, particularly
with chemistry, to which he wras ardently attached. n
this science he made several discoveries, some of which,
effected by means of the gas blow-pipe, an agent which
he himself had brought to a high degree of perfection, are
of great importance. His health, however, never pio-
perly established after his return from his latter travets,
began to give way under ardent study and long-conti¬
nued excitement. He was removed to London in order
to obtain the first medical advice ; and after lingering ffir a
short while, he expired there, on the 9th of March iH~l.
Public honours were paid to his remains, which were con¬
veyed to Jesus College, Cambridge, where his fellow col-
le'dans erected a monument to his memory. In all the
reTations of life Dr Clarke was the most amiable of men.
The leading qualities of his mind were enthusiasm and
benevolence, while the capacity of enduring long-conti¬
nued mental as well as physical exertion was likewise
characteristic of him. His ardour in the pursuit of know¬
ledge was remarkable, and he possessed the happy power
of bringing his whole energies to bear upon any individual
subject with which he chose to occupy his attention. T le
following are his principal worksTestimony of different
Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres placed
in the vestibule of the Public Library at Cambridge, with
an account of its removal from Eleusis, Svo, 1801-1803;
The Tombof Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus
brought from Alexandria, and now in the British Museum,
4to, 1805; A Methodical Distribution of the Mineral King¬
dom, folio, 1807; A Letter to the Gentlemen of the Bri¬
tish Museum, 4to, 1807 ; A Description of the Greek
Marbles brought from the shores of the Euxine, Aiclupc-
lao'o, and Mediterranean, and deposited in the vestibule
of ithe University Library, Cambridge, Svo, 1809 ; Travels
in various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa; part
first, containing Russia, Tartary, and Turkey, 4to, 1810;
part second, containing Greece, Egypt, and the Holy
Land, section first, 4to, 1812; section second, 1814; the
last volume was published in 1819. In this yeai also ap¬
peared his octavo volume on the Gas Blow-pipe, and in
the year following a Dissertation on the Litnus. Besides
these works, Dr Clarke wrote a number of articles for scien¬
tific journals. . . .
CLARO-Obscuro, or Clair-Obscure, in painting,
the art of distributing to advantage the lights and shadows
of a piece, both with respect to the relief of the eye and
the effect of the whole piece. See Painting.
CLARO-Obscuro, or Chiaro-Scuro, is also used to signify
a design consisting of only two colours, most usually black
and white, but sometimes black and yellow; or it is a de¬
sign washed only writh one colour, the shadows being, of
a dusky brown, and the lights heightened up by white.
The word is also applied to prints of two colours taken off
at twice.
CLASMIUM, an old term in Natural History, applied
to some fossils, of the class of gypsums, the characteis of
which are, that they are of a soft texture, and of a dull
opaque look, being composed, as are all the other gypsums,
of irregularly arranged flat particles. The word is derived
from the Greek xXaC/xos, a fragrant or small particle ; from
the flaky small particles of which these bodies are com¬
posed. Of this genus there is only one known species.
This is of a tolerably regular and even structure; though
very coarse and harsh to the touch. It is of a very lively
and beautiful red colour; and is found in thick roundish
masses, which, when broken, are to be seen composed of
irregular arrangements of flat particles, and emulate a
striated texture. It will neither give fire with steel nor
Class
ferment with acids; but calcines very freely and easily,
and affords a very valuable plaster of Paris, as do all the ll
purer gypsums. It is common in Italy, and is greatly es- S™. H
teemed there; it is also found in some parts of England,
particularly Derbyshire ; but there it is not much regarded.
CLASS, an appellation given to the most general sub¬
divisions of any thing. Thus, animal is subdivided into
the classes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and so forth, which
are again subdivided into serieses or ordeis ; and these last
into o-enera. See Animal Kingdom and Botany.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet applied chiefly to
authors read in the classes at schools. This term seems
to owe its origin to Tullius Servius, who, in ordei to make
an estimate of every person s estate, divided the Roman
people into six portions, which he called classes. I he estate
of the first class was not to be under L.200, and these by
way of eminence w'ere called classici, classics; hence au¬
thors of the first rank came to be called classics, while all
the rest w'ere said to be infra classem. Thus Aristotle is
a classic author in philosophy, and Aquinas in school di-
^CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by the
Roman generals, and sounded by trumpets and other mar¬
tial music throughout the army. .
CLATHRI, in Antiquity, bars of wood or iron, used in
securing doors and windows. There w’as a goddess called
Clathra, who presided over the clatbri.
CLAVARIUM, in Antiquity, an allowance made to the
Roman soldiers for nails to secure their shoes withal. In
later times they raised frequent mutinies, demanding lar¬
gesses of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAUBERG, John, born at Salingen, in the duchy of
Berg, in 1622, professed philosophy and theology, first at
Herborn, and afterwards at Duisburg, where he died on the
31st January 1665. He was one of the first who taught in
Germany the doctrine of Descartes, which he had studied
under John Ray at Leyden. His philosophical works
( Opera Omnia Philosophica), collected at Amsterdam by
John Theodore Schalbrucb, in two volumes 4to, with a life
of the author prefixed, by John Christian Hennius, show
how well he was qualified to appreciate the merits of the
French philosopher, and to follow in his footsteps. Ihe
most esteemed of Clauberg’s works is his Logica Fetus et
Nova; but he has not admitted in this collection a little
work, entitled Ars Etymologica Teutonum e Philosophic
fontibus derivata, published by him at Duisburg in IbW,
in Svo, and which Morhof has highly commended in his
Poh/histor, and Leibnitz included in his Collectanea hty-
mologica. This brochure was intended as the prelude to
a laroe work, De Causis Linguoe Germamccc, which, how¬
ever,0 the projector did not find leisure or encouragement
to execute. In a separate form we have collected J. Uau-
berqii et Martini Hundii Dissertationes selectte, quibus con-
troversue fidei adversus omnis generis advetsanos exphcan-
tur, and ./. Glaubergii et Tobice Andreat Exercitationes et
Epistolas varii argumenti.
CLAUDE le Lorrain, or Claude Gelee, a ce e-
brated landscape painter, and a striking example of the
efficacy of industry to supply, or at least to call forth ge¬
nius. Claude was born in the diocese of Toul, m Lorrain,
in 1600, and, being dull and heavy at school, he was put
an apprentice to a pastry-cook : he afterwards ramble o
Rome to seek a livelihood; but being very ill bred, and
unacquainted with the language, nobody cared to emp o)
him. Chance threw him at last in the way of Augustin
Tassi, a painter, who hired him to grind his colours, an
to do all the household drudgery. His master hoping t
make him serviceable in some of his greatest works, taug .
him by degrees the rules of perspective and the elements
of desffin. Claude at first did not know what to make ot
C L A
aude these piinciples of tirt; but being encouraged, and not
II failing in application, he came at length to understand
utaa. them. Then his mind began to expand, and he cultivated
the art with wonderful eagerness. He exerted his utmost
industry to explore the true principles of painting by an
incessant examination of nature, that genuine source of
excellence ; for which purpose he made'his studies in the
open fields, where he very frequently continued from sun¬
rise, till the close of the evening compelled him to with¬
draw himself from his contemplations. It was his custom
to sketch whatever he thought beautiful or striking; and
every curious tinge of light, on all kinds of objects, he
marked in his sketches with a similar colour; from which
he perfected his landscapes with such a look of real na¬
ture, and gave them such an appearance of truth, as proved
superior to any artist who had ever painted in that style.
The beauties of his paintings are derived from na¬
ture herself, which he examined with uncommon assi¬
duity ; and Sandrart relates, that Claude used to explain
to him, as they walked through the fields, the causes of
the different appearances of the same prospect at differ¬
ent hours of the day, from the reflections or refractions of
light, from dews or vapours in the evening or morning,
with all the precision of a philosopher. He worked on h is
pictures with great care, endeavouring to bring them to
perfection, by retouching them frequently; and if any
performance did not answer his ideas, it was customary
with him to alter, to deface, and repaint it several times
oyer, till it corresponded with the image pictured in his
mind. But whatever struck his imagination while he ob¬
served nature abroad, it was so strongly impressed on
his memory, that on his return to his work he never failed s
to make the happiest use of it.
His skies are warm and full of lustre, and every object
is properly illumined. His distances are admirable, and
in every part a delightful union and harmony not only
excite our applause, but our admiration. His invention is
pleasing, his colouring delicate, and his tints have such an
agreeable sweetness and variety, as have been but imper¬
fectly imitated by the best succeeding artists, but were
never equalled. He frequently gave an uncommon ten¬
derness to his finished trees by glazing; and in his large
compositions which he painted in fresco, he was so exact,
that the distinct species of every tree might readily be
distinguished. As to his figures, when he painted them
himself, they are very indifferent; but he was so conscious
of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually engaged
other artists who were eminent to paint them for him, of
which number were Curtois and Philippo Laura. In order
to avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to de¬
tect such copies of his works as might be injurious to his
fame, by being sold for originals, it was his custom to
draw (in a paper-book prepared for this purpose) the
designs of all those pictures which were transmitted to
different countries; and on the back of the drawings he
wrote the name of the person who had been the purchaser.
Ihat book he titled Libra di Veritd. This great artist
died at Rome in November 1682, at the advanced age of
eighty-two.
CLAUDE, St, an arrondissement in the department of
Jura, in I*ranee, extending over 398 square miles, and
comprehending five cantons and 114 communes, with
48,667 inhabitants. The chief place, a city of the same
name, is situated at the conflux of the rivers Ison and
Bienne, in a plain inclosed by three mountains. It contains
3579 inhabitants, who are industrious in the making of va¬
rious kinds of wood ware, and of domestic utensils of the
several metals. There are some marble quarries near it.
Long. 5. 50. E. Lat. 46. 20. N.
CLAUDIA, a vestal virgin at Rome, who having been
C L A
suspected of unchastity, is said to have been cleared of
that imputation in the following manner: The image of
Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to Rome in a barge,
and happening to stick so fast in the river Tiber, that it
could not be moved, Claudia tied her girdle, the badge of
chastity, to the barge, and drew it along to the city, which
a thousand men were unable to do.
Claudia Aqua, water conveyed to Rome by a canal
or aqueduct eleven miles in length, the contrivance of Ap-
pius Claudius the censor, and the first structure of the
kind, in the year of Rome 441. Called also Aqua Appia.
Claudia or Clodia Via, was that road which, begin¬
ning at the Pons Milvius, joined the Flaminia, passing
through Etruria on the south side of the Lacus Sabatinus,
ami striking off from the Cassia, and leading to Luca.
CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, who flourish¬
ed in the fourth century, under the emperor Theodosius,
and under his sons Arcadius and Honorius. It is nob
agreed of what country he was a native; but he came to
Rome in the year of Christ 395, when he was about
twenty years old, and there insinuated himself into the
favour of Stilicho, who being a person of-great abilities
both for civil and military affairs, though a Goth by birth,
possessed so much influence under Honorius, that he may
be said for many years to have governed the western em¬
pire. Stilicho aftenvards fell into disgrace, and was put
to death; and it is more than probable that the poet was
involved in the misfortunes of his patron, and severely per¬
secuted in his person and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyp¬
tian by birth, who was captain of the guards to Honorius,
and succeeded Stilicho. Ihere is reason, however, to
think that he rose afterwards to great favour, and ob¬
tained several honours both civil and military. The Prin¬
cess Serena having a great esteem for Claudian, recom¬
mended and married him to a lady of high quality and
fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems on sacred
subjects, which through mistake have been ascribed by
some critics to Claudian, and so have made him be thought
a Christian; but St Austin, who was contemporary with
him, expressly says that he was a heathen. The time of
Claudian’s death is uncertain, nor do we know any further
particulars of his life than are to be collected from his
works, and these we have related above. He is thought
to have more of Virgil in his style than all the other imi¬
tators of the Mantuan. The best editions of Claudian are
that of 1765, cum notis variorum, in 8vo; the Delphin
edition of 1677, in 4to; that of Gesner, published at
Leipsic in 1759, in two vols. 8vo; and that of Burman,
published at Amsterdam in 1760, in 4to.
CLAVES Insult, a term used in the Isle of Man,
where all weighty and ambiguous causes are referred to a
jury of twelve, who are called claves insulce, the keys of
the island.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavictherium, two musical
instruments used in the sixteenth century. They were
of the nature of the spinet, but of an oblong figure. The
first is still used by the nuns in convents; and that the
practitioners may not disturb the sisters in the dormitory,
the strings are muffled with small bits of fine woollen
cloth.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in Antiquity, a musical instru¬
ment of thirty strings. Modern writers apply the name
to our harpsichords.
CLAVI Vestium were flowers or studs of purple, inter¬
woven with or sewed upon the garments of knights or
senators; but, for distinction, the former used them nar¬
row, and the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly signifies a key, and is sometimes
used in English to denote an explanation of some obscure
passages of any book in writing.
734
Clavius
C L A
CLAVIUS, CxiRiSTOPHEn, a German Jesuit, born at
Bamberg, who excelled in the knowledge of the mathe-
Clayton. matics> an(l was one of the chief persons employed to icc-
   tify the calendar, the defence of which he also undertook
against those who censured it, especially Sealiger. He died
at Rome in 1612, aged seventy-five. His works have been
printed in five volumes folio, the principal of winch is his
Commentary on Euclid s Elements. . .
CLAUSE, in Grammar, denotes a member of a period
or sentence. . . , .
Clause signifies also an article or particular stipulation
in a contract, a charge or condition in a testament, &c.
CLAUSENBURG, a city of the Austrian province of
Siebenbergen, the capital of the circle of Kolos, as well
as of the province. It stands on the river Szamos, and is
surrounded with walls. It is divided into the old and new
city, and contains five Catholic and two Reformed churches,
one Lutheran, and one Unitarian, with 1800 houses, and
20,000 inhabitants. It is the residence of the goyernoi,
and the place for the assembling of the states, as well as the
consistories of the Reformed and Unitarian religions. 1 here
is a Catholic lyceum, which confers degrees in law, physic,
and philosophy, with sixteen professors and about 250
There is also a college for the Reformed, with
students,   D- ^ tt :
six professors and 630 students ; and another for the Uni¬
tarians, with four professors, six tutors, and 3l0 students.
There are some manufactories of cloth and porcelain, and
several printing and bookselling establishments. Long. 23.
29. 23. E. Latf 46. 44. 8. N. _ , ,
CLAUSTHAL, a city in the province Grubenhagen, in
the kingdom of Hanover. It is situated in the centre of the
Hartz forest, 1710 feet above the level of the sea ; is well
built, but chiefly of wood ; and contains / IfE inhabitants,
who subsist by labour in the mines of lead and silver m
the vicinity of the place, and by spinning, lace-making, and
forming various common articles of metal. I he country
around” it is highly picturesque, and the roads recently
made are good.
CLAVUS, in Antiquity, an ornament upon tlie rones
of the Roman senators and knights, which was more or
less broad, according to the dignity of the person ; hence
the distinction of tunica angusti-clavia and lati-clavia.
Clavus Annalis, in Antiquity. So rude and ignorant
were the Romans at the rise of their state, tnat the
driving or fixing a nail was the only method they had of
keeping a register of time ; for which reason it was called
clavus annalis. There was an ancient law, ordaining the
chief prador to fix a nail every year on the ides of Sep¬
tember ; it was driven into the right side of the temple
of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, towards Minerva s temple.
This custom of keeping an account of time by means of
fixing nails was not peculiar to the Romans ; for, with the
same view, the Etrurians used likewise to drive nails into
the temple of their goddess Nortia.
CLAYTON, Robert, D. D., a prelate distinguished tor
learning, worth, and probity, and a respectable member
of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of London, was
advanced to the bishopric of Killala in January 1/29;
translated to the see of Cork in December 173o; to that
of Clogher in August 1745 ; and died, much lamented, in
February 1758. His publications are, 1. A Letter in the
Philosophical Transactions, No. 461, p. 813, giving an ac¬
count of a Frenchman seventy years old (at Inishanan, in
his diocese of Cork), who said he gave suck to a child;
2. The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, 1/51,
4to ; 3. An impartial Inquiry into the time of the coming
of the Messiah, 1751, 8vo; 4. An Essay on Spirit, 1751,
8vo; 5. A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and
New Testament, in answer to the Objections of Lord Bo-
lingbroke, in two Letters to a young Nobleman, 1752,
C L E
8vo, reprinted in 1753; 6. A Defence of the Essay on Cleanther
Spirit, with Remarks on the several pretended Answers; H
and which may serve as an antidote against all that
shall ever appear against it, 1753, 8vo ; 7. A Journal from
Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, translated
from a manuscript, written by the prefetto of Egypt, in
company with some Missionaries dc propaganda jidc, at
Grand Cairo; to which are added, Remarks on the Ori¬
gin of Hieroglyphics, and the Mythology of the ancient
Heathens, 1753, 8vo, two editions, 4to and 8vo; S. Some
Thoughts on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Taste,
Sentiments, Liberty, and Necessity, occasioned by reading
Mr Hume’s Works, and the short Treatise written in
French by Lord Bolingbroke on Compassion, 1754, 8vo ;
9. A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New
Testament, Part II., adorned with several Explanatory
Cuts, 1754, 8vo; 10. Letters between the Bishop of
Clogher and Mr William Penn, concerning Baptism, 1755,
8vo”; 11. A speech delivered in the House of Lords in Ire¬
land, on Monday, 2d February 1756, for omitting the Ni-
cene and Athanasian Creeds out of the Liturgy, 1756,8vo;
12. A Vindication, Part III. 1758, 8vo. The three parts
of the Essay on Spirit were reprinted by Mr Bowyer, in
one volume 8vo, 1759 ; with some additional notes, and
an index of Texts of Scripture illustrated or explained.
CLEANTHES,a Stoic philosopher, and disciple of Zeno,
flourished 240 years before Christ. He maintained himself
in the day by working in the night; for, being questioned
by the magistrates how he subsisted, he brought a woman
for whom he kneaded bread, and a gardener for whom he
drew water, and refused a present from them. He com¬
posed several works, of which there are now only a few
fragments remaining. ,
CLLARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea m Pontus, who
was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pupils, during
the celebration of the festivals of Bacchus. He had en¬
joyed the sovereign power during twelve years. Clearcbus
was also the name of a Lacedaemonian who was sent to
quiet the Byzantines, and being recalled, refused to obey,
and fled to Cyrus the Younger, who made him captain of
13,000 Greek soldiers. He obtained a victory over Ar-
taxerxes, who was so enraged at the defeat, that when
Clearchus fell into his hands by the treachery of Ussa-
phernes, the king immediately put him to death.
•CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having one
or two projecting ends by which to fasten the ropes. Some
of them are fastened to the shrouds below for this pur¬
pose, and others nailed to different parts of the ship s deck
°r CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of cross, charged with
another cross of the same figure, but of the colour of the
^CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper stratum
of fullers’ earth. '. „ . • •
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divination, m
use among the ancients. The word is formed from
which signifies two things, rumor, a report, and /ms, a
bird. In the first sense, Hedonism should denote a kind
of divination drawn from words occasionally uttered. i-
cero observes, that the Pythagoreans observed not J
the words of the gods, but those of men ; fid accoru g-
ly believed the pronouncing of certain words, for f stance
incendium, at a meal, very unlucky. Thus, instead ofp
son, they used the word domicihum ; and to avoid m/my,
furies, they said eumenides. In the second sense, c ^
should indicate a divination drawn from birds, and me
the same thing with ornithomantia.
e same tmng wnn uiuiinuinaiiwc. .
CLEEVES, a circle in the Prussian province of We
phalia, containing the ancient sovereign principality
1 It is bounded on the north by the Netherlands,
name.
C L E
eves the east by the Rhine and the Rees, on the south-east bv
| Rheinburg, on the south by Guelders, and on the west
ency- by the Netherlands. It is 199 square miles, or 126,720
English acres, in extent, and comprehends seven cities or
towns, and forty-four villages, with 30,452 inhabitants.
The Rhine flows on one side, and the Nierse through the
south-west part, of the circle. The country is a level plain,
in some parts sandy, but as a whole fruitful, especially in
green crops, and it yields a large quantity of clover seed.
The dairy is one of the chief agricultural pursuits, and
the best of butter is produced, while many cattle are fat¬
tened in the natural meadows. There are, however, some
spots of little value, being either covered with heath or
with stunted woods. Tobacco is grown in some parts, and
the fishery on the Rhine affords employment to many of
the inhabitants.
Cleeves, a city, the capital of the Prussian circle of
that name. It is about two miles from the Rhine, which
is connected with it by a canal. It is fortified, and contains
a royal palace and pleasure grounds. The houses are built
in the style of Holland, and are in number 932. The in¬
habitants amount to 6850, and are employed in the ma¬
nufacture of cotton goods, hats, hosiery, caps, leather arti¬
cles, looking glasses, watches, and espeeialty h. the brew¬
eries. It is in long. 6. 1. 46. E. and lat. 51. 47. 40. N.
CLEF, or Cliff, in Music, derived from the Latin word
clavis, a key; because by it is expressed the fundamental
sound in the diatonic scale, which requires a determined
succession of tones or semitones, whether major or minor,
peculiar to the note whence we set out, and resulting from
its position in the scale. Hence, as it opens a way to this
succession, and discovers it, the technical term key is used
with great propriety. But clefs rather point out the po¬
sition of different musical parts in the general system, and
the relations which they bear one to another.
A clef, says Rousseau, is a character in music placed at
the beginning of a stave, to determine the degree of ele¬
vation occupied by that stave in the general claviary or
system, and to point out the names of all the notes which
it contains in the line of that clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the gamut
were signified were called clefs. Thus the letter A was
the clef of the note la, C the clef of ut, E the clef of mi,
&c. But in proportion as the system was extended, the
embarrassment and superfluity of this multitude of clefs
were felt, and a better system was in time adopted.
Gui d’Arezzo, who had invented them, marked a letter
o- clef at the beginning of each line in the stave ; for as
yet he had placed no notes in the spaces. In process of
time they njgrked no more than one of the seven clefs at
the beginning of one of the lines only; and this was suf¬
ficient to fix the position of all the rest, according to their
natural order. At last, of these seven lines or clefs they
selected four, which were called claves signatce, or discri¬
minating clefs, because they satisfied themselves with mark¬
ing one of them upon one of the lines, from which the
powers of all the others might be recognized. Presently
afterwards they even retrenched one of these four, namely,
the gamma, of which they made use to mark the sol be¬
low, that is to say, the hypoproslambanome added to the
system of the Greeks. (See Rousseau’s Musical Dictio¬
nary, Malcolm on Music, and the article Music.)
CLEMENCY denotes nearly the same thingwith mercy,
and implies a remission of severity towards offenders. The
term is most generally used in speaking of the forgiveness
exercised by princes or persons of high authority. It is
the result, indeed, of a disposition which ought to be cul¬
tivated by all ranks, though its effects cannot be equally
conspicuous or extensive. In praise of clemency joined
with power, it is observed, that it is not only the privilege,
C L E 735
the honour, and the duty of a prince, but it is also his se-Clemency-
curity, and better than all his garrisons, forts, and guards,
to preserve himself and his dominions in safety ; that that
prince is truly royal who masters himself, looks upon all
injuries as below him, and governs by equity and reason,
not by passion or caprice. In illustration of this subject,
the following examples are selected out of many recorded
in history.
Two patricians having conspired against Titus the Ro¬
man emperor, were discovered, convicted, and sentenced
to death by the senate; but the good-natured prince sent
for them, and in private admonished them, that they as¬
pired in vain to the empire, which ivas given by destiny;
exhorting them to be satisfied with the rank in which pro¬
vidence had placed them, and offering them any thing else
which might be in his power to grant. At the same time
he dispatched a messenger to the mother of one of them,
who was then at a great distance, and under deep concern
about the fate of her son, to assure her that her son was
not only alive, but forgiven.
Licinius having raised a numerous army, Zosimus says
130,000 men, endeavoured to wrest the government out
of the hands of his brother-in-law Constantine the empe¬
ror. But his army being defeated, Licinius fled with what
forces lie could rally to Nicomedia, whither Constantine
pursued him, and immediately invested the place; but on
the second day of the siege, the emperor’s sister having en¬
treated him, with a flood of tears, by the tenderness he had
ever shown for her, to forgive her husband, and grant him
at least his life,'he vvas prevailed upon to comply with her
request; and the next day, Licinius, finding no means of
making his escape, presented himself before the conque¬
ror, and throwing himself at his feet, yielded to him the
purple and the other ensigns of sovereignty. Constantine
received him in a very friendly manner, entertained him
at his table, and afterwards sent him to Thessalonica, as¬
suring him that he should live unmolested so long as he
raised no new disturbances.
The council of thirty, established at Athens by Lysan*
der, committed the most execrable cruelties. Upon pre¬
tence of restraining the multitude within their duty, and
to prevent seditions, they caused guards to be assigned
them, armed 3000 of the citizens for that purpose, and at
the same time disarmed all the rest. The whole city was
thrown into the utmost terror and dismay. Whoever op¬
posed their injustice and violence fell a victim to their re¬
sentment. Riches wTere a crime which never failed to draw
a sentence upon their owners, always followed with death
and the confiscation of estates, which the thirty tyrants
divided amongst themselves. They put more people to
death, says Xenophon, in eight months of a peace, than
their enemies had done in a war of thirty years. All the
citizens of any consideration in Athens, who retained a
love of liberty, quitted a place reduced to so merciless
and shameful a state of slavery, and sought elsewhere an
asylum, where they might live in safety. At the head of
these was Thrasybulus, a person of extraordinary merit,
who beheld with the most lively affliction the miseries of
his country.
But the Lacedaemonians had the inhumanity to endea¬
vour to deprive those unhappy fugitives of this last resource.
They published an edict prohibiting the cities of Greece
from giving them refuge; decreed that they should be de¬
livered up to the thirty tyrants; and condemned all such
as should contravene the execution of this edict to pay a
fine of five talents. Only two cities rejected with disdain
so unjust an ordinance, Megara and Thebes; the latter of
which passed a decree to punish all persons whatsoever
that should see an Athenian attacked by his enemies
without doing their utmost to assist him. Lysias, an orator
736
C L E
Clemency, of Syracuse, who had been banished by the thirty, raised
v«—-V-'-'1 500 soldiers at his own expense, and sent them to the aid
of the common country of eloquence. Thrasybulus lost
no time in making the necessary preparations. After
having taken Phyla, a small fort in Attica, he marched to
the PirEeus, of which he made himself master. The thirty
flew thither with their troops, and a battle ensued; but
the tyrants were completely overthrown. Critias, the most
savage of their number, was killed on the spot; and as
the army was taking to flight, Ihrasybulus cried out,
« Wherefore do you fly from me as from a victor, rather
than assist me as the avenger of your liberty? We aie
not enemies, but fellow-citizens; nor have we declared
war against the city, but against the thirty tyrants.” He
continued to remind them that they had the same origin,
country, laws, and religion. He exhorted them to com¬
passionate their exiled brethren, to restore their country to
the latter, and resume their own liberty. 1 his discourse
had the desired effect. The army, upon their return to
Athens, expelled the thirty, and substituted ten peisons
to govern in their room, whose conduct proved no better
than theirs; but King Pausanias, moved with compassion
for the deplorable condition to which a city, once so
flourishing, was reduced, had the generosity to favour the
Athenians in secret, and at length obtained a peace foi
them. It was sealed with the blood of the tyrants, who
having taken arms to reinstate themselves in the govern¬
ment, were all put to the sword; and this leit Athens in
the full possession of its liberty. All the exiles were re¬
called. Thrasybulus at that time proposed the celebrated
amnesty, by which the citizens engaged upon oath that
all past transactions should be buried in oblivion. The
government was re-established upon its ancient footing,
the laws were restored to their pristine vigour, and ma¬
gistrates were elected with the usual forms.
This, says Rollin, is one of the finest events in ancient
history, worthy the Athenian clemency and benevolence,
and has served as a model to succeeding ages in all good
governments. Never had tyranny been more cruel and
bloody than that which the Athenians had lately thrown
off. Every house was in mourning, every family bewail¬
ed the loss of some relation ; it had been a series of pub¬
lic robbery and rapine, in which license and impunity had
authorized all manner of crimes. The people seemed to
have a right to demand the blood of all accomplices in
such notorious malversations, and even the interest of the
state appeared to authorize such a claim, that by exem¬
plary severities such enormous crimes might be prevented
for the future. But Thrasybulus rising above these senti¬
ments, from the superiority of his more extensive genius,
and the views of a more discerning and profound policy,
foresaw, that by acquiescing in the punishment of the
guilty, eternal seeds of discord and enmity would remain,
to weaken the public by domestic divisions, when it was
necessary to unite against the common enemy, and would
also occasion the loss to the state of a great number of citi¬
zens, who might i-ender it important services in. the view
of making amends for past misbehaviour.
Such conduct, after great troubles in a state, has always
appeared to the ablest politicians the most certain and
ready means to restore the public peace and tranquillity.
Cicero, when Rome was divided into two factions upon the
occasion of Caesar’s death, who had been killed by the con¬
spirators, calling to mind this celebrated amnesty, propo¬
sed, after the example of the Athenians, to bury all that
had passed in eternal oblivion.
Cardinal Mazarin observed to Don Lewis de Hare,
prime minister of Spain, that his gentle and humane con¬
duct in France had prevented the troubles and revolts cf
that kingdom from having any fatal consequences, and
C L E
“ that the king had not lost a foot of land by them to that
day;” whereas “ the inflexible severity of the Spaniards
was the occasion that the subjects of that monarchy, wher¬
ever they threw off the mask, never returned to their obe¬
dience but by the force of arms; which sufficiently appears,”
says he, “ in the example of the Hollanders, who are in the
peaceable possession of so many provinces that not an age
ago were the patrimony of the king of Spain. ’
Leonidas the Lacedaemonian having, with 300 men only,
disputed the Pass of Thermopylae against the whole army
of Xerxes, and being killed in that engagement, Xerxes,
by the advice of Mardonius, one of his generals, caused his
dead body to be hung upon a gallows, thereby making the
intended dishonour of his enemy his own immortal shame.
But some time afterwards, Xerxes being defeated, and Mar¬
donius slain, one of the principal citizens of jEgina came and
addressed himself to Pausanius, desiring him to avenge
the indignity which Mardonius and Xerxes had shown to
Leonidas, by treating Mardonius’s body after the same man¬
ner ; and as a farther motive for doing so, he added, that
by thus satisfying the manes of those who were killed at
Thermopylae, he would be sure to immortalize his own
name throughout all Greece, and render his memory pre¬
cious to the latest posterity. “ Carry thy base counsels else¬
where,” replied Pausanias ; “ thou must have a very wrong
notion of true glory, to imagine that the w ay for me to ac-.
quire it is to resemble the barbarians. If the esteem of
the people of Aigina is not to be purchased but by such a
proceeding, I shall be content with preserving that of the
Lacedaemonians only, amongst whom the base and unge¬
nerous pleasure of revenge is never put in competition
with that of showing clemency and moderation to their
enemies, especially after their death. As for the souls of
my departed countrymen, they are sufficiently avenged by
the death of the many thousand Persians slain upon the
spot in the last engagement.”
CLEMENS Romanus, bishop of Rome, where he is
said to have been born, and to have been fellow-labourer
with St Peter and St Paul. We have nothing remaining
of his works that is clearly genuine, excepting one epistle,
written to quiet some disturbances in the church of Co¬
rinth ; which, next to holy writ, is esteemed as one of the
most valuable remains of ecclesiastical antiquity.
Clemens Alexandrinus, so called to distinguish him from
the former, was an eminent father of the church, who flou¬
rished at the end of the second and beginning of the third
centuries. He w'as the scholar of Pantaenus, and the in¬
structor of Origen. A passage in the Stromates of this au¬
thor, if it did not furnish the key to the modern discoveries
connected with the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics,
at all events showed how that key should be used. The
best edition of his works is that in two volumes folio, pub¬
lished in 1715, by Archbishop Potter.
CLEMENT V. Pope, the first who made a public sale
of indulgences. He transplanted the holy see to Avignon
in France, greatly contributed to the suppression of the
knights templars, and was author of a compilation of the
decrees of the general councils of Vienne, styled Clemen¬
tines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. Julius de Medicis, Pope, memorable tor
his refusing to divorce Catharine of Aragon from Henry
VIII.; and for the bull he published upon the king s mar¬
riage w-ith Anne Boleyn, which, according to the Roman
Catholic writers, lost him England. He died in the year
1534.
Clement XIV. Francis Laurentius Ganganelli, Pope,
was born at St Angelo, in the duchy of Urbino, in Ocfo-
ber 1705, and chosen pope, though not yet a bishop, m
1769; at which time the see of Rome was involved in a
most disagreeable and dangerous contest with the iou~~
Clemer
„ II
Clemen
C L E
lemente of Bourbon. His reign was rendered troublesome by the
|| collision of parties on the affairs of the Jesuits; and it is
le.nieen‘ pretended that his latter days were embittered by the ap-
^ prehensions of poison. -Though this report was probably
apocryphal, it is said that he often complained of the
heavy burden which he was obliged to bear, and regret¬
ted, with great sensibility, the loss of that tranquillity
which he enjoyed in his retirement when only a simple
Franciscan. He was, however, fortunate in having an op¬
portunity, by a single act, to distinguish a short adminis¬
tration of five years in such a manner as will ever prevent
its sinking into obscurity. His death was immediately
attributed to poison, as if an old man of seventy, loaded
with infirmities and disorders, could not quit the world
without violence. His proceedings against the Jesuits
furnished a plausible pretence for this charge, and the
malevolence of their enemies embellished it with other cir¬
cumstances. It even seems that the ministers of those
powers who had procured their dissolution did not think
it beneath them to countenance the report; as if falsehood
was necessary to prevent the revival of a body which had
already sunk, in its full strength, under the weight of real
misconduct. The charge was the more ridiculous, as the
pontiff had undergone a long and painful illness, which
originally proceeded from a suppression of urine, to which
he was subject; yet the report was propagated with the
greatest industry, and though the French and Spanish mi¬
nisters were present at the opening of his body, the most
horrible circumstances were published relative to that ope¬
ration. It was confidently reported that the head fell off
from the body, and that the stench poisoned and killed the
operators. It availed but little that the operators showed
themselves alive and in good health, and that the surgeons
and physicians proved the falsehood of every part of the
report. The world were resolved to believe the report;
and the evidence of its falsehood passed unheeded. Cle¬
ment XIV. appears to have been a man of a virtuous cha¬
racter, and possessed of considerable abilities. He died
much regretted, in September 1774. The collection of
letters published under the name of this pontiff is not de¬
void of interest; but it is well known that those letters
were written by Caraccioli, who, however, asserted till his
last hour that he was only their- translator. See Biogra¬
phic Universelle, art. Cahaccioli.
CLEMENTE di Casauri, a town of Italy, in the Nea¬
politan province of Abruzzo Ulteriore, containing 6680
inhabitants, and including some villages, which form a part
of the parish.
CLEMENTI, Muzro, a celebrated musical composer
and piano-forte player, was born in Rome in the year 1747.
His genius for music being early developed, his studies
were pursued with such successful assiduity, that he speed-
ily acquired great proficiency in his profession. He en¬
joyed, during his life, the highest reputation as an artist
and composer, and died, ripe in age and honour, in Eng¬
land, on the 10th March 1832. His remains were inter¬
red in Yvestminster Abbey. “ Clementi,” says Dr Crotch,
“ may be considered as the father of piano-forte music ;
for he long ago introduced all the beauty of Italian me¬
lody into pieces calculated by their ornamental varieties to
elicit the power of the instrument, and display the taste
as well as the execution of the performer.” His compo¬
sitions, moreover, possess those sterling qualities which
will secure their permanent popularity throughout all the
capricious changes of fashion and taste.
CLEMENTINE, a term used among the Augustines,
and applied to a person who, after having been nine years
a superior, ceases to be so, and becomes a private monk,
under the command of a superior. The word had its rise
from the circumstance of Pope Clement having, by a bull,
VOL. VI.
C L E
'37
prohibited any superior among the Augustines from.con¬
tinuing above nine years in office.
Clementines, in the canon law, are the constitutions
of Pope Clement V. and the canons of the council of
Vienne.
CLENARD, or Kleinarts, Nicholas, a celebrated
grammarian of the sixteenth century, was born at Diest,
in Brabant, in 1495 ; and after having taught humanity at
Louvain, where he had studied, he travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. Clenard’s works are, 1. Ta¬
bula in Grammaticam Hebrceam, Louvain, 1529, 8vo ; 2.
Institutiones Lingua: Gra:cce, Louvain, 1530, composed
with the aid of Rescius; 3. Meditationes Gra:canicce, Lou¬
vain, 1531 ; 4. Epistolarum Libri duo, Louvain, 1550, 8vo.
Clenard died at Grenada, on his return from Africa, in
1542.
CLEOBIS and Biton, two youths, sons of Cydippe,
the priestess of Juno at Argos. When oxen could not be
procured to draw their mother's chariot to the temple of
Juno, they put themselves under the yoke, and drew it
foi ty-five stadia to the temple, amidst the acclamations of
the multitude, who congratulated the mother on the filial
piety of her sons. Cydippe entreated the goddess to re¬
ward the piety of her sons with the best gift that could
be granted to a mortal; upon which they went to rest and
awoke no more; and by this the goddess showed that
death is the only truly fortunate event that can happen
to man. I he Argives raised them statues at Delphi.
CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, son of Anaxan-
tlrides, who was deterred from building a wall across the
isthmus of Corinth, against the approach of the Persians,
by an eclipse of the sun. He died in the 75th Olympiad,
and was succeeded by Plistarchus, son of Leonidas, a
minor.
Cleombrotus II. son of Pausanias, king of Sparta, and
brother to Agesipolis I. He made war against the Boeo¬
tians, and, lest he should be suspected of treacherous com¬
munications with Epaminondas, he gave that general bat¬
tle at Leuctra, on very disadvantageous ground. He was
killed in the engagement, and his army destroyed, in the
year of Rome 382.
Cleombrotus III. a son-in-law of Leonidas, king of
Sparta, who for a while usurped the kingdom after the ex¬
pulsion of his father-in-law. Upon the recal of Leonidas,
Cleombrotus was banished, and his wife Chelonis, who had
accompanied her father, now attended her husband in his
exile.
CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, who conquered the Ar¬
gives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Peisis-
tratidae. By bribing the oracle, he pronounced Demaratus,
his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, because the latter
refused to punish the people of iEgina, who had deserted
the Greeks. He killed himself in a fit of insanity.
Cleomenes II. succeeded his brother Agesipolis II. He
reigned thirty-four years in the greatest tranquillity, and
left two sons, Acrotatus and Cleonymus. He was suc¬
ceeded by Areus I. son of Acrotatus.
Cleomenes III. succeeded his father Leonidas. He was
of an enterprising spirit, and resolved to restore the an¬
cient discipline of Lycurgus in its full force. He killed
the Ephori, removed by poison his royal colleague Eu-
rydamides, and created his own brother Euclidas king,
against the laws of the state, which forbade more than
one of the same family to sit on the throne. He made
war against the Achaeans, and attempted to destroy the
Achaean league. Aratus, the general of the Achaeans,
who supposed himself inferior to his enemy, called Anti-
gonus to his assistance; and Cleomenes, when he had
fought the unfortunate battle of Sellasia, retired into Egypt
to the court of Ptolemy Euergetes, whither his wife and
5 A
Clemen¬
tines
II
Cleomenes.
738
Cleon
II
Clepsydra.
'—<—1
C L E
children had gone before him. Ptolemy received him
with great cordiality; but his successor, weak and suspi¬
cious, soon expressed his jealousy of this noble stranger,
and imprisoned him. Cleomenes killed himself, and his
body was flayed and exposed on a cross, in the I4Uth
Olympiad. _ .. ..
CLEON, the name of several noted men ot antiquity :
1. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a tanner, be¬
came, by means of his intrigues and eloquence, general
of the armies of the state, took Thoron in Thrace, and was
killed at Amphibolis in a battle with Brasidas, the bpar-
tan general; 2. Of a general of Messenia, who disputed
with Aristodemus the sovereignty of that country; d. U1
a statuary; 4. Of a poet, who wrote a poem on the Argo¬
nauts ; 5. Of an orator of Halicarnassus, who composed an
oration for Lysander, in which he intimated the propriety
of making the kingdom of Sparta elective; and 6. Of a Mag¬
nesian who wrote some commentaries, in which he treats
of portentous events.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt, was
daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraordinary beau¬
ty she subdued the two renowned Roman generals Julius
Ceesar and Mark Antony, the latter of whom, it is thought,
lost the empire of Rome by his attachment to her. At
length Mark Antony being subdued by Octavius Caesar, she
tried the force of her declining charms upon the conquer¬
or, but in vain; upon which, -expecting no mercy from
him, she poisoned herself, thirty years before Christ. Ac-
cordinsr to some authors, she was the restorer of the Alex¬
andrian library, to which she added that of 1 ergamos,
and it is said that she studied philosophy, to console her
for the absence of Antony. With her ended the family
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, where it had reigned 294 years,
from the death of Alexander; for Egypt, after this, was
reduced into a Roman province, in which state it remain¬
ed till it was taken by the Saracens, a. d. 641.
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated astronomer, born in
Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the first who discovered
the signs of the zodiac; but others say that he only dis¬
covered the signs Aries and Sagittarius. He also correct¬
ed the errors of the Grecian year, about the 306th year
before Christ. .
CLEPSYDRA, an instrument or machine serving to
measure time by the fall of a certain quantity of water.
The word comes from xksirru, condo, and vdug, aqua, wa¬
ter ; though there have likewise been clepsydrae in which
mercury was used. The Egyptians, by this machine, mea¬
sured the course of the sun. Tycho Brahe made use of
it to measure the motion of the stars; and Dudley used
the same contrivance in making his maritime observations.
Clepsydrae were invented in Egypt under the I tolemies,
as were also sun-dials. Their use was chiefly confined
to the winter. The sun-dials served in the summer.
They had two great defects ; the one, that the water ran
out with a greater or less facility, as the air was more or
less dense; the other, that the water flowed out more rea¬
dily at the beginning than towards the conclusion. . t
Construction of a Clepsydra. To divide any cyhndric
vessel into parts to be emptied in each division of time;
the time in which the whole, and that in which any part,
is to be evacuated, being given. Suppose, for example, a
cylindric vessel, whose charge of water thrown out in
twelve hours was required to be divided into parts to be
evacuated each hour. 1. As the part of time one is to
the whole time twelve, so is the same time twelve to a
fourth proportional, 144. 2. Divide the altitude of the
vessel into 144 equal parts: here the last will fall to the
last hour; the three next above to the last part but one ;
the five next to the tenth hour, &c.; and the twenty-
three last to the first hour. For since the times increase
C L E
in the series of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and Clerc.
the altitudes, if the numeration be in retrograde order
from the twelfth hour, increase in the series of the unequal
numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c., the altitude, computed from the
twelfth hour, will be as the squares of the times 1, 4, 9,
16, 25, &c.; therefore the square of the whole time 144
comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the vessel to
be evacuated. But a third proportional to one and twelve
is the square of twelve, and consequently it is the number
of equal parts into which the altitude is to be divided, to
be distributed according to the series of the unequal num¬
bers, through the equal intervals of hours. But since in
lieu of parts of the same vessel, other less vessels equal
thereto may be substituted, the altitude of a vessel emp¬
tied in a given space of time being given, the altitude
of another vessel to be emptied in a given time may be
found, viz. by making the altitudes as the squares of the
times. , . j • i
CLERC, John le, a celebrated writer and universal
scholar, was born at Geneva in 1657. After he had passed
through the usual course of study at Geneva, and had lost
his father in 1676, he went to France in 1678; but return¬
ing the year after, he was ordained with the general
applause of all his examiners. In 1682, Le Clerc visited
England with the view of learning the language of that coun¬
try. He preached several times in the French churches
in London, and visited several bishops and men of learning;
but the smoky air of the town not agreeing with his lungs,
he returned to Holland within the year, where he at length
settled. He preached before a synod held at Rotterdam
by the remonstrants in 1684, and was admitted professor
of philosophy, polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue,
in their school at Amsterdam. The remainder of his life
affords nothing but the history of his works, and of the
controversies in which he was engaged ; but these would
lead into too extensive a detail. He continued to read lec¬
tures regularly; and because he found no singe author
full enough for his purpose, he drew up and published his
Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural Philosophy.
He published Ars Critica; a Commentary on the Old
Testament; a Compendium of Universal History ; an Ec¬
clesiastical History of the two first Centuries ; and a French
Translation of the New Testament. In 1686, he began,
jointly with M. de Crose, his Bibliotheque Universelle et
Historique, in imitation of other literary journals ; which
was continued till the year 1693 inclusive, in 26 volumes.
In 1703 he began his Bibliotheque Chome, and continued
it to 1714, when he commenced another work on the same
plan, called Bibliotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he
continued to the year 1728; all of them justly deemed
excellent stores of useful knowledge. In 1/28 he was
seized with a palsy and fever ; and having spent he last
six years of his life in a state of mental imbecility, he died
m Clerc, Sebastian le, engraver and designer m ordinary
to the French king, was born at Metz in l63^ ,^
having learned designing, he applied himself to mathe
tics, and became engineer to the Marshal de la Ferte
went to Paris in 1665, where he applied hujself to deS1gn
ing and engraving with such success, that M. Colbert ^
him a pension otP600 crowns. . In 1672 he was adm.tted
into the royal academy of painting and seutytu ,
in 1680 he was made professor of geometry and perspective
in the same academy. Brides a great number of desig^
and prints, he published, 1. A Treatise on e _ ^
Practical Geometry; 2. A Treatise on Architecture, a
other worksf°He cUn 1714. Clerc. was an except
artist, but chiefly in the petty, style. fen.^seldo^
exceeds the dimensions of six inches. i -fv No
he could draw up 20,000 men with great dexterity.
c h E CEE 739
lergy. artist except Callot and Della Bella could touch a small
r**' figure with so much spirit. His most esteemed prints are,
1. The passion of our Saviour, on 36 small plates, length¬
wise, from his own compositions ; the best impressions of
which are without the borders ; 2. The miracle of the feed¬
ing of five thousand ; a middling-sized plate, lengthwise ; 3.
The elevation of the large stones used in building the front of
the Louvre; a large plate, lengthwise ; 4. The academy of
the sciences, a middling-sized plate, lengthwise; the first
impressions are before the skeleton of the stag and tor¬
toise were added ; 5. The May of the Gobelins, a middle-
sized plate, lengthwise ; the first impression of which is be¬
fore the woman was introduced, who covers the wheel of
the coach ; 6. The four conquests, large plates, lengthwise,
representing the taking of Tournay, the taking of Douay,
the defeat of the Comte de Marsin, and the Switzerland
alliance; 7. The battles of Alexander, from Le Brun, six
small long plates, including the title, which represents the
picture gallery at the Gobelins ; and, 8. The entry of Alex¬
ander into Babylon, a middle-sized plate, lengthwise, in
the first impressions of which, the face of Alexander is
seen in profile; but in the second, it is a three-quarter face,
and therefore called the print with the head turned.
_ CLERGY, a general name given to the body of eccle¬
siastics belonging to the Christian church, in contradistinc¬
tion to the laity.
The distinction of Christians into clergy and laity was
derived from the Jewish, and adopted into the Christian
church, by the apostles themselves. Whenever any num¬
ber of converts was made, as soon as they were capable
of being formed into a congregation or church, a bishop
or presbyter, with a deacon, was ordained to minister to
them. The clergy originally consisted of the bishops,
priests, and deacons; but in the third century many in¬
ferior orders were appointed, as subservient to the office
of deacon, such as Acoluthists, Readers, &c.
Benefit of Clergy is an ancient privilege, by which one
in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary, to purge
himself of felony.
After trial and conviction of a criminal, the judgment
of the court regularly follows, unless suspended or arrest¬
ed by some intervening circumstances, of which the prin¬
cipal is benefit of clergy. As this is a title of no small im¬
portance, it may not, therefore, be improper to inquire,
first, into its origin, and the various mutations which this
privilege of the clergy has sustained; secondly, to what
persons it is to be allowed; thirdly, in what cases; and,
fourthly, the consequences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, theprivilegium clericale, or, in common speech,
the benefit of clergy, had its origin from the pious re¬
gard paid by Christian princes to the church in its infant
state, and the ill use which the Romish ecclesiastics soon
made of that regard. The exemptions which they grant¬
ed to the church were principally of two kinds: first, ex¬
emptions of places consecrated to religious duties from
criminal arrests, which was the foundation of sanctuaries ;
and, secondly, exemption of the persons of clergymen from
criminal process before the secular judge in a few parti¬
cular cases, which was the true origin and meaning of the
privilegium clericale.
But the clergy increasing in wealth, power, honour,
number, and interest, soon began to set up for themselves;
and that which they had obtained by the favour of the ci¬
vil government, they now claimed as their inherent right,
and as a right of the highest nature, or indefeasible. By
their canons and constitutions, therefore, they aspired to
and obtained a vast extension of those exemptions, as well
m regard to the crimes themselves, as to the persons ex¬
empted ; and among these were at length comprehended,
not only every little subordinate officer belonging to the
church or clergy, but even many who were totally lay- Clergy,
men.
In England, however, although the usurpations of the
pope were very manifold, till Henry VIII. totally exter¬
minated his supremacy, yet a complete exemption of the
clergy from secular jurisdiction could never be thorough¬
ly effected, though often aimed at by the clergy; and
therefore, though the ancient privilegium clericale was al¬
lowed in some capital cases, yet it was not universally so.
And in those particular cases, the usage was for the bishop
or ordinary to demand his clerks to be remitted out of the
king’s courts as soon as they were indicted ; but the al¬
lowance of this demand was for many years a matter of
great uncertainty, until at length it was finally settled in
the reign of Henry VI. that the prisoner should first be
arraigned, and might then either claim his benefit of clergy
by way of declinatory plea, or, after conviction, by way of
arrest of judgment. This latter way was most usually
practised, as it was satisfactory to the court to have the
crime previously ascertained by confession or the verdict
of a jury; and it was also more advantageous to the pri¬
soner himself, who might possibly be acquitted, and so
might not need the benefit of his clergy at all.
Originally the law held that no man could be admitted
to the benefit of clergy, unless he had the habitum et ton-
suram clericalem. But, in process of time, a much wider
and more comprehensive criterion was established ; every
one that could read, a great mark of learning in those days
of ignorance, being accounted a clerk, or clericus, and al¬
lowed the benefit of clerkship, though neither initiated in
clerkship, nor trimmed with the holy tonsure. When learn¬
ing, however, by means of the invention of printing, and
other concurrent causes, began to be more generally dis¬
seminated than formerly, and reading was no longer a com¬
petent proof of clerkship, or of being in holy orders, it was
found that as many laymen as divines were admitted to the
privilegium clericale, and therefore, by the statute 4 Henry
VII. cap. 13, a distinction was drawn between mere lay
scholars, and clerks who were really in orders. And al¬
though it was thought reasonable still to mitigate the se¬
verity of the law with regard to the former, yet they were
not put upon the same footing with actual clergy ; being
subjected to a slight degree of punishment, and not allow¬
ed to claim more than once the clerical privilege. Ac¬
cordingly the statute directs, that no person, once admit¬
ted to the benefit of clergy, shall be admitted thereto a
second time, until he produce his orders; and to distin¬
guish their persons, all laymen who were allowed this pri¬
vilege were burned with a hot iron in the brawn of the
left thumb. This distinction between learned laymen and
real clerks in orders was abolished for a time by the sta¬
tutes 28 Henry VIII. c. 1, and 32 Henry VIII. c. 3 ; but
it is held to have been virtually restored by the statute 1
Edward VI. c. 12, which enacts, that lords of parliament
and peers of the realm may have the benefit of their peer¬
age, equivalent to that of clergy, for the first offence,
although they cannot read, and without being burnt in
the hand, for all offences then clergyable to commoners,
and also for the crimes of housebreaking, highway robbery,
horse-stealing, and robbing of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the real
clergy, were discharged from the sentence of the law in
the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordinary, to be
dealt with according to the ecclesiastical canons; where¬
upon the ordinary, not satisfied with the proofs adduced
in the profane secular court, set himself formally to make
a purgation of the offender by a new canonical trial, al¬
though he had been previously convicted by his country,
or perhaps by his own confession. This trial was held
before the bishop in person, or his deputy, and by a jury
740 C L E C L E
Clergy, of twelve clerks: and there the party himself was first of reverse; and that if the punishment of death for simple Clergy
all ordained to make oath to his own innocence ; next there felony was too severe for those who had been liberally in- w
was required the oath of twelve compurgators, who should structed, it was, a fortiori, too severe for the ignorant and
swear that they believed he spoke the truth ; then wit- untutored. Hence, by the statute 5 Anne, c. 6, it was en-
nesses were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf of acted that the benefit of clergy should be granted to all
the prisoner only; and, lastly, the jury were to bring in those who were entitled to ask it, without requiring them
their verdict upon oath, which usually acquitted the pri- to read by way of conditional merit. Experience having
soner ; or if otherwise, the accused, if a clerk, was degrad- shown that so universal a lenity was frequently inconvenient,
ed or 'put to penance. A learned judge, upwards of a and proved an encouragement to commit the lower degrees
century ago, remarks with much indignation on the vast of felony, and that, though capital punishments were too
complication of perjury and subornation of perjury, in this rigorous for these inferior offences, yet no punishment at
solemn farce of a mock trial; the witnesses, the compur- all, or next to none, as branding or whipping, was as much
gators, and the jury, being all of them partakers of the too slight; it was enacted by the same statute, the 5
guilt. The delinquent party also, though convicted in the Anne, c. 6, that any person convicted of any theft or lar-
clearest manner, and conscious of his own offence, was yet ceny, and burnt in the hand for the same, shall, at the
permitted, and almost compelled, to swear that he was discretion of the judge, be committed to the house of cor¬
net guilty; nor was the good bishop himself, under whose rection, or public work-house, to be there kept to hard
countenance this scene was transacted, by any means ex- laboui foi any time not less than six months, and not ex¬
empt from a share in it. And yet, by this purgation, the ceeding two years, with a power of inflicting a double con-
party was restored to his credit, his liberty, his lands, finement in case of the party’s escape from the first. And
and his capacity of purchasing afresh, and was declared it was luithei enacted, by the statutes 4 George 1. c. 11,
an entirely innocent man. and 6 George I. c. 23, that w’hen any person shall be con-
This scandalous prostitution of oaths and the forms of victed of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any feloni-
justice, in the almost constant acquittal of felonious clerks ous stealing or taking of money or goods and chattels,
by purgation, was the reason that, in heinous and notori- either from the person or the house of any other person,
ous circumstances of guilt, temporal courts w’ould not or in any other manner, and who by the law shall be en¬
trust the ordinary with the trial of the offender, but de- titled to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the penal-
livered over to him the convicted clerk, absque purgatione ties of burning in the hand or whipping, the court in their
facienda; in which situation the clerk convict could not discretion, instead of such burning in the hand or whip-
make purgation, but was doomed to continue in prison ping, may direct such offenders to be transported to Ame-
during life, and rendered incapable of acquiring any rica for seven years; and if they return, or are seen at
personal property, or of receiving the profits of lands, un- large in this kingdom within that time, it shall be felony
less the king pleased to pardon him. Both these courses without benefit of clergy.
were in some degree exceptionable ; the latter perhaps From the whole of this detail we may collect, that how-
beino- too rigid, while the former was productive of the ever, in times of ignorance and superstition, so great an
most abandoned perjury. As these mock trials therefore anomaly in true policy may for a while exist, as a body of
took their rise from mischievous tenets, tending to ex- men residing in a state, and independent of its laws, yet
empt one part of the nation from the general municipal when learning and rational religion have a little enhghten-
law, when the reformation became thoroughly established, ed men’s minds, society can no longer endure so gross
it was found necessary to abolish so vain and impious a and pernicious an absurdity. For, by the original contract
ceremony. government, the price of protection by the united force
Accordingly the statute 18 Elizabeth, c. 7, enacts, that, of individuals is obedience to the united will of the com-
for the avoiding such perjuries and abuses, after the offen- munity. This united will is declared in the laws of the
der has been allowed his clergy, he shall not be delivered land; and that united force is exerted in their due and
to the ordinary as formerly, but, upon such allowance and universal execution. , u o c
burning of the hand, he shall forthwith be enlarged and We are next to inquire to what persons the benefit ot
delivered out of prison, with this proviso, that the judge clergy is allowable under the foregoing enactments; and
may, if he thinks fit, continue the offender in jail for any this must chiefly be collected from what has been observ-
time not exceeding a year. And thus the law continued ed in the preceding part of this article, for, upon the whole,
unaltered for above a century, excepting only that the we may pronounce that all clerks in orders were, without
statute 21 Jac. I. c. 6, allowed, that women convicted of any branding, and of course without any transportation, to
simple larcenies under the value of ten shillings should be be admitted to this privilege, and immediately c isc laige ,
burned in the hand,, whipped, put in the stocks, or impri- or at most only confined for one year, and this as mtenas
soned for any time not exceeding a year. And a similar they offended. Again, all lords ot parlmment an peers o
indulgence was, by the statutes 3 and 4 William and Mary, the realm must, by the statute 1 Edward v I. c. , o 1 *s
c. 9, and 4 and 5 William and Mary, c. 24, extended to charged in all clergyable and other felonies provided for by
women guilty of any clergyable felony whatsoever; they the act, without any burning in the hand, in t ic some man
were allowed once to claim the benefit of the statute, in ner as real clerks convict; but this is only foi t ic us o
like manner as men might claim the benefit of clergy, and to fence. Lastly, all the commons of the realm, not m oi ers,
be discharged upon being burned in the hand, and impri- whether male or female, must,for the first offence, e is
soned for any time not exceeding a year. All women, all charged of the punishment of felonies within toe ene ^
peers, and all male commoners who could read, were there- of clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, am su erin»
fore discharged absolutely in such felonies, if clerks in discretionary imprisonment; or, in case of larceny, upon
orders; and if lay, for the first offence upon burning in the being transported for seven years, if the com t s la in
hand: yet all, except peers, were liable, if the judge saw proper. _ . . ,
occasion, to imprisonment not exceeding a year; whilst The third point to be considered is, for what crimes
those who could not read, if under the degree of peerage, privilegium clericale, or benefit of clergy, is to be a ovet.
were hanged. And it is to be observed, that neither in high treason, nor
Afterwards, indeed, it was considered, that education in petty larceny, nor in any mere misdemeanours, was |
and learning were not extenuations of guilt, but quite the indulged at the common law; and therefore we ma) ay
erk>
C L E
down as a i ule, that it was allowable only in petty treason
J and capital felonies, which for the most part became legal¬
ly entitled to this indulgence by the statute de clero^lb
Edward III. stat. 3, c. 4, where it is provided that clerks
convict for treason or felonies, touching other persons than
the king himself or his royal majesty, shall have the pri¬
vilege of holy church. But still it was not allowed in all
cases whatsoever ; for in some it was denied even in com¬
mon law, namely, insidiatio viarum^ or lying in wait for one
on the highway; depopulatio agrorum, or destroying and
ravaging a country ; combustio domorum, or arson, that is,
burning of houses ; all which are a kind of hostile acts, and
in some degree border upon treason. And further, all these
crimes, together with petty treason, and many other acts
of felony, are ousted of clergy by particular acts of parlia¬
ment.
Upon the whole, then, we may observe, that in all felo¬
nies, whether newly created, or constituted by common
law, clergy was allowable, unless taken away by act of par¬
liament ; that where clergy was taken away from the prin¬
cipal, it was not of course taken away from the accessory,
unless he was also particularly included in the words of
the statute; that w hen the benefit of clergy was taken
away from the offence, as in case of murder, robbery,
rape, burglary, and unnatural crimes, a principal in the
second degree, being present, aiding and abetting the
crime, was as well excluded from his clergy, as he that
was a principal in the first degree ; but that where it was
only taken away from the person committing the offence,
as in the case of stabbing or committing larceny in a
dwelling-house, his aiders and abettors were not excluded,
through the tenderness of the law, which has determined
that such statutes shall not be taken literally.
The last point for consideration was, the consequences to
the party, of allowing him this benefit of clergy. We speak
not of the branding, imprisonment, or transportation, which
were rather concomitant conditions, than consequences of
receiving this indulgence. The consequences were such as
affected his present interest, and his future credit and ca¬
pacity ; as, having been once a felon, but afterwards purged
from that guilt by the privilege of clergy, this operated as
a kind or statute pardon. And we may observe, that by
his conviction he forfeited to the king all his goods, which
being once vested in the crown, cannot afterw'ards be re¬
stored to the offender; that, after conviction, and till he
received the judgment of the law by branding or the like,
or else was pardoned by the king, he was to all intents
and purposes a felon, and subject to all the disabilities and
other incidents of a felon; that, after burning or pardon,
he was discharged for ever of that, and all other felonies
before committed within the benefit of clergy, but not of
felonies from which such benefit was excluded, as appears
by the statutes 8 Eliza, c. 4, and 18 Eliza, c. 7; that by
the burning or pardon, he was restored to every capacity
and credit, and to the possession of his lands, as if he had
never been convicted ; and that what has been said with re¬
gard to the advantages of commoners and laymen, subse¬
quently to the burning in the hand, was equally applicable
to all peers and clergymen, although never branded at all.
They had the same privileges without any burning, to
which others were entitled after it.
It is held, that after a man is admitted to his clergy, it
is actionable to call him a felon ; because, his offence
being pardoned by the statute, all the infamy and other
consequences are discharged. As to what felonies are
within, and what without clergy, see Tomlin’s Law Dic¬
tionary, title Felons ; and the Index to 1 Hawk. P. C. As to
the time of pleading, see titles Pleading and Judgment, of
the same dictionary.
The benefit of clergy, which was formerly a declinatory
C L E
plea, is now very rarely pleaded ; first, because the pri¬
soner, upon a trial, has a chance to be acquitted and dis¬
charged ; and, secondly, because, if convicted of a clergy¬
able felony, he is equally entitled to his clergy after as
before conviction; but if found requisite, it is prayed by
the convict before judgment is passed upon him.
CLERK (clericus), a word formerly used to signify a
learned man, or man of letters. The word comes from
the Greek xXygog, used for clergy, but more properly signi¬
fying lot or heritage, because the lot or portion of clerks or
ecclesiastics is to serve God. Accordingly derm was at
first used to signify those who were particularly attached
to the service of God. The origin of the expression is de¬
rived from the Old Testament, where the tribe of Levi is
called the lot or heritage, xXqgog; and God is reciprocally
called their portion, by reason of that tribe having been con¬
secrated to the service of God, and lived on the offerings
made to God, without any other settled provision. Thus
Pasquier observes, that the officers of the counts, or comites,
were anciently created under the title of clerks of accompts,
and secretaries of state were called clerks of the secret. So
clericus domini regis, in the time of Edward I., was render¬
ed, the king's secretary, or clerk of his council. The term
was applied indifferently to all who made any profession of
learning, or who knew how to manage the pen ; though ori-
ginall}' it was applied only to ecclesiastics. As the nobility
and gentry were usually brought up to the exercise of
arms, there were none but the clergy left to cultivate the
sciences; and hence, as it was the clergy alone who had
made any profession of letters, a very learned man came
to be called a great clerk, and a stupid, ignorant man, a bad
clerk.
Clerk is also applied to such as by their course of life
exercise their pens in any court or office ; of which there
were, and still are, various kinds.
Clerk of the Bails, an officer in the Court of King’s
Bench, whose business it is to file all bail pieces taken in
that court, where he constantly attends.
Clerk of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s
court, and so called because he has the check and control-
ment of the yeomen belonging to the king, queen, or
prince. He likewise, by himself or deputy, sets the watch
in the court. There was also an officer of the same name
in the navy, belonging to the king’s yards.
Clerk of the Crown, an officer in the King’s Bench, who
frames, reads, and records all indictments against offend¬
ers there arraigned or indicted of any public crime. He
is likewise termed Clerk of the Crown Office, in which ca¬
pacity he exhibits, by order of the court, informations for
divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in Chancery, an officer whose busi¬
ness it is constantly to attend the Lord Chancellor in per¬
son or by deputy, and to write and prepare for the great seal
special matters of state by commission, both ordinary and
extraordinary, as commissions of lieutenancy, of justices
of assize, of oyer and terminer, of jail-delivery, and of the
peace; as also all general pardons, granted either at the
king’s coronation or in parliament: and the writs of parlia¬
ment, with the names of the knights, citizens, and burgesses,
are returned into his office. He also makes out special
pardons and writs of execution on bonds of statute-staple
forfeited.
Clerk of the Errors, in the Court of Common Pleas, an
officer who transcribes and certifies into the King’s Bench
the tenor of the record of the action on which the writ of
error, made out by the cursitor, is brought there to be de¬
termined. In the King’s Benck, the clerk of the errors
transcribes and certifies the records of causes, by bill, in
that court, into the Exchequer; and the business of the
clerk of the errors in the Exchequer is to transcribe the
741
Clerk.
742
Clerk.
C L E
C L E
records certified thither out of the King’s Bench, and to
prepare them for judgment in the Exchequer chamber.
Clerk of the Essoms, in the Court ot Common Pleas,
the officer who keeps the essoin roll, or enters essoins. He
also provides parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the num¬
bers on them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and
receives them again when written..
Clerk of the. Estreats, an officer in the Exchequer, who
every term receives the estreats out ot the lord-tieasuiei s
remembrancer’s office, and writes them out to be levied
for the crown. .
Clerk of the Green Cloth, formerly an officer in Chan¬
cery, but now abolished. #
Clerk of the Hamper or Hamper, an officer in Chan¬
cery, whose business it is to receive all money due to the
king for the seals of charters, letters-patent, commissions,
and writs, and also the fees due to the officers for enroll¬
ing and examining them.
Clerk- ComptToller of the King s Household, an officer
of the king’s court, authorized to allow or disallow the
charges of pursuivants, messengers of the green-cloth, and
such like, to inspect and control all defects of any of the
inferior officers, and to sit in the counting-house with the
lord-steward and other officers of the household for regu¬
lating such matters.
Clerk of the Kings Silver, an officer of the Common
Pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has passed
the office of the custos brevium, andwhoenters the substance
of writs of covenant into a book kept for that purpose, ac¬
cording to which all the fines of that term are recorded in
the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s house, to
whom is given the charge of the king’s weights and mea¬
sures, and the standards of those which ought to be used
all over England.
Clerk oftheNichils or JYihils, an officer of the Exche¬
quer, who makes a roll of all such sums as are nichilled by
the sheriffs upon their estreats of green wax, and delivers
them to the remembrancer of the treasury, in order to have
execution done upon them for the king.
Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the Common Pleas,
and deputy to the attorney-general, for making out all
writs of capias ut legatum, after outlawry, to which there
must be the king’s attorney’s name.
Clerk of the Paper-office, an officer belonging to the
King’s Bench, whose business it is to make up the paper-
books of special pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the sessions
of the peace, whose business it is to read indictments, en¬
rol the proceedings, and draw the process. He likewise
certifies into the King’s Bench transcripts of indictments,
outlawries, attainders, and convictions had before the jus¬
tices of peace, within the time limited by statute, under a
certain penalty. This office is in the gilt of the custos ro-
tulorum, and may be executed by deputy.
Clerk of the Pells, an officer belonging to the Exche¬
quer, whose business it is to enter every teller’s bill into
a parchment roll called pellis receptorum, and to make an¬
other roll of payments called pellis exituum.
Clerk of the Petty Bag, one of three officers of the Court
of Chancery, the master of the rolls being the chief. Their
business is to record the return of all inquisitions out of
every shire, to make out patents of customers, gauger,
comptrollers, &c., liberates upon extent of statutes-staple,
conges delire for bishops, summons of the nobility, clergy,
and burgesses to parliament, and commissions directed to
knights and others of every shire, for assessing subsidies
and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the Exchequer, who
having the account of all debts due to the king, delivered
Clerk
'»
signed.
Clerk of the Treasury, an officer belonging to the Court
of Common Pleas, who has the charge of keeping the re¬
cords of the court, and who makes out all records of nisi
prius, and likewise all exemplifications of records existing
in the treasury. He receives the fees due for all searches ;
and he has under him an under keeper, who always keeps
one key of the treasury-door.
Clerk of the Warrants, an officer of the Common Pleas,
whose business is to enter all warrants of attorney for
plaintiffs and defendants in suit, and to enrol deeds of
bargain and sale, which are acknowledged in court, or be¬
fore a judge. His office is likewise to estreat into the ex¬
chequer all issues, fines, estreats, and amercements, which
fall due to the crown in that court.
CLERKE, Captain Charles, a celebrated English
navigator, was bred up in the navy from his youth, and
was present in several actions during the war of 1755.
In the engagement between the Bellona and Courageux he
was in imminent danger; for having been stationed in the
mizen-top of the Bellona, the mast was carried overboard
by a shot, and he fell into the sea along with it, but he
was taken up without having received any injury. When
Commodore Byron made his first voyage round the world,
Mr Clerke served on board his ship in capacity of midship¬
man ; and he was afterwards on the American station.
In the year 1768 he sailed round the world a second time
in the Endeavour; on board of which he served in the sta¬
tion of master’s mate, but, during the voyage, succeeded
to a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was soon
afterwards appointed master and commander. W en
Captain Cook undertook his last voyage, Mr Clerke was
appointed captain of the Discovery; and in consequence
of the death of Captain Cook, he naturally succeeded to
the chief command. He did not, however, long enJoy
new dignity. Before his departure from England he had
exhibited manifest symptoms of consumption. Of this
disease he lingered during the whole of the voyage >
his long residence in the cold northern climates cut oii all
hopes of recovery. But though sensible that the only
chance he had of prolonging his life was by a speedy re-
turn to a warmer climate, his attention to his was 80
great that he persevered in search of a passage between
the Asiatic and American continents until every one o
out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them in a great cier]}
roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out warrants to
sheriffs to levy such debts on the goods and chattels of
the debtors; and if they have no goods, then he draws
them down to the treasurer’s remembrancer to write es¬
treats against their lands.
Clerk of the Pleas, a functionary of the Exchequer, in
whose office all the officers of the court, having special
privilege, ought to sue or to be sued in any action. In
this office also actions at law may be prosecuted by other
persons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor to
the king, or some way accountable to him. The under
clerks are attorneys in all suits.
Clerks of the Privy Seal, four officers who attend the
lord privy seal, for writing and making out all things that
are sent by warrant from the signet to the privy seal, and
to be passed the great seal; and likewise to make out
privy seals, upon special occasions of his majesty’s affairs,
as for loan of money or the like.
Clerk of the Rolls, an officer of the Chancery, whose
business is to make searches after, and copies of deeds,
and the like.
Clerk of the Signet, an officer attending upon his ma¬
jesty’s principal secretary, who has the custody of the
privy signet, as well for sealing the king s private letters
as for those grants which pass the king s hand by bill
rke’s
and
II
aiate.
Y'w/
C L I
the officers came to be of opinion that it was impracticable.
He bore his distemper with great firmness and equani¬
mity, retaining his usual spirits to the last; and died on
the 22d of August 1778, in the thirty-eighth year of his
age, the ship being then within view of the coast of Kamts-
chatka.
Clerke’s Island, a pretty large island in the North Pa¬
cific Ocean, in which are several hills all connected by low
ground, which at a distance present the appearance of a
group of islands. Near its eastern extremity is a little
island remarkable for having upon it three elevated rocks.
Both the large and small islands are inhabited. Lon;?. 190
30. E. Lat. 63. 15. N. 8 '
CLERMONT, an arrondissement of the department of
the Oise, in France, extending over 530 square miles,
divided into eight cantons and 178 communes, and con¬
taining 86,760 inhabitants. The city which gives its
name to the arrondissement is in a picturesque situation,
overlooking the river Bresche. It contains 495 houses,
and 2072 inhabitants, who manufacture a considerable
quantity of fine linen, and cambrics, and silk ribbons.
Clermont, an arrondissement of the department of
Puy de Donje, in France, extending over 774 square miles.
It is divided into fourteen cantons, and subdivided into
106 communes, containing 169,105 inhabitants. The ca¬
pital, from which the arrondissement takes its name, is
seated between the two small rivers Beda and Arlier. It
contains, including the suburbs, which are extensive, 2167
houses and 31,509 inhabitants, ihere are an academy, a
royal college, a botanic garden, and other institutions for
scientific purposes. It is a place of great trade, partly as
the entrepot to the north and south of France, but in a
great measure from the sale of its own products. There
are in the city several medicinal natural springs, frequent¬
ed by invalids. Long. 3. 0. E. Lat. 45. 46. N.
Clermont de Lodeve, a city of the department of the
Herault, in France, on the river Ergue. It contains 791
houses and 5810 inhabitants.
Clermont Manuscript is a copy of St Paul’s Epistles,
found in the monastery of Clermont in France, and used
by Beza, together with the Cambridge manuscript, in pre¬
paring his edition of the New Testament. This copy is
in the octavo form, and is written on fine vellum, in Greek
and Latin, with some mutilations. Beza supposes that it
is of equal antiquity with the Cambridge copy; but both
were probably written by a Latin scribe at a later period
than he assigns to them. The various readings of this
manuscript were communicated to Archbishop Usher,
and they are preserved by Walton. The manuscript itself
was in the possession of Morinus, and after his death de¬
posited among the manuscript copies in the royal library
at Paris.
CLEROMANCY, a kind of divination performed by
the throwing of dice, and observing the points or marks
turned up. The word comes from xXjjpos, lot, and pawua,
divination. At Bura, a city of Achaia, there were a tem¬
ple and celebrated oracle of Hercules, where such as con¬
sulted the oracle, after praying to the idol, threw four
C L I
"43
Climate.
dice, from the points of which, when well scanned, the Clesides
priest was supposed to derive an answer or response.
Something of this kind seems to have been practised with
regard to Jonah.
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years before
Christ, in the reign of Antiochus I. He revenged the in¬
juries he had received from Queen Stratonice, by repre¬
senting her in the arms of a fisherman. But however in¬
decent the painter’s representation of the queen, she was
drawn with such personal beauty, that she preserved the
piece, and liberally rewarded the artist.
CLEVELAND, John, an English poet of some emi¬
nence in his time, who, during the civil war under Charles
L, engaged as a literary champion in the royal cause against
the parliamentarians. He was born in 1613, and died in
1659, much extolled by his party. His works, which con¬
sist of poems, characters, orations, epistles, &c. were print¬
ed in octavo in 1677. The last edition of this collection
appeared so long ago as the year 1687 ; yet Cleveland was
in his day esteemed one ot the best of the English poets,
and enjoyed a popularity far surpassing that of Milton.
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put him-
selt under the protection of some great man, who, in re¬
spect of that relation, was called patron. This patron as¬
sisted his client with his protection, interest, and goods ;
and the client gave his vote for his patron, when the latter
sought any office for himself or his friends. Clients owed
respect to their patrons, and patrons owed their clients
protection. The right of patronage was appointed by Ro¬
mulus, in order to unite the rich and the poor in such a
manner as that the one might live without contempt,
and the other without envy; but the condition of a client
became in course of time little else than a species of ser¬
vitude.
Client is now used to signify a party in a law-suit,
who has entrusted his cause into the hands of a counsellor
or solicitor.
CLIFTON, a large parish, forming a kind of suburb to
the city of Bristol, and the residence of the richest class
of its inhabitants, as wrell as of many other opulent fami¬
lies. It forms a portion of the hundred of Barton Regis,
in Gloucestershire, and consists of rows and crescents of
handsome and convenient houses; while from its pictu¬
resque situation, and the purity of its air, it is much fre¬
quented by occasional visitors. The inhabitants amount¬
ed in 1811 to 6981, in 1821 to 8811, and in 1831 to
12,032.
CLIMACTERIC (from climacter, a ladder) signifies,
among physicians, a critical year in a person’s life.
According to some, this is every seventh year; but
others admit only the years produced by multiplying seven
by the odd numbers three, five, seven, and nine, to be cli-
macterical. These years, they say, bring with them some
remarkable change v/ith respect to health, life, or fortune.
The grand climacteric is the sixty-third year; but some,
making two, add to this the eighty-first. The other re¬
markable climacterics are the seventh, twenty-first, thirty-
fifth, forty-ninth, and fifty-sixth.
CLIMATE.
uselt] ^HE word Climate, or xXz/ia, being derived from the verb
*or/; e to incline, was applied by the ancients to signi-
ini, ' fy that obliquity of the sphere with respect to the hori¬
zon from which results the inequality of day and night.
The great astronomer and geographer Ptolemy distin¬
guished the surface of our globe, from the equator to the
arctic circle, into climates or parallel zones, corresponding
to the successive increase of a quarter of an hour in the
length of midsummer-day. Within the tropics, these zones
are nearly of equal breadth ; but, in the higher latitudes,
they contract so much, that it was deemed enough to
reckon them by their doubles, answering consequently to
intervals of half an hour in the extension of the longest
day. To compute them is an easy problem in spherical
CLIMATE.
7-44
Climate, trigonometry. As the sine of the excess of the semidiur-
s—nal arc above a quadrant is to the radius, so is the tangent
of the obliquity of the ecliptic, or ot 23° 28', to the cotan¬
gent of the latitude. The semidiurnal arcs are assumed
to be 91° 521', 93° 45', 95° 371', 97° 30', &c.; and the fol¬
lowing table, extracted from Ptolemy s great work, \vi
give some general idea of the distribution of seasons over
the surface of our globe :—
These numbers are calculated on the supposition that
the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 51' 2(V, to which,
according to the thewyrf^Me. rat;rth78^^M to an interval of half insleid of a
^terofan^h-thejengthofthe^tbutheth*
yond the seventeenth, as the irregular breadth of the zone
abundantly shows; but they are, on the whole, more accu¬
rate than those given by Varenius.
Ptolemy describes the general appearances which the
heavens will present on each parallel, and assigns the cor¬
responding lengths of the shadow of the gnomon at both
solstices. He justly maintains, in opposition to the more
ancient opinion, that the equatorial region is habitable,
since the action of the sun, not continuing long vertical, is
there mitigated ; but he will not venture to desciibe the
inhabitants, because no person, he says, having yet pene¬
trated so far south, the reports circulated respecting them
appeared to be merely conjectural. He therefore passes
over the first parallel to the second.
This second parallel, then, according to Ptolemy, runs
through the isle of fiaprobana, supposed to be Ge^ lon, in
the latitude of 4° 15'. The third parallel, in the latitude
of 8° 25', traverses the gulf of Adulitus. 1 he fourth paral¬
lel crosses the Adulitic gulf, in latitude 12° 45'. Yhe fifth
parallel passes through the isle of Meroe, in Upper Egypt,
at latitude 16° 27'. The sixth parallel runs through the
territory of the Napati, in latitude 20° 15'. All these cli¬
mates or parallels lying below the tropic, the inhabitants
are therefore Amphiscians, or see the sun pass twice over
VJ U.CI I EV. *- WA    O ... » 1 • 1
it superfluous to extend this subdivision farther into sucn
remote and inhospitable countries. Resuming the calcu¬
lation, however, he places the parallel where midsumniei
day is prolonged to nineteen hours, in the latitude of 61 ,
or the north of Little Britain. The parallel of 191 hours
would pass through the Ebudes, Hebrides, or Western
Isles, in latitude 62°. The parallel of twenty hours runs
through the island of Thule, in the latitude of 63 . ine
parallel of twenty-one hours would traverse the unknown
Scythian nations, in latitude 641°. The parallels of twenty-
two and twenty-three hours would run through the lati¬
tudes of 651° and 66°. He places in latitude 66 8 W
the arctic circle itself,'where the sun does not set during
the whole of midsummer day. Within this circle the in¬
habitants are Periscians, or have the sun lingering above
the horizon during part of the summer, and the shadow o
the gnomon successively projected in every direction, n
the latitude of 67°, the sun continues almost a whole
month above the horizon; in the latitude of 69¥ , he shines
two months ; in the latitudes of 73i°, 78^, and 84°, dial
luminary displays his presence for three, four, an
months. At the pole itself, the sun appears, during
space of six months, describing circles parallel to the
rizon.
their heads in the course of the year. The seventh paral- Clima
lei, at the latitude of 23° 51', and consequently bordering8*-w
the tropic, runs through Syene, in Upper Egypt. The
eighth parallel, in latitude 27° 12', traverses Ptolemais, in
the Thebaid. The ninth zone, corresponding to a day of
fourteen hours of length, passes through Lower Egypt, at
the latitude of 36° 12'. The tenth parallel, in latitude 33°
18', runs through the middle of Phoenicia. The eleventh
parallel, at the thirty-sixth degree of latitude, passes
through the isle of Rhodes. The twelfth parallel, in latitude
38° 35', crosses Smyrna. The thirteenth parallel traverses
the Hellespont, in latitude 40° 56'. Theparal¬
lel, in latitude 43° 4', runs through Marseilles. Theff-
teenth parallel passes through the middle of the Pontic Sea,
in latitude 45° V. The sixteenth parallel runs through the
sources of the Ister or Danube, in latitude 46° 51'. The
seventeenth parallel, corresponding to a day of sixteen hours
in length, traverses the mouths of the Borysthenes, in lati¬
tude 48° 32'. The eighteenth parallel, at the latitude of
50° 4', crosses the Palus Maeotis. The nineteenth parallel
passes through the most southern part of Britain, in lati¬
tude 51° 40'. The twentieth parallel crosses the mouths of
the Rhine, in latitude 52° 50'. The twenty-first parallel
passes through the mouths of the Tanais, in latitude o4
30'. The twenty-second parallel, at the fifty-fifth degree of
latitude, traverses the country of the Brigantes, in Great
Britain, that is, the southern and larger portion ot this
island, reckoning from the Frith of Forth. The twenty-third
parallel, in the fifty-sixth degree of latitude, passes through
the middle of Great Britain. The twenty fourth parallel,
at the latitude of 57°, runs through Caturactonium, in
Great Britain. The twenty-fifth parallel, corresponding to
a day of eighteen hours, runs through the southern parts
of Little Britain, in latitude 58°. The twenty-sixth paral¬
lel, corresponding to a day of 18^ hours in length, traver¬
ses the middle of Little Britain, in latitude 58° 3Q'. It
should be observed that the latitudes of the places in our
own island are most inaccurately given by Ptolemy, and
generally advanced about two or three degrees farther
north than their true position. By Little Britain he meant
undoubtedly that part of Scotland which lies on the north
side of the Friths of Forth and Clyde, and forms almost a
peninsula.
The high zones become so narrow, that Ptolemy sepa-
aimate. Climate, in its modern acceptation, signifies that ne-
cu !a,r C0‘11,11"!" ot th.<: atmosphere in regard to heat and
•plication W "Ch Prera!IS r given P,ace- Tl« diversi-
L S'f ch“™cter which ,t displays has been generally refer-
CLIMATE.
ord.
red to the combined operation of several different causes!
which are all reducible, however, to these two; distance
from the equator, and height above the level of the sea. La-
from the shore of Kirkaldy, in latitude 56° Kf. The main
part of each stem having a very narrow bore, had a piece
of wider tube joined above it; and to support the internal
pressure of the column of mercury, the bulbs were formed
of thick cylinders. The instruments, inclosed for protec¬
tion in wooden cases, were then sunk beside each other to
745
Climate.
;mpera-
titude and local elevation form, indeed the ™ J 0 u F i ? °ne’tV?’four’and eiSht feet’in a soft gravelly
the law of Climate ; and any othermodificatbns hnv^ nnl S0^WhlCh ltUrJnS’at feet below ^rface, into quick-
a partial and very limited influence 1 ^ sant5 01 a sand an(^ water. These thermometers
If we dig into the ground, we find the tem™-*! . , ^er6 ?re/ully obsPrved from time to time by Mr Charles
come gradually more steady, till we reaeh n e_ Very. intel,,gent gardener at Raith; and we
below become gra&dually mo?e steady, tfll we reacha'denth of i Very intelli?ent Sardener at Raitb ^ aad we
fffaceof perhaps forty or fifty feet below whieh if ^ f- ei tbot bave bad access to a register of their variations for nearly
changed. When this perforation is made during wintTri IrZlZft;, tl,a,’.in this climilte’andD*!P‘'
the ground gets sensibly warmer till the limit is attained ’
but m summer, on the contrary, it grows always colder,’
till it has reached the same limit. At a certain depth
therefore, under the surface, the temperature of the
ground remains quite permanent. Nor is there any indi¬
cation whatever of the supposed existence of a central fire,
on naked soil, the frost seldom or never penetrates one which frost
loot into the ground. The thermometer at that depth fell penetrates,
to 33° of Fahrenheit on the 30th December 1815, and re¬
mained at the same point till the 12th February 1816;
but, in the ensuing year, it descended no lower than 34°!
at which it continued stationary from the 23d December
I8.!6.-!0.1St, Janaary 1817- At the same depth, of one
U1 " ° e* ,i „T!Ld!.g„0tJ.t!le,.Umnilt of a mountain, or any about the beginning of January isi?. It rose to 56° on
very elevated spot, we shall discover the ground to be con¬
siderably colder than in the plain below; or, if we make a
similar perforation on the same level, but in a more south¬
ern latitude, we shall find greater warmth than before.
The heat thus obtained at some moderate depth is hence
only the mean result of all the various impressions which
the surface of the earth receives from the sun and the at¬
mosphere.
The method employed hitherto for ascertaining the tem¬
perature at different depths under ground, consists in dig¬
ging a hole, and burying a sluggish thermometer for seve¬
ral hours, or the space of a whole night. The celebrated
naturalist and accurate observer, Saussure, in the month
of October li85, made an interesting set of observations
on the banks of the Arve, near Geneva. By diggino-
downwards on successive days, he reached at last the
depth of 31 feet. While the surface of the ground had
retained a heat of 60o-3 by Fahrenheit’s scale, the tempe¬
rature of the earth at the depth of 4 feet was 60°-8, at 16
feet 56°, at 21 feet 53°-6, and at 28 feet 51°-8. A ther¬
mometer buried 31 feet deep was found, when taken up
in summer, to stand at 490,5, and when raised in winter,
to indicate 520,2. Notwithstanding this great depth,
therefore, it had still felt the vicissitude of the seasons,
having varied 20,7 in the course of the year. The extreme
impressions must have taken six months to penetrate to
the bulb, since the temperature was lowest in summer and
highest in winter.
But this plan of observing is clumsy and imperfect, there
not being sufficient time to allow the mass of earth to re¬
gain its proper degree of heat, and too much for the in¬
strument to retain its impression unaltered before it can
be raised up and observed. In order to throw distinct
light on a subject so curious and important, Robert Fer¬
guson, Esq. of Raith, a gentleman whose elegant mind
the 1st of August 1815; but in the next year it reached
only 5d° on 24th July ; and, in 1817, it again reached 56°
on 10th July. At the depth of two feet, the extreme va¬
riation was therefore 20°; and the maxima and minima
took place about four or five weeks after either solstice.
Ihe thermometer of four feet depth had sunk to 39°
about the 11th February 1816, and was stationary at 40°
near the 3d February 1817. It rose to 54° on the 2d Au¬
gust 1815, and stood at 52° during the greater part of
August and September in the years 1816 and 1817. It
ranged, therefore, only 15°, the mean being 461°, and the
extreme points occurring near two months after either
solstice.
The thermometer whose bulb was planted eight feet
deep descended to 42° on the 16th February 1816, but
stood at 421° on the 11th February 1817. It rose to 51^°
on the 11th September 1815, fell to 50° on the 14th Sep¬
tember 1816, and mounted again to 51° on the 20th Sep¬
tember 1817. Ibis thermometer had, therefore, a range
of only 9^°, the medium temperature being 46|°, and the
extremes of heat and cold occurring nearly three months
after the solstice of summer and of winter.
These observations are quite satisfactory, and exhibit
veiy clearly the slow progress by which the impressions
of heat or cold penetrate into the ground. It will not be
far from the truth to estimate the rate of this penetration
at an inch every day. The thermometers hence attained
their maximum at different periods, though in a tolerably
regular succession. The mean temperature of the ground,
however, seemed rather to increase with the depth; but
this anomaly evidently proceeded from the coldness of the
two successive summers, and particularly that of 1816,
which occasioned such late harvests and scanty crops.
Ihus the thermometer of one foot indicated the medium
heat of only 43°*8 during the whole of the year 1816.
. . j • i a ° 5    —wj yjuxy uuiuj^ me wiioie or tile year ibi()
s imbued With the love of science, caused a series of But it will be satisfactory to exhibit the leading facts in
arge mercurial thermometers, with stems of unusual a tabular form. The following are the mean results for
un'ed in h,1S sPac‘0U,s Sarden at Abbotshall, each month, only those for December 1817 are supplied
bout 50 feet above the level of the sea, and near a mile from the corresponding month in 1815
VOL. vi. ° -
5 B
C L I M A T E.
1816.
1 foot. 2 feet. 4 feet. 8 feet
January 
February...
March 
April 
May 
June..-'. 
July 
August 
iSeptember..
October 
November..
December...
33°
33
35
39
44
51
54
50
51
47
40
35
Mean of )
whole V
year. )
43 *8
36°
36
36
38
43
50
52
52;
51
49
43
40
40c
39
39
41
43
47
50
50
51
49
46
43
43c
42
42
43
44
45
47
49
50
49
45
46
44 -1
1817:
1 foot. 2 feet. 4 feet. 8 feet.
35°
37
39
45
46
51
55
53
53
45
41
37
38°
40
40
42
44
45 -1 46 *0
44 -9
■7 40°*5 45°-l
041
■241
•4 42
49
55
53
52
49
0 44
40
44
47
51
52
52
49
47
44
45 *9
42 -7
42 -5
42 *6
44 -2
47 -S
49 -6
50 -0
50 -7
49 *8
047 *6
•9 46 -4
46 -246 *6
If the thermometers had been sunk considerably deep¬
er, they would no doubt have indicated a mean tempera¬
ture of 47°-7. Such is the permanent temperature of a
copious spring which flows at a short distance, and about
the same elevation, from the side of a basaltic or green¬
stone rock. Profuse fountains and deep wells, which are
fed by percolation through the crevices of the strata, fur¬
nish the surest and easiest mensuration of the tempeia-
ture of the earth’s crust. The body ol water which bursts
from the caverns of Vaucluse, and forms almost imme¬
diately a respectable and translucid river, has been ob¬
served not to vary in its temperature, by the tenth part
of a degree, through all the seasons of the year. It is,
therefore, an object highly important for scientific travel-
pr
Centesimal. Dif.
T
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
29°-00
28 *99
28 -96
28'-92
28 *86
28 -78
28 -68
28 -57
28 *44
28 -29
28 *13
27 -95
27 -75
27 -53
27 -30
27 *06
26 -80
26 -52
26 -23
25 *93
25 -61
25 -28
24 -93
[ 24 -57
24 -20
23 *82
23 -43
23 -02
22 -61
22-18
.Fahrenheit. Dif. Lat.
■00
•01
•03
•04
•06
•08
•10
•11
•13
•15
•16
•18
•20
•22
■23
•24
•26
•28
•29
•30
•32
•33
•35
•36
•37
•38
•39
•41
•42
i -43
84°-2
84 -2
84 *1
84 -0
83 -9
83 -8
83 -6
83 -4
83 *2
82 -9
82 -6
82 -3
82 -0
81 *6
81
80
1
7
80 -2
79
79
78
78 -1
77 -5
76 -9
76 *2
75 -6
74 -9
74 *2
73 -5
72 *7
71 -9
•00
•02
•05
•07
•11
•13
•18
•20
•23
•27
•30
•32
•36
•40
•42
•44
•47
50
■52
•54
•57
•60
•63
•65
•67
•68
•70
•72
•74
•76
Centesimal. I Dif.
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45 ■
46
47
4.8
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
21°-75
21 -31
20 -86
20 -40
19 -93
19 -48
18 *98
18 *50
18 -01
17 -50
17 -01
16 -52
16 -02
15 -52
15 -01
14 -50
13 -99
13 -49
12 -98
12 -48
11 -98
11 -49
10 -99
10 -50
10 -02
9 -54
9 -07
8 -60
8 *14
7 -69
Fahrenheit- Dif.
43
■44
■45
■46
•47
•47
•48
•48
•49
•49
•49
•49
•50
•50
•51
•51
•51
•50
51
■50
•50
•49
•50
•49
•48
•48
•47
•47
•46
•45
71°T
70 -3
69 -5
68 -7
67 -9
67 -0
66 *2
65 -3
64 *4
63 -5
62 -6
61 *7
60 -8
59 -9
Lat. I CentesimaL
59 -0
58 *1
57 *2
56 -3
55 -4
54 -5
53 -6
52 -7
51 -8
50 *9
50 -0
49 -2
48 -3
47 *5
46 *6
45 -8
•77
•79
■81
•83
•84
•85
•86
•87
•88
•88
•89
•90
•90
•91
■91
■92
•92
•91
•91
•90
•90
•89
•90
•88
•87
•86
•85
•84
•83
•81
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
■25
■82
6 -39
•98
•57
•18
•80
•43
•07
•72.
*39
•07
•77
•48
2 -20
Dif. Fahrenheit.
•94
•70
•47
•25
•05
•86
•71
•56
•43
•32
•22
•14
•08
•04
•01
•00
■44
■43
■43
•41
■41
•39
•38
•37
•36
•35
•33
•32
•30
•29
•28
•26
■24
■23
•22
•20
•19
•17
•15
•13
•11
•10
•08
•06
•04
•03
•00
45°-0
44 -3
43 -5
42 -8
42 -0
41 -3
40 -6
40 *0
39 -3
38 -7
38
37
Dif.
37 -0
36 -5
36 -0
35 -5
35 *1
34 -6
34 -2
33 -9
33 -6
33 *3
33 -0
32 -8
32 *6
32
32
32
32
32 -0
32 -0
•79
•78
•77
•76
•74
•71
•68
•67
•65
•63
•60
•57
•54
•52
-50
•47
•43
•41
•40
•36
•34
•31
•27
•23
•20
•18
•15
•11
•07
•05
•01
lers to notice the precise heat of springs in favourable Climate,
situations, as they issue from their rocky beds. Such v>—yw
choice observations would accurately fix the medium tem¬
perature of any climate. It is only requisite to exclude
the superficial and the thermal springs, which are not dif¬
ficult to distinguish.
From a comparison of meteorological observations made Rule for
at distant points on the surface of our globe, the celebrat- calculate
ed astronomer Professor Mayer of Gottingen, was en-^meam
aided to discover an empirical law which connects most J
harmoniously the various results. Round the pole, the
mean temperature may be assumed at the precise limit of
freezing, since the fields of ice accumulated in that forlorn
region seem at this present period neither to increase nor
diminish. But under the equator the medium heat on the
level of the sea is found to be 84-}° of Fahrenheit, or 29
centesimal degrees, the division of the thermometric scale
which is the best suited to philosophical purposes. At the
middle point, or the latitude of 45°, tne temperatuie is
likewise the exact mean, or 14|0 centigrade. From that
centre, the heat diminishes rapidly northwards, and in¬
creases with equal rapidity towards the south. Hence
the mean temperature of any place, at the level of the
sea, is calculated in centesimal degrees, by multiplying
the square of the cosine ot the latitude into the constant
number 29 ; or it is found by multiplying the supplemen¬
tal versed sine of double the latitude into 14£°. The va¬
riation of temperature for each degree of latitude is hence
denoted centesimally, with very great precision, by halt
the sine of double the latitude ; being, in fact, this quan¬
tity diminished in the ratio of 58, the double of 29, to
57-3, the length of an arch equal to the radius. From
these data the following table is computed ; in which are
likewise annexed the corresponding degrees of hahren-
heit’s, with the successive differences.
CLIMATE.
747
Ilimate. It hence appears, that, near the extremities of the quad- that of its generating circle, such a sheet of water, spread Climate.
rant, or towards the pole and the equator, there is scarce- over the whole of the globe, would receive six degrees of
ttleva- ]y any sensible variation of the mean temperature, and heat every day. But the very inferior capacity of the atmo-
e mean 1 iat t^e.w^°^e change within the arctic circle, or between sphere for heat, being estimated as equal to that of a body
mpera- ^le tropics, amounts only to eight degrees on Fahrenheit’s of water about twelve feet in depth, if the aerial mass finally
re at the scale. Very little increase of heat is, therefore, observed received and retained all the calorific impressions, it would
les and in advancing through the torrid zone to the equator; and every day have its temperature raised half a degree, and,
uator. the intensity of the cold would not be sensibly augmented therefore, augmented to 182|-° in the course of a whole
in penetrating from the arctic circle to the pole. The ex- year. This annual accession of heat, however, is quickly
istence of an open sea towards the extreme north is hence dispersed by the mobility of the fluid medium, and gra-
not improbable. dually absorbed into the earth, or more quickly diffused
;eat On the other hand, the character of the climate changes through the waters of the ocean, which, besides, occupy
anges of rapidly in the temperate zone. Hence likewise the variety at least three fourths of the whole surface of our globe,
moera- 0f vegetable productions with which those happier regions The luminous matter communicated by the incessant
mpera' ^
mperat!?8 abound> Such a country as France, for example, stretch
^ ing from about the 40th to the 50th degree of latitude,
and through a difference of five centesimal degrees of
mean temperature, yields not only plentiful crops of wheat,
barley, and oats, but raises olives, fig-trees, and vines.
The gradation of temperature in different latitudes may
be clearly shown by a geometrical diagram. Let the figure
below represent a quadrant, 90 the pole, and 50 the la¬
titude of any place; on the radius as an axis and a para¬
meter, describe a parabola, which will consequently pass
through the pole ; draw the perpendicular 50 B, and the
portion of it AB, intercepted within the parabola, will
express the mean temperature of the given place at the
level of the sea, which in the present case should amount
to 12 centesimal degrees.
Since each elementary zone of the sphere is equal to the
corresponding belt of a circumscribed cylinder, the whole
heat accumulated on its surface must be proportional to
the area of the annexed parabola, and, consequently, the
mean temperature is two thirds of what obtains at the
equator, and therefore 191°, or 66° 8' on Fahrenheit’s
scale. Such must be the temperature of the great mass
of the earth, if it has derived all its heat from external
impressions. But, at the very small depths to which we
can ever penetrate, the influence of the immediate vicinity
only is felt; nor, in the profoundest mines, has any ten¬
dency yet been perceived towards increase of temperature
in the higher latitudes, or decrease in the lower.
These superficial impressions are all produced, either di-
ofthe rectly or through the intervention of the atmosphere, by
the action of the solar rays. It may be calculated from
experiment, that the entire and unimpaired light of a
vertical sun will communicate one centesimal degree of
heat every hour to a sheet of water of a foot in thickness.
Consequently, since the surface of a sphere is four times
tcula-
.cts of
! sun’s
shining of the sun, whether received on the ground or in¬
tercepted in its passage through the air, would hence be
capable of communicating one centesimal degree of heat
to the body of the earth in the space of 1323 years; a
quantity too small, perhaps, to be yet perceived, though
its influence may be afterwards detected by very delicate
observations.
It is easy to demonstrate, from the laws of optics, that
the quantity of light which falls on a horizontal surface
must be proportional to the sine of its obliquity. Hence
the aggregate light received under the equator at either
equinox is to what would accumulate during twenty four
hours, if maintained at its highest intensity, as the diame¬
ter to the circumference of a circle. This daily accession
of heat, confined to the mass of atmosphere, would, there¬
fore, in that climate and season, amount to 633,000 parts
of a degree. At the pole itself, during the complete cir¬
cuit of the sun in midsummer’s day, the measure of heat
would be about a fourth part greater, or 797,000 parts ;
the continued endurance of the sun above the horizon
more than compensating for the feebleness of his oblique
rays.
In general, the quantity of light received at any place
from the sun in the space of one day is denoted by the
product of the sine of the semidiurnal arc, or the dis¬
tance from noon to the time of sunset, into the cosines of
the latitude and declination, joined to the product of that
arc itself into the sines of the latitude and declination ;
the latter part of the expression being considered as ad¬
ditive or subtractive, according as the declination lies on
the same or on the opposite side of the latitude. Hence,
at Edinburgh, in the latitude of 56°, the heat collected
during one day at the summer solstice is 307,000 parts,
but at the solstice of winter only 166,000.
If a calculation be instituted for the quantities of heat
during the half yearly periods, from the equinox of spring
to that of autumn, and from the autumnal equinox again
to the vernal, the following table will be formed.
Equator 
Tropic 
Latitude 45°
Arctic circle
Pole 
Summer.
116°
127
120
102
84
Winter.
116°
87
42
12
00
Whole Year.
232°
214
162
114
84
The annual accumulation at the latitude of 45° is thus
162°, which differs very little from 158°, the mean be¬
tween the calorific effects at the equator and at the pole.
It may be observed likewise, that the effects vary more
slowly at the extremes than near the middle of the quad¬
rant. Thus, from the equator to the tropic, and from the
arctic circle to the pole, the differences are 30° and 28° ;
but in the narrower intervals, from the tropic to the lati¬
tude of 45°, and thence to the arctic circle, the differences
748
CLIMATE.
Climate.
are 52° and 48°. The property now stated corresponds
with the changes of mean temperature in different latitudes.
If a current of air from the equator, having the ordi¬
nary temperature of 29°, were supposed to travel to the
pole, from which an equal and contrary current would
consequently flow towards the equator, each journey
would transport 58° of heat. Between two and three
such journeys performed every year would therefore be
sufficient to disperse the whole accumulation of 148°.
This only requires the existence of a wind advancing
northwards at the rate of forty-six miles every day. It
is not necessary even that the wind should either conti¬
nue permanent or blow directly north. The same effect
would be produced if it were to blow indifferently to
every point of the compass, and only at the late of three
miles an hour ; a supposition which agrees perfectly with
actual observation.
The circulation excited in the body of our atmosphere
thus prevents the heat shed by the sun on different parts
of the earth’s surface from an excessive accumulation.
In proportion as the equatorial regions grew warmer from
the predominance of illumination, the polar wind would
rush with more rapidity, till it had tempered the excess.
This balance of the accession, and the consequent disper¬
sion, of heat, has probably been long attained, and it now
regulates the gradation of climates in successive latitudes.
But if air had possessed the capacity for heat which be¬
longs to hydrogen gas, it would have produced a more
equable diffusion of temperature, insomuch that the tem¬
perature of the equator could not have become ten de¬
grees warmer than that of the poles. On the conti ary
had our atmosphere been less fluid, or less capable of
containing heat, the inequality of different climates would
have risen to a higher pitch, ihat variety of tempeia-
ture which occurs at present on the surface of the globe
was requisite for the development of the different vege¬
table tribes which clothe it. I he same harmony connects
the system of this lower world which irradiates the ex¬
panse of the celestial regions.
The equilibrium of temperature preserved over the
globe by the circulation of the atmosphere is not, how¬
ever, very quickly produced. Hence the remarkable
increase of heat which takes place during the summer
months in the higher latitudes. But within the arctic
circle, another powerful agent of nature is constantly
tempering the inequality of the seasons. Ihe vast beds
of snow or fields of ice which cover the land and the sea
in those dreary retreats, absorb, in the act of thawing or
passing again to the liquid form, all the surplus heat col¬
lected during the continuance of a nightless summer.
The rigour of winter, when darkness resumes her tedious
reign, is likewise mitigated by the warmth evolved as
congelation spreads over the watery surface.
Of the light received from the sun, which, by its union
with other bodies, constitutes heat, a considerable portion
is always detained and absorbed in its passage thiough
the atmosphere. Even a vertical ray shot through the
clearest air will lose more than the fifth part of its inten¬
sity before it reaches the surface of the earth. In most
cases, the loss which light will suffer in the shortest tran¬
sit through the atmosphere may be estimated at one
fourth of the whole. But the oblique rays must undergo
a much greater absorption. If, from their slanting course,
they have to encounter twice the number of aerial parti¬
cles, their intensity must be reduced to nine sixteenths,
or the square of three fourths ; and if they describe triple
the vertical tract, only twenty-seven sixty-fourth parts, or
the cube of three fourths, will reach the ground. In ge¬
neral, if the tracts of light follow an arithmetical progres¬
sion, the diminished force with which it escapes and ar¬
rives at the ground will form a decreasing geometrical pro- Climate.,
gression. To determine the train of aerial particles which
the oblique rays of the sun must traverse in their passage
through the atmosphere, is a nice problem, which requires
a skilful application of the integral calculus. Without
stopping to engage at present in the details of this intri¬
cate investigation, it may suffice to remark, that, in gene¬
ral, the length of the tract is nearly in the inverse ratio
of the sine of the sun’s altitude. But the following table,
to every five degrees, is calculated from rigorous formu¬
lae, the length of oblique tract being reduced to the stand¬
ard of air uniformly dense. These quantities again are
diminished in the ratio of the sine of obliquity, to express
the calorific action which those enfeebled and slanting
rays finally exert at the surface of the earth.
Sun’s
Altitude.
Measure of
Atmospheric
Tract.
90°
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1-000
1-004
1-015
1-035
1-064
1-103
1-154
1-220
1-305
1-413
1-554
1-740
1- 995
2- 359
2- 905
3- 841
5-610
10-450
37-850
Intensity of
the Light
transmitted.
Calorific
Action at
the Surface.
•750
•749
•747
•742
•736
•728
•718
•704
•687
•666
•640
•606
•563
•507
•434
•331
•199
•050
•00002
•740
•747
•735
•717
•691
•660
•609
•577
•526
•454
•411
•348
•282
•214
•148
•086
•035
•004
It hence appears that, even when the sky is most serene,
only one half of the sun’s light can reach the surface of
the earth from an altitude of 25°, or one third from that
of 15°, and that, if the obliquity of the rays were increased
to 5°, no more than the twentieth part of them would ac¬
tually be transmitted. The annual quantity of light which
falls may be computed as equivalent at the equator to an
uniform illumination from an altitude of 17° 46'; and, in
the mean latitude of 45°, and at the pole, the effects are the
same as if the rays had respectively the constant obliqui¬
ties of 13° 2' and 7° 17'. Wherefore, under the most fa¬
vourable circumstances, of 1000 parts of light transmitted
from the sun, only 378 can, at a medium estimate, pene¬
trate to the surface at the equator, 228 in the latitude o
45°, and 110 at the pole, of their oblique rays; but the
shades received by a given portion of the surface are still
less, being only 115, 51, and 14. In cloudy weather, the
portion oflight that can finally reach the ground will sel¬
dom amount to the third of those quantities; and when
the sky becomes darkened with accumulated vapours, al¬
most every shining ray is intercepted in its passage.
The light which at last gains the surface being there InfluenCj i
absorbed and converted into heat, is, in this form, pro-0fthesui
fusely delivered to the ambient air, or more feebly eon-rays
ducted downwards into the body of the earth. Bu ^es
rays which fall on seas or lakes are not immediately ar¬
rested in their course ; they penetrate always with dimi¬
nishing energy, till, at a certain depth, they are no longer
visible. This depth depends, without doubt, on the cleai-
ness of the medium, though probably not one tenth part
: imate.
of the incident light can advance five fathoms in most
translucid water. The surface of the ocean is not, there¬
fore, like that of the land, heated by the direct action of
the sun duiing the day, since his rays are not intercept¬
ed at their entrance, but suffered partially to descend into
the mass, and to waste their calorific power on a liquid
stratum of ten or twelve feet in thickness. 1
But the surface of deep collections of water is kept al¬
ways warmer than the ordinary standard of the place bv
the operation of another cause, arising from the peculiar
constitution of fluids. Although these are capable like
solids, ot conducting heat slowly through their mass yet
they transfer it principally in a copious flow by their‘in¬
ternal mobility. The heated portions of a fluid being di¬
lated, must continue to float on the surface; while the
portions which are cooled, becoming consequently denser,
will sink downwards by their superior gravity. Hence the
bed of a very deep pool is always excessively cold, since
the atmospheric influences are modified in their effects by
the laws of statics. The mean temperature of the cli¬
mate is not communicated by these variable impressions •
every change to warmth being spent on the upper stra¬
tum, while every transition to cold penetrates to the bot¬
tom, which thus experiences all the rigours of winter,
without receiving any share of the summer’s heat. But’
if the beds of profound bodies of water remain perpetually
cold, their surface undergoes some variety of tempera¬
ture, and is generally warmer than the average weekly or
monthly heat of the air.
These principles are confirmed by observations made
on our own lakes, and strikingly exemplified in those of
Switzeiland, which have a breadth proportioned to the
stupendous altitude of their encircling mountains. It ap¬
pears, from the careful observations of Saussure, that the
bottoms of those majestic basins, whether situated in the
lower plains, or embosomed in the regions of the upper
Alps, are almost all of them equally cold, being only a few
degrees above the point of congelation. That accurate
observer found the temperature of the Lake of Geneva
at the depth of 1000 feet, to be 42°, and could discover
no monthly variation under 160 feet from the surface. In
the course of July, he examined the Lakes of Thun and
Lucerne: the former at the depth of 370, and the latter
at that of 640 feet, had both the temperature of 41°, while
the superficial waters indicated respectively 64° and 68-Lp
by Fahrenheit s scale. Jhe bottom of the Lago Maggiore,
on the Italian side of the Alps, was a little warmer, being
44° at the depth of 360 feet, while the surface was almost
as high as 78°. Barlocci has since found that the Lago
Sabatino, near Rome, at the depth of 490 feet, was only
44t, while the thermometer, dipped at the surface, mark¬
ed 77°.
Through the friendship of Mr James Jardine, civil en¬
gineer, we are enabled to give the results of his observa¬
tions on some of the principal Scottish lakes, which, as
might be expected from him, were conducted with the
most scrupulous accuracy. The instrument which he em¬
ployed for exploring the temperature at different depths,
was free from the ordinary objections; being a register
thermometer, let down in a horizontal position, which
could acquire the impression in not many seconds, and
might be drawn up leisurely, without risk of subsequent
alteration. It would appear that the variable impressions
of the seasons do not penetrate more than fifteen or twenty
fathoms; that below this depth, an almost uniform cold¬
ness prevails. Thus, in the deepest part of Loch Lomond,
on the 8th September 1812, the temperature of the sur¬
face was 59°-3 of Fahrenheit; at the depth of 15 fathoms,
43°-7; at that of 40 fathoms, 41°-3; and from that point
to about 3 feet from the bottom, at 100 fathoms, it de-
CLIMATE.
creased only the fifth part of a degree. Again, on the
preceding day, the superficial water of Loch Katrine
being at 57°-3, the thermometer, let down 10 fathoms in¬
dicated 50o,6 ; at the depth of 20 fathoms it marked 43°-l •
at the depth of 35 fathoms it fell to 41°-1; and on the
verge of the bottom, at 80 fathoms, it had only varied to
41 . At the same place, on the 3d September 1814, the
.noo the,surf’ace was 56°-4; at the depth of 10 fathoms,
49-2; at that of 20 fathoms, 44°; at that of 30 fathoms,
41 -9; and at that of 80 fathoms, 41°-3.
Hence it is that, even in the northern latitudes, the
deep lakes are never, during the hardest winters, com¬
pletely frozen over. But if the same water be let into a
shallow basin, it will, in a rigorous season, be chilled tho¬
roughly, and converted into ice. This may even happen
when spread above the surface of salt water, which is al¬
ways considerably denser. Thus, frost takes no effect on
Loch IN ess, nor on the river of that name, v/hich, in a
lapid course of a few miles, discharges the surplus water
into the sea. But in very severe winters, a sheet of ice
appears formed along the shore; the impressions of cold
being almost wholly expended on the accumulation of
fresh water, since the chilled portions of this, which con¬
tinually descend, are stopped in their progress by the
greatei density of the recumbent sea water.
The seas and the ocean itself obey the same law of the
distribution of heat, only the difference of temperature
expei lenced by sounding in the Mediterranean is less con¬
spicuous than in the fresh-water lakes. Saussure found that
the temperature at the bottom, in the Gulfs of Nice and
of Genoa, at the depths of 9§5 and of 1920 feet, was the
same, or 55°-8, the heat of the superficial water being
about 69°. But the mean temperature, or that of the
body of the land on the same parallel of latitude, is 59°.
The smallness of the diminution here observed may per¬
haps be attributed to the effect of evaporation in such hot
confined bays, the water at the surface being thus ren¬
dered salter, and consequently disposed, by its acquired
density, to sink into the colder mass below.
In open seas, and in damper climates, the depression of
temperature is greater in the inferior strata. This differ¬
ence becomes augmented in proportion of the extreme va¬
riation of the seasons. Lord Mulgrave, on the 4th Sep¬
tember 1773, in the latitude of 65° north, drew up water
from the depth of 4100 feet, which he found to have the
temperature of 40°, while the thermometer, dipped at the
surface, stood, on the 19th June, at 55°. In the latitude
of 66°, a register thermometer, let down 4680 feet, marked
26°, while the air was at 48i°; and on the 31st August,
in the latitude of 69°, while the exterior thermometer indi¬
cated 591°, the temperature of the water at the depth of
4040 feet was only 32°. In shallow seas the two extremes
are brought closer together, and therefore a similar differ¬
ence of temperature now occurs at moderate depths.
The water lying on the surface, which, in the vicissitude
of the season, comes to be chilled, is not precipitated
as before to a fathomless abyss. The increase of cold be¬
low is hence considered as an indication of the proximity
of banks, if not of the approach to land itself.
A like gradation of temperature is produced by the al¬
ternating influence of the seasons in deep and stagnant
masses of air. When this active fluid is confined in pro¬
found caverns, opening to the sky without being much ex¬
posed, and either perpendicular or gently inclined, its lower
strata become intensely and permanently cold. The
mild air of summer floats motionless at the mouth of the
pit; but, in winter, the superior air, cooled many de¬
grees perhaps below the freezing point, and therefore
greatly condensed, precipitates itself continually to the
bottom.
750
C L I M A T E.
j#
Climate.
This fact takes place in most caverns, and in draw-wells
—which are left uncovered. Saussure found, on the 1st ot
July, when the thermometer in the shade stood at /H o
Fahrenheit, that a cave in the Monte lestaceo, a sma
hill in the vicinity of Rome, formed entirely by the enor¬
mous accumulation of broken pottery, had the temperature
of 50° • and two other caves in the same porous mass were
cooled’to 44°. On the 9th July, when the external air was at
(jl° the cave of St Marino, at the foot of a sandstone hill,
about 2080 feet above the level of the sea, indicated only
441 which is 8° below the mean temperature ot the soil
in that situation. In the grotto of Ischia, and in the caves
of Cesi and of Chiavenna, the thermometer marked hi -
wise 44A° ; hut in the caves of Caprino, on the borders o
the Lake of Lugano, it stood at different times of the year
•it 37° and at 42°; and in those of Hergisweil, near Lu-
eeme, the heat of the interior, on the 31st of July, was
only 39^-°*
But this phenomenon is still more striking in certain pe¬
culiar circumstances. The famous Swedish mine of Dan-
nemora, which yields the richest iron ore in the world,
presents an immense excavation, probably two or three
hundred feet in depth. On the occasion ot some repairs
which suspended the usual labours, the basin appeared
some years since full of water, with huge blocks of ice
floatiim in it. The silver mine of Kongsberg, in Norway,
has for its main shaft a frightful open cavern, perhaps
three hundred feet deep and thirty feet wide, of which
the bottom is covered with perpetual snow. Hence, like¬
wise, on the sides of JEtna and of the mountains in Spain,
the collected snows are preserved all the year in caves and
crevices of the rocks, from which natural stores the mule¬
teers carry down, during summer, to the villages and the
cities of the plain, a material so necessary to comfort in
those parched climates. c i i
,, i . Such is the disposition induced in a confined column of
quantity of air; but in a free atmosphere the gradation of tempera-
heat the ture is exactly reversed, the lower strata being invariably
same at wanner than the upper. This most important fact m me-
every ele- te01.0Wy and physical geography was thought suihciently
vation- explained, in the infancy of physical science, from the prox¬
imity of the heat supposed to be reflected by the surface
of the earth. But it were idle to attempt any serious con¬
futation of such crude ideas. The true cause of the cold
that prevails in the higher regions of the atmosphere is
undoubtedly the enlarged capacity which air acquires by
rarefaction. From the unequal action of the sun s rays,
and the vicissitudes of day and night, a quick and pei pe-
tual circulation is maintained between the lower and the
upper strata; and it is obvious that, for each portion of
air which rises from the surface, an equal and correspond¬
ing portion must likewise descend. But that which mounts
up, acquiring an augmented attraction for heat, has its
temperature proportionally diminished; while the corre¬
lative mass falling down, carries its share of heat along with
it, and, again relaxing its attraction, seems to diffuse warmth
below. A stratum at any given height in the atmosphere
is hence affected both by the passage of air from below
and by the return of air from above, the former absoibing
a portion of heat, and the latter evolving it. But the
mean temperature at every elevation is on the whole still
permanent, and consequently those disturbing causes must
be exactly balanced, or the absolute measure of heat is the
same at all heights, suffering merely some external modi¬
fication from the difference of capacity in the several por¬
tions of the fluid with which it has combined. That tem¬
perature is hence inversely as the capacity of air having
the rarity due to the given altitude.
It only remains, therefore, to discover the capacity of
air, or its attraction for heat under successive pressures,
j ^
or at different degrees of rarity. But this problem requires Climate. ^
a very nice investigation, and appears incapable of being
resolved by any direct procedure. If the elaborate expe- Investiga.
riments of Dr Crawford and others on the capacity of air
in its ordinary state gave such erroneous results, what d
hope could be formed of ascertaining even its minute shad-rare^
ino-s by any similar plan of operation? But, indepen-air.
dently almost of any theory, a simple method occurs for
conducting this research. A delicate thermometer, sus¬
pended within the receiver of an air-pump, indicates a
decrease of temperature as the process ot rarefaction ad¬
vances ; and, on stopping this operation at any stage, the
thermometer will slowly regain its former state. If now,
when the equilibrium is restored, the air be suddenly re¬
admitted, the dilated portion which had remained in the
receiver liberates the heat absorbed by it during the pro¬
gress of rarefaction. The thermometer accordingly rises
ouickly through a certain space, then becomes for a short
while stationary, and afterwards slowly subsides. But the
instrument does evidently not measure the whole of the
heat thus evolved ; a great part of it being spent in warm¬
ing up to the same point the internal surface of the receiv¬
er. This action, however, is merely superficial, since its
effect appears to be momentary. Consequently, the inter¬
nal surface of the receiver, with that of the plate on which
it stands, as penetrated by the sudden impression to a cer¬
tain very minute depth, forms a constant film of matter,
which, as well as the body of air itself, draws its supply
from the extricated heat. Under the same receiver, there¬
fore, although the air will not seize the whole of the heat
disengaged in the act of admission, it must always retain
a proportional share of it. A series of experiments, at suc¬
cessive degrees of rarefaction, must hence discover, if not
the absolute, yet the relative changes of the air s capacity
To institute this inquiry with the desired success, an Details a
excellent and powerful air-pump was used, ^vmg a /'e-theexpe.
ceiver of the very largest dimensions, of an oblong sphe¬
roidal form, approaching, however, nearly to the globular,
and with a narrow bottom. The apparatus being placed
in the middle of a close room, which had a steady tempe¬
rature, a thermometer with a slender stem, open at top,
and a small bulb of extreme sensibility, was fixed in a -
tical position, a few inches above the the plate
Having replaced the receiver, and allowed it to stand so
time, one fifth of the air was now extracted from under
it • and, after a considerable interval, the cock was sudden¬
ly opened, to restore the equilibrium ; when the mercury o
the thermometer, which had been stationary, mounted up
very rapidly 3*0 centesimal degrees, from which point
afterwards slowly descended. . ,
The temperature of the room having been reamed,
two fifths of the air in the receiver were then extracted,
and, after some lapse of time, the exter.nal/7vm5^"
being repeated, the thermometer rose instantly 5 J cent^
simal degrees. On extracting three fifths of the i t
air, the corresponding ascent of
restoration of the equilibrium, was 7*0 of those dgj
and, when the contents of the receiver had been rareh
five times, the heat evolved, on the re-admissmn onhe
air, amounted to 8-0 degrees. The late o ^ e_
feet was thus evidently diminishing. On pushing the ^
faction as far as it was really practicable, or ti 1 t
dual air had become rarefied about 300 the change
indicated by the thermometer did not reach to n
But, to determine the absolute quantity of' to a
is disengaged in the transition ol air lon| what part
denser state, it becomes necessary to ascertain » P
of it was consumed on the sides ot the receiv . y
CLIMATE.
751
(jjiate.
In ^nces,
ral
C(,i jsion
ing the size of the receiver, and consequently altering the
proportion between its surface and its contents, some light
may be thrown on this question. Another similar receiver
was therefore provided, having half the former dimensions ;
and with this the same set of experiments was repeated.
Its included air being reduced successively to the density
of four fifths,' three fifths, two fifths, and one fifth, and
then rarefied as much as possible, the thermometer mount¬
ed each time through the shorter spaces of 1-8, 3-2, 4*2,
4-8, and finally 5-0 centesimal degrees. These quantities
evidently follow the same proportion as the former, of
which indeed they are only three fifths. But the smaller
receiver, having, under the fourth part of the surface of
the larger, only the eighth part of its contents, exposes
comparatively twice the extent of surface. The rise of
temperature which its included air exhibits must conse¬
quently be the same as what would have obtained within
the larger receiver, if, while its capacity remained the same,
its surface had been actually doubled. If wre suppose the
air to hold one part of the heat, while two parts and four
parts are respectively expended on the insides of the re¬
ceivers, the results wrould correspond with observation ;
for the whole quantity evolved, being in both cases the
same, the air under the larger receiver would retain one
third, and, under the smaller receiver, only one fifth ; the
impressions being thus in the ratio of five to three. The
same conclusion may be obtained somewhat differently.
If the heat spent on the inside of the large receiver had
been spread over twice the surface, it would have raised
the temperature only 1°*5; but this mounted really to
10,8, and therefore the difference ’3 was the effects of 1°‘8
derived from the contained air. Of the heat thus shared
between the air and the doubled surface, one part was
hence retained and five communicated. Consequently,
to obtain the true results, it is only necessary to multiply
the second set of quantities by five, or the first set by three.
If no waste, therefore, took place against the inside of the
receiver, the heat evolved in the passage of air from the
densities of four fifths, three fifths, two fifths, one fifth,
and extreme rarefaction, to its ordinary state, wmuld be 9,
16, 21, 24, and 25 centesimal degrees.
• It is not difficult to discover the law of this progression.
They are obviously formed by the successive addition of
the odd numbers 9, 7, 5, 3, and 1 ; and are, consequently,
the excesses of the square of 5 above the squares of 4, 3,
2, and 1. Wherefore, if the square of the density be taken
from unit, the remainder, multiplied by 25, will express in
centesimal degrees the rise of temperature which accom¬
panies the return of the air to its ordinary state.
The numbers thus obtained, however, do not still ex¬
press the final results. If the restoration of four parts of
the air included under the receiver to their usual density,
disengage heat sufficient to raise the temperature of the
whole five parts 9 degrees, its real measure must have
been 11£ degrees, or the former augmented in the ratio of
4 to 5. For the same reason, if three fifths, two fifths, and
one fifth of the air in the transition of density, evolve por¬
tions of heat, which would elevate tfie temperature of the
mass 16, 21, and 24 degrees, the actual quantities are 26f°,
521°, and 120°, or those numbers multiplied by 5, and di¬
vided by 3, 2, and 1.
These conclusions are easily reduced to formulae. Let
• 6 denote the density of the air, and 25 (1 — f)2) will express,
in centesimal degrees, the elevation of the thermometer
which would follow the re-admission of the air, if none of
the heat were spent on the inside of the receiver. Con-
sequentty, 25 or 25 ^ —will exhibit on the
same scale the whole quantity of heat evolved in the re¬
storation of density. The last formula is extremely simple,
implying that 25, multiplied into the difference between Climate,
the density of air and its reciprocal, will represent the v—
measure of heat due to the change of condition. This re¬
sult may be either additive or subtractive; it may ex¬
press the heat emitted in the condensation of air, or the
heat absorbed during its opposite rarefaction.
Thus, the heat extricated from air which has its den-Applica-
sity doubled is 25° (2 — £), or 37-J-° ; and the same quan-tion of the
tity is withdrawn, either when this air recovers its for-*orrnul£u
mer density, or when air of the ordinary state expands
into double its volume. Hence the copious heat extri¬
cated by the sudden compression of air. If it were con¬
densed thirty times, the heat discharged would amount
to 25 ^30 — or 749°, which is more than sufficient
for the inflammation of fungous or soft substances. On
this principle are constructed the pneumatic matches in¬
vented by Mollet of Lyons, which produce their effect by
the momentary action of a small syringe.
But, to discover the relative capacity or attraction which
air of a given density has for heat, it would be necessary
to know the extent of the natural scale, or the position of
the absolute zero. The conclusions, however, from dif¬
ferent data, are not very constant; yet several experi¬
ments appear to fix nearly the point from which the infu¬
sion of heat commences at 750 centesimal degrees below
congelation. On this supposition, therefore, air which is
rarefied thirty times has its capacity doubled, the heat
contained in it being dilated only fifteen times. For the
same reason, air sixty times rarer than ordinary acquires
a triple attraction for heat, which, in this union, becomes
attenuated only twenty times. But these inferences are
merely speculative, and the law of the gradation of tem¬
perature in the atmosphere is quite independent of the
existence of an absolute term of heat.
The last formula now investigated has been already laid
before the public, without any explication, however, or in¬
deed indication, of the process by which it was discovered.
The experiments on which it rests were begun many years
since, and have been repeated with every precaution. But
the mean results only are retained ; and, for the sake of
simplicity, a few slight modifications have been intro¬
duced, to adapt the apparatus to more convenient propor¬
tions. Though it was impossible to blow a receiver that
should have exactly half the dimensions of another, nothing
seemed easier, from the general mode of investigation,
than to apply the minute corrections which any small de¬
viations of size or form required. The mixture of obscure
and intricate computations has been thus avoided.
The gradation of the effects disclosed by this experi-Gradation
mental research is more easily and clearly traced in geo-of effects
metrical diagrams. Having divided the absciss AF intorePresent-
five equal portions, erect the several perpendiculars EG,^b^al,a'
DH, Cl, BK, and AL, equal respectively to 9, 16, 21, 24,
and 25 parts on any scale, and connect the points F, G,
H, I, K, and L, by a curve line. It is readily perceived
that the curve now traced must be a parabola, formed on
the axis LA. Wherefore, L
if AF represent the height
of the barometric gage of
the air-pump, and AD its
altitude after a partial ex¬
haustion, the parallel DFI
will express the rise of the
included thermometer on
the re-admission of the air
which had been extracted. A B c DE I'
The axis AL itself denotes the extreme effect, or what
would take place if the rarefaction were pushed to the
utmost. While the mercurial column, therefore, descends
CLIMATE.
Climate, by equal intervals to E, D, C, B, and approximates to A,
the elevation of the thermometer through the spaces EG,
DH, Cl, BK, and nearly AL, advances at first uniformly,
and afterwards continually more slowly, till it becomes
stationary.
Difference But the parallels to the axis of a parabola do not ex-
of.tempe- press the whole of the heat disengaged by the attenuated
rature pro. ajr during tbe resumption of its density. The line DH,
tlmdiann-ef’or instance> marks only the rise of temperature commu-
of the air’s mcated t0 tlie entire mass AF, by the heat evolved from
density, the portion AD ; and to represent the true measure of this
heat, it must, therefore,
be increased in the ratio
of AD to AF. Hence,
from the point A, and
through the extremities
of the parallels EG, DH,
Cl, and BK, draw the ob¬
lique lines AG, AH, AI,
and AK, to meet the ex¬
tended perpendicular FO;
the intercepted segments
or parabolic tangents FM,
FN, FO, and FP (if this
last were completed), will
exhibit the real portions
of heat liberated from
any of the corresponding
densities AE, AD, AC,
AB.
Farther il- Let the part AL of the axis be taken equal to the para-
lustrations. meter, and the ordinate AF must likewise be equal to it:
draw the vertical tangent LQ meeting the parallel DH in
Q; join the oblique line AQ, and produce it to meet the
perpendicular in R. From the property of the curve,
QH : AD :: AD : AF; but from the mutual relation of
the diverging lines AN,
AR, and the parallels
DQ and FR, AD : AF::
AH : AN :: QH : NR ;
whence QH : NR : :
QH : AD, and, there¬
fore, NR is equal to
AD. Consequently
FN, which expresses
the whole evolution of
heat corresponding to
the densityAD, is equal
to the difference be¬
tween AD and FR.
But since AD : AF: :
DQ or AF : FR, the
line FR is the recipro¬
cal of AD, the para¬
meter AF being con¬
sidered as unit. The
measure of heat evolv¬
ed, or the parabolic
tangent FN, is, therefore, as before expressed, by the dif¬
ference of the density of the air and its reciprocal.
The same result may be represented geometrically in
another way. Let LIG be a rectangular hyperbola re¬
ferred to its asymptotes AE and AF, the axis being AO.
If the perpendicular IC, or the absciss AC, express the
ordinary density of the air, and the ordinate DH denote
any other density, the intercepted segment HN, or the
difference between DH and its reciprocal AD or DN, will
exhibit the additional share of heat required for its con¬
stitution. On the contrary, if the air acquires the higher
density BK, the quantity of heat which it must evolve in
Climajij
Differs
of temj:
rature e
hibited,
its transition will be represented by KP. In the figure
here annexed, the air is presumed to have its density re¬
duced to the half in one case, and doubled in the other;
the quantities of heat, HN and KP, which are evolved
and absorbed, being then equal and opposite.
Since the absolute quantity of heat contained in every
part of any vertical column of the atmosphere has been
shown to remain unchanged, these diagrams must likewise
represent the diminution of temperature in the higher
strata, corresponding to the decreased density of the air
at different elevations. The same formula will determine
the measure and gradation of this effect. Reckoning the
density of the air at the surface of the earth unit, the
difference between the density at any given altitude
and its reciprocal, being multiplied by 25, will express
the mean diminution of temperature in centesimal de¬
grees ; or if 45 be employed as the multiplier, the pro¬
duct will exhibit the same result in degrees of Fahren¬
heit’s scale.
This very simple deduction from theory is amply con¬
firmed by numerous and extensive observations. But a
few leading facts will perhaps be deemed sufficient for
exemplification.
According to Lasius, the same barometer which, atExampi
Goslar, an ancient town seated in the bosom of the Hartzofthea
Forest, stands at 29,500 inches, would fall to 26,444 on Pk“tl0' -
the top of the Brocken, in that mining district. This gives 1
•896 for the density of the air on the summit, the reciprocal ’
of which is 1T16 ; but IT 16 — -896=-22, and -22 X 25° =:
50*5, the calculated difference of temperature. The actual
difference is very nearly the same, being only 5°*2; as
we had once an opportunity ourselves of observing, having
found the temperature of a copious spring at Goslar to be
eight centesimal degrees, while that of the noted Hecken-
Brunnen, or Witch- Well, on the summit of the Brocken,
was only 2°*8.
Saussure, whose accuracy always inspires confidence,
found that, while at his villa of Conche, near Geneva, the
barometer stood at 28-500, another similar instrument fell
to 25-165 on the top of the mountain of Nant Bourant.
The diminished densjty of the air at this elevation was,
therefore, -890; the difference between which and its re¬
ciprocal 1-123 being multiplied by 25°, gives 5°-82. But
a thermometer buried a whole night at two feet deep in
that lofty station, marked only 12°-75, while it indicated
6-25 more, or 19°, a few days afterwards, when sunk to
the same depth at Conche. The discrepancy here is thus
less than half a degree.
On the top of a higher mountain, the Chapieu, the same to the
observer found the ground, at a depth of two feet, to be tempera
colder by 6°-44 than at Conche; but the corresPonain8groUnd;
density of the air and its reciprocal were -872 and 1T47;
consequently, 25° X -275 = 60,87.
CLIMATE.
mate. While the barometer at Conche stood at 28*500 inches,
the mercurial column was only 19*836 inches on the sum¬
mit of Mont Cervin, a still loftier mountain. The den¬
sity of the air at this elevation was therefore *696, which
being taken from its reciprocal 1*437, leaves *741 to be
multiplied by 25°, indicating 18°*52 as the diminution of
temperature. The actual medium difference ascertained
from corresponding thermometrical observations, made at
depths in the ground from one to three feet, on the top
of Mont Cervin and at Conche, was 18°*25, almost exactly
the same.
Such is the nice agreement on the whole, between
theory and observation, with regard to the decrease of the
mean temperature in the higher regions of the atmosphere.
This gradation of cold varies, however, to a certain extent
753
elevation, the column of the barometer having sunk from Climate.
29*24 to 20*05 inches. This would require a multiplier
less than 20.
In ascending through equal heights, the density of theDiminu-
atmosphere, as derived from the incumbent pressure, di-tion oftem-
minishes in a continued proportion. This density is hence Perat!,re ’n
represented by the ordinates of a logarithmic curve,
which the absciss denotes the altitude above the surface.
The cold which prevails in the upper strata would no
doubt modify the dilatation of the air; but since it fol¬
lows nearly the same progression, it cannot materially
affect the general results. In the figure annexed, the
vertical spaces expressing the elevations of one, two, three,
and four English miles, the horizontal lines ID, 2F, 311,
4K, represent the corresponding mean temperature in the
with the seasons. Since the heat derived from the sun temperate, latitudes ; but, from the nature of the logarith-
is rlnpflv nnniimiilntpd nt tbp surf*™ mjc curvej jf jt were supposed to be continued in like
manner below the surface, the horizontal lines at the same
equal distances would be the reciprocals of the former.
Let this extension of the curve be, therefore, folded back,
and placed over its first portion, rising from 0A, and the
difference between the horizontal lines, or the distance
between the two branches of the curve, as, from the point
A, they constantly spread from each other, will exhibit
the diminution of temperature corresponding to the ele¬
vation. These branches of the curve at first diverge at
the same angle; but the wider branch afterwards spreads
with a larger sweep, and their mutual distance slowly
increases.
is chiefly accumulated at the surface of the earth, the
changes of temperature which take place through the year
in the elevated strata of our atmosphere, must evidently
be less than what are experienced below. The lofty
tracts of air, remote from the primary scene of action,
preserve nearly an equable temperature", and scarcely feel
to that the extreme heat of summer or winter’s frost. In ascend-
kat- ing the atmosphere, the decrease of warmth is hence more
here. rapid in the fine season, and more slow in the darkened
period of the year. In many places, it will not be far
from the truth, perhaps, to assume 30° for the multiplier
during the summer months, and only 20° during those of
winter.
Thus General Roy, a diligent and experienced observer,
found, in the month of August, the air on the top of Snow¬
don was, in the course of a whole day, at an average, 7*2
centesimal degrees colder than on Carnarvon Quay; but
the difference between the density at that elevation, and
its reciprocal, or between *878 and-1*139, being only *261,
would require nearly 28 for the multiplier.
In the early part of September, the same observer no¬
ticed the centesimal thermometer to stand 10 degrees
lower on the top of Ben Lawers than at Weem, the rela¬
tive density of the air at that height being *868. The
difference from its reciprocal is *284, which would hence
require to be multiplied by 35 to give the actual diminu¬
tion of temperature.
Again, Saussure found, on his visit to Mont Blanc, the
air on its summit to be 31 centesimal degrees colder than
at Geneva. The relative density was *592, which being
taken from its reciprocal 1*689, leaves 1*097 ; consequent¬
ly the multiplier required is 28.
This ingenious philosopher passed several days en¬
camped on the Col du Geant, where he found, from the
mean of eighty-five observations, the temperature of the
air to be only 4°*54, or 20°*3 colder than at Geneva; but
the relative density of that elevated stratum and its reci¬
procal were *704 and 1*420 ; the difference of which, or
*7,16, would require to be multiplied by 28|, to indicate
the diminished temperature.
The observations made on the decreased temperature
of the higher regions of the atmosphere by the ascension
of balloons, appear generally to indicate rather a slow
rate of diminution ; but it should be recollected that those
daring aerial flights have seldom been performed except
in the fine season of the year. Besides, the car, the bal¬
loon, and its cordage, will not immediately acquire the
temperature of the elevated strata, but continue for a con¬
siderable time to diffuse a sensible portion of heat. A
memorable example, however, is entirely conformable to
the general principle. Charles, the first who ascended
the atmosphere by means of a balloon filled with hydro¬
gen gas, found, on the 1st of December 1783, the ther¬
mometer depressed 11 centesimal degrees at the greatest
VOL. VI.
The gradually increasing progression, which marks the The decre-
diminution of temperature in ascending the atmosphere, merits at
is still more apparent from another property of the logarith- fn-st nearly
mic curve. The difference between any two ordinates is kst nbo'-
constantly proportional to the intercepted area. Conse-^ards in-
quently, the successive diminution of temperature corre- crease re¬
sponding to the elevations of one, two, three, or fourpidly.
miles, are expressed by the areas ABDC, CDFE, EFHG,
and GHKI. But, since the component spaces 0C, IE,
2G, and 31, augment evidently faster than 0D, IF, 2H,
and 3K, diminish, the decrements of heat encountered in
ascending the atmosphere must on the whole increase.
It is further evident, that if those spaces were reduced to
extremely narrow belts, they might be considered as pro¬
portional merely to their several lengths; and hence the
momentary decrements, or the rate of the diminution of
temperature at the heights of one, two, three, and four
miles, are expressed by the transverse lines CD, EF, GH,
and IK. If a calculation be instituted for the temperate
climates, while the mean temperature at the level of the
sea decreases one centesimal degree during an ascent of
540 feet above the surface, it suffers a similar diminution.
5 c
754
CLIMATE.
Climate. In 529 feet at the altitude of a mile; but at two, three,
> four, and five miles of elevation, the same difference will
obtain at the contracting intervals of 498, 454, 401, and
346 feet. Should Fahrenheit’s scale be preferred, those
numbers multiplied by five, and divided by nine, will give
respectively 300, 295, 277, 252, 223, and 192, for the
ascents due to a decrement of one degree at the surface,
and at the heights of one, two, three, four, and five miles.
Hence the altitude of any place above the surface of
the ocean may be nearly ascertained from an observation
of its mean temperature. In the milder climates it will
be sufficiently accurate, in moderate elevations, to reckon
an ascent of 540 feet for each centesimal degree, or 100
yards for each degree on Fahrenheit’s scale, of diminished
temperature. Thus, the Black Spring, a copious peren¬
nial source which bursts forth on the ridge of the Pent-
land Hills, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, is found to indi¬
cate only 7-2 centesimal degrees, or l°-6 less than the
medium due to that parallel. But l°-6 multiplied by 540
gives 868 feet; which differs by a few feet only from the
altitude as determined by actual levelling.
Again, we had ascertained the temperature of a plenti¬
ful and deep-seated spring in the meadow below Schweitz,
near the margin of the branching lake of the forest Can¬
tons, to be only ten centesimal degrees, or 3^° lower than
the standard temperature of that latitude. Ihis gives 3^
X 540, or 1890 feet, for the elevation of the central valley
of Switzerland above the level of the sea.
As a final example, we may cite an observation made
in Upper India by Dr Francis Buchanan, who found a
spring at Chitlong, in the Lesser Valley of Nepaul, to indi¬
cate the temperature of 14-7 centesinal degrees; which is
8°T below that of the standard of its parallel, or 27° 38'.
Wherefore 8T X 540, or 4374 feet, is the elevation of
that valley-
When the altitude above the sea is very considerable,
however, a multiplier somewhat decreasing from 540 must
be taken. But i,t is ‘easy to show, that the same result
very nearly will be obtained by applying a small correc¬
tion. If the product of 540 into the diminution of tem¬
perature be again multiplied by the square of this differ¬
ence in centesimal degrees, and then divided by the con¬
stant number 15,000, the quotient will express the quan¬
tity to be subtracted. Thus, in the last example, the
square of 8T or 65-61 multiplied into 4374 makes 286,978,
and this divided again by 15,000 gives 18, to be deducted
from 4374, leaving 4356 for the corrected altitude.
This correction, therefore, amounts only to 33^ feet at
the elevation of one mile; but for two, three, four, and
five miles, it would rise to 266, 904^, 2128, and 3350 feet.
Though it augments thus rapidly, it may in ordinary cases
be totally disregarded, and the allowance of one degree
by Fahrenheit’s scale for every hundred yards of ascent
is a rule of most easy recollection.
That the decrements of heat corresponding to equal as¬
cents in the atmosphere are not uniform, however, but
augment gradually with an accelerating progression, is
confirmed by the appeal to actual observation. Thus, in
proceeding from Geneva to the vale of Chamouni, through
an elevation of 2094 feet, Saussure found the temperature
of the air to decrease only 3^ centesimal degrees, or at
the rate of one degree in the rise of 644 feet. Between
Chamouni and the Col du Geant, an interval of 7940 feet,
the diminution of temperature was 17°, being a degree
for each 465 feet of ascent. Again, the summit of Mont
Blanc, though only 4400 feet higher than the Col du
Geant, was 10o,8 colder, which gives a degree for every
rise of 407 feet. The. acceleration of cold is here very
perceptible; but the gradation from Geneva to Chamouni
was unusually slow, owing to the position of this seques¬
tered spot, where the action of the sun-beams in summer, Clirm
being sheltered from the influence of dispersing winds, ‘''■-w /
accumulates above the standard. Near the level of the
sea, the ascent, corresponding to the decrement of a cen¬
tesimal degree, very seldom exceeds 600 feet.
Since, in ascending from the surface, the temperature Helg-n ,
constantly diminishes, there must in every latitude exist the
a certain limit of elevation at wffiich the air will attain theperpeti
term of congelation. The mountains, likewise, which rear cornet n
their heads above that boundary, are covered with eter-in .'liffejt
nal snow. In the higher regions of the atmosphere, espe-latltudl!
daily within the tropics, the temperature varies but little
throughout the whole year. Hence, in those brilliant cli¬
mates, the line of perpetual congelation is strongly and
distinctly marked. But in countries remote from the
equator the boundary of frost rises after the heat of sum¬
mer as the influence of winter prevails, thus varying its .
position over a belt of some considerable breadth.
The height of the limit of perpetual congelation for any
latitude is easily determined from the principles already
established. Let t denote the mean temperature in cen¬
tesimal degrees at the surface of the ocean, and x the
density of the upper atmosphere at the line where the
reign of frost begins. It is evident from the formula that
— x)j 2b —t; whence x2 + *04 ta = 1; and this quad¬
ratic equation being solved, gives x=V\ +'0004£2 — '021.
From the density of the air thus found, the corresponding
latitude is discovered by the application of logarithms, as
in the barometrical measurements. Hence the following
table is computed :  
Latitude.
Height of Curve
of Congelation.
English Feet.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
15207
15203
15189
15167
15135
15095
15047
14989
14923
14848
14764
14672
14571
14463
14345
14220
14087
13947
13798
13642
13478
13308
13131
12946
12755
12557
12435
12145
11930
11710
11484
11253
Latitude.
Height of Curve
of Congelation.
English Feet.
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
11018
10778
10534
10287
10036
9781
9523
9263
9001
8738
8473
8206
7939
7671
7402
7133
6865
6599
6334
6070
5808
5548
5290
5034
4782
4534
4291
4052
3818
3589
3365
3145
C L I M A T E.
mate.
Latitude.
64c
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
Height of Curve
of Congelation.
English Feet.
2930
2722
2520
2325
2136
1953
1778
1611
1451
1298
1153
1016
887
767
Latitude.
78°
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Height of Curve
of Congelation.
English Feet.
656
552
457
371
294
226
167
117
76
44
20
05
0
This table, though calculated from theoretical data, will
be found to coincide with actual observation. It suggests
a variety of important results ; and the position of the
snowy boundary may direct the intelligent traveller to
estimate the elevation of any country. Thus, Ben Nevis,
the highest mountain in Scotland, is generally seen co¬
vered with snow through the whole year, except during
two or three weeks in the month of July. Its summit,
therefore, does not reach the limit of congelation, which,
at the latitude of 57°, has an altitude of 4534 feet. Ac¬
cordingly, the height of that mountain is only 4380 feet.
Again, we learn from the relations of travellers, that,
though perpetual snow covers the stupendous ridge of
the Himalaya Mountains in Upper India, it descends but
a short way along their sides, and leaves, for the ghauts
or passages below, a grassy plain. But the boundary of
congelation traverses the parallel of 30° at the altitude of
11,484 feet, and consequently that towering range may
rise probably 4000 or 5000 feet higher, and thus surpass
the elevation of Mont Blanc. The pretended altitudes of
23,000 or even 27,000 feet, so recently assigned to those
mountains, are hence scarcely credible,
t. The gradation of altitude which marks the snowy boun-
ya dary in different latitudes is most clearly perceived from
e- the inspection of a diagram. Thus, if the horizontal line
represent the distance of the pole from the equator, di¬
vided into 90°, and each vertical line corresponding to
the latitude denote the height of the limit of perpetual
congelation in English miles, the extremities of these per¬
pendiculars being connected, will form a curve of contrary
flexure, of which the one half is nearly the reverse of the
other. This curve, therefore, bends slowly at first from
the equator, most rapidly about the middle latitudes, but
again slants near the surface to the pole.
The ordinates of this curve of congelation, or the alti¬
755
tudes of the limit of eternal frost, might also be found, Climate,
with sufficient precision, from the corrected gradation ofv'—
cold, if the primary multiplier were in each parallel of la¬
titude adapted to the mean temperature. In the high la¬
titudes the correction to be applied is small, but it be¬
comes very considerable within the tropics. Thus, in the
middle latitude of 45° it is only 110 feet; but under the
equator it amounts to 877 feet. But, except in this ex¬
treme case, the altitude of the snowy boundary will on
the whole differ very little from the product of the mean
temperature by 540. That line must, therefore, approxi- Mean tern-
mate to a coincidence with the curve formed by referring perature in
the series of temperatures to the successive latitudes. Let different
the tangent 0 90 be applied equal to the semicircumfe-latit.u!les
rence 0 A 29 of a circle, and every intermediate point B®xhlhltcd
J 1 bv a uiirvo.
be determined, by making any parallel 10 AB equal to the
intercepted arc A 29. If the absciss then represent the me¬
ridian extending from the equator to the pole, the several
ordinates will express the corresponding mean temperatures
at the level of the sea. The reason of this construction is
easily perceived; for the arc 0 A of the generating circle
being equal to the complement of the corresponding lati¬
tude, its chord is equal to the cosine of this latitude, which
belongs to a circle having twice the diameter of the former;
but the ordinate from B, or the perpendicular segment 0 10,
is proportional to the square of the chord 0 A, and conse¬
quently to the square of the cosine of the latitude.
The curve now constructed is what has been called the
Companion of the Cycloid. In fact, it differs from the
cycloid only by the defect of the generating circle. If
each parallel AB were extended as far beyond B as 10 A,
the cycloid would be traced. This deficient cycloid has ob¬
viously the same aspect as the curve of perpetual conge¬
lation. It is only less flattened towards the equator, where
the correction of altitude chiefly operates. A close in¬
spection, however, is requisite to distinguish their difference.
The companion of the cycloid, or curve of temperatures,
might also be formed,
by unrolling half the
convex surface of a
cylindrical wedge or
ungula. The curve
already delineated
was only the expan¬
sion of the annexed
figure. If the semi¬
circumference of the
base of the cylinder
were divided into 90
equal parts, to denote
the successive lati¬
tudes from the equa¬
tor to the pole, the
perpendicular lines terminating in the oblique section would
7 56
CLIMATE.
Origin of
glaciers.
Climate, express the corresponding mean temperatures. These lines,
again, might be easily measured by parallels of temperature
or arcs of circles, dividing the altitude of the wedge into
twenty-nine equal parts, and running parallel to the plane
of its base. If the whole wedge or ungula were taken,
the combination of vertical lines and of horizontal arcs
would exhibit all the gradations of mean temperature in
its progress and subsequent decline from pole to pole. It
is easy to perceive that, on this plan, an elegant instiu-
ment could be constructed, equally calculated for illus¬
tration and practical use.
The curve of perpetual congelation must evidently rise
higher during the tide of summer, and again descend in
the winter months, thus oscillating between certain limits
of elevation. The intervening belt is narrow under the
equator; but it enlarges to a very considerable extent in
the higher latitudes. On the breadth of this zone, where
frost holds a doubtful reign, depends the formation of gla¬
ciers along the flanks of the snowy mountains. The fields
of snow which are alternately melted and congealed, be¬
come at last changed by this process into solid ice, often
grouped and fashioned by such irregular action into the
most fantastic shapes. In its native seat, this icy belt
acquires continual additions to its height, till the accumu¬
lating pressure at last tears the mass from its base, and
precipitates its dissevered fragments to a lower level. In
its new position, below the inferior boundary of congela¬
tion, the enormous pile suffers, on the whole, a very gra¬
dual thaw, which is sometimes protracted for several cen¬
turies. Meanwhile, in the higher magazine, another icy
belt is again slowly collecting, which will in due time re¬
peat the succession, and maintain the eternal circle of
production and decay.
Within the tropics, the zone of undecided frost is so very
narrow, that scarcely any trace of a glacier has been ever
observed. But as that zone enlarges in the higher lati¬
tudes, the appearance of vast glaciers constitutes a very
striking feature in the aspect of the lofty mountains. I hey
occur frequently along the sides of the Pyrenees, but they
are still more conspicuous in the recesses of the central
chain of the Swiss Alps. Glaciers are likewise seen as far
north as the verge of the arctic circle. Along the west¬
ern shore of Norway and the coast of Lapland, stretch¬
ing onwards to the promontory of the North Cape, huge
masses of columnar ice descend from the cliffs, or against
the precipitous sides of the mountains, almost to the sur¬
face of the ocean/
Through the whole train of investigation now pursued,
   the warmth which vivifies our globe has been viewed as
latent form, flowing from the fountain of the sun. The easiest mode
of conceiving the subject, is to consider the heat which
permeates all bodies, and unites with them in various
proportions, as merely the subtle fluid of light in a state
of combination. When forcibly discharged or suddenly
elicited from any substance, it again resumes its radiant
splendour. Such changes are exhibited in the phenome¬
na of electricity, and in many of the operations of che¬
mistry. But the production of light is not less striking in
the ordinary business of life. The glowing spark struck
from flint, and the consuming fire, which even the rudest
tribes had learned to excite, by the rapid friction of two
pieces of dry wood, were by the ancient philosophers re¬
garded as only detached portions of the divine and celes¬
tial flame which illumines the empyreal vault. The same
notion was embraced by the poets, and gives sublimity to
their finest odes. Heavenly Light, Invisible Light,
and the Light of Life,1 are lofty and refined expressions,
which gleam through the mystic hymn of Orpheus.
Heat only
light in a
Those poetical images which have descended to our Climat
own times, were hence founded on a close observation of
nature. Modern philosophy need not disdain to adopt
them, and has only to expand and reduce to precision the
original conceptions. If any body be exposed to the sun s
incident rays, it will experience a rise of temperature ex¬
actly proportioned to the quantity of light intercepted or
absorbed. When those rays are either concentiated or
attenuated, the effect produced by their detention is pro¬
portionally augmented or diminished. 1 he calorific action
is occasioned solely by that portion of the light which re¬
mains united to the opposing substance. The rays which
are either transmitted or reflected, leave no trace of their
energy. Neither a very bright reflecting surface, nor a
fine pellucid medium, is sensibly heated on being exposed
even to a meridian sun. But since reflection and trans¬
mission cannot be perfect, a certain calorific effect, how¬
ever small, and varied by circumstances, is always the re¬
sult. A polished surface of silver may absorb from the
tenth to the fifth part of the perpendicular rays; and we
have seen that the thin body of atmosphere itself will de¬
tain one fourth part of the vertical light shot down through
it, and one half of the beams that slant at an inclination of
25°. The absorption of light in its passage through water
is proportionally greater; the perpendicular rays lose half
their force by a descent of seventeen feet in that medium ;
and become reduced to one fourth by traversing a path of
thirty-four feet, which corresponds to the mass of an at¬
mosphere. It hence follows, that only the hundred thou¬
sandth part of the vertical rays can penetrate below forty-
seven fathoms. But this faint remnant is scarcely equal
to the glimmer of the closing twilight. The depths of the
ocean are never visited, therefore, by the cheering influ¬
ence of the great luminary of day.
The rise of temperature produced by the same measure
of the absorption of light, is in different substances in¬
versely as their capacity or attraction for heat. Ihus, if
two very thin glass balls of the same diameter, and coat¬
ed with China ink, be filled, the one with water and the
other with mercury, and exposed to the sun, the latter
will mark an accession of five degrees of heat, while the
former will indicate only two. Or, if two equal and simi¬
lar pieces of glass and lead were both of them blackened
and presented to the incident solar rays, the lead will ac¬
quire a higher temperature than the glass, in the ratio of
twelve to seven.
This theory agrees, therefore, in all its bearings, ex-invisibl
actly with observation. But facts have been alleged of rays of
a contrary tendency; and some ingenious yet incorrectheat.
experiments, performed by a celebrated astronomer, ap¬
pear to have, for several years, deceived the public into a
belief, that, besides the ordinary mixture of coloured rays
emanating from the sun, there is emitted also a cluster of
invisible and less refrangible rays, which excite or consti¬
tute heat. .
And as if such an hypothesis were not already sufficiently
complex, it was afterwards assumed, that there exists like¬
wise another series of dark rays, more refrangible than
usual, whose office it is merely to abstract oxygen from
the substances on which they fall. But a closer exami¬
nation of the circumstances has proved, that, in forming
these opinions, philosophers have proceeded to generalise
too fast. If, while the sky is perfectly clear, which sel¬
dom happens indeed in this climate, the solar spectrum
formed behind a prism be observed by a differential ther¬
mometer in a darkened room, the intensity of the heat
will be found to augment most rapidly in passing from the
one extremity to the other, from the limit of the violet to
» OTPANION —A<I>ANTON QO.'Z—ZXTHS 0X12.
CLIMATE.
757
mate.
'Y'w
that of the red. When a prism of flint-glass was used, we
found that the spectrum being divided into four equal
spaces, the effects indicated by the thermometer, and cor¬
responding to the range of the violet, the green, the yel¬
low, and the red, were as the square numbers 1, 4, 8, and
16. If the spectrum were formed by another refracting
medium, as the intermediate coloured spaces would alter
their proportions, so likewise would the calorific action
vary. But, in every case, the violet and the red rays
which occupy the extremes must differ very widely in
notion their relative energies. Without the spectrum, however,
lever an(j beyond the absolute limit of illumination, no sort of
'“ftraction whatever is betrayed.1 The distinct effects pro-
trum< duced by the extreme coloured spaces may possibly de¬
pend on the peculiar qualities of the several rays, but
perhaps proceed from the character of the diluted or con¬
centrated energy which they display. The violet or blue
rays will probably hasten the process of darkening a solu¬
tion of the nitrate of silver; yet have we found that white
light, attenuated to a certain degree, has likewise a power
to accelerate this change. It is probable that the collect¬
ed beams only retard the effect, by exciting heat, which
may dispose the oxygen to adhere more strongly to its
substratum. In like manner, the intense action of the red
rays on the bulb of a thermometer, may proceed more
from their condensation, than from some exclusive quality
which they possess. What the nature is of that peculiar
constitution which fits a ray of light to excite in the organ
of vision any peculiar sensation of colour, it seems impos¬
sible to decide. Perhaps the whole distinction consists in
the difference of the celerity with which it moves. The
peculiar energy of any coloured pencil of light may de¬
pend chiefly, if not entirely, on its density. From the vio¬
let to the red, the successive tints of the spectrum rise
with augmented force. The blue rays appear feeble, the
green cause a milder impression, the yellow and the
orange begin to glow with intensity, and the red dazzle
the eye. The language of painters, being grounded on nice
observation, marks appositely the gradation of strength.
Blue is by them termed a cold colour, green a soft colour,
yellow a rich colour, and red a warm colour.
1 ome- For measuring the intensity, or at least the calorific ac¬
tion of light, no instrument is so finely adapted, by its pe¬
culiar delicacy, as the Photometer, which consists of a Dif¬
ferential Thermometer inclosed in a thin pellucid case, and
having one ball made of black and the other of clear glass.
It will besides admit of some variety in its form and con¬
struction, and may be rendered on the whole very commo¬
dious and portable. Yet, owing to a combination of cir¬
cumstances, this elegant instrument has only been par¬
tially and reluctantly admitted ; and the philosophic world
has still to discharge an act of justice, by receiving it into
the favour and distinction which if so well deserves. Some,
indeed, affecting to display superior sagacity, have taken
the trouble to remark that it was only a species of ther¬
mometer, and not strictly a photometer, since it measures
heat and not light. But what does the thermometer it- Climate,
self indicate, except expansion ? As heat is measured by
the expansion it occasions, so light is determined by the
intensity of the heat which, in every supposition, invaria¬
bly accompanies it. What other mode, after all, could be
imagined for detecting the presence of light? How can
an unknown quantity be expounded, but in terms of one
already known ?
The photometer is adapted for a variety of important Importance
meteorological researches. If such instruments, in the of that in¬
hands of skilful observers, had been dispersed to the re-sfrument’
mote regions of the globe, we should ere now have ob¬
tained a body of precise facts, highly instructive in them¬
selves, and calculated to illustrate the nature of different
climates. Meanwhile, we shall endeavour to state the
general consequences which may be drawn from even a
scanty range of photometrical observations.
I he direct and absolute action of the sun’s rays on the
photometer, at the elevation of 30°, may be reckoned in
this climate at 120 millesimal degrees. The effect is pro¬
duced by the incidence of a pencil of light, which has for
its base a circle of the same diameter as the black ball,
but modified and regulated in its amount by the subse¬
quent dispersion of the accumulated heat from the whole
surface of the sphere, which is four times greater than
that of the generating circle. If a thin disc were, there¬
fore, substituted instead of the ball, and presented to the
perpendicular rays of the sun, the impression would be
doubled, or raised to 240° ; or, if the emission of heat from
the posterior surface of the disc were prevented, the ca¬
lorific effect would amount by this accumulation to 480°,
or 86 degrees on Fahrenheit’s scale. Such is the rise of
temperature which a dark surface of dry mould, sloping at
an angle of 30°, yet exactly fronting the sun, might ac¬
quire under a diaphanous shell of glass, if scarcely any
portion of the heat were supposed to be conducted down¬
wards into the mass of the earth. But since the rays of
light which traverse the atmosphere under an obliquity of
30° have, in comparison with perpendicular beams, their
force diminished in the ratio of 750 to 563; the action of
a vertical sun, through a thin capsule of glass, might heat
up a dark horizontal surface 113° by Fahrenheit’s scale.
On removing the glass cover, this effect, in a calm still air,
would be reduced about two thirds, or to 75J-°.
Ihe colour of the ground or substratum has very little
influence in modifying the calorific action of the solar
beams. The different shades of brown or gray have al¬
most the same absorbent quality as black itself; yellow
and orange begin to cause a partial reflection; but a sur¬
face even of pure chalk will not reflect perhaps the fifth
part of the incident light. Hence the arid sands of Africa
are often heated by a vertical sun to near the point of
boiling water, insomuch as to scorch the feet of the
wretched traveller, and to accumulate warmth sufficient
for the slow roasting of an egg. Even within the arctic
circle, the calorific action of a bright sun, in the height of
1 It may be worth while to state here a very simple yet decisive experiment, which we have repeated more than once. If a cir¬
cle of black paper ten inches in diameter be pasted over the middle of a burning-glass of the diameter of one foot, it will leave around
the margin of the lens a sort of circular prism, which bends the coloured rays into a hollow double cone, whose intermediate apex
occupies the focus. On directing the lens, thus partly shaded, to a bright sun, in a clear sky, a card held perpendicular to the beam,
and drawn either forwards or backwards from the focus, will exhibit a narrow coloured ring, opening with intense brilliancy- Be¬
tween the focus and the lens, the red rays will mark the outer edge of the vivid ring; but beyond that limit they will cross over and tint
the inside. In either case, it was easy to mark their extreme boundary. To examine the graduating calorific action of this condensed
spectrum, a broad and flat piece of black sealing wax, having the gloss removed from its surface by a file, and a thin slip of white paper
laid across it, was then held in the cone of light, two or three inches before the focus; and in the space of a few seconds a very narrow
ring, shading inwards, however, was distinctly impressed in the wax, the roughened surface being melted and left hollow and glossy
at the exact limit of the red on the outside, and smoothing slightly away on the inside. Beyond the apex of the double cone of
light, a similar glazed narrow ring was imprinted, softening from the inside. In both cases, the circular impression on the wax cor¬
responded exactly with the trace of the red rays,—an interval of the fiftieth part of an inch being easily distinguishable.
758
CLIMATE.
Calorific
action of
circum¬
stances.
Climate, summer, may exceed 49°. In those dreary regions, ac-
cordingly, amidst a dissolving world of ice, the pitch is
yet sometimes softened or melted in the seams ot the
sides or the decks of ships.
It is obvious that the accumulated effect of the incident
  rays must increase in proportion as the conducting power
the rays in jjiedmm is diminished. Hence at an elevation of
different three miles and a half, where the density of the at¬
mosphere is reduced to one half, the heat communicated
would, on this account alone, augment from to 83 de¬
grees. But the effect would be further increased, from
the smaller absorption of heat in its passage to the sur¬
face. Under the equator, the whole accumulated action
would, therefore, amount to 96 degrees. All travellers,
accordingly, complain of the scorching rays which the sun
darts from a dark azure sky on the summits ot lofty moun¬
tains. Yet the contrast is more striking in the higher la¬
titudes. Thus, in the middle parallel of 45°, the action of
the sun at the summer solstice would excite a heat of 69°
at the level of the sea, and of 90° at an elevation of three
miles and a half; but at the winter solstice it would
communicate only 17° below and 46° at the altitude as¬
sumed. Saussure was accordingly very much struck with
the force and brilliancy of the sun-beams on the top of
Mont Blanc.
It might easily be computed that, on the supposition of
a perfect calm, the surface of the earth, under the equa¬
tor, will, at the medium of a year, have its temperature
raised 12°; and that, in the latitude of 45°, the mean an¬
nual impression would be only 5°. But, of the whole ot the
light received, the calorific action on a black mould, w'hether
emitted from the sun or shed indirectly by the sky, may be
deduced from the indication of the photometer. It is only
required to diminish the power of the sun s rays in the ratio
of the sine of their obliquity, and to reduce the action of
the light reflected from the canopy of clouds to one half,
or what is due to the medium inclination of 30°, then, to
multiply the sum of these quantities by eight, and divide
by three, or to take two thirds of the quadrupled effect.
Thus, suppose, while the sun’s altitude is 40°, that the
photometer marks 155°, which it very seldom ever reaches
in this climate, and that it indicates only 20° if merely
screened from the direct action of the sun. Now, 155°
multiplied by the sine of 40°, makes 87°-8, which is aug¬
mented to 97°-8 by the addition of the half of 20°; and
this number again being increased in the ratio of 3 to 8,
gives finally 261 millesimal degrees, or 47° on Fahren¬
heit’s scale. When the sun is obscured in clouds, the re¬
flected light, from a dappled sky, will sometimes in sum¬
mer affect the photometer to the extent of 50°. This cor¬
responds to a heat of 16° of Fahrenheit communicated to
the ground. During the fine season the photometer sel¬
dom in cloudy weather indicates less than 15°, which is
equivalent to an impression of 6° on the embrowned sur¬
face of the earth. While the sun is enveloped in clouds,
if the rest of the sky assumes a fine azure hue, the pho¬
tometer will only mark 10°. But in the gloomy days of
winter, the minute portion of light which pierces through
the congregated mass of clouds will scarcely affect the
photometer h°, or excite a heat of 2° by Fahrenheit on the
ground.
Effect on These augments of temperature are communicated to
the ground the ground unimpaired, only in the case, however, of a
diminished perfect calm. The agitation of the atmosphere will scat-
1’v w'nc* i ter the heat before it has accumulated. When the wind
creeps along the surface of the earth at the rate of eight
miles in the hour, it diminishes the calorific action of the
light from the sun and from the sky one half; but if it
sweeps with a velocity of 16, 24, or 32 miles in the hour,
it will reduce the whole effect successively to the third,
the fourth, or the fifth of its standard. The impression Climate'
made on the ground seldom, therefore, exceeds the third
part of the computed measure, and often will not amount
to one fifth.
The simplest and most accurate method of examining
the temperature acquired during the day on the surface
of the earth, is to employ a differential thermometer of
the pendant kind, about one or two feet in length, and hav¬
ing its lower ball surmounted by a small cylindrical cavity
supporting the coloured liquor. This instrument being sus¬
pended or held in a vertical position, the lower ball resting
on the ground, will evidently mark, by its movable column,
the difference between the temperature of the surface
and that of the ambient air. In this way, we have found,
during the summer months in this climate, that the ground
was, by Fahrenheit’s scale, generally two or three degrees
warmer than the air near it in cloudy weather, and per¬
haps ten or fifteen degrees warmer when the sun shone
powerfully upon it. But, under similar circumstances,
the effect varies very considerably, according to the nature
of the surface. While fresh ploughed land, for instance,
indicates an increased temperature of perhaps 8°, a grass
plot close beside it will scarcely show a difference of 3°.
Nor is this distinction owing to any greater absorption of
light by the black mould ; the reflection from the surface,
in both cases, being extremely small. A thin layer of hay,
whether spread on the naked soil or on the green turl,
will betray the same diminished effect. The fibres of the
grass exposing a multiplied surface to the contact of the
air, the greater portion of the heat is hence dissipated be¬
fore accumulation. A corresponding effect has been re- aild van;
marked with respect to the impressions of cold. Thus, with the1
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, after a long tract of quality u
rigorous weather, the frost was found to have penetratedthesurta‘
thirteen inches into the ground in a ploughed field, but
only eight inches in one piece of pasture ground, and four
inches in another. But, in some of the streets of that city,
the frost had descended even below two feet, so as to begin
to affect the water-pipes. The greater density and solidity
of the pavement had no doubt conducted the frigorific im¬
pressions more copiously downwards, while the loose and
spongy blades of grass had mostly scattered and wasted
those impressions in the open field. 1 his consideration,
it is obvious, might lead to very important practical re¬
sults.
The unequal action of light at the surface of the earth,
whether produced by the various obliquity of the sun s
rays, the different inclination of the horizon, or the alter¬
nating succession of day and night, is attempered, we have
seen, by the actual flow of the heated portions of the at¬
mosphere. Between the poles and the equator, a perpe-0ircuiat!
tual circulation of air is maintained, which confines the ac-of air bej
cumulating effects of heat within narrow limits. The pre-tween tb
valence, on the whole, of northerly winds in this hemi-P°^
sphere during summer, and of southerly winds in winter>tor.
tends likewise to mitigate the extreme impressions of hot
and cold. But a current of warm air excited at first by
the presence of the sun, continues to rise from the ground,
and occasions the descent, therefore, of an opposite cur¬
rent of cold air, which, as the equilibrium of temperature
is not soon restored, may be protracted through a great
part of the night. The combined influence of these cur¬
rents is hence continually exerted in cooling down the
surface of the earth ; but their activity being the greatest
while the solar beams fall most copiously, the accumu a-
tion of heat is checked in little more than an hour after
mid-day, while its further dissipation is prolonged through
the whole of the night, sun-rise being generally the mo¬
ment when the ground is coldest. ,
Such a concatenated system of aerial currents mignt
CLIMATE.
t "lobe.
P:'a£
til Df
kii
ijmatc. hence appear sufficient to explain the gradation and ge-
 ' neral balance of temperature which prevails on the surface
f[idates of our globe. An horizontal stream of air must evidently
t kempe-cause the flow of an opposite one, since the action must
- be the same on every part of the same parallel of latitude.
The difference of the temperature of the surface from
that of the ambient air will maintain the constant play of
an ascending and a descending current. In clear and calm
weather, this interchange between the higher and lower
strata of the atmosphere will be the most vigorous, owino-
then to the concenti ated impression of the sun-beams.
The perpetual commerce maintained in our atmosphere
by the medium of these combined horizontal and vertical
currents, forms no doubt an essential part of the system
which attempers the constitution of this globe. But it is
not the only mode by which nature seeks to preserve the
hai mony of hei productions ; and recent discovery has
detected the existence of another auxiliary principle, ex¬
tremely active, of most rapid and extensive influence, and
continually at vyork, though subject to various modifica¬
tions. To understand rightly, however, the operation of
this principle, it will be necessary to recal the chief facts
which have been disclosed relative to the propagation of
heat. 6
It is well known, that, though partial causes may dis¬
turb the equilibrium of temperature among bodies, there
is a constant tendency to restore it again. Yet heat still
remains in the state of combination, without ever assum¬
ing a distinct foim. Its balance is, therefore, maintained
by a very different process from that which establishes the
equilibrium between the several communicating parts of a
liquid. The substratum of heat is not passive, nor do the
calorific particles themselves merely flow from their re¬
dundance towards another situation where they happen to
be tleficient. But since the presence of heat is invariably
accompanied by corpuscular distention, that portion of the
substance which loses it must successively contract, while
the portion which gains it will in the same degree expand.
The actual transfer of heat through any mass will hence
give occasion to a connected series of minute internal con¬
tractions and expansions. To consider the subject more
fully, we shall suppose the conducting substance to be, 1.
a solid ; 2. a liquid ; and, 3. a gaseous fluid.
•ough 1. When the surplus heat is conducted through a solid
5 substance, a sort of alternating vermicular motion is excit¬
ed along the whole train of communication. If heat were
left to the energy of its own repulsion, it would, like light,
dart with a speed almost instantaneous. But the time
consumed by those interior oscillatory movements retards
immensely the rate of transmission. The quickness of
the oscillations themselves depends on the elasticity of the
conducting substance ; but their energy and extent are
proportioned to the extreme difference of temperature,
and the shortness of the tract, modified essentially by the
peculiar nature of the conducting substance. In equal
circumstances, glass transmits heat faster than wood, and
metal faster than glass. But, even in the same class of
conductors, the effects are very different; thus, box de¬
livers the impressions of heat more quickly than cork,
and silver conveys them with greater rapidity than plati-
759
num.
ough 2. When the conducting substance is a liquid. The
3’ ordinary transmission of heat through a solid is now great-
ly augmented, from the diffusion occasioned by the mobi¬
lity of the affected portions of the medium. Below the
freezing point, ice will conduct heat through its substance ;
but after it has melted into water, a new and powerful
agency is brought into play. The liquid particles, as they
become successively warmer, acquire a corresponding ex¬
pansion, and, therefore, rise upwards and spread through
the mass, carrying with them and dispersing the heat Climate,
which they have received. This diffuse buoyancy will
depend evidently on the dilateable quality of the liquid.
It is gi eater in alcohol than in water, and in water than
in mercury ; it is even more active in hot than in cold wa-
tei. Neai the point of congelation, indeed, the joint con¬
ducting power of water is scarcely superior to that of mere
ice. I he actual flow of a liquid, by whatever cause it is
produced, must evidently accelerate the dissipation of heat.
3. When the medium of transmission is a gaseous sub-3. Through
stance, the heat is partly still conducted through the sub- gaseous
stance of the communicating mass, as if this were solid,
and partly transferred by the streaming of the corpuscles’
which come to be successively affected. But a new prin¬
ciple seems here to combine its influence, and the rate of
dispersion in aeriform media is found to depend chiefly on
the nature of the mere heated surface. From a metallic
surface the heat is feebly emitted ; but from a surface of
glass, or still better, from one of paper, it is discharged
with profusion. If two equal hollow balls of thin bright
silver, one of them entirely uncovered, and the other
closely enveloped in a coat of cambric, be filled with wa-
tei slightly warmed, and then suspended in a close room,
the former will only lose 11 parts of heat in the same
time that the latter will dissipate 20 parts. Of this ex¬
penditure 10 parts from each of the balls is communicated
in the oi dinary way, by the slow recession of the proxi¬
mate particles of air as they come to be successively
heated. I he rest of the heat, consisting of 1 part from
the naked metallic surface, and of 10 from the cased sur¬
face, is propagated through the same medium, but with a
certain diffusive rapidity, which in a moment shoots its
influence to a distance, after a mode altogether peculiar
to the gaseous fluids.
But those effects are modified by the different proximity
of the air to the metallic surface. If the silver ball be
covered with the thinnest film of gold-beater’s skin, which
exceeds not the 3000th part of an inch in thickness, the
power of dispersion will be augmented from 1 to 7 ; if
another pellicle be added, there will be a farther increase
of this power, from 7 to 9; and so repeatedly growing, till
after the application of five coats, when the repellent
energy will reach its extreme limit, or the measure of 10.
The approximation of the metallic substratum thus evi¬
dently diminishes the power of the external pellicle in
darting heat. No absolute contact exists in nature; but
air must approach to a boundary of pellicle, or cambric,
much nearer than to a surface of metal, from which it is
always divided by an interval of more than the 500th part
of an inch. A vitreous surface has very nearly the same
property as one of cambric or paper; from its closer proxi¬
mity to the recipient medium, it imparts its heat more
copiously and energetically than a surface of metal in the
same condition.
By what process the several portions of heat thus deli- Performed
vered to the atmosphere shoot through the fluid mass, it by tremu-
seems more difficult to conceive. They are not trans-lous pulses,
ported by the streaming of the heated air, for they suffer
no derangement from the most violent agitation of their
medium. The air must, therefore, without changing its
place, disseminate the impressions it receives of heat, by
a sort of undulatory commotion, or a series of alternating
pulsations, like those by which it transmits the impulse of
sound. The portion of air next the hot surface, suddenly
acquiring heat from its vicinity, expands proportionally,
and begins the chain ol pulsations. In again contracting,
this aerial shell surrenders its surplus heat to the one
immediately before it, now in the act of expansion; and
thus the tide of heat rolls onwards, and spreads itself on
all sides.
760
CLIMATE.
Climate. But these pulsations are not propagated with equal in-
tensity in all directions. They are most powerful in the
perpendicular to the projecting surface, and diminish as
they deviate from that axis in the ratio of the sine of the
angle of obliquity.
Nor are the vibratory impressions strictly darted in ra¬
diating lines, but each successive pulse, as in the case of
sound, presses to gain an equal diffusion. Different ob¬
structions may hence cause the undulations of heat to
deflect considerably from their course. Thus, if a cornu¬
copia, formed of pasteboard, present its wide mouth to a
fire, a strong heat will, in spite of the gradual inflection
of the tube, be concentrated at its narrow end; in the
same way, probably, as waves flowing from an open bay
into a narrow harbour, now contracted and bent aside,
yet without being reflected, rise into furious billows.
But the same pulsatory system will enable the atmo¬
sphere to transmit likewise the impressions of cold. The
shell of air adjacent to a frigid surface, becoming sud¬
denly chilled, suffers a corresponding contraction, which
must excite a concatenated train of pulsations.. Ibis con¬
traction is followed by an immediate expansion, which
withdraws a portion of heat from the next succeeding^
shell, itself now in the act of contracting; and the tide of
apparent cold, or rather of deficient heat, shoots foiwards
with diffusive sweep.
That quality which enables a surface to propel the hot
or cold pulses, likewise fits it under circumstances to re¬
ceive their impressions. If a vitreous or varnished sur¬
face emits heat most copiously, it will also, when opposed
to the tide, arrest with entire efficacy the affluent wave ;
and if, on the other hand, a surface of metal sparingly
parts with its own heat, it detains only a small share of each
warm appulse, and reflects all the rest.
Hence the construction of the Pyroscope, a delicate
and valuable instrument, adapted to measure the warm
pulses of air, or the intensity of the heat that darts con¬
tinually from a fire into a room, which has been vaguely
and inaccurately termed radiant heat. It is in fact only
a modification of the differential thermometer, one of the
balls being completely gilt with a thick gold or silver
leaf. The pyroscope being placed at some distance from
the fire, the hot pulses are mostly thrown back from the
bright metallic surface ; but on the naked glass ball they
produce their full impression; and the same insti ument
will serve equally to indicate the pulsations excited from
a cold surface. Thus, in a warm apartment, the pyroscope
placed before a mass of snow, a block of ice, 01 even a
pitcher of water from the fountain, will quickly intimate
the chilling impressions propagated through the ambient
medium. "Nor has the brightness of the tire or the glare
of the snow any sensible influence to affect the result; for,
of the small portion of light transmitted, what falls on the
diaphanous ball passes almost without obstruction, and
what strikes the gilt ball, especially if this be covered
with silver leaf, is nearly all reflected.
But the pyroscope, in its simple form, is scarcely cal¬
culated for making nice observations, when exposed out
of doors to the agitation of winds and the effulgence of
light. A greater share of this light will generally be
detained by the gilt surface than what is absorbed in its
passage through the diaphanous ball. On the other hand,
all the effects on the instrument will be diminished by the
rapidity of the circulation of the air.
The application of the pyroscope incontestibly shows,
that no pulsation, whether calorific or frigorific, ever takes
place, except from a conterminous surface, which is either
hotter or colder than the surrounding gaseous medium.
If the general equilibrium of temperature be interrupt¬
ed, such aerial pulses will arise, whether the boundary
of excitation be solid or liquid. They are produced Climate
feebly from a surface of metal, though evidently stronger
from mercury than from silver; but they are projected
with most energy from a surface of glass, and still more
powerfully from one of varnish, of paper, of ice, and of
water.
But since those hot or cold pulses are darted from such Pulses of
various surfaces, and since the softness of the external heat oreoj
coat, and its tendency to fluidity, seem vastly to augment^cited i
their power; may they not likewise be excited from
boundary of air itself? rlhis extension of a great Prin"Sphere
ciple in the economy of nature has never yet been surmis¬
ed ; nor can it be readily brought to the test of direct
experiment. A body of air, whether hotter or colder
than the general medium, it is evident, could not remain
for a moment in the same detached situation, but would
continue to rise or to fall. In a confined place, however,
a stratum of warm air may float incumbent over a mass of
colder fluid. The difference of temperature between the
conterminous surfaces would no doubt be constantly dimi¬
nishing, from the slow intermixture and subsequent dif¬
fusion of the adjacent portions of the air. This tendency
to an equilibrium might be counteracted, by-causing either
a constant stream of warm air to enter by the edges of
the ceiling of the apartment, or one of cold air to flow
from the side of the floor. Such would be the most fa-
vourablh arrangement for performing the experiment.
Both the ceiling and the floor would obviously soon ac¬
quire the same temperature as the current spreading over
them, and could therefore exert no influence whatever in
projecting the aerial pulses. If under such circumstances
those pulses be hence found to exist, they must neces¬
sarily proceed from the action excited at the bounding
surface which divides the warm from the cold stratum of
■#
Pyroscope.
air.
But an arrangement, less perfect indeed, yet sufficient Proved
for ascertaining the main fact, is entirely within our reach.experi-
In a close apartment, where a good fire is constantly keptnieLl
up, the ceiling and the floor may be discovered by the
pendant differential thermometer to have exactly the
same temperature with its adjacent stratum. Yet the
upper portions of the confined air of the room will be
found several degrees warmer than the lower. Instead
of being divided only into opposite ranges, the whole mass
from the floor to the ceiling will, in consequence of the
expansion and buoyancy of its heated particles, form a
series of intermediate strata, not distinguished however
by any very precise boundaries. But the intensity of ac¬
tion being proportional to the difference of temperature,
the effect on the pyroscope must evidently be the same,
whether it is produced by a single set of large pulses or
by several sets of smaller ones. If, instead of one bound¬
ing surface, for example, above which the air is six de- .
grees warmer than immediately below it, we suppose six
such boundaries, each having an excess of temperature of
only one degree, the pulses excited at the first of these
intermediate surfaces, and successively augmented as they
reach the second, third, and fourth, &c. surfaces, will at
last acquire the same energy as if the aggregate difference
of six degrees had been all exerted at once. Thus, the
under surface of the
stratum F darts pulses
downwards, which be¬
ing augmented in suc¬
cession at the under
surfaces of the strata
E, D, C, B, and A
have finally the
intensity as if they had ” -1 . i-- • .
originated from the apposition of the extreme strata r an-
CLIMATE.
mate.
hr^
11 va-
I tien
air
yro-
will
ite
^ L
IC! j de-
Md.
A* - Accordingly, having planted a large screen immedi¬
ately before the fire, if a delicate pyroscope be placed
about the middle of the room, and a broad circular piece
of metal suspended a few inches above it; on withdrawing
this canopy after some time, the instrument will indicate
a small impression of heat, seldom exceeding, however
one degree. But the effect may be rendered more sen¬
sible by a moderate concentration of the power excited.
Suppose a hemispherical shell of thin brass, or even pla¬
nished tin, having a diameter about four times greater,
adapted under the naked or sentient ball of the pyroscope’
which might occupy by its surface the place of the diffuse
focus, or the middle^ space between the centre and the
bottom of the cup. Thus mounted, the instrument will
now in the same situation mark a very sensible calorific
impression, amounting, at least in ordinary cases, to three
or four degrees. Hot pulses are, therefore, actually shot
downwards from all the upper strata of the confined air of
a room in which a fire is kept steadily burning.
The experiment can likewise be reversed. Let an in¬
verted pyroscope, composed of a pendant differential ther¬
mometer, have its sentient ball fitted with a small hemi¬
spherical cup which is turned downwards. This instru¬
ment being set on the floor, will remain at zero; but if
lifted only a few feet, it will indicate a visible impression
of cold received from below, which will increase to three
or four degrees when the pyroscope is suspended near the
top of the room. Wherefore, the upper surfaces of the
successive decumbent strata, being comparatively colder,
send upwards a series of chilling pulsations. Each of the
conterminous boundaries appears thus to perform a double
operation, shooting downwards impressions of heat, and
darting upwards equal impressions of cold. Such a mu¬
tual exchange of influence must evidently tend to accele¬
rate that progress to an equilibrium which the gradual in¬
termixture of the different strata, if left quite undisturb¬
ed, would in time produce. The air of a close apartment
exposed to the action of a steady fire is hence kept agi¬
tated through its whole mass by a series of opposite tre¬
mors, which continually disperse in all directions the irre¬
gularities of temperature.
If the action of the pulses excited in the air of a small
room be made thus apparent, how much more striking
should we expect to find the effect produced by the ming¬
led tide of commotion collected in free space from the
vast body of the atmosphere itself? Taking even the
lowest range of strata, to the height perhaps of two miles,
including scarcely one third part of the whole aerial mass,
the difference of temperature between its extreme boun¬
dary will amount to twenty centesimal degrees, or 36 on
Fahrenheit s scale. The order of the series, however, is
exactly the reverse of what takes place in a close room,
the air of the superior regions being invariably colder
than at the surface of the earth. Accordingly, the simple
pyroscope, exposed in calm weather to a clear and open
sky, will at all times, if not disturbed by the influence of
a strong light, indicate large impressions of cold, amount¬
ing to five, or perhaps even ten degrees. In most cases it
may be sufficient to screen this instrument from the direct
action of the sun’s rays. But the action of light will be
almost neutralized, by opposing a diaphanous ball to one
gijt with silver, or contrasting a ball of the different shades
of green or blue to another coated with pure gold leaf.
But to procure consistent results, it is still more necessary
to guard against the deranging influence of winds.
All these requisites are attained by adapting the py¬
roscope to the cavity of a polished metallic cup, of ra¬
ther an oblong spheroidal shape, the axis, having a vertical
position, being occupied by the sentient ball, while the
section of a horizontal plane passing through the upper
VOL. VI.
761
forms the orifice. The cup may be made of thin brass or Climate
silver, either hammered or cast, and then turned and po- 'w-v~w
fished on a lathe; the diameter being from two to four
inches, and the eccentri¬
city of the elliptical figure
varied within certain li¬
mits according to circum¬
stances. The most conve¬
nient proportion, however,
is to have this eccentrici¬
ty equal to half the trans¬
verse axis, and, conse¬
quently, to place the focus
at the third part of the
whole height of the cavity,
the diameter of the sen¬
tient ball being likewise
nearly the third part of
that of the orifice of the
cup. In order to separate
more the balls of the py¬
roscope, the gilt one may
be carried somewhat high¬
er than the other, and
lodged in the swell of the
cavity, its stem being bent
to the curve, and the neck
partially widened, to pre¬
vent the risk of dividing
the coloured liquor in car¬
riage. A lid of the same
thin unpolished metal as
the cup itself is fitted to
the mouth of the aethrio-
scope, and only removed when an observation is to be made.
I he scale may extend to 60 or 70 millesimal degrees
above the zero, and about 15 degrees below it.
Ibis instrument, exposed to the open air in clear weather,
will at all times, both during the day and the night, in¬
dicate an impression of cold shot downwards from the
higher regions. Yet the effect varies exceedingly. It is
greatest while the sky has the pure azure hue; it dimi¬
nishes fast as the atmosphere becomes loaded writh spread¬
ing clouds ; and it is almost extinguished when low fogs
settle upon the surface. The name fExHRioscoPE (from
AiSpwg, serenus, sudiis, frigidus) may, therefore, be justly
appropriate to this new combination of the pyroscope.
'I he sensibility of the instrument is very striking, for
the liquor incessantly falls and rises in the stem with
eveiy passing cloud. But the cause of its variations does
not always appear so obvious. Under a fine blue sky,
the (Bthrioscope will sometimes indicate a cold of 50 mille¬
simal degrees ; yet on other days, when the air seems
equally bright, the effect is hardly 30°. Particular winds
at different altitudes seem to modify the result, and so
perhaps may the transition from summer to winter. Four
months are scarcely elapsed since this instrument was first
contrived, and during that time very few opportunities
have occurred for making nice observations.
The aethrioscope might be reduced to a smaller and
more compact form, by conjoining wfith it a pendant
differential thermometer. Neither of the glass balls in this
case requires to be gilt; but the lower one is encased by
a hollow sphere of brass, composed of two pieces which
screw together, and the upper ball occupies the focus of
the cup, which needs scarcely be more than two inches
wide. This variety of the instrument is equally accurate,
but, under any change of temperature, rather slower in its
action than the former.
On replacing the metallic lid, the effect is entirely ex-
5 o
CLIMATE.
tinguished, and the fluid in the stem of the difeenUal
thermometer sinks to zero. A cover o "ast
C%L mav  
self become chilled by this
exposure, it produces a
small secondary action on
the sentient ball, scarcely
exceeding, however, the
tenth part of the naked
impression. A lid of glass
or of mica intercepts the
impressions like one . of
paper ^ for the admission
of light has no deranging
effect if the sethrioscope
be rightly constructed and
highly polished. The mi¬
nute secondary action is
almost extinguished, if
screens of paper, glass, or
mica, be held at some dis¬
tance above the mouth of
the instrument.
In the first form of the
asthrioscope, it is not es¬
sential (though it aug¬
ments the effect) that one
of the balls should be
gilt, since the other being
placed naked in the focus,
receives the pulses much
concentrated. If both the
balls were formed of black
Climate.
;it^
if
|d?
Sectoral
/Ethrio-
scope.
•alls were tormeu m uiaeiv _ f1tr i,p
glass, the sethrioscopic impressions would evidently be
blended with opposite photometncal ones. As long as
the action of the light from the sky predominates, the in¬
strument indicates an excess of heat; but after the pulses
darted from the higher atmosphere come to prevail, it
will mark the excesl of cold. The liquor is stationary
when these contending influences are exactly balance .
To ascertain whether the cold pulses are shot oblique y
as well as in the vertical direction, the mthrioscope may
be constructed to turn towards any portion of the sky. to
effect this, the form best adapted for the reflection would
be that of an hyperbola, whose asymptotes have an incli¬
nation equal to the visual angle of the space to be exp o-
red. But to obtain accurate results, the focal ball must
be small, and the hyperbolic conoid wide and much ex¬
tended. It will answer nearly the same purpose, however,
to adopt a truncated spheroid of great eccentricity. Eet
the height of the focus, for instance, be one inch, that ot
the entire cavity nine inches, and consequently the wides
diameter six inches. The figure on the other side is ra¬
ther more distended, its extreme width being equal to
double the eccentricity, and the focal ball dividing the
height of the orifice in the ratio of 1 to 3 + or b to
35 nearly. While that sentient ball remains always in the
same position, the axis of the instrument can, by means o
a screw acting on the limb of a quadrant, be depressed or
elevated to any given angle. But the effect will chiefly be
produced by the direct impressions ; for the lateral pulses,
striking less obliquely against the cavity of the spheroid,
will be feebly reflected. This movable sethrioscope was
placed in a convenient situation out of doors, when the
sky appeared free from clouds, and had assumed a cleai
blue tint. The spheroid being turned first upright, the
effect was noted ; but this continued still uiichangec on
depressing the axis successively till it had approached
the limit of energetic range, or within twenty degiees ot
the horizon.
From every portion of the sky that subtends a given Frigorifij
visual ano-le, there is hence received the same quantityimpres.
of the frfgoriflc pulses. But such would likewise be the*™^
result if they were showered from the horizontal sui faces al] ^
of the successive strata which divide the atmosphere; tioni
since, although the intensity diminishes in the ratio of the
sine of obliquity, a projecting space proportionally broader
is for each elemental angle brought into action, as evi¬
dently appears from the annexed figure. This entire
agreement between theory and observation is most satis-
hl The’same sectoral form of the sethrioscope disclosesInfluenc
also the peculiar influence of clouds in obstructing tieo co
frigorific pulses excited in the atmosphere. When the
sky was completely obscured by a dense canopy of clouds,
the instrument being pointed to the zenith, marked on y
five millesimal degrees; but on lowering it successively to
the angle of thirty degrees above the horizon, it continued
to indicate still the same effect. Water almost comp e e-
ly absorbs the pulsatory impressions of heat or cold; and
may not clouds, consisting of diffuse aqueous particles,
produce a similar effect? But the feeble ac ion of five
degrees, amounting scarcely to the eighth pait of w
observed in clear weather, could not be any remnant of
the pulses from the higher celestial regions which had pe
netrated through the mass of vapours, because if the ve
tical transit, through the obstructing range, allowed only
an eighth part to escape, the oblique passage of thirty d
grees, redoubling the extent of absorption, would have re
duced the final discharge to five eighths °.f a deg1^. Td
impression measured by the mthrioscope in this case mu
therefore have originated wholly m the strat* f ^
tween the under surface of the clouds and t g
But in that narrow space, the extreme difterenc
perature would be comparatively small. Hence tne
gorific action is found always to diminish as the
descend. Nor does their variable denseness appear mafr
rially to affect the result, which is often
a very thin, whitish, but low vapour, gathers
if r
CLIMATE.
NATIONAL LIBRARY, EDINBURGH
NATIONAL
LIBRARY
OF SCOTLAND
\Jot _L
I (Mate, sphere. Hence the aethrioscope might, with great facili-
ty, be employed to estimate the altitude of clouds,
pp !$ of As the higher strata of the atmosphere thus dart cold
hijipro- pulses downwards, so the lower strata must evidently pro-
je II up- ject equal pulses of heat upw**'!*    -1
it would require the sethri
nished with a pendant pyi
carried to the top of a loftj
plain below, would indicat
heat, nearly proportional t
therefore amounting, for ex
bora^o, to perhaps twenty n
same situation the common
ed to mark an impression c
much diminished. No opp
curred, on a large scale, for
servations. A balloon woul
verifying the theory.
The inverted aethrioscope
and measure of the pulses
These in general are very f
exceeding three or four de:
bright day, as the ground gi
bent air, it excites hot pulse
effect gradually diminishes, t
ing with a contrary charact
earth has become relatively
The same instrument bein
the ground while the sky apj
tray was laid under it, and
cold amounted to twenty-five
a plate of glass, it was redu
removing this and pouring a
ver, the effect was absolutely
ent influence of water, and
thus distinctly shown.
The nature and inten¬
sity of the cold and hot
pulses excited in the se¬
veral strata of the atmo¬
sphere, may be easily un¬
derstood from the annex¬
ed figure. Let two equal
and opposite circles touch
thestraightline AB, which
divides a stratum of cold
from another of warm
air. While the opposite
diameters CD and cd re¬
present the force of the
perpendicular pulses of
cold darted downwards,
and of heat upwards, the choi
and Cf, Ce, C/i, and Cg, will li
of the pulses which are shot o
H*- The aethrioscope thus open
f the It extends its sensation throu;
veals the condition of the rel
structed with still greater delii
the distant winds, and detect
every quarter of the heavens,
which arrive from the north will
er than those received from t
ment has yet been scarcely
compare its indications for the «    .. j v/tii. 5 CHILL
still more solicitous to receive its reports from other cli¬
mates and brighter skies.
But the facts discovered by the aethrioscope are nowise
at variance with the theory already advanced on the gra¬
dation of heat from the equator to the pole, and from the
763
level of the sea to the highest atmosphere. The internal Climate,
motion of the air, by the agency of opposite currents, still
tempers the disparity of the solar impressions; but this
effect is likewise accelerated by the vibrations excited
ition of heat, and darted through
with the celerity of sound. Any
ot pulse in one direction, must
ulse of the same intensity in an
existence of such pulsations!,
nison with the balanced system
J* ’
a}
O-lci .xdrMs'* — <Sr I-maX a
INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER.
.att end —as—they a-re
•Bind wrappers.
&c..
Trim all edges lightly and sprinkle
Leave os wide a margin as possibly-
Bind in , '
Half-morocco Pigskin
nciples of harmony are thus dis-
of this nether world. But we
ming the details. In clear wea-
showered entire from the hea-
e progress of the day, prevail
- reflex light, received on the
•e screened from the direct ac-
at all times, the coolness of a
e, likewise, the freshness which
ultriest climates, under the ex¬
it azure sky. In our northern
Is generally screens the ground
Id. But, within the arctic cir-
is more effectually protected
h deform those dreary regions,
day, while they absorb the fri-
i the higher atmosphere. Even
that our clear nights are ge¬
aring the absence of the sun,
ntinue to accumulate; and the
;he utmost in the morning, at
it luminary again resumes his
;r cold nor heat has the same
>n a ploughed field, the action
sfore it reaches the ground,
:es of the blades of grass. The
5 chilled by contact with the
3 moisture, which is either ab¬
raded to the projecting fibres
settles in the form of dew or
;y in this country of spreading
the tender blossoms and the
fluence of a gelid sky; and
age of covering walled trees
leshes not only detain the fri-
the minute icicles, that, in
if its cold.
ce of the principles which re¬
al in the atmosphere seemed
but we have already outrun
tide, and must, for the pre¬
subjoining a few corollaries
iiaii-muruuuu
Boards.
-GoloafTL
Buckram Cloth
with
lined, it is easy to perceive
should have a distinct cha-
jr ntinent. The latter will ex-
£e of heat and cold than the
imperature, in like circum-
loth. The proximity of the
quality of the solar impres-
nmer to winter is hence but,
mds. The prevalence, like-
land breeze during the day,
auu yi a sea nreeze during the night, especially near the
tropics, reduces to very moderate limits the effects pro¬
duced by the vicissitude of light and darkness.
The coldness of particular situations has very generally
been attributed to the influence of piercing winds which
blow over elevated tracts of land. This explication, how-
This slip is to be returne
the Book.
(57/186) Wt 72536/4/54 5000 12/54 M. <fc St., Ltd. 6 57
c L I M A T E.
tingmshed, and the fluid in the stem of the differential
thermometer sinks to zero. A cover of pasteboa d has
at first precisely the same influence; but aftei it has it-
self’become chilled by this
Sectoral
vEthrio-
scope.
exposure, it pro
small secondary £
the sentient ball,
exceeding, howcv*;-
tenth part of th
impression. A lie
or of mica interc
impressions like
paper ; tor the 2
of light has no d
effect if the set!
be rightly constn
highly polished,
nute secondary
almost extingui
screens of paper
mica, be held at
tance above the
the instrument.
In the first fo
aethrioscope, it
sential (thougV
ments the effect
of the balls s
gilt, since the 0
placed naked in
receives the pu
concentrated. J
balls were form
glass, the sethr
blended with c
the action of th
strument indica
darted from tl
will mark the <
when these con
To ascertain
as well as in tl
be constructed
effect this, the
be that of an h
nation equal to
red. But to 0
be small, and
tended. It will
to adopt a trm
the height of
the entire cavi
diameter six ii
ther more dis
double the ec
lieight of the <
35 nearly.
same position,
a screw acting
elevated to an
produced by tl
striking less o
will be feebly
placed in a e -  
sky appeared free from clouds, anu mm y —
blue tint. The spheroid being turned first upright, the
effect was noted ; but this continued still unchanged on
depressing the axis successively till it had approached
the limit of energetic range, or within twenty degrees 0
the horizon.
Climate. [[aiaU
(iiW
(IS.
portion of the sky that subtends a given Frigorific
here is hence received the same quantity impres-
c pulses. But such would likewise be thesu™ the
ivere showered from the horizontal surfaces^ direc.
sive strata which divide the atmosphere
li the intensity diminishes in the ratio of the
ty, a projecting space proportionally broader
iemental angle brought into action, as eyi-
•s from the annexed figure. Ihis entire
tween theory and observation is most satis-
sectoral form of the aethrioscope discloses Influence
liar influence of clouds in obstructing f^e0 cou
6s excited in the atmosphere. When the
detely obscured by a dense canopy of clouds,
it being pointed to the zenith, marked only
.1 degrees ; but on lowering it successively to
hirty degrees above the horizon, it continued
ill the same effect. Water almost complete-
3 pulsatory impressions of heat or cold ; and
ids, consisting of diffuse aqueous particles,
nilar effect ? But the feeble action of five
unting scarcely to the eighth part of what is
clear weather, could not be any remnant of
im the higher celestial regions which had pe-
iugh the mass of vapours, because if the ver-
through the obstructing range, allowed only
rt to escape, the oblique passage of thirty de-
. jling the extent of absorption, would have re-
ial discharge to five eighths of a degree. I he
leasured by the aethrioscope in this case must
ye originated wholly in the stiata 01 an
nder surface of the clouds and the
narrow space, the extreme difference of tem¬
perature would be comparatively smalL Hence tne i -
gorific action is found always to diminish as the clouds
descend. Nor does their variable denseness appear mal*
rially to affect the result, which is often the^eas^
a very thin, whitish, but low vapour, gathers m the atmo
CLIMATE.
Ills.
mate, sphere. Hence the sethrioscope might, with great facili-
ty, be employed to estimate the altitude of clouds,
aes of As the higher strata of the atmosphere thus dart cold
pro- pulses downwards, so the lower strata must evidently pro-
j whip- ject equal pulses of heat upwards. But to measure these,
it would require the asthrioscope to be inverted, and fur¬
nished with a pendant pyroscope. The instrument, now
carried to the top of a lofty mountain, and directed to the
plain below, would indicate a considerable impression of
heat, nearly proportional to the quantity of ascent; and
therefore amounting, for example on the summit of Chim-
bora90, to perhaps twenty millesimal degrees. But in the
same situation the common sethrioscope might be expect¬
ed to mark an impression of cold from above as just so
much diminished. No opportunity, however, has yet oc¬
curred, on a large scale, for making these interesting ob¬
servations. A balloon would afford the readiest mode of
verifying the theory.
The inverted aethrioscope likewise discovers the quality
and measure of the pulses projected from the ground.
These in general are very feeble, seldom in this climate
exceeding three or four degrees. In the progress of a
bright day, as the ground grows warmer than the incum¬
bent air, it excites hot pulses, but as the sun declines the
effect gradually diminishes, till this again returns, increas¬
ing with a contrary character, when the surface of the
earth has become relatively colder.
The same instrument being suspended a few reet above
the ground while the sky appeared clear and blue, a silver
tray was laid under it, and the reflected impression of
cold amounted to twenty-five degrees ; but on interposing
a plate of glass, it was reduced to two degrees; and on
removing this and pouring a sheet of water over the sil¬
ver, the effect was absolutely extinguished. The absorb¬
ent influence of water, and consequently of clouds, was
thus distinctly shown.
The nature and inten¬
sity of the cold and hot
pulses excited in the se¬
veral strata of the atmo¬
sphere, may be easily un¬
derstood from the annex¬
ed figure. Let two equal
and opposite circles touch
the straightline AB, which
divides a stratum of cold
from another of warm
air. While the opposite
diameters CD and cd re¬
present the force of the
perpendicular pulses of
cold darted downwards,
and of heat upwards, the chords CF, CE, CH, and CG,
and Cf, Ce, Ch, and Cg, will likewise exhibit the strength
of the pulses which are shot obliquely,
hi rt- The aethrioscope thus opens new scenes to our view,
of the It extends its sensation through indefinite space, and re¬
veals the condition of the remotest atmosphere. Con¬
structed with still greater delicacy, it may perhaps scent
the distant winds, and detect the actual temperature of
every quarter of the heavens. The impressions of cold
which arrive from the north will probably be found strong¬
er than those received from the south. But the instru¬
ment has yet been scarcely tried. We are anxious to
compare its indications for the course of a whole year, and
still more solicitous to receive its reports from other cli¬
mates and brighter skies.
But the facts discovered by the aethrioscope are nowise
at variance with the theory already advanced on the gra¬
dation of heat from the equator to the pole, and from the
763
an
stbo,
ac(k,
level of the sea to the highest atmosphere. The internal
motion of the air, by the agency of opposite currents, still
tempers the disparity of the solar impressions; but this
effect is likewise accelerated by the vibrations excited
from the unequal distribution of heat, and darted through
the atmospheric medium with the celerity of sound. Any
surface which sends a hot pulse in one direction, must
evidently propel a cold pulse of the same intensity in an
opposite direction. The existence of such pulsationss
therefore, is in perfect unison with the balanced system
of aerial currents.
The most recondite principles of harmony are thus dis¬
closed in the constitution of this nether world. But we
have left no room for pursuing the details. In clear wea¬
ther, the cold pulses then showered entire from the hea¬
vens will, even during the progress of the day, prevail
over the influence of the reflex light, received on the
ground, in places which are screened from the direct ac¬
tion of the sun. Hence, at all times, the coolness of a
northern exposure, tlence, likewise, the freshness which
tempers the night in the sultriest climates, under the ex¬
panse of an almost constant azure sky. In our northern
latitudes, a canopy of clouds generally screens the ground
from the impressions of cold. But, within the arctic cir¬
cle, the surface of the earth is more effectually protected
by the perpetual fogs which deform those dreary regions,
and yet admit the light of day, while they absorb the fri-
gorifle pulses, vibrated from the higher atmosphere. Even
the ancients had remarked that our clear nights are ge¬
nerally likewise cold. During the absence of the sun,
the celestial impressions continue to accumulate ; and the
ground becomes chilled to the utmost in the morning, at
the very moment when that luminary again resumes his
powerful sway. But neither cold nor heat has the same
effect on a green sward as on a ploughed field, the action
being nearly dissipated, before it reaches the ground,
among the multiplied surfaces of the blades of grass. The
lowest stratum of ah’, being chilled by contact with the
exposed surface, deposits its moisture, which is either ab¬
sorbed into the earth, or attracted to the projecting fibres
of the plants, on which it settles in the form of dew or
hoar frost. Hence the utility in this country of spreading-
awnings at night, to screen the tender blossoms and the
delicate fruits from the influence of a gelid sky; and
hence, likewise, the advantage of covering walled trees
with netting, of which the meshes not only detain the fri-
gorific pulses, but intercept the minute icicles, that, in
their formation, rob the air of its cold.
The novelty and importance of the principles which re¬
gulate the distribution of heat in the atmosphere seemed
to require a full discussion; but we have already outrun
the space allotted for this article, and must, for the pre¬
sent, content ourselves with subjoining a few corollaries
and general remarks.
From what has been explained, it is easy to perceive
why the climate of an island should have a distinct cha¬
racter from that of a wide continent. The latter will ex¬
perience a much greater range of heat and cold than the
former, though the mean temperature, in like circum¬
stances, will be the same in both. The proximity of the
ocean quickly absorbs the inequality of the solar impres¬
sions. The passage from summer to winter is hence, but
feebly marked in detached islands. The prevalence, like¬
wise, in such situations, of a land breeze during the day,
and of a sea breeze during the night, especially near the
tropics, reduces to very moderate limits the effects pro¬
duced by the vicissitude of light and darkness.
The coldness of particular situations has very generally
been attributed to the influence of piercing winds which
blow over elevated tracts of land. This explication, how-
Climate.
C L I
C L I
ever, is not well founded. It is the altitude of the place
itself above the level of the sea, and not that of the gene¬
ral surface of the country, which will mould its tempera¬
ture. A cold wind, as it descends from the high grounds
into the valleys, has its capacity for heat diminished, and,
consequently, becomes apparently warmer. The preva¬
lence of northerly above southerly winds may, however,
have some slight influence in depressing the tempeiature
of any climate. . ^
It has often'been assumed as an incontrovertible tact,
that the clearing of the ground, and the extension of agri¬
culture, have a material tendency to ameliorate the cha¬
racter of any climate. But whether the sun's rays be spent
on the foliage of the trees, or admitted to the surface of
the earth, their accumulated effects in the course of a
year on the incumbent atmosphere, must continue still
the same. The direct action of the light would no doubt
more powerfully warm the ground during the day, if this
superior efficacy were not likewise nearly counterba¬
lanced by exposure to the closer sweep of the winds;
and the influence of night must again re-establish the
general equilibrium of temperature. The drainage of the
surface will evidently improve the salubrity of any cli¬
mate, by removing the stagnant and putrefying water;
but it can have no effect whatever in rendering the air
milder, since the ground will be left still sufficiently moist
for maintaining a continual evaporation to the consequent
dissipation of heat. .
Much has been said of the comparatively lovv tempera¬
ture of the American continent. Its majestic forests, im¬
pervious to the solar beams, and its immense lakes, dif-
fusin0, their vapours, are supposed sufficient to make the
climate cold and damp; and the most splendid prospects
have been delineated of those changes, which an active,
free, and rapidly extending population is destined to pro¬
duce in reclaiming that vast region from the rankness of
nature, and opening its soil to the genial influence of hea¬
ven. Much inaccuracy and exaggeration, however, has
prevailed on this subject. The extremes of summer and
winter probably differ more in America than in the old
world • but the mere temperature on any parallel appears,
when carefully taken, to be nearly the same. Thus, Mr
Warden (Choroqraphical Description of the District of Co-
lumbia, 1816) found a spring in the vicinity of the capital
of the United States, and therefore a little above the level
of the sea, to mark 58° in Fahrenheit’s scale; but two cha¬
lybeate springs in the same quarter, though perhaps deep- Climate'
er seated, showed a heat of 62° and 64°. Chalybeates are ||
not deemed warm springs, or affected by their slight m.-Ctaumt
neral ingredient. But on the same paiallel of 39 , the
mean temperature of the ancient continent is 632-°.
After the above had been written, thethird volume of the
Memoires de Physique et de Chimie of the Society of Ai -
cueil was published, containing an elaborate paper of the
celebrated and accomplished traveller Baron Humboldt,
On Isothermal Lines, and the Distribution of Heat over the
Globe. Laying aside every theoretical consideration, this
distinguished philosopher has here endeavoured to class
the results of his own very numerous thermometncal ob¬
servations with all those which he could collect from dif¬
ferent quarters. The first difficulty that occurs is the mode
of ascertaining the mean temperature of any place. It
was found that half the sum of the maximum and mini¬
mum observed during the day and night, or through the
summer and the winter, does not represent the true quan¬
tity. M. Humboldt has remarked that, between the pa¬
rallels of 46° and 48°, the thermometer at the moment of
sun-setting indicates in every season very nearly the me¬
dium temperature of the day. If this fact could be-ex¬
tended to other latitudes, it would greatly abridge the la¬
bour of meteorological observations.
From the data employed by M. Humboldt, he calculates
that, corresponding to the latitudes of 30°, 40 oO , and
60° the mean temperatures on the west side of the Uld
Continent are 70°-5, 63°-l, 50°-9, and 40°-6; but, on the
east side of the New Continent, only 66°-9, 54°-5, 38°, and
420,2. The isothermal lines, or lines of equal tempeia¬
ture under the tropics run across the Atlantic nearly pa¬
rallel to the equator; but, in the middle, latitudes, they
bend southerly towards the coast of America. -These lines
run nearly parallel into the interior of the New Continent
till they pass the Rocky Mountains, after which they bend
again northwards. The climate is comparatively mild on
the western shore of North Ameiica.
It is well known that the difference between the tem-
nerature of the winter and of the summer months increases
in advancing from the equator to the pole. On the iso-
thermal lines of 68”, 59”, 50”, and 41”, by Fahrenheit s
scale M. Humboldt estimates the extreme range ot the
year at 22°, 290,32J-°, and 36°, on the Old Continent, and
at 27° , 42°, 44°, and 52°, on the New Continent. (b.)
CLINCH, in nautical language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
seized or made fast. f r ,
CLINCHING, in nautical language, a kind ot slignt
caulking used at sea, about the posts, in prospect o ou^
weather. It consists in driving a little oakum into their
seams, to prevent the water entering by them. _ .
CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philosopher and musician,
who flourished in the 65th Olympiad. Being very choleric,
he was wont to assuage his passion by his lyre.
CLIO, in Pagan Mythology, the first ot the muses,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over
history, and is represented as crowned with laurels, hold¬
ing in one hand a trumpet, and in the other a book. Some¬
times she holds a plectrum or quill with a lute. Her name
signifies honour and reputation, xAsog, gloria; and it was
her office to record faithfully the actions ot brave and il¬
lustrious heroes. Clio had-Hyacintha by Pierius, son o
Magnes.
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magistrate, the au¬
thor of the mode of banishing ambitious citizens by ostra¬
cism, or writing their names upon a shell; in other words,
by a species of ballot. The intention was patriotic, but,
like all other human institutions, it was abused ; and some
of the worthiest citizens of Athens were thus exiled. Uis-
thenes died 510 years before Christ. ,
CLITHEROE, a borough-town of the hundred oi Elack-
burn, in Lancashire, distant thirty miles from Manchester,
and 283 from London. It stands on the river Ribble, and
has a canal navigation connecting it with most parts ot the
kingdom. The cotton trade has been extensively introdu-
ced here of late years. The market is held on Saturday.
The inhabitants amounted m 1811 to 1/09, in 18.1 to 3.1 ,
and in 1831 to 5213. . . , , . .
CLITOMACHUS, a philosopher who flourished about
140 years before Christ. He was born at Carthage, but
quitted his country at forty years of age, and went to
Athens, where he became the disciple and successor otCai-
neades. He composed many books, but they were all lost.
CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river ot Um¬
bria, on this side of the Apennines. According to Pliny, it
was a fountain consisting of several veins, situated be-
C L I
litus tween Hispellum and Spoletium, which soon after swelled
| into a navigable river, running from east to west into the
FaJh Tinia’ and b°th t0SetIler int0 the Tiber. This river was
kork. famoVs for lts milk-white flocks and herds. The god of
the river was called Clitumnus.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurse. He
fo"owed that prince in his conquests, and saved his life by
cutting oft the hand of llosaces, who held an axe uplifted
to kill him at the passage of the Granicus. Alexander,
who had a great regard for him, some time afterwards in¬
vited him to supper; when Clitus, at the end of the re¬
past, being heated with wine, depreciated the exploits of
that prince, in order to magnify those of his father Philip.
This so enraged Alexander, that he killed Clitus with his
own hand; but he was afterwards so afflicted at what he
had done, that he attempted his own life.
^ CLIVE, Robert, Lord, son of Richard Clive, Esq. of
Styche, near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725. To¬
wards the close of the war in 1741, he was sent as a writer
in the East India service to Madras; but being fonder of
the camp than of the counting-house, he soon availed him¬
self of an opportunity to exchange his pen for a pair of
colours. He first distinguished himself at the siege of
Pondicherry in 1748; at the taking of Devi Cotta inTan-
jore, he acted under Major Laurence, who wrote of his mi¬
litary talents in. the highest terms ; he commanded a small
party at the taking of Arcot, and afterwards defended that
place against the French; and he performed many other
exploits, which, considering the remoteness of the scene
of action, it would require a long detail to render suffi-
j ciently intelligible. He was, however, looked upon and
acknowledged as the man who first stimulated his coun¬
trymen to spirited action, and raised their reputation in
the East; so that when he returned to England in 1753,
he was presented by the court of directors with a rich
sword set with diamonds, as an acknowledgment of past,
and an incitement to future services. Captain Clive re¬
turned to India in 1755, as governor of Fort St David,
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the king’s service.
As commander of the Company’s troops, he, in conjunc¬
tion with Admiral Watson, reduced Angria the pirate, and
became master of Geria, his capital, with all his accumu¬
lated treasure. On the loss of Calcutta, and the well-
known barbarity of Surajah Dowlah, they sailed to Bengal,
where they took Fort William, in January 1757; and Co¬
lonel Clive having defeated the soubah’s army soon after¬
wards, this circumstance accelerated the conclusion of a
peace. Surajah Dowlah’s perfidy, however, ere long pro¬
duced fresh hostilities, which ended in his ruin ; for he was
totally defeated by Colonel Clive at the famous battle of
Plassy. lire next day the conqueror entered Muxadabad
C L I
in tiiumph, and placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one><jf the prin-
cipal generals, on the throne : the deposed soubah was soon
afterwards taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier’s
son. Admiral Watson died at Calcutta, but Colonel Clive
commanded in Bengal the two succeeding years. He was
honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an omrah of
the empire, and rewarded by the new soubah with a grant
of lands, or jaghire, producing L.27,000 a year. In 1760
he returned to England, where he received the unanimous
thanks of the Company, was elected member of parliament
foi Slnewsbury, and raised to an Irish peerage by the style
and title of Lord Clive, Baron of Plassy. In 1764, fresh
disturbances having taken place in Bengal, Lord Clive was
esteemed the only man qualified to settle them, and ac¬
cordingly was again appointed to that presidency, after re¬
ceiving the order of the Bath, and with the rank of ma¬
jor-general. Lord Clive, when he arrived in India, ex¬
ceeded the most sanguine expectations which had been
formed, by restoring tranquillity to the province without
striking a blow ; and he impressed the minds of the natives
with the highest ideas of the British power. He returned
home in 1767; and in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry
into the conduct of the Last India Company was agitated,
and formidable charges were pointed against him, he en¬
tered into an able justification of himself in a masterly
speech, which he delivered in the House of Commons. He
died suddenly towards the close of the year 1774.
CLOACfE, in Antiquity, the common sewers of Rome,
to cany off the dirt and soil of the city into the Tiber;
justly reckoned amongst the grand works of the Romans,
1 he first common sewer, called Cloaca Maxima, was built
by laiquinius (some say Prisons, others Superbus), of
huge blocks of stone joined together without any cement,
in the^ manner of the edifices of those early times, consist¬
ing of three rows of arches, one above another, which at
length conjoined and united together, measuring in the
clear eighteen palms in height, and as many in width.
Under these arches people rowed in boats, which caused
Pliny say that the city was suspended in air, and that they
sailed beneath the houses. Under these arches also were
ways through which carts loaded with hay could pass with
ease. Ihis Cloaca commenced in the Forum Romanum,
measured 300 paces in length, and emptied itself between
the temple of \ esta and the Pons Senatorius. There
were as many principal sewers as there were hills. Pliny
infers their firmness and strength from their standing
during so many ages the shock of earthquakes, the fall
of houses, and the vast load and weights moved over
them.
CLDACINA, the goddess of jakes and common sewers
among the Romans,
765
Cloacae
II
Clock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Under this title are usually comprehended such ma¬
chines only as are moved by weights or springs, and regu¬
lated by a pendulum or balance for the purpose of mea¬
suring the lapse of time, or indicating or announcing its
progress; but other machines also, when they resemble
these, sometimes get the same name. It is however of
the former sort for measuring time that we propose to
treat at present, in a manner suited rather to the gene¬
ral reader than those engaged in the manual practice
of the art. Such of these machines as are not port¬
able, and especially if they strike or publish the hours,
are called clocks, while the term watch applies to the
smaller sort carried in the pocket. Those which are of a
more refined and accurate construction are sometimes
called timekeepers or chronometers, the latter being gene¬
rally portable. But it is to be observed, that the term
clock work or clock part is often used with reference to
the striking part alone, particularly among the artists;
while to the going part, which moves the hands, they give
the name of the watch work or watch part, even in a clock.
We shall, first consider what principally belongs to the
construction of clocks, and then what more properly re¬
lates to watches, though we cannot always adhere to this
distinction.
I.—Clock Work.
Clocks, such as we at present use, seem to have been
unknown to the ancients; but it is believed that at an
766
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
Vick’s an¬
cient clock
early period a train of toothed wheels leading round an
index, and regulated by a fly, as in a kitchen jack, had
been employed to measure time ; winch is the more proba¬
ble, considering the great antiquity of wheel and pmion
work. Unfortunately, terms which had at first been used
to denote dials and clepsydrae came at length to be ap¬
plied to other contrivances for measuring time ; a circum¬
stance which renders the hints of the early writers very
ambiguous. Indeed almost all the accounts we can find
of any thing of the sort earlier than the middle of the
fourteenth century, seem either to relate to dials and clep¬
sydrae, or are at least so vague and indistinct that we are
left in the dark as to the nature of the instruments intend¬
ed to be described. We are as little informed respecting the
inventors, or the dates at which the several parts were in¬
vented, of those clocks which have been described to us as
existing at that period. For, as Berthoud observes, we can
hardly suppose that a clock, imperfect as it then was, could
be wholly ‘the invention of any one man, but that it con¬
sisted of an assemblage of separate inventions, each ot
them perhaps having been made by a different person, and
‘Xbly all at ver/different periods. The earhest clock
with a balance, of which we have any distinct account,
was made by Henry de Wyck or de Vick, a German art¬
ist for Charles V. king of France, and set up in the tower
of’his palace about the year 1364. As some account
of so ancient a machine is likely to be interesting, anc
will supersede a minute description of the like parts ot
clocks of a more perfect construction, we shall now begin
Plate CLXIII., represents this huge machine in
profife. ABCD is the frame, consisting of two iron plates
joined together, and seen edgewise. The top Ab, front
AC, and bottom CD, form but one plate, kneed or bent at
right angles at A and C, and having studs or pins formed
on its corners, which come through the back plate BD,
where they are secured by having nuts screwed upon
them. The weight W, of more than 500 lbs., is suspend¬
ed by a rope wound upon the barrel E, which is fixed on
the axle J arbor The ends of this axis turn m holes
in the frame plates, and the action of the weight would
turn it rapidly round, were there not on the end of the
barrel E a small wheel X called a ratchet, with sloping
teeth. But a similar ratchet, &c. with the sa™6 letteis o
reference, are better seen in a drawing of a different ma¬
chine in fig. 10. The axis qq passes through and turns
freely in the centre of the first wheel N; and upon a stud
fixed in the side of that wheel there turns a click w,
which is pressed into the teeth of the ratchet by its spring
n. This click permits the sloping backs of the teeth of the
ratchet to push it aside and pass it easily without moving
the wheel N, when the barrel is turning in the direction
which winds up the weight; but the click catches so se¬
curely on the faces of the teeth that it will allow none of
them to pass in the other direction, or the barrel to turn
by the force of the weight, without carrying round with
it the first wheel N. This is called click and ratchet work,
and probably was a separate invention. The wheel N is
thus made to act by means of its teeth upon those of the
pinion f. But upon the axis of/, which likewise turns in
the frame, is the wheel G, which again impels a pinion g
on the axis of the crown wheel H. One end of this axis
turns in the front plate AC, and the other in the stud ,
which is screwed to the back plate. The crown wheel
H has on the edge of its rim teeth like those ot a saw,
and leaning forward in the direction of its motion. Ihese
teeth act alternately on the two teeth or pall^ts n ^ e
upright axis II, which carries the cross bar HR called the
balance. But this sort of action, which most probably was
a separate invention, being indeed the most important
thing in this clock, will be particularly explained after-Clock au
wards. Suffice it at present to say, that it causes the ha- a c
lance loaded with two weights vv, to vibrate or turn alter-
nately backward and forward for each tooth of the wheel
H that scapes or passes these pallets. The ends of the axis
II turned in holes in the pieces Q, t, but the balance be¬
ing very heavy was suspended from the cock w by a cord
r attached to the axle ; and no doubt the twisting and un¬
twisting of this cord by alternately raising and lowering
the balance accelerated its motion. The balance was for
regulating the motion of the machine, which was made to
° . i  u,. Hip wpiVhts nearer or
go faster or slower by shifting the weights nearer or
farther from the axis; there being a set of notches for
this purpose on the upper side of the horizontal bar KK.
The first wheel N turns just once round in an hour; its
axis qq prolonged through the front plate, carries a
» of eight teeth or leaves, which leads round a wheel r r ot
ninety-six teeth. Now since each tooth of the pinion just
lays hold of one tooth of the wheel, the pinion g, which
turns in one hour, will lead round the wheel PP with
twelve times as many teeth in twelve hours. This wheel
therefore carries upon its axis the hour hand h, and twelve
pins project from its side for discharging the striking ap¬
paratus. The first wheel N has sixty-four teeth acting
on a pinion/of eight leaves, which it therefore turns eight
times in an hour, or once round m seven minutes and a
half. But the wheel G being fixed on the axis of/ also
turns in seven minutes and a half; it has sixty teeth act-
inp- on the eight leaves of the pinion g, which it therefore
turns seven times and a half in seven minutes and a half,
or once round in one minute. On the same axis with #
is the crown wheel H, which therefore tufns in one minute.
It has thirty teeth ; but since each of these teeth in every
revolution acts on both the pallets ii in succession, or
meets a pallet in every half revolution, the balance must
make just twice as many vibrations in a minute as there
are teeth in that wheel, that is, sixty in a minute, or one
m ItShas° been objected, particularly by Mr Reid, that this
part of the history of Vick’s clock must be erroneous, on
the ground, as he supposes with artists in general, tha a
crown wheel can only work with an number of teeth.
But we shall afterwards see, that though the odd numb
is preferable, it is by no means indispensable. Indeed we
should think it could make very little difference whether
the crown wheel in such a clock had twenty-nine or thir y
teeth, provided proper care were taken to place the axis o
the balance out of the centre line of the axis of the whee ,
by only the 120th part of its circumference, a quantity
which the teeth themselves would readily point out. Bu
where so small numbers as nine, eleven, or thirteen teeth
are used, as in a common watch, it is very likely the
termediate even numbers ten or twelve could scarcely be
made to work at all. cnll-rpf|
To wind up this clock, a key was put on the squared
end s of the axis of the pinion k. By turning the key in
the proper direction, the pinion k led round the large whee
K together with the barrel E, and of course raised or wound
up the weight W. The share which the click m and
ratchet X have in this operation has been alyeady explain¬
ed. This method of winding, as it were by a wind a ,
was well contrived, considering the greatness o the weig ,
which could scarcely have been wound up in the ordinary
way. A similar method is still used, though not on accoun
of a heavy weight, in some of the most refined astrono¬
mical clocks; but in these the pinion differs ess fiomthe
wheel, or sometimes k exceeds K, and is withdrawn from
it so soon as the winding is finished. . .
As already mentioned, this clock had likewise a sinking
part, which'differed little except m size from that
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
ick and used in thirty hours wooden clocks, and in many turret
Watch clocks usually noted for striking the wrong hour.
We shall now return to the history, particularly of the
pendulum, and then proceed to explain a variety of me¬
thods by which the wheel work acts on the pendulum
or balance. When a weight or spring is applied to the
wheels of a clock or watch, the machine would run down
with a rapidly-accelerating motion, till friction and resist¬
ance of the air induced a sort of uniformity, as is the case
with a kitchen-jack. To check this, and to regulate the
movement, a pendulum or balance is applied in such a
manner that only one tooth can pass at a vibration. The
rate at which the wheels revolve must therefore depend
on the duration of the vibrations. Now it had been long
known that, within moderate limits, the width of the vi¬
brations of the same pendulum does not much affect their
frequency. This has been often, although very incor¬
rectly, reckoned among the discoveries of the justly cele¬
brated Galileo; for the ancient astronomers of the East
employed pendulums in measuring the times of their ob¬
servations, patiently counting their vibrations during the
phases of an eclipse or the transits of the stars, and re¬
newing them by a little push with the finger when they
languished. Gassendi, Riccioli, and others, in more re¬
cent times, followed their example. The alternate mo¬
tion of a suspended body, and its seeming uniformity, are
among the most familiar observations of common life, and
it is surprising it was not at an early period thought of
as a regulator; whereas the alternate motion of the old
balance is one of the least likely means to be hit upon
that can be imagined, and might pass for the invention of
a very reflecting mind. A pendulum only requires to be
drawn aside and let go, that it may vibrate regularly;
whereas the old balance being without a spring, must be
put in motion by the clock, then stopped by it; next set
in motion by the clock in the opposite direction, then
stopped, and so on. This must have been known, as also
that like checks and like forces will produce uniform os¬
cillations, before the balance could have been thought of
as a regulator. Yet so it is, that clocks regulated by a
balance had been long used and become very common
over Europe, before any thing like the pendulum was pro¬
posed as a regulator. Some say Galileo proposed it about
the year 1600, others that he did not do so till thirty years
after, by which time it had certainly been applied.
But it is not agreed when or by whom the pendulum
was first applied. Sanctorius, in his Commentaries on
Avicenna, published in 1625, says he had done so thir¬
teen years before, or in 1612. Some put in as early a
claim for Caspar Doms. According to Mr Thomas Grig-
non, watchmaker in London, who died at an advanced
age in 1784, Richard Harris had in 1641 constructed a
turret-clock in London, for the church of St Paul’s, Co¬
vent-Garden, which had not only a pendulum, but a long
pendulum. It is, however, to be wished, that some far¬
ther light were thrown on this statement. Galileo’s son,
Vincenzo Galilei, seems to have applied the pendulum in
1649, Hooke in 1656, Huygens in 1657; and to this ele¬
gant geometer belongs the honour of being the first who
succeeded in explaining the motions of the pendulum.
By the most refined and ingenious application of geo¬
metry to mechanical problems, he demonstrated that the
wider vibrations of a pendulum employ rather more time
than the narrower, and that the time of a semicircular
vibration is to that of a very small one nearly as 34 to
29; and, aided by a new department of geometrical
science, invented by himself, namely, the evolution of
curves, he showed how to make a pendulum swing in a
cycloid, and that its vibrations in this curve are all per¬
formed in equal times, whatever be their extent. But
long before 1673, the year in which Huygens published
these investigations, Dr Hooke, the most ingenious and
inventive mechanician of his age, had discovered the great
accuracy of pendulum clocks, having found that the real
merit of pendulums had been obscured, from their having
been made to vibrate in very large arcs;—a fault almost
inseparable from the only method then known of giving
them motion. He therefore, in 1656, as appears from as¬
tronomical observations made at Oxford, invented another
method, and made a clock which moved with astonishing
uniformity. Using a long and heavy pendulum, and mak¬
ing it swing in very small arcs, which implies his having
then used the anchor pallets, the clocks so constructed were
found to excel the cycloidal pendulums of Huygens ; and
those who were unfriendly to this philosopher had a sort
ol triumph on the occasion. But perhaps, after all, Huy¬
gens was the first who explained this, and showed that
the error of an hundredth of an inch in the formation of the
parts which produced the cycloidal motion, would cause a
greater irregularity than a circular vibration of even 10°
or 12° could do. The unavoidable inaccuracies even of
the best artists, in the cycloidal construction, make the
performance much inferior to that of a common pendulum
vibrating in arcs not exceeding 6° or 7°.
As already observed, a pendulum need only be drawn
aside and let go, that it may vibrate and measure time.
Hence it might seem that nothing is wanted but ma¬
chinery so connected with the pendulum as to keep a re¬
gister, as it were, of the vibrations. It would not be dif¬
ficult to contrive a method of doing this ; but more is
wanted. 1 he air must be displaced by the pendulum,
ibis requires some force, and must therefore employ some
part of the momentum. If the pendulum swing on
pivots, they occasion friction. If hung by a thread or
thin piece of metal to avoid such friction, some force is
lost from want of perfect flexibility or elasticity. These and
other causes make the vibrations gradually languish till
the pendulum is brought to rest. It is therefore neces¬
sary to have a contrivance in the wheel work, which will
restore to the pendulum the small portion of force lost
in every vibration. Hence, the action of the wheels
may be called a maintaining power, because it keeps up
the vibrations; but we now see that this may affect the
regularity of vibration. If it be supposed that the action
of gravity renders all the vibrations isochronous, or of
equal duration, we must grant that the additional impul¬
sion by the wheels will destroy that isochronism, unless it
be so applied that the sum total of this impulsion, and the
force of gravity, may vary so with the situation of the
pendulum, as still to give a series offerees, or a law of va¬
riation, perfectly similar to that of gravity. We cannot
expect to effect this, unless we know both the law which
regulates the action of gravity, producing isochronism of
vibration, and the intensity of the force to be derived
from the wheels, in every situation of the pendulum.
From the principles of dynamics, it appears necessary
for the isochronous motion of the pendulum, that the
force which urges it towards the perpendicular be every¬
where proportional to its distance from it; and there¬
fore, since pendulums swinging in small circular arcs
are sensibly isochronous, we must infer that such is the
law by which the accelerating action of gravity on them
is really accommodated to every situation in those arcs.
The effect of the maintaining power will be better un¬
derstood by keeping in view the chief circumstances at¬
tending a motion of this kind. Therefore, let ACa,
fig. 1, Plate CLXL, represent the arc passed over by the
pendulum, and as if stretched out into a straight line. Let
C be its middle point when the pendulum hangs perpen¬
dicularly, and A« the extremities of the oscillation. Let
fm pm
/(>/
Clock and
Watch
Work.
7(58
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
AD be drawn perpendicular to AC, to represent the ac¬
celerating action of gravity on the pendulum at A, and
parallel to AD draw the equal line ad; join De?. About
C, as a centre, describe the semicircle AFHa. Through
any points B, K, A b, &c. of Afif draw the perpendiculars
BFE, KLM, &c. cutting both the straight line and semi¬
circle. Then. _ .
1. The actions of gravity on the pendulum, when in the
situations B, K, &c., by which it is urged toward C, are
proportional to, and may be represented by, the ordinates
BE, KL, be, kl, &c,
2. The velocities acquired at B, K, &c., by the accele¬
ration along AB, AK, &c., are proportional to the ordi-
•nates BF, KM, &c. of the semicircle AHa; and there¬
fore the velocity at C is to that at any other point B, as
CH to BF.
3. The times of describing the parts AB, BK, &c. of
the whole arc of oscillation, are proportional to, and may
be represented by, the arcs AF, FM, MH, &c.
4. If one pendulum describe the arc represented by
ACa, and another that represented by KCA they Avill de¬
scribe them in equal times, and their maximum velocities
in passing C are proportional to AC and KC ; that is, to
the width of the oscillations.
The same propositions are true with respect to the out¬
ward motions from C. That is, when the pendulum de¬
scribes CA with the initial velocity CH, its velocity at K
is reduced to KM by the retarding action of gravity. It
is reduced to BF at B, and to nothing at A ; and the times
of describing CK, KB, BA, CA, are as FIM, Mb, FA,
HA. Another pendulum setting out from C, with the ini¬
tial velocity CO, reaches only to K, CK being equal to
CO. The times of their vibrations are likewise equal.
If we consider the whole oscillation as performed in the
direction A.a, the forces AD, BE, KL, accelerate the pen¬
dulum ; and the similar forces ad, be, kl, on the other side
retard it. The contrary happens in the next oscillation,
aCA. .
5. The areas DABE, DAKL, &c., are proportional^ to
the squares of the velocities acquired by moving along AB,
AK, &c.; or to the diminution of the squares of the velo¬
cities sustained by moving outwards, along BA or KA, &c.
The consideration of this figure will enable us to form
some notion of the effect of any proposed application of a
maintaining power by means of wheel work ; for, knowing
the weight of the pendulum, we know the acclerating ac¬
tion of gravity upon it in any particular situation A. We
also know how much we aid or counteract the motion of
the pendulum in that situation by the wheel work. Suppose
it is aided by an addition of pressure equal to a certain
number of grains. We can make AD to DS as the pre¬
vious force to the increase, and then A<5 will be the whole
force urging the pendulum towrard C. Doing the same foi
every point of AC, we obtain a line or curve AXC, which
is a new scale of forces, and the space DCS comprehend¬
ed between the two scales CD and CS will express the
addition made to the square of the velocity in passing
along AC by the joint action of gravity and the maintain¬
ing powrer. Also by drawing a line ps perpendicular to
AC, making the area Cps equal CAD, the pointy will be
the limit of the oscillation outward from C where the ini¬
tial velocity HC is extinguished. If the line ps cut the
semicircle in q, one half of the arc q& will nearly express
the contraction made in the time of the outward oscilla¬
tion by the maintaining powder. An accurate determina¬
tion of it is operose, and even difficult; but this solution is
not far from the truth, and will assist us in judging of the
effect of any proposal, even though pq be drawn by estima¬
tion of the eye, making the area left out as nearly equal
to what is taken in as we can estimate by inspection.
Since the motion of a pendulum or balance is alternate, Clock ®
wdiile the pressure of the wheels is constantly in one di- Watcl-
rection, some art must be used to accommodate the one Work
to the other. When a tooth of the wheel has given the T'v
balance a motion in one direction, it must quit it that it
may return, and perhaps get an impulsion in the opposite
direction, though that is not always the case. The ba¬
lance or pendulum thus escaping from the tooth of the
wheel, or the tooth from it, has given to all contrivances
for this purpose the general name of escapement or scape-
ment.
The oldest scapement known is the one still used in com-Originij
mon watches. It was employed in the earliest balance-scapemJ
clocks and watches on record, and was for ages after the^lth ^
only one in use, even in pendulum clocks, till Hooke in-"^
troduced the long heavy pendulum. It is very simple,
and its mode of operation is too obvious to need much
explanation. In fig. 2, Plate CLXI., XY represents a ho¬
rizontal axis, to which the ball of the pendulum P is
attached by a slender rod or otherwise. This axis has
two leaves C and D attached to it, one near each end,
and not in the same plane, but so that, when the pendu¬
lum hangs perpendicularly, or at rest, the piece C spreads
40° or 50° to the right hand, and D as much to the left.
These two pieces are called pallets, and the axis XY
which carries them the verge, though some writers apply
this term to any small rod or axis, as the French do.
AFB represents a wheel turning on an upright axis EO in
the order of the letters AFEB. Its rim resembles a hoop
with one edge cut into teeth like those of a saw, and lean¬
ing forward in the direction of its motion. It is some¬
times called the crown wheel, from the teeth a little re¬
sembling the points of an antique royal diadem. The
number of teeth should be odd ; so that wdien one of
them B is pressing on a pallet D, the opposite pallet C
may be in the space between two teeth A and I. But it
is evident that, if the verge do not pass exactly over the
centre of the wheel, which seems to have been the case
in some of the old watches, particularly those of Huygens,
a large even number of teeth might work, because by this
means the arrangement just mentioned could readily be
given to the pallets and teeth. Hence Le Roy and Ber-
thoud may not, as some suppose, be in any mistake when
they say the crown wheel in \ ick s ancient clock had thirty
teeth. In Howell’s scapement, described in vol. x. Trans.
Soc. of Arts, &c. the verge passes quite past the side of the
common axis of the two crown wheels; the eccentricity
must therefore have much exceeded the 120th part of the
circumference, which we mentioned above as just suffi¬
cient for Vick’s scapement with thirty teeth.
The figure represents the pendulum at the extremity
of its excursion to the right, the tooth A having just
escaped from the pallet C, and the tooth B having just
dropped on the pallet D. It is plain that while the pen-
dulum now moves over to the left, in the arc PG, the
tooth B continues to press on the pallet D, and thus ac¬
celerates the pendulum, both during its descent along the
arc PH, and in its ascent along the arc HG. It is no less
evident that, when the pallet D, by turning the axis XY,
raises its point above the plane of the wheel, the tooth B
escapes from it, and I drops on the pallet C, which is now
nearly perpendicular. I presses C to the right, and nnce-
lerates the motion of the pendulum along the arc GP.
Nothing can be more obvious than this action of the wheel
in maintaining the vibrations of the pendulum._ We can
easily perceive also that, when the pendulum is hanging
perpendicularly in the line XH, the tooth B, by pressing
on the pallet D, will force the pendulum a little way to
the left of the perpendicular, and the more so as the pen¬
dulum is lighter ; and if it be sufficiently light, it will be
lock and
Watch
Work.
forced so far from the perpendicular that the tooth B will
escape, and then I will catch on C, and force the pendu-
j lum back to P, where the whole operation will be repeat-
ecb Phe same effect will be produced in a more remark¬
able degree if the rod of the pendulum be continued
through the axis XY, and a ball Q, put on the other end
to balance P; and indeed this is the contrivance which
was first applied to clocks all over Europe before the ap¬
plication of the pendulum. Ihey were balance clocks,
nearly allied to that of Vick, already described. The
force of the wheel was of a certain magnitude, and there¬
fore able, during its action on a pallet, to communicate a
certain quantity of motion and velocity to the balls or
weights of the balance. W hen the tooth B escapes from
the pallet E, the balls are moving with a certain velocity
and momentum. In this condition, the balance is checked
by the tooth I catching on the pallet C ; but it is not in¬
stantly stopped. It continues its motion a little to the
left, and the pallet C forces the tooth I a little backward,
but not so far as to escape over it; because all the momen¬
tum of the balance was generated by the force of the
tooth B, and that of I is equally powerful. Besides, when
I catches on C, and C continues its motion to the left, its
lower point applies to the face of the tooth I, which now
acts on the balance by a longer and more powerful lever,
and soon stops its farther motion in that direction, but
continuing to press on C, it turns back the balance in the
opposite direction. We thus see how, in a scapement of
this kind, the motion of the wheel must be very hobbling
and unequal, making a great step forward and a short
step backward at every beat, from which it is sometimes
called the recoiling scapement or the recoiling pallets. This
hobbling motion is very observable in the wheel of an
alarm, and indeed wherever this scapement is employed
with wide vibrations.
Of the two principles of regulation which have been no¬
ticed above, the most obvious and by far the most perfect
is the natural and nearly isochronous vibrations of a pen¬
dulum. The only use of the wheel work here, besides re¬
gistering the vibrations, is to give a gentle impulse to the
pendulum by means of the pallets, in order to compensate
friction, &c. But in a balance there is no such native mo¬
tion to which that of the wheels must accommodate itself.
The wheels, urged by a determinate pressure, and acting-
through an assigned space, must generate a certain velo¬
city in the balance ; and therefore the time of the oscilla¬
tion is also determined, both during the progressive and
the retrograde motion of the wheel. Hence a balance
moved in this manner would be isochronous, and fit for re¬
gulating a time-keeper, did the action of the wheels upon
the pallets continue always the same; but as this is not
exactly the case, other contrivances have been employed
where greater exactness is required, as will be noticed
hereafter.
The verge XY does not require to be in a horizontal
position when a balance is employed. Accordingly, in the
old clocks this axis was vertical; so that the whole weight
of the balance rested on one pivot, which, if of hard steel
and small size, greatly diminished friction. Indeed friction
was sometimes nearly annihilated, as in the case of Vick’s
clock, by suspending the balance by a thread. But per¬
haps it was the want of, or to avoid a contrate wheel,
which caused the verge at first be placed upright. As the
balance admits of every position of the machine, balance
clocks were made in an infinite variety of forms and sizes.
The substitution of a spring in place of a weight as a first
mover was a most ingenious thought, but was only brought
to its present state very gradually. There was lately to
be seen at Brussels an old clock, having for a mainspring
a sword blade, with a string attached to the point of it,
VOL. VI.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
769
and wound round the barrel of the first wheel. The spiral Clock and
mainspring is supposed to have originated in Germany. Watch
It takes less room, and produces more revolutions of the Work,
barrel. Clocks thus far advanced only needed to be re- ''“■'’V""''
duced in size to be portable. This was accomplished very
early, though the exact date is unknown.
As already observed, it is doubtful who first substituted Anchor
the pendulum instead of the balance in clocks. But many scapement.
years elapsed before the pendulum was applied in any
thing like a proper form. Being light, short, and vibrat¬
ing in wide arcs, it formed but a very imperfect regulator.
Hooke saw these defects, which were not easily avoidable
with the crown wheel; and so early as 1656 he, as already
mentioned, contrived another scapement, with a long
heavy pendulum, and very nearly allied to that which is
still in most general use. In this scapement we ordinarily
employ teeth moving in not very different directions,
whereas in the crown whpel opposite teeth were employed
moving in contrary directions. Yet even here we com¬
municate an alternate motion to the verge or axis of the
Pallets, in the following manner. On that axis A, fig. 3,
Plate CLXL, which is the same, or in a line with that of
the pendulum, is fixed a piece of metal BAG, which we
call the crutch, and the hrench Vancre. Its extremities
B6, Cc, are in this case the pallets, upon which the teeth
of the swing wheel BC act, in pressing forward in the di¬
rection BC. The faces B6, Cc, are set in such positions
that the teeth push them out of the way. Thus they
push B to the left, and C to the right. Both pallets are
pushed sidewise outward from the centre of the wheel.
Hie pendulum rod AS is placed as if at rest. Suppose
it drawn aside to the right at Q, and then let go. It is
plain that the tooth B, pressing on the face of the pallet
(3BI), all the way from /3 to b, thrusts it aside outwards,
and thus, by the connection of the crutch with the pen¬
dulum rod, aids the motion of the pendulum along the
arc QPR. When the pendulum reaches R, the point of
the tooth B has reached the angle b of the pallet, and
escapes from it; then another tooth drops on the pallet
face Cc, and by pressing it outward, aids the pendulum to
move from R to P. The tooth escapes from this pallet
at the angle c, and now a tooth B' drops on the first pal¬
let, and again aids the pendulum, and so on.
Ihe mechanism of this communication of motion is ex¬
plained by several elementary writers as follows:—The
tooth B, fig. 4, is urged forward in the direction BD, per¬
pendicular to the radius MB of the swing wheel. It there¬
fore presses on the pallet, which is movable only in the
direction BE, perpendicular to BA, the radius of the pal¬
let. Wherefore the force BD must be resolved into two,
viz. BE in the direction in which alone the pallet can
move, and ED or BE perpendicular to it. The latter only
presses the pallet and crutch against the pivot hole A.
BE is the only useful force, or the force communicated
to the pallet enabling it to maintain the pendulum’s mo¬
tion by restoring the momentum lost by friction and other
causes.
But this is a very erroneous account of the modus opc-
randi, as may at once be seen by supposing the radius of
the pallet to be a tangent to the wheel; which is a posi¬
tion most frequently given to them, and is the very posi¬
tion in fig. 3. In this case MB is perpendicular to BA,
and therefore BD will coincide with BA, and there will
be no such force as BE to move the pendulum. It is a
truth deducible from what we know of the constitution of
solid bodies, that when two of them press on each other,
the direction in which the mutual pressure is exerted is
always perpendicular to the touching surfaces. Whatever
be the shapes of the faces of the tooth and pallet, we can
draw a plane BN, to be a common tangent to both sur-
5 E
770
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
faces, and a line HBI, through the point of contact perpen¬
dicular to BN. It is farther demonstrable, that the action
of the wheel on the pendulum is the same as if the whole
crutch were annihilated, and in its stead there were two
rigid lines AH, MI, from the centres of the crutch and
wheel, perpendicular to, and connected by, a third rigid
line or rod HI. .
For if a weight V be hung at v, the extremity ot the
horizontal radius of the wheel, it will act on the lever
vMI, pressing its point 1 upwards in the direction IH per¬
pendicular to MI; the upper end of this rod IH will in
like manner press the extremity H of the rod HA, and
this will urge the pendulum from P towards R. To with¬
stand this, the pendulum AP may be withheld by a weight
Z hanging by a thread on the extremity of the horizontal
lever Kz equal Mu* and connected with the ciutch and
pendulum. The weights V and Z may be so proportioned
to each other, that by acting, perpendicularly on the
crooked levers t>MI, zAH, the pressures at H and I shall
be equal, and just balance each other by the intervention
of the rod HI. When this is the case, we have put things
into the same mechanical state, in respect ol mutual ac¬
tion, as if effected by the crutch, pallets, and wheel, which
in like manner produce equal pressures at B, the point of
contact in the direction BH and BI. The weight V may
be such as produces the very same effect at B as does
the previous train of wheel work. I he weight Z, theie-
fore, must be just equal the force produced by the wheel
work on the point z connected with the pendulum rod,
because by acting in the opposite direction it just ba¬
lances it. . , .
To determine the force communicated to the pendulum
by the wheels : Let x be the upward pressure excited at I,
and y the equal opposite pressure excited at H. Then by
the property of the lever, MI *. M?> : : V \ x, and x X i II
= V X M«. In like manner, X API —'LY, Az. there¬
fore, because x - y and Az = Mt>, we have V : Z : :
MI : AH. That is, the force exerted by the tooth of the
wheel in the direction of its motion, is to the force im¬
pressed on the pendulum rod at a distance equal to the
radius of the wheel, as MI to AH. The force impressed
on the ball of the pendulum is less than this in the ratio
of AP to Az, or Mv.
Cor. 1. If the perpendiculars MN, AO, be drawn on
the tangent plane, the forces at B and z will be as BN to
BO. For these lines are respectively equal to MI and AH.
Cor. 2. If HI meet the line of the centres AM in S,
the forces will be as SM to SA ; that is, V : Z :: SM : SA.
Cor. 3. If the face /3B6 of the pallet be the involute
of a circle described with the radius AH, and the face of
the tooth be the involute of a circle described with the
radius MI, the force impressed on the pendulum by the
wheels will be constant during the whole vibration. But
these are not the only forms which produce such con¬
stancy. The forms of teeth described by De Lahire, Camus,
and others, for producing a constant force in the trains of
wheel work, will have the same effect here. It is also easy
to see that the force impressed on the pendulum may be
varied according to almost any law, by making these faces
of a proper form. Therefore the face, from B outwards,
may be so formed that the force communicated to the
pendulum by the wheels during its descent from Q to P,
may be in one constant proportion to the acceleration ot
gravity, and then the sum of the forces will be such as
produce isochronous vibrations. If the inner part of
the face be formed on the same principle, the difference
of the forces will have the same law of variation. If the
face be the involute of a circle, and the tooth B ter¬
minate in a point gently rounded, or quite angular, the
force on the pendulum will continually increase as the
"Work,.
tooth slides from /3 to l. For the line AH continues of Clock ar
the same magnitude, and MI diminishes. The contrary " atcl;
will happen if the pallet be a point, either sharp or round-
ed, and the face of the tooth be the involute now men¬
tioned ; for MI will remain the same, while AH dimi¬
nishes.’ If the tooth be pointed, and fib be a straight line,
the force communicated to the pendulum will diminish,
while the tooth slides from (3 to b. For in this case AH
diminishes, and MI increases.
Cor. 4. In general, the force on the pendulum is great¬
er, as the angle MB6 increases, and as AB6 diminishes.
Cor. 5. The angular velocity of the wheel is to that of
the pendulum, in any part of its vibration, as AH to MI.
This is evident; because the rod IH moving (in the mo¬
ment under consideration) in its own direction, the points
H and I move through equal spaces; and therefore the
angles at A and M must be inversely as the radii.
All that has been said of the first pallet AB, may be ap¬
plied to the second AC. If the perpendicular Cs be drawn
to the touching plane oCn, cutting AM in s, we have V:
Z :: sM : sA, as in Cor. 2. And if the perpendiculars Mi,
Ah be drawn on Cs, we have V : Z :: Mi : A^, as in the
general theorem. The only difference in the action on the
two pallets is, that if the faces of both are plain, the force
on the pendulum increases during the whole action on the
pallet C ; whereas it diminishes during the progress of
the tooth along the other pallet.
Since each tooth of the wheel acts on both pallets in
succession, and since during its action on each of them
the pendulum makes one vibration, the number of vibra¬
tions during one turn of the wheel must be double the
number of its teeth; consequently, while a tooth slides
along one of the pallets, it advances half the space be¬
tween two successive teeth ; and when it escapes from the
pallet, the other tooth maybe just in contact with the
other pallet. We say it may be so; in which case there
will be no dropping of the teeth from pallet to pallet.
This, however, requires very nice workmanship; the teeth
must be precisely equal, and at equal distance from each
other. Should the tooth which is just going to apply to a
pallet, chance to be a little too far advanced on the wheel,
it would touch the pallet before the other had escaped.
Thus, suppose that before B escapes from the point b of
the pallet, a tooth is in contact with the pallet C, B can¬
not escape. Therefore, when the pendulum returns from
R toward Q, the pallet (3b returning along with it, will push
back the tooth B in opposition to the force of the wheel,
so that whatever motion the wheel had communicated
to the pendulum, during its swing from P to Q, will now
be taken from it as;ain. The pendulum will not reach (4,
because it had been aided in its motion from Q, and had
proceeded farther than it would have done without this
help. Its motion toward Q is farther diminished by the
friction of the pallet. Therefore it will now return from
some nearer point q, and will not go so far as in the last
vibration, but will return through a still shorter arc. It will
be more contracted in the next vibration, and so on, thus
it appears, that if a tooth chance to touch the pallet before
the escape of the other, the wheel will advance no farther;
and soon after, the pendulum will be brought to rest.
For such reasons it is necessary to allow one tooth to es¬
cape a little before the other reaches the pallet on which
it is to act, and to allow a small drop of the teeth from pal¬
let to pallet. But it is accounted bad workmanship to let
the drop be considerable, and close scapement is account¬
ed a mark of care and good workmanship. It is evidently
an advantage, because it gives a longer time of action on
each pallet. From all that has been said, it appeals that
the interval between the pallets should comprehend a cer¬
tain number of teeth, and half a space moie.
ock and
dVatch
Work.
In contriving capement, the first circumstance to be
considered is the angular motion that is intended to be
/ ^n.t0 th<r. Pendulum during the action of the wheel.
I his is usually called the angle of scapement, or the angle
of action. Having fixed on an angle a, which we think
proper, we must secure it by the position and form of the
face of the pallets. Dividing 180° by the number of teeth
in the swing wheel, the quotient is evidently the angle b
of the wheels motion during one vibration of the pendu¬
lum. In the hue AM, joining the centres of the crutch
and wheel, make SM to SA, and sM to sA, as a to b; and
then having determined how many teeth shall be compre¬
hended between the pallets, call this number n. Set off
f b O + }) m the extreme circumference of the wheel
on each side of the line AM, as at TB and TC. Join SB,
sC; draw (3Bb perpendicular to SB, for the medium posi¬
tion of the face of the first pallet, when the pendulum
hangs perpendicularly. In like manner, drawing oCn per¬
pendicular to sC, we have the medium position of the se¬
cond pallet. The demonstration of this is very evident
from what has been said above.
We have hitherto supposed that the pendulum finishes
a violation at the instant a tooth escapes from a pallet, and
another drops on the other pallet. But this should never
be the case; for if, when the clock is clean and in good
order, the pendulum do not go beyond the angle of scape¬
ment, but stop precisely at the drop of a tooth, then by the
time it gets foul and the vibration shortens, the teeth will
not escape at all, and the clock will immediately stop.
Ilns remark applies to most other scapements, and to
those in watches as well as clocks. Therefore the force
communicated by the wheels during the vibration within
the limits of scapement, must be increased so as to make
tie pendulum throw farther out, as the artists term it;
and a clock is more valued the more it throws out bevond
tie angle of scapement, with the same moving power.
oi tms there are good reasons: the momentum of the
pendulum, and its power to regulate the clock, which Mr
Harnson significantly calls \X.?, dominion, are within proper
limits very nearly proportional to the width of its vibra¬
tions. It is easy to see that, when the face (3b of the
leading pallet is a plane, if the pendulum continue its mo¬
tion to the right from P toward Q, after the tooth B has
dropped on it, the pallet will push the wheel back again,
while the tooth slides outward on the pallet toward /3.
ouch pallets, therefore, will make a recoiling scapement,
resembling, in this respect, the old pallet employed with
the crown wheel, and having the properties attached to it;
in particular that of being much affected by any inequalities
in the maintaining power. It is well known that a common
watch goes slower when very near run down, in conse¬
quence of the mainspring not pulling by a radius of the fu¬
see. Also, by pressing forward the wheel work by means of
the key, we immediately hear tfie beating accelerated, and
vice versa. The reason of this is pretty plain ; the balance,
in consequence of the acceleration in the angle of scape-
ment when aided by the key, would have gone much far-
tlier, employing nearly its usual time in ‘the excursion;
but by being checked abruptly, both the vibration and the
time employed in it are shortened. In the return of the ba¬
lance, the motion is accelerated the whole way along an
arch, which is shorter than what corresponds to its velocity
in the middle point; for it is again checked on the other
side, and does not make its full excursion. Besides, all
this irregularity of force, or the great deviation from form¬
ing a resistance to the excursion proportional to the
distance from the middle point, is exerted on the ba-
ance when it is near the end of the excursion, where
the velocity being small, this irregular force acts long
upon it at the very time when it has little force wherewith
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
to resist it. All temporary inequalities of force, there¬
fore, will be more felt in this situation of the balance, than
if they had occurred in the middle of its motion. Now,
although the regulating power of a pendulum greatly ex¬
ceeds that of the light balances used in pocket watches,
something of the same kind may be expected even in pen¬
dulum clocks. Accordingly, this appears by a series of
experiments made by Berthoud. A clock with a half-se¬
cond pendulum, weighing five drachms, was furnished with
a recoiling scapement whose pallets were planes. The
angle of scapement was 5-°5. When actuated by a weight
of two pounds, it swung eight degrees, and lost fifteen
seconds per hour ; with four pounds it swung ten degrees,
and lost six seconds. Thus it appears, that by doub-
ing the maintaining power, although the vibration was in¬
creased, the time was lessened nine seconds per hour, viz.
aoout But long before this, Dr Halley had made si¬
milar experiments, and obtained like results, which it is
believed led Graham to invent the scapement shortly to
be noticed. It is plain, from what was said when we de¬
scribed the first scapement, that an increase of maintain¬
ing power must render the vibrations more frequent. We
saw, that even when the gravity of the pendulum is ba¬
lanced by a weight on the other end of the rod, the force
of the wheels will produce a vibratory motion, and that an
augmentation of this force will increase it, or make the vi¬
brations more rapid. The precise effect of any particular
oi m of teeth can be learned only by computing the force
on the pendulum in every position, and then constructing
toe curve foAG of fig. 1. The rapid increase of the ordi-
nates beyond those of the triangle ADC, forms a consi¬
derable area DApr, to compensate the area sCr, and thus
makes a considerable contraction pK of the vibration, and
771
Clock and
Watch '
Work.
a sensible contraction of the time.
For astronomical and other purposes, where a steady or
at least a direct movement of the seconds hand is want¬
ed, the preference undoubtedly is to be given to scape¬
ments which have no recoil; but in other respects the re¬
coiling anchor scapement is scarcely behind any of them.
T. his is owing to the great dominion which a heavy seconds
pendulum has over the wheel work. We shall now adduce
a striking proof of this. The clock invented by the cele¬
brated Harrison is at least equal in its performance to any
other. Friction is almost annihilated, and no oil is requir¬
ed. It went fourteen years without being touched, and
during that time did not vary one complete second from
one day to another, nor ever deviated half a minute by ac¬
cumulation from equable motion. Yet this scapement, in
so far as it respects the law of the accelerating force, de¬
viates more from the proportion of the spaces than the
most recoiling scapement that ever was put to a good
dock. It is so different from those which we have de¬
scribed, both in form and principle, that we must not omit
some account of it.
In fig. 11, Plate CLXL, GD represents the swing wheel,
whose centre is M. A is the verge or axis of the pen¬
dulum, having two very short arms, AB, AE. A slender
rod, BC, turns on fine pivots in the joint B, and has at
its extremity, C, a hook or claw, which takes hold of a
tooth D of the swing-wheel when the pendulum moves
from right to left. This claw, when at liberty, stands at
right angles, or at least in a certain determinate angle
with regard to the arm AB, and when drawn a little
fiom that position, is brought back to it again by a slen¬
der spring. The arm AE is furnished with a detent EF,
which turns on pivots in the joint E, and which also, when
at liberty, maintains its position on the arm by means of a
very slender spring.
Let us now suppose the tooth D presses on the claw C,
Harrison’s
pallets.
/*■»
//2
Clock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
while the pendulum is moving to the right. The joint B
yields, by its motion round A, to the pressure of the tooth
on the claw. By this yielding, the angle ABC opens
a little. In the mean time, the same motion round A
causes the point F of the detent on the other side to ap¬
proach the wheel, and the tooth Cx at the same time ad¬
vances. They meet, and the point of G is lodged in the
notch under the projecting heel/ When this takes place,
it is evident that any farther motion of the point h round
A, must push the tooth G a little backward, by means of
the detent EF. It cannot come any nearer to the wheel,
because the point of the tooth stops the heel/. The in¬
stant that F pushes G back, the tooth D is withdrawn
from the claw C, and C flies out by the action of its spnng,
and resumes its position at right angles to BA ; and the
wheel is now free from the claw, but is pushing at the
detent F. The pendulum having finished its excursion
to the right (in which it causes the wheel to recoil by
means of the detent F), returns towards the left. The
wheel now advances again, and by pressing on F, aids the
pendulum through the whole angle of scapement. By
this motion the claw C describes an arc ol a circle round
A, and approaches the wheel till it takes hold of another
tooth D', and pulls it back a little. Ibis immediately
frees the detent F from the pressure of the tooth G, and
it flies out a little from the wheel, resuming its natural
position by means of its spring. Soon after, the motion o
the pendulum to the left ceases, and the pendulum ic-
turns ; D pulling forward the hook C to aid the pendu¬
lum, and the former operation is repeated, and so on.
It is obvious that the pressure of the tooth G on the
detent is transferred to the joint E, by the intervention
of the shank FE, and from the joint E to the pendulum
rod by the intervention of the arm EA. This communi¬
cation of pressure is precisely similar to what we used in
explaining the common scapement. MG, 1HE, and EA,
in this fig. 11, are performing the offices which we then
gave to the lines MB, BH, and HA, in fig. 3. Harrison’s
pallet realises the abstract theory ; but in his scapement
the motion is given to the pendulum by a fair pull 01 push,
and the teeth of the wheel apply themselves to the detents
or pallets, without sliding or rubbing. There is no drop,
and the scapement makes no noise, being what the artists
call a silent scapement. The mechanician will readily per¬
ceive, that by properly disposing the arms AB, AE, as also
the pallets, on the circumference of the wheel, the law by
which the action of the wheel on the pendulum is legu-
lated may be greatly varied, so as to harmonize, as far at
least with the action of gravity as the nature of a scape¬
ment alternately pushing and pulling will admit.
Harrison, however, sometimes poised and otherwise
checked his pallets, so that they required no springs; but
the principle of the scapement is more easily peiceived in
the very simple form under which it has been here repie-
sented. It is obvious, that were a click or catch, placed
on a fixed stud, to fall behind the teeth, the recoil of the
wheel might be prevented altogether. Such an obstacle
would no doubt tend to check the motion of the pendulum
abruptly; yet this could be avoided by contriving some
part so as to give way to the pendulum. But the scape¬
ment, so modified, would still be nearly allied to a tecoil-
ing one; for the action between the teeth and pendulum
would be greatest at the extremity of the vibration, where
every disturbance of the regular cycloidal vibration oc¬
casions the greatest disturbance to the motion. Yet
Harrison’s clock kept time with most unexampled preci¬
sion, far excelling all that had been made before, and
equal to any that have been contrived since. I he want
of friction is a great recommendation, but its keeping
time so well is chiefly owing to the sovereign control
which a long heavy pendulum has ovei» the maintaining Clock
power. ... »T Work
The following was the origin of this scapement. Mr
Harrison was at first a carpenter in a country place. Being Y
extremely ingenious and inventive, he had made a variety
of curious wooden clocks', one in particular for a turret in
a gentleman’s house. Its exposure made it waste oil
very fast; and the maker was often obliged to walk two
or three miles to renew it, and got nothing for his trouble.
In trudging home, not in very good humour, he pondered
with himself how to make a clock go without oil. He
changed all his pinion leaves into rollers, which answered
very well; but the pallets, more than any other part, re¬
quired some such alteration. After various other projects,
he contrived those above described, where there was no
friction, and where no oil is wanted, dhe turret-clock,
thus improved, continued to go w'ithout being touched till
Mr Harrison left the country.
A little prior to the year 1700, the celebrated Mr Grahan
George Graham contrived the following scapement, with dead b
the view of leaving the pendulum almost in its natural
state. The acting face of the pallet abc, fig. 5, is a
plane. The tooth drops on a, and escapes from c, and is
on the middle point b, when the pendulum is perpendi¬
cular; but beyond a the face of the pallet is an arch ad,
whose centre is A, the centre of the crutch. The main-
taining power is made so great as to produce a much
wider vibration than the angle of active scapement aA.c,
The consequence is, that when the tooth drops on the angle
a, the pendulum, continuing its motion to the right, carries
the crutch along with it, and causes the tooth to slide
from a to d. But the tooth, by pressing on the arch ad, in
a direction passing through the centre of the crutch, can
neither accelerate nor retard the motion of the crutch
and pendulum. The acting face gh of the other pallet
is also a plane; and the remaining part hi of its inner
surface is an arch, having the same radius and centre A,
as the exterior arch ad has. As the pendulum, after
passing the perpendicular, was accelerated by the other
pallet gh, it would, if quite unobstructed, throw out far¬
ther than what corresponds to the velocity which it had
had in the middle of its vibration; perhaps till the tooth
passed from « to e on the circular arch of the pallet.
But although it sustains no contrary action from the
wheels during this excursion, beyond the angle of scape¬
ment, it will not proceed so far, but will stop when the
tooth reaches some intermediate point <f; because there
must be some resistance from the friction of the tooth in
sliding; along the arch of repose a d, and from the clam¬
miness of the oil employed to lubricate it; but this resist¬
ance, though rather variable and uncertain, does not
amount to an eighth of the pressure on the arch, and ge¬
nerally will be much less. ,
The chief cause of irregularity seems to be removed in
this scapement, viz. the inequality in the action of the
wheels in the extremity of the vibration, where the pen¬
dulum, having little force, is long exposed to their action
in the same little space. The derangement produced by
any force depends on the time of its -action, and there¬
fore must be greatest when the motion is slowest, ine
pendulum gets its impulse in the middle of its vibration,
where its velocity is the greatest; and, therefore, the in¬
equalities of the maintaining power act on it only tor a
short time, and make a very trifling alteration m the time
of describing the arc of scapement. Beyond this arc it is
nearly in the state of a free pendulum; nay, even thougi
it be affected by an inequality of the maintaining power,
and be accelerated beyond its usual rate in that arc, tne
chief effect of this will be to cause it to describe a large
arc of excursion, while the wheel rests on the cyhndnc
Watch
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Hock and arc of repose. The shortening of the time of this descrip-
'Watch tion by the friction will be the same as before, happen-
\Voric^ ing at the end of the excursion; but the return will be
more retarded by the friction on a longer arch ; and by
this a compensation may be made for the trifling contrac¬
tion of the time oi describing the arc of scapement.
It is of the greatest importance in all scapements that the
impulse be given in the middle of the vibration, where its
time of action is the smallest possible, and whereby the
pendulum is so long left free from the action of the wheels.
When this is adhered to, the form of the face abc is of less
moment. Much has been written on this form, and many
attempts have been made to make it such, that the action
of the wheels might be proportional to that of gravity. Mr
Graham made them planes, not only because these were
of easiest execution, but because a plane really conspires
pretty well with the change of gravity. While the pen¬
dulum moves from Q to P, fig. 3, the force of gravity act¬
ing in the direction QP is continually diminishing; so is
the accelerating power of the pallet from a to b, fig. 5.
While the pendulum rises from P to R, fig. 3, a force in
the opposite direction RP continually increases. This is
analogous to the continual diminution of a force in the
direction PR. Now we have such a diminution of such
a force in the action of the pallet from b to c, fig. 5, and
such an augmentation in the action of the other pallet.
_ This scapement fully realized Mr Graham’s expecta¬
tions, and has given great satisfaction in many nice clocks.
Mr Graham, however, did not think it prudent to cause a
tooth drop on the very corner a of the pallet, but on a
point/of the arch of excursion. This has also the ad¬
vantage of diminishing the angle of action, which we
have seen to be of service. It requires, indeed, a greater
maintaining power, which can easily be procured, and is
less affected by changes, to which it is liable from the
effect of heat and cold on the oil. Such effects, however,
are almost entirely avoided by making the rubbing parts
of materials which require no oil. In a dock of this sort
long used in the transit room of the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, the pallets were of Oriental ruby, and the wheel
of hard-tempered steel. The angle of action seldom ex¬
ceeded one third the swing of the pendulum. This clock
never varied a whole second from equable motion in the
course of five days.
This contrivance is known by the name of the dead
beat, the dead scapement, the scapement of repose ; because
the seconds index stands still after each drop, whereas
the index of a clock with a recoiling scapement is always
in motion hobbling backward and forward.
These scapements, both recoiling and dead beat, have
been made in many different forms; but any person ac¬
quainted with mechanics will be able to recognise them
though under a different shape, or varied in some other
unimportant circumstance. A convenient form is given
in fig. 6, where the shaded part is the crutch made of
brass or iron, and A, B are two pieces of agate, flint, or
other hard stone, cut into the requisite form for pallets of
either kind, and firmly fixed in proper sockets. They
project half an inch or so in front of the crutch, so that
the swing wheel is also before the crutch. Pallets of ruby,
with a swing wheel of hard steel, need no oil, but only
to be rubbed clean at first with an oily cloth.
Sometimes instead of teeth the wheel has pins ranged
round the rim, and perpendicular to its plane. When the
pallets are placed on two arms, which, as in fig. 7, overlap
each other, and are on the opposite sides of the wheel, the
alternate pins are also on the opposite sides. This, which
has likewise been adapted to watches, is called Lepaute’s
scapement. But if the pins be all on one side of the
wheel, the pallets may either be on two arms as in fig. 6,
or on one as in fig. 8, which is called Amant’s scapement. clock and
By the motion of the pendulum to the right, a pin, after Watch
resting on the concave arch da, fig. 8, acts on the face ac, Work,
and drops from c on the other concave arch hi, which con-
tinues to move a little to the right. It then returns; the
pin slides and acts on the face gh, and escapes at g. The
next pin is then on the arch of repose ad, and so on. It
is to be observed, that if when pallets such as those in fig.
7 and 8 are used, the verge be placed directly above the
axis ol the swing wheel, it would need a counterpoise,
especially if the pallets have an axis separate from that of
the pendulum.
It being evident that the recoiling scapement accele¬
rates the vibrations beyond the rate of a free pendulum,
and it also appearing to many of the first artists that the
dead scapement retards them, they have attempted to form
a scapement which might avoid both of these defects, by
forming the arches ad, hi, fig. 5 and 8, so as to produce a
very small recoil. Berthoud does this in a very simple
manner, by placing the centre of ad at a small distance
from that of the crutch, so as to make the rise of the pal¬
let above the concentric arch about one third of the arch
itself. Applying such a crutch to his light pendulum
which we mentioned above, he found that doubling, and
even trebling the maintaining power produced no change
on the time of vibration, though it increased the arc from
8° to 12° and 14°. We have no doubt of the efficacy of
this contrivance, and think it very proper for all clocks re¬
quiring much oil. But we apprehend no rule can be given
for the angle which the recoiling arch should make with
the concentric one, because it seems to depend principally
on the share which friction and oil have in producing the
retardation in the dead beat; and these are causes of very
variable and uncertain amount, even in the same clock.
It has been attempted to avoid the inconveniences of
friction and oil on the arch of repose in another way. In¬
stead of allowing the tooth of the wheel to drop on a cy-
lindric surface on the pallet which is called the arch of ex¬
cursion or arch of repose, it drops on a stop or detent of a,
fig. 9, of which the part ta is an arch whose centre is A,
the centre of the crutch, and to is in the direction of a
radius. This piece ota does not adhere to the pallet,
though it is on the end of an arm oA, which turns round
the same axis A on fine pivots; but it is made to apply
itself to the back of the pallet by means of a slender
spring attached to the pallet, and pressing inward on a pin
fixed in the arm of the detent. When so applied, its arch
ta makes the repose, and its point a forms a small portion
of the face abc of the pallet. When a tooth escapes from
the second pallet by the motion of the pendulum from left
to right, another tooth drops on this pallet (which the
figure shows to be the first or leading one) at the angle t,
and rests on the small portion ta of an arch of repose.
But the crutch continuing its motion to the right, imme¬
diately quits the arm oA, carrying the pallet be along
with it, and leaving the wheel locked or detained by the
detent ota. By and by the pendulum finishes its excur¬
sion to the right, and returns. When it enters the arch
of action, the pallet has applied itself to the detent ota,
and withdraws it from the tooth. The tooth immediately
acts on the united face abc of the pallet and detent, anti
restores the motion lost during the last vibration. The
use of the spring is merely to keep the detent to the pal¬
let without shaking. It is a little bent during their sepa¬
ration, and adds something of an opposing force to the
ascent of the pendulum on the other side of the wheel,
and accelerates its return. A similar detent on the back
of the second pallet performs a similar office, detaining the
wheel while the pendulum is beyond the arch of scape¬
ment, and quitting it when the pendulum enters that arch.
/'/
74
Clock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
It is uncertain with whom this invention originated, but
it was put in practice by Mudge as early as 175b or 1 /5I.
Contrivances of the same nature were,noticed, though ob¬
scurely, by Berthoud, Le Roy, and Lepaute. Friction is
o-reatly diminished by being transferred to the pivots at A,
so that in the excursion beyond the angle of scapement, the
pendulum seems almost free. I he detents, however, are
not always made to turn on an axis in that of the crutch,
but frequently on axes placed without, or at a consideiable
distance from the verge. Indeed the friction of pivots is
sometimes avoided altogether by making the arm of the
detent a spring of considerable thickness, except near the
top, where it is thin and broad. But a pait of the friction
still remains, and cannot be obviated; namely, that on the
arch ta while it is being drawn from the tooth. Nay, we
apprehend that something more than friction must be over¬
come here. The tooth is apt to force the detent outward
unless the part ta be a little elevated at its point a, like a
Work.
A, having in the circular cross piece a slit ik, also circu- Clock an
lar, Z being the centre. This form, though somewhat '*atch
different from Mr Cumming’s, is essentially the same, but
is adopted here to avoid a long description. The arm ZF
forms the first detent, and the tooth A is represented as
locked on it at F. D is the first pallet on the end of the
arm ZD, movable round Z, independently of the detents,
and of the second pallet E, which also turns about Z on
the arm ZE independently of D. The arm DZ to which
the pallet D is attached, lies behind the arm ZF of the
detent, being fixed to an axis which has pivots turning
concentric with the axis of the pendulum. With the arm
ZD is connected the horizontal arm eH, carrying at its
extremity the ball H, of such a weight that the action of
the tooth A on the pallet D is just able to raise it to the
position here drawn. The arm ZE is in like manner con¬
nected with an equal ball I on the opposite side. PB re¬
presents the fork or pendulum rod behind both detent and
unless the part <a be a little eie.vateu ai us pouii «, j  ; ~ . • i
claw above the concentric arch, anti the face of the tooth pallet. A p.n /> m that rod projects forward, coming through
he made to fit such a shape of detent. This will consume the slit « without touching the upper or under margin of
some force, when the momentum of the pendulum is by it. There is also fixed upon the fork the cross bar mn, ot
no means at its maximum. Should the clock be foul, and such a length that when the pin of the pendulum rod has
the excursions beyond scapement be very small, this dis- unlocked the detent F, the end n of the bai just stiikes
turbance must be^exceedingly pernicious. But we have the arm ZD of the pallet connected with the ball ; and
1 much greater objection. ' During the whole excursion the other end m does the like with the opposite arm EZ.
beyond sfapement there is a new force of a spring acting The ball M is connected with the crutch EZF, and of
on^the pendulum which deviates considerably from the such a weight as just to balance or counterpoise the two
proportions of the accelerating power of gravity. This detents.
 4.! 4411 4-l-» r\ rl /-a f q r\ t- confirm
17J Wl/V/a ~    o I v „
does not commence its action till the detent sepaiate from
the arm of the crutch. Then the spring of the detent
acts as a retarding force against the excursion of tne pen¬
dulum now on the other side, bringing it sooner to rest,
and then accelerating it in its way back to the beginning
of the arch of scapement. In short, this constiuction
should partake of the properties of a recoiling scapement.
There is, however, a circumstance in the sort of detach¬
ed scapements now described, which tends to compensate
one of the defects. For if, when the power of the wheels
is from some cause augmented, more force is icquiied
from the pendulum to unlock the tooth, it should be ob¬
served, that the moment the tooth is set free it co-operates
with the pendulum in raising the pallet through the re-
The mode of action is very simple. The natural posi¬
tion of the pallet D is at 3, represented by the dotted lines.
It is naturally brought into this position by its own weight,
and still more by that of the ball H. The pallet D being set
on the foreside of the arm DZ, comes into the same plane
with the detent F and the swing wheel. The tooth C of the
wheel is supposed to have escaped from the second pallet,
immediately after which the tooth A engages with the pal¬
let D, situated at 6, forces it out, and then rests on the de¬
tent F, the pallet D leaning on the top of the tooth.. It
will presently appear how F is brought into this situation.
After the escape of C, the pendulum, moving down the
arc of semivibration, is represented as having attained the
vertical position. Proceeding still to the left, the pin p
scapements. to the crutch and pendulum; and the maintaining power,
during its action, was applied to the pendulum by means
of the pallets, in the same way as in ordinary scapements.
The detents were unconnected with the pendulum, and it
was free during the whole excursion. We shall now de¬
scribe a few of a different class, which are called remon-
toirs or rewinders ; because at short intervals a small force
is as it were wound up by the wheels, and afterwards let
go upon the pendulum. We shall begin with a scapement
executed by Mr Gumming, in which the manner of ap¬
plying the maintaining power is extremely different from
any yet mentioned. The pallets as well as detents are nic laoi, w,
detached from the pendulum, except in the moment of p reaches the end A of the s‘t’1^U]^C. , H ceases
unlocking the wheel; so that the pendulum is quite free the right side. At the same instant, the g
from the wheels in its whole course, except during this to act on the pendulum, being now raised up fiom by
short moment, which unfortunately is at the extremity of the action of another tooth on the pal et D.
vihrntirm The prominent feature of this contrivance is tne aimosi,
Cum,Hills's In fig. 10,'Plate CLXI., ABC represents a portion of complete disengagement of the regulator from tjmwheels.
scapement. the swing wheel, of which O is the centre. Z is the cen- Ihe whee s, in ee , ac on ie I ’ goje uge 0p
tre of the crutch, pallets, and pendulum. The crutch or are then detache 10m ie p . * , , nendu-
detents are represented in a form resembling the letter the wheel is to raise the little weights while the pend
with the pendulum m raising me pautt mmugw ^ >   .. • P aVlt -h . „nf3 ‘ *
mainder of the requisite height; and when the power of reaches the extremity * of the slit tk, andat the same
Z tnmh s greater it acts with greater energy, so that instant the bar n touches the arm ZD. The pendulum
the pendulum must’then have so much the less to do. On proceeding a hair’s breadth farther, withdraws the detent
the contrary, when the force of the wheels happens to re- F from the tooth, which now even pushes off the detent
lax the tooTh is more easily unlocked, and the pendulum by acting on the s ant face of it. I he wheel hem,, thus
its and needs less aid in raising the pallet. unlocked, the tooth following C on the other side acts on
& In the scapements last described, the pallets were fixed its pallet E, pushes it off, and rests on its detent G, which
m me scapememb a   , ^ . ran d v brought into a proper position by the
has been rapidly brought into a proper position by the
action of A on the slant face of F. It was a similar ac¬
tion of C on its detent G in the moment of escape which
brought F into a fit position for locking the wheel by the
tooth A. The pendulum still going on, the arm n, oppos-
ed by the weight of the ball H and the pallet connected
with it, comes to rest before the pin p again reaches the
end of the slit, which had been suddenly withdrawn from
it by the action of A on the slant face of F. Ihe pen¬
dulum now returns towards the right, loaded on the left
with the ball H, which restores the motion lost during
the last vibration. YV hen by moving to the right, the pin
tfs'
fori
rr
Work
ock and lum is on the other side, to have them in readiness at the
Wat eh arrival of the pendulum. They are then laid on the pen¬
dulum, and supply an accelerating force, which restores to
the pendulum the momentum lost during the preceding
vibration. Were it not that irregularities in the pressure,
friction, &c. of the teeth against the detent may slightly
affect the pendulum at the moment of unlocking the
maintaining power would remain always the same, name¬
ly, the rotative momentum of the two weights; for it is
quite independent of any inequalities in the action of the
wheel on the pallets, whether arising from friction or oil
Cummings Elements of Clock Work, which contains
the description of this scapement, was, not long after its
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK,
/ A>
1I,t lias been supposed that if in this scapement each Clock and
pallet had still a little way to fall after it ceased to impel Watch
the pendulum, it might be made to communicate the re- Work,
maimng force to the opposite detent and unlock it; which
would render the pendulum independent of the unlocking.
But unless the fall of the pallets were much more consi¬
derable, the force of the one could not unlock the other.
However, when the detents are separate from the pallets,
as in Cummings scapement, and also separate from each
other, the residual force of the loaded pallet may be made
to unlock the light, detent on the opposite side.
Sometimes pallets like those of Mudge, instead of being Spring
appearance in 1766, severely censured'by ProfessorTud- fixed are,ca.rrifd by sJ,e1nder spring arms pallets.
jectionable exposition of the action of forces, or one more that of U,e distTnguTshed artist Mr HarfT in^theUm e
wmmm mmmmms
fected by the temperature, even supposing the pendulum
entirely relieved from the unlocking of the detents ; and
the same remark applies to similar scapements in watches
clnT tbe ttstfre de V Academic for 1742, mention is madescane-
° i l. (jallonde having perfected the anchor scapement by merits with
applying to it rollers to act as pallets ; and in the ilfaeAmes rollers.
Approtivees, tome yii., we find a figure of this scapement,
dge’s
and an expert aitist. Accordingly, while this scapement
shows the author’s mistaken notions regarding the prin¬
ciples of dynamics, it displays great ingenuity. Mr Gum¬
ming seems to have thought that by applying to the de¬
tents the counterpoise M, he had annihilated any resist¬
ance which they might oppose to the pendulum, whereas it
must have had an effect just the very reverse; for every
time the pendulum unlocked a detent, it had the united
inertia of this counterpoise and of both detents to over¬
come. Had he only omitted this useless mass M, and
kept the detents unconnected with each other, it would
have been much easier for the pendulum to have over¬
come the inertia of a single detent, and the slight force of
gravity acting so obliquely upon it, than to have contend¬
ed with all the three.
o the same sort is the following more simple scapement
; emenUof Mudge. In fig. 1, Plate CLXII., LM is a part of the
scape wheel; GA, GB, are two arms separately movable
on the same axis, and terminating in the pallets A, B.
These pallets have inclined faces with claws or detents,
t, r, at the lower part of each. HO, IO, are tails pro¬
ceeding from each pallet piece respectively, and N is a
pin proceeding from the pendulum rod, arid capable of
moving either of the tails according to the course of the
vibration. Hie circles u and v are weights stuck upon
pins, and for which others may be substituted till the
most suitable are found. Suppose the wheel to be urged
from L towards M, and the pendulum made to vibrate by
external impulse. The pin N, in proceeding towards L,
will strike the tail HO, raise the pallet A, and set the
tooth L and wheel at liberty. Then the tooth M, sliding
along the inner surface of the pallet B, will raise it and
stop against the clawr at its lower end. The tail 10 will
be carried into the position IP; and the pallet A in its
return will be opposite a vacancy which will permit the
tail HO to follow the pin N to the perpendicular situation.
Hie pendulum will, therefore, be assisted by the weight u
through a longer arc in its descent than that in which it
was impeded by it in its ascent. In the opposite semivi¬
bration towards M, the pendulum will proceed unopposed
by the weight v, while it passes through the angle OIP,
then it will raise B and permit the wheel to lift the pallet
A. In the motion on this side of the perpendicular, it is
also clear that the descent will be more assisted than the
ascent was impeded. Whence it follows, that the clock
will continue to go, and no variation in the force of the
wheel LM, which raises the pallets in the absence of the
pendulum, will affect the vibration, except so far as it may
afford a variable resistance at the detent or claw.
with a description, in which we are told, that when applied
to a clock it only required half the moving power, and had
almost no recoil. But the figure surely does not give a
very correct representation of this machine. To us, at
least, it appears not a little paradoxical. For since, dur¬
ing one vibration of the pendulum, the swing wheel only
advances through an arc equal to half the interval between
the points of two teeth, it is plain that the largest roller,
in the form of an entire cylinder, which can be employed
as a pallet, must be somewhat less in diameter than the
half interval just mentioned. But the diameter of Gal-
londe s lolleis seems much greater than the half interval.
Two views are given of one of them, which to all appear¬
ance must have been an entire cylinder. In his swin0- wheel,
the sides of the teeth are concave, though not hooked ; the
intervals between the teeth being nearly semicircular to a
diameter barely exceeding that of the rollers. The depth
of these intervals seems equal to the radius of the rollers, so
that the half of a roller almost fills up one of them. The
engraving represents one roller as being close to the round
bottom of the space between two teeth, while the other
roller is scarcely free to escape over the top of a tooth.
Of course there is no room for the pendulum moving one
hair s-breadth beyond the angle of scapement, if even so far.
We are not aware of anything further having been done
in this way till 1817, when the Society for the Encourage¬
ment of Arts presented Mr William Wynn with their
gold Isis medal and twenty guineas for a timekeeper, in
which he had managed to introduce rollers whose diame¬
ter was at least equal to the entire interval between the
points of two teeth. This is effected by employing rollers
which are not entire cylinders, that is, by cutting out a part
from the side of each roller, to make room for its returning
clear of the tooth from which it had last escaped. More
recently, Mr David Whitelaw, not being aware of what
Wynn had done, has described a similar scapement in
the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The
following will give some idea of the manner in which
these artists have applied the rollers. In fig. 12, Plate
CLXI., ABC is the crutch, having at its extremities
B, C, rollers to act as pallets. The dotted parts of the
small circles represent the parts which are cut out from
77(>
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Work.
clock and the sides of the cylinders, lo those acquainted with the
Watch anchor pallets or dead beat the mode of action must be
quite obvious; but in order that the rollers may always
present only their cylindric parts, to be acted on by the
teeth, they are so poised or counterpoised, that each, atter
being moved round a little way by a tooth, natuially ie-
sumes the position given it in the figure.
W ork.
notch 8, then the wheel F will cause the pinion h, toge- Clock ar
ther with the detents, turn one eighth round, and conse- Watch
quently the detent k will be turned till it rest against the
cylindric surface of the axis tt opposite the notch 7. The
wheel F will at same time have turned the pinion g, toge¬
ther with the collet s, one eighth round, which will rewind
the helical spring t, and give sufficient power to the scape
rf
S^eXrsente would still bffouj the Referable liberty -ape, Ore rvhed Fw.n UjrnAe^n^arjd
mode of constructing a scapement with rollers. That
the wheel may have no recoil, the faces ot its teeth
would need to be concave to suit the one roller, and con¬
vex for the other, which could only be accomplished by
o-ivine: a separate scape wheel to each roller. But when
we use only one scape wheel, we must endeavour as much
h one eighth round, and at same time the spring t will be
again wound up, and so on. This sort of remontoir, it is
obvious, may be applied to various other scnpemeots, as
well as the dead beat.
The foregoing scapements have been all applied nearscapenw
tweeii coiK;ave^nid^convex, name|y, by making the ^ penciniuin.
w ."e bo.^rand on .he Continent; but we have not been
m ecS to tbe centre of the wheel. Consequently, when a’s^cked by Se
“ Hn^ ^DL^lSts'^rySLbs „r.he .hree-4ed
possible at nght angles to a j e ^ DXK, movable upon a stud or axis at L. K is a
diiidriutioiLof^riction^and^jiat the teeth of the scape is SL'SSe
wheel may need no oil. In Mr \\ ynn s ime-eepei lower end of the pendulum rod, and the point
mentioned, the leaves of the pinions are also rollers, and the '“"f’ FJon„ with the pendulum in
teeth of the wheels of course need no oil. Could pinions of the pallet ^^0^ along ^ ^ by means
"rowefr!xiHESiS€5
and likewise in its wheel, which in oui opinion wou ^ _ wheel immediately springs forward, caus-
Wtks^sm
• . .1 1 _ > .1 4- «w/-*w> rvr\ F r\r o
beat.
annlyincr a remontoir to the dead beat scapement of a
clock. Fig. 1, Plate CLXIIL, is a profile of the remon¬
toir, and fig. 3 a front view of it and the scapement,
both figures having the same letters of reference. F
is the third wheel which works into or drives the equal
pinions g and h. G is the scape wheel, and H the crutch,
having pallets of the dead beat. The pinion h is fixed
on the axis it, as also eight arms or spring detents j, k, l,
actions. , _ . „ . . i
Among the scapements which the Society of Arts have
rewarded of late years, there is invol. xlviii. of their Trans¬
actions a description of one for a turret clock by Mr James
Harrison, a descendant of the celebrated John Harrison.
It is of the remontoir kind, somewhat allied to Cum-
ming’s; but it is rather complex, and has rollers on the
pallets. In the same volume, Mr J. Chancellor describes
on the axis ii, as also eight arms or spring detents j, n, i, " VT jTL " tw0 ’ e wheels on one axis. The
m, n, o, p, q, whose ends, after resting in succession upon end] of a bar fixed across the
the cyUndric sides of dm axle rr of the scape wheel, escape P^ts a f ^ ^ perpendicular to
in their turns through the notches 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, t>, Penau ’ whpels It js essentially the same with
u, the axis vt revolves. The angular ps.t.on of the ^^7X1^ ap^ simple form
eight notches in the axis is represented in fig. 2 by the a s c i Inst century. But since our limits
Ted otfiLd, pt:frrroua^raL’ ^1!^; to jX wTnot admit of a ftrtL de^riptiou of-pemeu^we
fore, is not fixed on the axis rr, but the helical spring t
connects it with the scape wheel G by means of a screw v,
which pinches the collet c against the axis; the collet c
not being fixed to the socket of the collet s. W hen the
clock has been wound up, the pendulum put in motion,
and the axis rr of the scape wheel has turned one eighth
actions of the Society of Arts, &c.; the Repyrtop of Arts,
Sec.; Reid’s Treatise on Clock and Watch Making, which
contains a list of works on the subject; Rees s Cyclopce-
dia ; Nicholson’s and other scientific Journals.
Preparatory to the description of a few clocks, tec.
may be of service briefly to enunciate what wd! be mo.
and the axis rr of the scape wheel has turned one eighth may oe o service , namely, the
round, the detent j will be at liberty to pass through the fully treated of in an after-part ot the worx, j-
lock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
///
3od old
le ne¬
eded.
lleedfif iSt^"1kr°7 *0 gUch mathematicians as have Clod.-„„d
of the wheels or ninions whirh 3 “ b ^ <th in eath carefully studied the forms of wheel teeth, that if wear and Watch
’ duct, and the sevCal numbers bthL ^ 006 5r°' iT* be in view’ 110 form can be given to a pinion Work.
driven, into another product, the quotient of the fitTnro" ^ feVeet l whlc,h make a wheel act on it smoothly   
duct by the second is the mimbel nf ^5 f Pc °r uni,forml3:’ and that it is necessarily attended with 1
turn which the last wheel or ninion in tlieT ^ °c a g- eat °iS °* tbe rnovin? Power. Experience soon con-
one turn of the first of the trL. ^ m°&t back^ard, that a wheel cannot be em-
Thus, in the case of Vick’s rind- droovi i -u j ^ P.^, to Slve a Powerful and rapid motion to a pinion of
first whUl NharsixL fL^ slx leaves’ without waste of power, and some part very
fof dtht lea“ ^ P,mT’ s,00n way- 0f al1 »f teeth having some^
and turned thk pinion nTf eitthT leavS h “XS. y6 ’ thl"g ,the EancIion of "tathematical investigation, we
60 are 3840 • and 8 times 8 are 64 hv u-'liiel, C-r l r^3 l'n,"‘ot 'leJP regarding those formed by the involute of the
Qu/i n — u„’—^ ’ y —51 we divide circle as the worst. Indeed any sorts of teeth which, like
these, taper much, occasion an irresistible repulsion be¬
tween the axes of the wheels or pinions, the pernicious
effects of which speedily manifest themselves in heavy
machinery, though they may not be so soon observable
in clocks or watches.
.    vyincu, ji we uiviue
3840, we have sixty turns of for one of N, as formerly.
Or more systematically thus : J
N X G 64 X 60
= 60.
/ X 17 8 X 8~
It is almost needless to observe, that when the same fac¬
tors occur in both numerator and denominaTorrthey should ,the middle °f ]ast century a number of artists, Clocks with
first be thrown out to simplify the process. But it was pa^warfy on the Continent, were much occupied infewwheels.
11 ‘ 1 ^    c.on^rivlnS cl°cks with few wheels, and publishing descrip¬
tions of them. It would seem, however, that neither Dr
Franklin nor Mr Ferguson was aware of this, at least for
a long time after; for when Ferguson published his Seleci
Exercises, he described as quite new a clock of this sort by
Franklin, and another by himself, each having three wheels
and two pinions. Of these, which have both their merits
  — jout 1C was
an excellent rule of the old mill-wrights, and one which
should never be departed from, unless in the case of
absolute necessity, that the number of teeth in a wheel
should be prime relatively to the number in the wheel or
pinion which works or pitches with it; that is, their num-
beis of teeth should admit of no common divisor. The
design of this was, that each tooth of the one wheel might a , P"11 , „ - .    
come alike into contact with every tooth of the other 3 • , rt<fects’ sha11 now gIve some account, beginning
, • i , , -C . U111C1 with that of Dr Franklin.
wheel or pinion, which would tend to wear them all
equally, or to correct any inequalities in their size or form.
Phis would be attained in the above case by giving seven¬
ty teeth to N, eleven to/, sixty-six to G, and seven to g.
Thus,
70 X 66
11 X
= 60.
But in cases where numbers exactly prime to each other
would not suit the train, the nearest approach to such
numbers should be attempted. It is alleged that clock
teeth, being cut by an engine, are so exact as to need no
such precaution; but that exactness surely does not pre¬
vent softer teeth from wearing more quickly than harder
ones, or those having accidentally hard particles stuck in
them from cutting those teeth only which they act upon,
and consequently it does not prevent the teeth becoming
unequal, especially where the teeth in the pinion are so
few that but one can be acted on at a time. We have,
however, some little doubt regarding the great exactness
of clock wheels. Sometimes, to be sure, they are cut and
finished by an engine, and may not for all that have a
good shape, but more commonly the engine is only em¬
ployed to make slits between the teeth, which are after¬
wards rounded off by guess with a file; so that it is by
mere chance if such a wheel contain two teeth exactly
equal, or in their proper places.
Judging from the general and long established practice
of making the number of teeth in a wheel an exact mul¬
tiple of those in its pinion, one is apt to suppose that to
be the best possible arrangement, whereas it is just the
very worst. In heavy machinery there is at present less
regard than there was formerly to the employment of re
lug. 1, Plate CLXIV., shows the dial-plate, having the Franklin’
hours engraven in spiral spaces, such that in one hour the clock,
index A, which is both the hour and minute hand, de¬
scribes a right angle, or the fourth part of a revolution, and
consequently goes quite round in four hours. The hours
are encompassed by a graduated circle, containing four
times sixty divisions, upon which the same index counts
the minutes from any hour it has passed to the next fol¬
lowing hour. The time, as shown by the figure, is either
39
h minutes past XII., or past IIIL, or past VIII., and so
on in each quarter of the circle. The ‘small hand B at
top goes round in a minute, and shows the seconds as in
a common clock. There is evidently no ambiguity here
respecting the minutes and seconds, but it might happen
that such a clock would leave an uncertainty of four whole
hours, though this we should think would seldom occur.
The wheel work is as follows. On the axis of the large
index A, is a wheel of 160 teeth turning a pinion of ten
leaves, on whose axis is a wheel of 120 teeth turning a
pinion of eight leaves. The arbor of this last pinion car¬
ries the scape wheel of thirty teeth, and the small index
B. This clock was intended to be wound up by merely
putting the cord of the weight over a notched pulley, and
pulling the opposite end, which is stretched by a small
weight. This is the usual way with wooden thirty-hour
clocks; but it is not even the most simple method, and
it besides creates a great deal of dust by the partial slip¬
ping and consequent wearing of the cord in the groove of
the pulley. A far better way, where room can be had,
is either to give the cord several turns on the barrel, both
ends still hanging down, or to have two cords, the one
. q —    ^ tinpiwjuicni, ui ic- cuus Bun Hanging uown, or to nave two corus, tne one
latively prime numbers ; but the superior shape and large- winding on while the other winds off, as in Prior’s striking
ness of the numbers of teeih in mills. rnnrlnr tlinf nf* Vwv r»A-
ness of the numbers of teeth in mills, &c. render that of
less importance in them than in clock work, where the
teeth are numerous, and several have hold at the same
time, which tends greatly to equalize the action and wear;
whereas a wheel acting on a pinion of six teeth can never
have a proper hold of more than one, and the unavoidable
part, to be afterwards described.
To obviate the ambiguity of four hours in Franklin’s Ferguson’s
clock, and also the inconvenience of frequent winding, clock.
Ferguson contrived the following clock, of which fig. 2
shows the dial-plate, having an opening a b below the cen¬
tre, through which part of a circular plate appears, having
- - ~ nMavuiuamc; nc, tniuugu wnicn pan ui a circular piaie appears, navinj
obliquity of the greater part of the action has a constant the twelve hours engraven upon it and divided into quar
tendency to thrust the pinion and wheel asunder, which ters. This plate turns round behind the dial-plate in twelve
In- hours; and the true hour, or part of the hour, appears in
5 F
greatly augments the strain and wear on the pivots
VOL. VI
;7
’8
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock ami the middle of the opening, at the point of an index A en-
Watch graven on the dial-plate. B is the minute hand, which goes
Work. round in an hour, showing the minutes on the large cir-
cle in the usual way. Near the top of the dial is another
opening, through which the seconds are seen on a movable
plate, at the point of an index C, in the same way as the
hours. On the axis of the hour-plate is a wheel ol UO
teeth turning a pinion of ten leaves, on whose axis is t le
minute hand B, and another wheel of 120 teeth turning
a pinion of six leaves. The axis of the last pinion carries
the scape wheel of ninety teeth, and the flat ring or circle
for the seconds, on which is engraven three times sixty
divisions, because it only turns in three minutes. Ibis
clock is quite free from ambiguity, and will go a week
with one winding. But the swing wheel being large, and
its axis being besides loaded with the plate for seconds,
will have considerable friction on its pivots, as Ferguson
himself admitted. Nay, he even supposed his clock had an¬
other defect. He imagined, that since the scape wheel had
three times the usual number of teeth, the pendulum would
necessarily be confined in its vibrations. Tins he thought
a defect, and no less a man than Harrison held a similai
opinion. Others again have been good enough to insinu¬
ate, that if Ferguson had been better versed in the prin¬
ciples of clocks, he would have seen that narrow vibrations
were preferable to wide ones. But, we presume, the ques¬
tion admits of a different solution ; for, if we apply to this
case the rules laid down at page 771, for computing the
proportions in the anchor scapement, it will be found that
neither a large wheel nor small teeth necessarily restrict
the pendulum to narrow vibrations. With different scape-
ments the results would be different, but there seems it-
tle doubt the common scapement was intended by feigu-
son Wre indeed see little need for employing the mov¬
able circles at all. Had the wheels been made to turn in
the other direction, an hour hand, and likewise a seconds
hand, could have been applied in the usual way; and we
know no reason why a minute hand might not have been
used, turning backward, or contrary to the common direc¬
tion, especially where the greatest possible simplicity was
aimed at. „ . ,
In the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxxvn.
pao-e 138, there is a description of a clock by M. rayrer,
winch is something intermediate between the two last.
The central hand goes round in six hours, and might have
shown both hours and minutes, as in Franklins; but there
is also a ring within, which shows the hours through a hole,
as in Ferguson’s. The seconds hand goes round in one
minute. This clock is called three wheeled in the title, but
a fourth wheel and pinion are employed in moving the houi
n'Berthoud, in his Essai sur THorlogerie, describes a clock
in which an ordinary hour hand going round in twelve
hours shows every third minute on a very large dial-plate.
A seconds hand at top goes round in two minutes. I he
minutes are of course a little ambiguous, but had he em¬
ployed a seconds hand going round in three minutes, as
Ferguson has done, all ambiguity might have been avoided.
T nnar nml Mr Ferguson also contrived the following very simple
tide clock, clock for showing the apparent motions of the sun and
moon, with her age, southing, and phases, as also the times
of high and low water, by having only two wheels and one
pinion added to the common movement. The dial-plate,
fig. 3, Plate CLXIV., contains the whole twenty-four hours
of the day and night. The sun S, which is also the houi
hand, is fixed to and carried round by a circular plate,
fitr. 5, upon which the twenty-four hours are engraved;
and within them is a circle divided into twenty-nine and
a half equal parts, for the days of the moon’s age from
one new moon to the next. Each day stands directly un¬
der the time of the moon’s southing or coming to the me- Clock and
ridian • the XII. under the sun standing for noon, and the ^ atch
opposite XII. for midnight. Thus, when the moon is eight
days old she comes to the meridian at halt past six m the ’
afternoon, and when sixteen days old she does so at one
in the morning. The moon M, fig. 3, is fixed to another
plate of the same diameter with that which carries the
sun, and this lunar plate turns round in twenty-four hours
50-52 minutes. It has an opening to show some of the
hours, and days of the moon's age, on the plate behind it,
which carries the sun. Across this opening, at a, is a
piece of wire, which shows on the plate just mentioned
the day of the moon’s age, and time of coming to the
meridian ; and if another wire were placed at a point,
h as far from the wire a as the moon’s southing differs
from the time of high water at the place for which the
clock is made, it would show upon the same plate the
time of high water for that place. At London Bridge it
is hio-h water two hours and a half after the moon passes
the meridian. Above the moon-plate there is a fixed
plate N, supported by a wire A, the lower end of winch
is kneed and fixed in the dial-plate at XII. Tins plate
may represent the earth, and the dot over L London, or
the place for which the clock is made. Around this plate is
an elliptical shade upon the plate that carries the moon M,
the highest points of which are marked high water, and the
lowest low water. While this plate turns behind the fixed
plate N, the high and low water points come successively
even with L, and stand just over it at the times when it is
high and low water at the given place ; which times are
pointed out by the sun S, among the twenty-four hours.
Above the dial-plate is a figure of London Bridge with a
plate H, which rises and falls to represent the tide. W hen
it is hi^h water there, one of the highest points of the ellip¬
tical shade stands just over L, and the plate FI is at its
greatest height; and at low water, one of the low-est points
of the ellipse is over L, and the tide-plate has gone down
quite behind the dial-plate. _ , , ip i «-•
While the sun makes twenty-nine and a half revolutions,
the moon makes only twenty-eight and a half; so that the
moon-plate moves so much slower than the sun-plate as
to cause the wire a shift over one day of the moons age
on the sun-plate in twenty-four hours. In the moon-plate
is a round hole m, through which the phases or appear¬
ance of the moon may be seen on the sun-plate. At the
new moon, the hole m is all of it black, at the lull it is a
white, and is equally well represented at the quarters, <!vc.
All this is obviously produced by the hole m being op¬
posite different parts of the eccentric ring N/h/, in fig. b,
at the new moon N, full moon F, first quarter /, and last
* The mechanism is represented in fig. 4, where A is a
wheel of fifty-seven teeth; its axis is hollow, and comes
through the dial-plate, carrying the sun-plate. B is aw hee
of the^same diameter as A, and has fifty-nine teeth ; its axis
is solid, and turns within that of A, carrying the moon-
plate A. Pinion C of nineteen leaves pitches into both
wheels, and is itself turned round by the clock in eight
hours ; but as eight is to twenty-four, so is nineteen to fifty-
seven, consequently the wheel A carries round the sun in
twenty-four hours. Since fifty-seven teeth are to fifty-
nine, as twenty-four to twenty-four horns fi tF a. h l
minutes, this last is the time of the revolution of the wheel
B carrying the moon-plate. On the back of the whe
is fixed an elliptic ring D, which, as it turns round, raises
and lets down a lever EF, turning on a fixed stud I, a
this, by means of the bar G, raises and lowers the tide
nlate H moving between the rollers R, K> R> ty- ,
P If the thick pinion C be made for working with awheel
of fifty-eight teeth, it may tit both A and li well enoug ,
Lock and
Watch
[Work.
u-ter
chime
k.
but independently of this, the numbers are not the most
correct, for in about thirty-two lunations they would lead
to an error ol one day s motion. To obviate this, Dr Pear¬
son has proposed the following numbers, which would come
extremely near the truth. Let the wheel A, which belon«-s
to the sun-plate, have seventy-four teeth, and drive an¬
other, C, ol forty-three, turning on a fixed stud. Then if a
wheel C', ol thirty-two teeth, be pinned on the side of C,
and drive the wheel B, which belongs to the moon plate’
and is in this case to have fifty-seven teeth, we shall have
the relative motions of the sun and moon with surprising
exactness, considering the simplicity of the numbers. We
cannot here move the solar wheel by one turning in eight
hours, because seventy-four is not divisible by three; but
it is perhaps better that it is divisible by two, for then it
admits of being moved by a wheel of thirty-seven teeth
turning round in twelve hours.
In 1825, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
&c. rewaided i\Ir J. Aitkin for very much simplifying and
improving the dial work, or work between the dial-plate and
frame, of a quarter or chime clock. Of this a description
is given in their Transactions, but which is rather too dif¬
fuse for our limits, and therefore we shall describe it more
briefly, in our own way, supplying some omissions. In
Plate CLXV., the same letters and numbers refer to
the same parts in all the figures. The front plate of the
frame is denoted by a a. The wheel work is nearly the
same as usual. The dial-plate is omitted, and the dotted
circles supposed to be seen through the plate a a, are the
pitch-lines of the wheels and pinions within the frame;
the number of teeth in each being put close after its letter
of reference.
The circles B, C, D, may therefore denote the first, se¬
cond, and third wheels of the going train, which respec¬
tively turn the pinions of b, c, d. But in the original,
through some inadvertence, the pinions c and d have each
only seven teeth, which we have here increased to eight,
because the train requires it. Still the numbers in this
clock are just of the sort to which we so strongly object¬
ed above. Upon the axis of d is fixed the scape wheel E,
which by acting on the pallets e, maintains the motion of
the pendulum. The circles G, H, I, J, represent the first,
second, &c. wheels of the quarter and chime part. They
respectively turn the pinions g, h, i,j. Upon the axis of
j is the fly, which regulates the striking of the quarters
and chimes. The second wheel H also turns the wheel
P, on whose axis is fixed a barrel f, having on its cylin-
dric surface a number of short pins k, h, which act upon
the tail of the quarter hammer p, or upon the tails of any
number of hammers p, p, p, &c., striking as many bells
Q; Q» Q, &c. if the clock is intended to chime. The
circles L, M, N, O, denote the wheels of the striking train,
respectively turning the pinions l, m, n, o. Upon the axis
of o is the fly for regulating the striking of the hours. Ac¬
cording as the clock is to be moved by weights or springs,
the wheels B, G, L, have each a barrel or fusee on its ar¬
bor. The use of the fusee will be explained when treat¬
ing of watches.
The axis of the centre wheel C, prolonged in front of
the plate aa, carries upon a socket or cannon the minute
hand u, and a wheel R, which pitches into an equal wheel
S, turning on a fixed stud. These revolve once in an hour.
On the face of the minute wheel S are fixed four pins,
r pi r<n, t0 ke not;cej after; and on its socket q is a
small pinion s, of six teeth, leading round the hour wheel
T, of seventy two teeth, in twelve hours. The socket of
T carries the hour hand t, and embraces and turns upon
the cannon or socket of the wheel R. The axis of the
scape wheel E revolves in one minute; and, being pro¬
longed through the dial-plate, carries the seconds hand.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Upon the face of the wheel R is fixed the quarter snail v,
the edges of which are formed of five concentric arcs,
v v' v' v'" v"", the use of which will be noticed after. When
the snail is turned round, a pin in on its side acts on one
of the twelve teeth of the star wheel U, and first moves it
slowly, till the point of a tooth gets over the angle of the
bent spring or jumper, xx; then all at once the wheel,
aided by the jumper pressing behind, jumps forward
through what remains of the twelfth part of a revolution,
and there rests till the pin w return. The use of this will
be seen afterwards. On the face of the star wheel U is
fixed the hour snail V, so called from its resembling the
shell of a snail: it is formed of twelve concentric arcs,
marked 1, 2, 3, &c. I he star and snail turn together on
a fixed stud y. On another fixed stud W turns the hour
rack X, in the lower tail of which is fixed a pin z, which
tends to drop against the edge of the snail V by a spring
a;' acting on the inside of one of the arms of the rack.
I he rack has on its upper edge fourteen notches or teeth,
into which drops a catch or detent Y, turning on a fixed
stud 13. Projecting from the back of the lower tail of the
catch is a pin 14; and from the back of its opposite end
there projects a piece or detent 15, which passes through
an oblong hole 16 in the plate aa, and against which
buts or rests a pin 17 in the rim of the wheel O. But
the detent 15 can only get low enough to catch and de¬
tain the pin 17 when the catch Y is got fully into the
notch P, which is cut deeper than the rest.
On the axis of the wheel N, which turns once round
foi each stioke of the hammer, is fixed the gathering pal¬
let 18, which at each turn lays hold of a tooth of the rack
X, moving it through the space of one notch, when it will
be detained by the catch Y dropping into a notch before
the pallet quits the point of the tooth. If the catch Y
be raised till the detent 15 reach the upper end of the
hole 16, the wheel O will also be prevented from turning
round, by a pin 19 in one of its arms coming against
the detent 15, as is the case when a clock warns. Z is
the quarter rack turning on a fixed stud 20. It is press¬
ed towards the left by the spring 21; on its upper edge
are six notches, in which acts the detent 22, turning on the
fixed stud 23. On the socket and front side of the catch
22 is fixed an arm 24, having in its extremity a slit, in
which a trigger 25 is inserted, and forms a joint by means
of a pin or screw passing through them. The motion of
this joint is limited by the shoulder of the trigger com-
ing against the end of the slit, when its point has moved
through an arc equal a! a!', fig. 5. On the upper side of
the arm 24 is attached a spring 26, which acts on the
trigger, and tends to keep it straight with the arm 24.
From the tail or lower branch of the quarter rack Z
there projects behind a pin 27, which, by the action of
the spring 21, drops against the edge of the quarter
snail v, when the catch 22 is raised above the teeth of
the rack Z. On the axis of the wheel I is the pallet 28,
fig. 5, which gathers up the rack Z, in the same way as
the pallet 18 gathered the other rack X; only the pallet
28 has a tail 29 which locks against a pin 30 in the rack,
so soon as the catch 22 has hold of the last notch. When
the pallet 28 is in that position, it is acting on the slant
end of a lever 31, which turns on a fixed stud behind the
catch 22, and by means of a pin 33 assists in lifting that
catch; but the pallet only does so in commencing its
first revolution, when the detent 30 has just been remov¬
ed; for no sooner has the lever 31 been quitted by the
pallet 28, than it drops out of the reach of that pallet, and
its side 34 rests on the fixed stud 35 till the pallet 28
begins to act on the fourth tooth of the rack Z; then, as
the rack advances, a pin 36 in its side acts on the slop¬
ing edge 37 of the lever 31, and raises it to its first posi-
779
Clock and
Watch
Work.
780
Clock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
tion. So that when the pallet has just cleared the fourth
tooth of the rack Z, the lever 31 will again be within its
reach. . .
On the fixed stud 39 turns the tumbler 38, which is
pressed against the pin 14 in the tail of the catch Y by
the spring 40. In the rack Z is a pin 42, fig. 4, which
acts on the tail 43 of the tumbler. Suppose the notch v’’"
to be opposite the pin 27 in the tail of the quarter rack,
and the catch 22 to be lifted out of the notch, the spring
21 will cause the end 44 of the rack Z strike against the
tail 45 of the catch Y, and depress it till the detent 15 in
its opposite end reach the upper end of the hole 16- '
this time the tumbler having escaped the pm 14, will be
resting against the fixed stud 46, while the pin 14 will
rest on the end 47 of the tumbler, and prevent the catch
Y from dropping into the rack X till the pallet 28 begin
to act on the fourth tooth of the rack Z. The pin 42 will
then be drawn against the edge 43 of the tumbler, and
will bring it back to its former position, which will allow
the catch Y to drop into the rack X.
The wheel N turns eight times round for each revolu¬
tion of the wheel M. In the rim of the latter are fixed
eight pins 48, which, as the wheel turns round, act succes¬
sively in lifting the tail 49 of the hammer 51, and upon
quitting it the spring 50 makes it strike the hour bell 52,
once for each turn of the pallet 18; so that for every tooth
of the rack X which the pallet gathers up, the hammer
o-ives a stroke. The snail V, an ingenious contrivance,
first used in the repeating clocks and watches of Bar-
low, has the radii of its several steps so proportioned,
that if, when the catch Y has been lifted, the pin z in
the tail of the rack come against the step 1 of the snail,
the rack will only have gone back one notch ; consequent¬
ly one turn of the pallet gathers it up, and the hammer
strikes one. In like manner, when the pin z falls on the
step 5, there are five notches to gather up, the clock strikes
five, and so on for all the other steps. I he like explana¬
tion applies to the quarter snail, except that it has only
four steps beside the part v, which passes close by the pin
27.
Two levers, 53 and 54, turn upon the fixed studs 55 and
56. They are connected by the jointed rod 57, and press¬
ed to the left by the spring 58;- but their motion is limit¬
ed bv the fixed studs 59 and 60. When moved to the
right, they act against the tails 61 and 62 of the catches
22 and Y respectively; so that, if to either of the screws
63 or 64 in the ends of the levers we attach a cord or
wire, the pulling of this will raise the catches 22 and \,
and cause the clock repeat, or strike over again, first the
quarters and then the hour. The design of making the
star and snail shift suddenly from one hour to another, as
was before described, is to avoid the chance of the pin z
falling on the wrong step, and consequently the clock strik¬
ing a wrong hour when the repeating cord happens to be
pulled near the end of an hour. In a great many clocks
the snail V is just fixed on the side of the hour wheel,
which does very well if no repeating is intended.
When the clock has just struck twelve, the minute and
hour hands will be together ; and if at any time before the
minute hand advance another quarter, the cord 65 be pull¬
ed, there will be no quarter to strike, but the hour twelve
will be repeated; for the step 12 of the hour snail will
then be turned toward the pin z ; but the highest step v
of the quarter snail will be sliding close by the pin 27, so
that the quarter rack cannot drop at all, and no quarters
can be struck. When the minute hand reaches the tenth
minute, the pin r in the wheel S, which revolves in^ an
hour, will just begin to act on the trigger 25 ; and when
the pin r reaches its first dotted position, fig. 5, the trig¬
ger will be bent into its first dotted position a", but its
shoulder being then come against the end of the slit in the Clock an
arm 24, will prevent its bending farther. Again, when the Watch
pin r has reached its second dotted position, the minute
hand will have completed the first quarter; the point of
the trigger will have got to its second dotted positions ,
the arm 24 to its first dotted position; and the catch 22,
being also at its first dotted position, will clear the teeth
of the rack Z. The highest arc of the quarter snail having
quite passed the pin 27, that pin can now drop on the next
step, and the rack go back one notch with the detent 30,
which will release the pallet tail 29. The pallet 28 begin¬
ning to turn, raises the lever 31 with its pin 33 , and when
the pallet just clears that lever, the catch 22 and arm 24
will be at their second dotted position, and the trigger at
its third. As soon as the trigger is clear of the pin r, it
is pressed inward by its spring 26 ; and when the pallet 28
is half round, the catch drops into the fifth notch. Ihe
pallet then gathers up the fourth tooth, during which the
wheel P turning one fifth round, one of its five pins k acts
on the hammer tail p, making it strike one quai tei ; but
the hour will not be repeated, unless the coid 65 has
been pulled. The use of the joint of the trigger is, that
after being lifted clear of the pin r by the action of the
pin 33, its spring 26 bends it inwards; and therefore,
while the catch 22 descends, the point of the triggei clears
or falls behind the pin r. Were there no joint, the point
would drop again on the pin r, as represented in the se-.
cond dotted position, which would keep the catch from
droppino- into a notch, and of course the clock would con¬
tinue striking till the pin r had passed the point of the trig¬
ger, which would be more than a minute.
At the half hour the step v" of the quarter snail will be
next the pin 27, which will allow the rack Z to drop two
notches, and two quarters will be struck ; and in like man¬
ner, when the minute hand is at three quarters, the stepv
being next the pin 27, will allow three quarters to be
struck. But at the fifty-second minute, the pin io in the
side of the quarter snail wdll begin to act on a tooth of
the star wheel U, and in six minutes more will.have mov¬
ed it with a start one tooth forward, as was before explain¬
ed The step 1 of the hour snail V will then be next the
pin z in the tail of the rack X, and the step f of the
quarter snail next the pin 27 ; and at the hour s end the
pin r'" will have raised the trigger 25, along with the catch
22. The pin 27 will next drop to the bottom of the notch
v"", and the end 44 of the rack Z, by striking the tail of
the hour catch Y, will raise it out of the notch 1 of the
rack X. While the detent 15 is being raised to the top
of the hole 16, it will first let go the pin 17 and wheel O ;
but, by catching the pin 19, will again arrest that wheel.
The pin z will then drop against the step 1 of the hour,
snail V, and the rack X fall back one notch. During this
the rack Z will have dropped back four notches, ihe
clock will next strike four quarters ; then the pin 42 draw¬
ing up the tail of the tumbler, will allow the pm 14 to es¬
cape/and the catch Y to fall into the notch V which will
clear the detent 15 of the pins 17 and 19. Ihe pallet 18
will then gather up the tooth of the rack X; the ham¬
mer 51 will strike one o’clock; and so on for the other
hours, &c. . i no o „
Pig 5 is a front view of the detent or catch 22, cvc. in
several different positions. Fig. 2 is a view of the upper
edges of the lever 31, and of the parts m fig. 5, without
the spring 26. Fig. 3 is the spring 26. Fig. 8 shows the
front, and fig. 4 the upper side, of the quarter rack Z, its
tail 27, and the stud 20. Fig. 6 shows the star wheel U
and hour snail V. Fig. 7 is the quarter snail v and the mi¬
nute wheel R. . , u„,nt.Dav«
When a clock is to show the day of the month, the hour^A
wheel, or a wheel on its socket, turns a wheel of double
%
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
i&S1 »:$r ^ .Th? "»•<*« *“ a hoop fixed on its side.
’81
tVork.
lx. • • 1 • i: 1 0U1 nours' llie notches in a hoop fixed on its side. The two clos
lat er carries a pin which daily lays hold of a star wheel notches generally left nothing between them. There s a
^ -Wcfc. *4, the wheel; by holding
two closest Clock and
Watch
Work.
axis of tlie last carries either a day-of-the-month hand some one of the twelve pins. On this catch beW lifted
outside the dial-plate, or a ring with the days engraven on the wheel advances, and during that acts on the pallets/
i behind the dial-plate, and the day of the month is seen causing the pendulum to vibrate and give as many
through a hole as the hours are in Ferguson’s clock, strokes8 to thl bell e as there are teeth or notches in the
Sometimes instead of a wheel with thirty-one teeth, arch between that and the next following pin, which is
tiere is a flat i mg movable between three or four pul- stopped by the detent k. The bell is placed a little
eys, and having 3Go notches on its inner edge, into one obliquely, to let the hammer clear it on one side, and
of winch the foresmd pin enters daily and shifts it forward only strike it on the other at every alternate vibration,
one notch the days being seen on this ring through the We have now described as much of this apparatus as is
, ’ c‘r J”[ltnvanC® 18 usedrj01 t!ie twenty-nine sufficient for being applied in the usual way as the strik-
and a half days of the moon s age. The hour wheel car- mg part of a clock; but it is provided with some small ad-
ries a pin, which twice in twenty-four hours enters the ditional parts, by which it may be adapted to a common
teeth of a star wheel of fifty-nine teeth or of a flat ring watch thus:-Take off the oLr case" if the watch has
IhJ'111"-! f L ’ m°H 1 VtT' 3 , an^ thr0Hr back the g]ass’ a"d the watch with its
a il e raent being the first who applied a pendulum to face upward upon the brass plate zz of the watch holder,
a pen- reSu!ate 1 ie.,st^lkin^Pa^t ot a cl°ek, is by most English in front of the instrument, and which may be raised or
lum. writers ascribed to Mr Massey, probably because, in 1803, low ered, to suit the thickness of the watch, and there
the Society of Arts voted him tvventy guineas for it. But fixed by the screw 1. The watch being in this position,
long befoie his time, the same thing had been done, and and having the axis of its minute hand directly under
published too, by Le Roy, Berthoud, and others. As a and in a line with the small vertical axis w of the ma-
regulator for striking work, the pendulum is greatly pre- chine, which carries a small plate v, of sixty divisions or
ferable to the fly and train of wheels; yet custom, it seems, minutes, screw the sliders fast which inclose the watch •
has in this instance, as in many others, given the latter then raise or lower the plate zz with the watch, till the
method a prescriptive right to maintain its place, perhaps notch in the ivory piece x, on the lower end of the axis
for an indefinite period. This arises, in a great measure, embrace the minute hand, and there fix the plate zz by
from the circumstance that the majority of workmen ne- the screw; then holding the upright axis w, turn the
ver think for themselves, or inquire into the reason of minute plate to suit the position of the minute hand. So
what they are doing. 1 hey content themselves with be- very little force is necessary to move the axis tv, that it
liking
i.mlated
parts have sometimes been regulated by being connected, how the axis tv, in turning, can unlock the count wheel; and
while in action, with tne going part; and it is a consider- before we have done, we must not, like the inventor, omit
able time since Mr Ward contrived a striking part which to observe, that if the position of the divisions of the
derived its motion entirely from the pendulum of the go- count wheel do not suit the hour hand of the watch, the
ing part. Ihis, however, requires a very heavy pendulum, wheel must be set or turned round till they correspond,
ij , . having rather wide vibrations. Upon the upright axis w is an eccentric plate q, better
mi ree™ • Mr John Prior bas laboured much to simplify the strik- seen in fig. 8, which, in every revolution of that axis,
rand mechanism of clocks; and various devices of his for presses upon the arm n of the spring ll, pushing this
! imer. tbat. PlirPose have at different times been rewarded by the spring back from the frame-plate pp. So soon as the beak
Society of Arts, and published in their Transactions. Two of the plate q passes the arm n, the spring l, aided by the
of them were regulated by a fly with a screw on its axis, momentum of its weight r, flies beyond its place of rest,
like a kitchen jack. The third was regulated by a pendu- causing its tooth o raise the sloping end m, fig. 9, of an
lum, and could repeat, without expending any part of the arm, which, being on the same axis with the detent k, lifts
ordinary winding thereon. The fourth, which we shall
now describe, might also have been made to repeat in tbe
same way; but it has the advantage of all the rest, in be¬
ing regulated by a pendulum, which is likewise the strik-
that detent, and unlocks the wheel. The pin s prevents
the arm m from rising too high, and 2 is a guide-pin fixed
in the plate/?/), and standing through the forked end of
the spring ll. Under the plate q is the minute plate v,
ing hammer. Fig. 6, Plate CLXVI1I., is a side view of which has a spring beneath, bearing upon the axis w, so
this machine, which is meant to be in an upright position ; as to be carried round with that axis, or to admit of being
and fig. 7 is a plan or view on the top of the machine, a
is the weight, suspended by a cord wound on the barrel
b, which acts on the scape wheel d, by means of the
ratchet c. These, of course, are all on the same axis.
The wheel d has seventy-eight teeth, because the sum
of all the strokes in the twelve hours is seventy-eight. It
readily set with the watch, according to the index y.
The counter string 2 being pulled, winds up tbe machine ;
for it winds upon the barrel while the other winds off, and
vice versa. If the pendulum is wanted to strike slower,
the ball 3 may be screwed upon its top.
Under the article Clock, in Rees’s Cyclopcedia, there striking
has likewise a set of pins ee, projecting from the side of is a description and engraving of a striking part which has without fly
it.S Tim. n VIM rnvininrr if infn f I nnomiol a n .a c trxrw* won rl n 1 n m ( ^ n flio o-vio rvf* cn-m-v*in /I..
its rim, and dividing it into twelve unequal arches. The
smallest of these segments contains one tooth, or a space
equal to one notch between the teeth, the second two, and
so on, till we come to the twelfth, which contains twelve.
From its being thus divided, to count or regulate the num¬
ber of strokes for the different hours, it is called the count
wheel, and is a much more ancient contrivance than the
snail, which originated with the repeating clocks of Bar-
low. Formerly, however, the unequal divisions of the
count wdieel were not marked by pins, but by cuts or
neither fly nor pendulum. On the axis of the hammer is or pendu-
fixed a pinion, which an enormous wheel with 300 teeth^um*
turns quite round for each stroke. The shank of the ham¬
mer has a knee joint, which enables it to stretch out by
means of the centrifugal force, so as to reach the inside
of the bell placed over it; and of course the more rapidly
the hammer revolves, the greater is the resistance it meets
from the bell. This, which is represented as the master¬
piece of a singular character long since deceased, we can¬
not help regarding as a very far-fetched contrivance. Were
782
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
Alarm
clocks.
a scapement of repose nearly allied to the duplex, pio-
perly applied to a hammer, we have no doubt it would
effectually control the striking both in clocks and watches,
and would perhaps be the easiest mode of doing so. ^ We
mean that the wheel should rest on an arch or cylinder of
repose during the coming on of the stroke ; and that what
is the pallet of impulsion in the duplex should here be the
hammer tail. This last, we presume, ought to be a little
flexible, or a spring. A description of the duplex scape¬
ment will be found among those of watches, farther on.
Alarm clocks or watches are such as, being previously
set, can give a very audible notice of the arrival of some
particular point of time, such as awakening a person at a
certain hour, and the like. Clocks and watches of this
sort have been made in a great variety of forms. In 1819,
the Society for the Encouragement of Arts rewarded Mr
Thomas Taylor for an alarm clock, so contrived that, with
only one setting, it can give several alarms succeeding
each other at almost any intervals we please during the
twenty-four hours after being so set. Ol this we shall now
give a description.
Fig. 1, Plate CLXVL, represents the dial-plate, which
turns’ round in the course of twenty-four hours, and has
an index a fixed over it at top. Having been made for
the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, the dial contains
the whole twenty-four hours, as is usual with many clocks
for astronomical purposes. But that does not unfit it for
other purposes ; and indeed a clock of this sort might
have twice twelve hours put on it; or, when not intended
for astronomers, the wheels might he calculated for any
other number. The hours are placed in an inverted ol¬
der when compared with other dial-plates ; but that is
quite arbitrary, because it might as well turn in the other
direction. Each hour is divided into twelve equal parts,
a division answering to five minutes, big. 2 is a front
view of the work when the dial and front plates have been
removed. Fig. 3 is a plan or view on the upper side.
Fig. 4 is a side view of the alarm part only. Hie same
letters refer to the same parts in all the figures. With
the exception of the dial-plate moving, the going part of
this clock differs little from that of a common clock.
The dial-plate is keyed to the arbor of the first wheel 13,
but only tight enough to turn with it, that it may be
moved at pleasure to any point. The time is shown by
an index a screwed to the top of the frame or front plate
CC. This plate is fixed and kept parallel to the second
plate DD by four pillars and screws bbbb. The plate CC
has a large opening, to show the dial-plate. Ihe back
plate EE is fixed to the second plate DD by tlm pillars
cccc. To the side of the wheel B is fixed a spring and
catch acting on the ratchet wheel F. ihe ratchet is
fixed to the pulley G, over which the cord H of the weight
passes. While the weight is being raised, the ratchet and
pulley are free to turn on the arbor, but the weight in
descending turns the wheel B, and the dial-plate along
with it. 1 is the second wheel, J the third wheel, K the
scape wheel, and L the pallets of the going part.
The first wheel M of the alarm part has a ratchet, pul¬
ley, cord, and weight, similar to those in the going part.
On the back of this wheel is fixed a rim or wheel N, re¬
presented by the dotted circle within the rim of M. It
has two gaps or notches x,y, on its periphery. The wheel
M turns the pinion O, on whose axis is fixed the escape
wheel P, having a pin or stud e in the side of the rim. Q
is the crutch or pallets, R the alarm hammer, the shank
of which is fixed to the back of the verge or pallet arbor
at f; and by this means the hammer R is made to vi¬
brate within, and strike the bell S when the alarm part
is put in motion. T is a hammer or lever turning on a pin
or fulcrum at g, fixed on the front side of the plate DD.
Work.
The shorter end or tail h of this hammer is acted on by Clock an
a pin i screwed into the dial-plate on purpose. As the Watch
dial-plate turns, the pin i depresses the tail h of the ham-
mer, as seen in fig. 2 and 3, till the pin pass over it and v
allow the end of the hammer T to fall on the pin j in the
end of the arm fixed on the arbor hk. This arm being
depressed by the momentum of the hammer, lifts at the
same time the two detents /, wz, also fixed on the aibor kk.
The pin e in the escape wheel being now free, and the
detent m being lifted out of the notch g in the rim or
wheel N, the alarm is set in motion, and the rim N sus¬
tains the detent till the great wheel M has made half a
revolution. At the same time the detent l has been kept
up sufficiently for the pin e in the scape wheel P to pass
under it, whereby the alarm has been kept in motion
about twenty-four seconds, and during halt a revolution
of the first wheel M. When the notch x comes round to
the place of y, the detent l stops the pin e in the scape
wheel P, which immediately stops the alarm.
For the purpose of discharging the alarm at various
times, the dial-plate is pierced with a ring of screwed
holes, on the inside- of the divisions for hours, at every
ten minutes distance, so as to admit such a pin as t, which
is screwed next XXIV. A number of these pins being
prepared, one of them is screwed into each of the holes
in the dial-plate nearest to the times when the alarm is
required to be discharged; but though the holes aie ten
minutes apart, the discharge may often be regulated to
within four minutes of the time. _ ,
When the clock is intended to give notice of the daily
transits of fixed stars, as was the case in the one at
Greenwich, it is farther provided with the following con¬
trivance On the end of the arbor U is fixed the ham¬
mer V, and at the other end an arm or lever n, which is
acted on by a number of pins projecting from the inside
of the dial-plate near its edge. When one of these pins
comes in contact with the arm ti, it elevates the hammer
V, which on falling gives the bell one blow. These pins
are inserted in such places that the hammer may strike
five minutes previous to the passage over the meridian of
each of twenty-five principal fixed stars. It this is not
sufficient to awaken the observer, an alarm may likewise be
set so as to discharge at the same time. When the ham¬
mer V is not wanted to give notice of these stars, a pine is
fixed in the upper end of a lever, which projects over the
front of the top plate at S, p being the fulcrum and q
a stud fixed in the lower end of the lever. When the
pin o is turned to N, the stud g acts against the arm «,
and depresses it, as shown by the dotted line ; so that the
pins on the inside of the dial-plate will pass over the arm
n, and the bell will remain silent. The outer ends ot
these pins are shown on the dial-plate. .
For astronomical purposes, especially transits over the
meridian, such a clock should be regulated according to
sidereal time; but since that makes one day more in the
year than common clocks or sun-dials do, the common
reckoning will be found much more convenient for ail
sublunary affairs, and only requires the pendulum to be a
very little longer.
An equation clock is one which is furnished with a con- Lqua
trivance for indicating the equation of time, that is, theecc .
difference between the time shown by a good clock, called
mean time, and the time shown by a sun-dial, called ap¬
parent time; or it is a clock which with one set of hands
or circles shows mean time, and with another appaien
time. The first clock of this sort was made about the
year 1693, by Mr Joseph Williamson, an English artist,
then working for Mr Daniel Quare, watchmaker in Lon¬
don, who sold it to go to Charles II., king of Spam, abou
the year 1699. It went 400 days with one winding, and
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK; 783
Ik and had two fixed and two movable circles for the hands to
itch mark the time upon : the former giving the hours and
minutes of mean time; and the latter, which were con-
centric with the former, apparent time. The same artist
tells us in the Phil. Trans, for 1719, that he had made
other clocks which showed apparent time, including a ge¬
neral correction for temperature, by raising and lowering
the pendulum so that its vibrations made the clock keep
pace with the sun throughout the year. Father Alexandre,
a Benedictine, had laid a project of this sort before the
Academy of Sciences in 1698, which is mentioned in their
Memoirs for 1725 ; but nothing of the kind seems to have
been practised in France, till a clock, the equation work
of which scarcely differed from Williamson’s, was made
by Lebon in 1717. This was .soon after followed by ano¬
ther by Leroy. That of Lebon had two concentric circles,
one of which was movable, and regulated by an equation-
plate which revolved once in a year. Clocks and watches
with movable circles have since been made with some
improvements by various artists; and, so far as simplicity
is concerned, they are perhaps preferable to any that had
been made during the last century.
The celebrated Mr George Graham had a much more
elegant mode of showing mean and apparent time by using
two concentric minute hands, one of which carried a figure
of the sun, to distinguish it from the other or ordinary
minute hand. The same thing has been done by several
eminent French artists ; but all these are so complex and
expensive, that they have in a great measure been laid
aside. They have not only an annual motion in com¬
mon with all others of the kind, but the minute work has
several additional wheels, which render them extremely
difficult of execution, and, without great care, liable to
considerable error.
A very simple equation part, having the two minute
hands, has been contrived by Mr Henry Ward, for which
he was rewarded by the Society of Arts in 1814. It has
no real annual movement, but only a relative one, and
may be made by any ordinary workman who comprehends
the use of its parts.
In fig. 3, Plate CLXVIIL, AA is a steel arbor which
carries the apparent time hand 1, and on which is fixed
a pinion B of twenty-four teeth. But it may be proper
here to observe, that through some inadvertence the let¬
ters are sadly misplaced and transposed in the original en¬
graving of this figure in the Society’s Transactions. We
mean misplaced for the description there given. C is the
minute wheel of 111 teeth, screwed to a brass socket cc,
which turns on the arbor A A; the end of this socket is
the fore pivot to the arbor, and carries the mean time
hand 2. The minute wheel C drives a wheel D of sixty-
four teeth on the arbor EE, the fore pivot of which is
squared to receive a key for setting right the equation
work if the clock has been standing or out of order. On
the same arbor is fixed another wheel F of the same dia¬
meter, but containing seventy-nine teeth. It drives a
wheel G of 137 teeth, screwed to the socket ffff, which
turns freely on the arbor AA, and to which is also fixed
the equation plate H. In the rim of the minute wheel C
I is fixed a stud s, upon which turns the toothed quadrant
I, pitching into the pinion B. In one extremity of the
quadrant is fastened a pin i, which, by the revolving of the
equation plate, is moved backward and forward, and is
made to bear on the edge of that plate by means of a
slender spring, which connects it with and pulls it towards
the arbor AA. Fig. 4 shows in perspective the equation
work more distinctly, with the same letters of reference ;
and fig. 5 is a front view of the rack I, its pinion B, the
equation plate H, &c.
It is obvious, that when the parts are arranged in the
manner now described, the minute wheel C cannot be put Clock and
on the axis of the centre wheel of the clock. But that Watch
might be done by making the wheel G and plate H change Work,
places with C, and by putting the pinion B on a socket,
which should include that of C. The former arrangement
will, however, be found more simple, and there will be no
difficulty in getting motion to the minute wheel without
putting it on the axis of the centre wheel.
The rationale of the contrivance is this: If the wheel
C be made to revolve just once in an hour, it will cause
the wheel G make one turn more than itself does in the
course of a year; so that relatively to the wheel C, the
equation plate turns once round in a year. It indeed
takes fully two hours more than a year; for 137 X 64
—■ 8768 turns of C or hours, — 365 days 8 hours; and in
this time G makes 111 X 79 = 8769, which is just one
complete turn more. But this inaccuracy is of no moment,
for any error arising from it in the equation of time can
accumulate to no sensible quantity during the interval
between the times of cleaning the clock. After almost
every thing else had been made and put together, the
figure of the equation plate was obtained by finding suc¬
cessively, by trial, the points in its periphery which cor¬
responded to the relative annual positions of the several
teeth of the wheel G, in respect of C, and which likewise
corresponded to the equation of time, or difference be¬
tween the hands for these relative positions. To facili¬
tate this, Mr Ward had previously constructed a table of
the equation of time for each 137th part of the year, set¬
ting out from where the equation is nothing. After these
points had been marked on the side of the plate, the rest
of it was cut away. It will now be obvious how the ex¬
tent which the quadrant I moves the pinion B and the
hand 1 backward and forward, in respect of C and the or¬
dinary minute hand, is always equal to the equation of
time; and it will be found that no similar construction
can come nearer the exact length of the year without em¬
ploying wheels with greater numbers of teeth.
Although the equation work first applied to clocks was
much more complicated than that now described, it was
shortly afterwards adapted occasionally to watches. Equa¬
tion work however has now gone almost entirely into dis¬
use in watches.
There are various machines for measuring minute in-Machines
tervals of time, with wheel work like that of a clock orformea-
watch, and regulated by a scapement or a conical pendu-sur*ng
lum. The general mode of using such an instrument is®^^^*
to set it in motion, or rather to let it go at the beginning^ 0
of the interval, to stop it at the end, and then see how
far it has gone during the interval. But we cannot help
thinking the merits of these machines have been greatly
overrated, and that they can scarcely be depended on to
a tenth of a second. For, when several of these instru¬
ments are employed by different persons to measure the
same interval of time, the results rarely agree, nay often
differ by three, four, and five tenths of a second, as was
the case with very nice instruments used in the experi¬
ments made in France on the velocity of sound in 1822;
and the like discordance was observed in the less perfect
experiments afterwards made at Port Bowen, as noticed
more particularly in the Edinburgh Phil. Journ. for Octo¬
ber 1828. It is indeed difficult to conceive how such a
machine can either be let go or stopped by the finger of a
person taken in some degree by surprise, without an un¬
certainty of much more than a hundredth of a second at¬
taching to each of the instants of doing so. Mr Hardy’s
instrument, described in Trans. Soc. of Arts, vol. xliii. is
accounted one of the most refined. In perusing that de¬
scription we were much surprised to find so intelligent an
artist putting an index on such a vague moving thing as
784
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and tlie axis of a balance with the common scapement; and still
Watch more did we wonder that he should have made that index
Work, vibrate over an arc graduated with equal divisions ; as if the
v—motion of the balance were perfectly uniform, or the same
in every part of a vibration. But since the length of the
vibrations, especially in this machine, which has no fusee,
is variable and uncertain, no mode of graduation could
suit such an index. Besides, the first vibration after start¬
ing wijl generally be much slower than the rest. From
such considerations, we question if this instrument can
be depended on to a tenth of a second, instead of a six
hundredth. Indeed, no machine is likely ever to be in¬
vented which shall measure with the certainty of a suffi¬
cient exactness, and separately by itself, the time which
sound takes to pass over a few hundred feet. A different
method of accomplishing this to almost any degree of ex¬
actness has therefore been proposed by Mr Meikle, in the
Edinburgh Phil. Journ. for October 1827. Suppose a ham¬
mer moved by clock work to strike a bell at equal short
intervals, as seconds, and that an observer sees the ham¬
mer just touch the bell always at the very instant he first
hears the sound. It is evident that he must be either
quite near the bell, or at such a distance as requires exact¬
ly one second or a whole number of seconds for the sound
to reach him. By removing himself a very little farther
off, the sound will arrive too late, and by approaching ra¬
ther nearer, the report will precede the visible stroke. In
short, a very small variation on the distance will sensibly
disturb the coincidence ; and since this experiment might
be often repeated in the course of a few minutes, ample
opportunity would be afforded for determining the exact
distance which should make the two sensations perfectly
harmonize. But instead of watching the motions of the
hammer itself, a more precise and conspicuous signal
might easily be contrived; such as a long index, complet¬
ing a revolution during each interval between the strokes,
and then passing or covering some conspicuous mark or
line. For experiments in the dark, a small hole might be
opened and instantly shut by the clock work, at the very
nick of time to allow a lamp placed behind a screen send¬
ing a momentary ray to the observer; so that in proper
hands such a machine would, in a great measure, obviate
the uncertainty inseparable from hurriedly measuring in
a direct manner the short interval of time which elapses
during tlie passing of sound over a small distance, hor,
if the visible signal be ascertained exactly to agree with
the sound, we are sure of the true elapsed time to almost
any degree of exactness, from the rate of the clock, with¬
out flustering ourselves about measuring it at the moment.
, The observer, instead of hurriedly moving his fingers,
when taken no doubt in some degree by surprise, would
merely need to walk a very little backward and forward
with perfect deliberation till he found himself at the pre¬
cise distance. But since neither eyes nor ears are in all
persons equally acute, several observers might be employ¬
ed at the same time ; and if they did not quite agree about
the distance, this might lead to a more minute investiga¬
tion of the circumstances. This method obviously pos¬
sesses, and even in a greater degree, the same sort of ad¬
vantages over the former method, that Hadleys quadrant
does in measuring angles at sea, over the old instruments.
See Edinburgh Phil. Journ. for June 1828.
Illusory Sometimes a contrivance similar to those for measuring
exactness small intervals of time is employed by astronomers, with
of observa-the view of enabling them to note the time of observation
tion. with extreme precision. Such an instrument having been
previously set or compared with a clock, is to be suddenly
stopped at the instant of observation. But the exactness
is just as illusory here as in the other case, except that
this requires accuracy at one instant only, whereas the
other required it at two. When several of these instru- Clock a*
ments are used simultaneously, as in the above case in
France, the discordance in the results shows clearly that Work,]
the defect lies principally with the observer; his move-
ments being too slow and uncertain for co-operating with
his senses with the requisite precision. There is there¬
fore little probability of this defect ever being obviated
by accuracy of instruments, or indeed by any other means.
The remedy proposed in the case of sound is not appli¬
cable here.
A novel use of clock work has lately been made by Mr
Rutherford, in applying it to locks, so as to render it im¬
possible to open them, even with the proper keys, during
a certain interval, or except at a certain hour. By this
ingenious method, for which he has obtained a patent,
great security may be given to various sorts of reposito¬
ries, but a description of it scarcely belongs to this article.
The first contrivance for keeping a clock going during Huyge-
the time of winding was that of Huygens. In fig. 11,pulleys:
Plate CLXIL, the pulley A, with a notched groove, is going n
fixed upon the arbor of the first wheel. H is a similar^™-'
pulley pinned on the side of a ratchet R, and movable
on a stud fixed in the frame. An endless cord is put
over these two pulleys, and under the pulleys B and C,
which carry the weights P, p. It is evident that half
of the large weight P i sustained by the pulley H, and
the other half by the pulley A; and that half the weight
will continue to bear upon A, although we turn the pulley
H so as to raise the weight P. Now this is just what
occurs in time of winding; for Huygens, by pulling the
part of the cord next B, turned the pulley H, and raised
or wound up the weight P, which all the while acted with
half its weight on A, and consequently kept the clock go¬
ing. The ratchet R only turns in time of winding, and is
prevented by a click from going back. The method is
perfect enough in theory, but it does not after all answer
very well unless a chain be used instead of the cord , for
the pulleys A and H wear the cord so fast as to create a
great deal of dust, which soon renders the clock foul.
The chain again is objectionable on account of its weight,
which sometimes aids and at other times counteracts the
'!tbf
•jane
moving power. . . , ,
The method mostcommonly used for keeping both clocks Harnsi
and watches going in time of winding, is that of the cele-FrpeM
brated Harrison. In fig. 12, ABC is a ratchet, placed but^
not fixed upon the first wheel DL, and prevented ^ro1” spring.
going back by the click HG, which turns on a stud fixed
to the frame at H. To the side of the ratchet ABC is
attached at B the click of the fusee-ratchet or bairel-
ratchet LM, which operates in the usual way during the
winding. In a cavity between the ratchet ABC and tie
first wheel there is a circular spring of considerable length,
which is represented by two dotted arcs, almost entire
circles. One end of this spring is fixed to the wheel at A,
and the other to the ratchet at C. When, therefore, we
turn forward the ratchet ABC, it acts by means of the
spring upon the wheel DE, and presses it foiwar . u
since the ratchet ABC cannot get backward for the click
H, it is evident that if, when the spring is thus m a state
of tension, we cease to urge forward the ratchet, the spring
will continue for some time to impel the wheel. .Now tms
is just what takes place in time of winding, lor during
the ordinary going of the machine, the smaller ratchet, oy
means of its click, urges forward the larger one, and it
again impels the wheel through the medium of the spring ,
and although, by applying the key to the arbor R, we with¬
draw the force of the smaller ratchet from the larger, the
auxiliary spring can continue the motion of the w ee > a
least during an interval amply sufficient for the wind g-
This contrivance Harrison called the perpetual ratchet,
jck and others the auxiliary spring. It is, however, to be observ-
Vnrk! e^’ ^ ^c^hod other forms of springs are often
used, and sometimes two or more springs are applied to
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
785
uov ^» ciuct ouiucuuicb lwu or more s
the same wheel, especially in clocks.
There are vaiious other contrivances for going in time
of winding; but all of them with which we are acquaint¬
ed are either inferior to the last or more complicated, ex¬
cept when a mainspring is used without a fusee ; for if, in
that case, the click of the ratchet turn on a fixed stud,
the tension of the mainspring, whatever that may be, is
as fully exerted on the wheels during winding as at any
other time. But the want of the fusee is a great defect,
and is not in the least supplied by anything of this sort. ’
Clocks have sometimes been provided with a contrivance
on which the changes in the pressure or temperature of
the air operated so as to wind them up continually, and
keep them going so long as everything was in order or re¬
pair. The like has been done by a current of air. It is
considerably above a century since such devices were ap¬
plied to clocks.
pension We have already had occasion to mention some pro-
mtane-
wind-
-     j w HICIILIUII &UIIJU JITU-
lendu Pert,eS °f Pen.dulums> particularly the cycloidal sort; but
under the articles Pendulum, and Centre of Oscilla-
tion, will be found the theory and properties of the pendu¬
lum more at length. We confine ourselves here to its use as
a regulator for clocks, and shall be so much the more brief
on account of what has already been said on that head.
Pendulums are suspended in several ways; sometimes
by an axis turning on fine pivots, or on friction wheels, or
on pieces called knife-edges, though more like very thick
and short wedges. These are made of hardened steel, or
of some hard stone. The most usual suspension is by a
slender spring, which no doubt is very durable, and ob¬
viates friction ; but as it tends to shorten the time of
vibration in a variable and rather uncertain degree, de¬
pending on the temperature, it is not always used in nice
clocks. A small silk cord is sometimes employed as a
suspension for the lighter sort of pendulums.
In speaking of the lengtlyof a pendulum as a regulator, we
mean the distance of a point called its centre of oscillation,
from the axis of suspension about which it vibrates; the
time of vibration being the same as that in which one par¬
ticle would vibrate, if at the same distance from the axis,
and suspended by a rod having neither weight nor inertia.
The time of vibration through a given angle is as the
square root of the pendulum’s length. Thus, if a pendu¬
lum 39-2 inches in length vibrate in one second, another
of 156'8 inches, or four times the length, requires only
double the time, or two seconds. In unequal but very
small arcs, the vibrations of the same pendulum are very
nearly isochronous, or of equal duration ; but when the
arc becomes considerable, the duration is sensibly in¬
creased. The time in a very small arc is to that in a se¬
micircle as 29 to 34 nearly; but within the limits of ten
degrees, a change in the arc of a second’s pendulum will
occasion a daily variation, in seconds, of P644 times the
difference between the square of the degrees in the arc
which gives seconds, and the square of the degrees when
the arc is different. Thus, if the clock keep time when
the pendulum vibrates in an arc of 3°, it will lose ll',-5
daily in an arc of 4°. For 42 — 32 = 7, and 7 X P644 =
11-508.
Huygens indeed showed, that to make the vibrations
isochronous in different arcs, it would require the centre
of oscillation to vibrate, not in a circular arc, but in the
arc of a cycloid. However, it was found so difficult, or
rather impossible, to make the centre of oscillation accu¬
rately describe any considerable portion of this curve,
that the preference is now given to long and heavy pen¬
dulums vibrating in small circular arcs; which make a
VOL. VI.
much nearer approach to isochronism than has yet been Clock and
attained by any cycloidal pendulum in a larger arc. Watch
Since the squares of the times of vibration of two Work-
pendulums are proportional to their lengths, a change of
100th part in the length will alter the time of vibration
about a 200th. But since all bodies expand by heat, the
variable temperature of the atmosphere must necessarily
affect the lengths, and consequently the motions, of pen¬
dulums. Accordingly, clocks are found to move slower
in summer and faster in winter. Ihere is, however, a
great difference in the expansibilities of different sub¬
stances. Dry deal, being one of the least expansible,
is often used for pendulum rods. Brass expands about
one part in 100,000 fora degree of Fahrenheit, glass and
platina not quite half so much, iron about two thirds, and
meicuiy three times as much, we mean in one dimension.
A pendulum with a brass rod would therefore make one
vibration less in 10,000 at 70° than at 50°, and lose 81
seconds daily.
With an iron or steel rod the alteration will be much
less, yet the daily variation of the rate of the clock from
summer to winter will be considerable. Most pendulums,
it is true, have a nut or regulator at the lower end, by
which the bob or weight may be raised or lowered at
pleasure by a very minute quantity; but since the state
of the weather is ever variable, and as it is impossible to
be raising or lowering the bob at every change of tempe¬
rature, several contrivances have been proposed for avoid¬
ing it altogether. The method most commonly followed
is to construct a pendulum of different materials, and dis¬
pose them in such a manner that their expansions or con¬
tractions may take place in opposite directions, and there¬
by counterbalance each other. If this is accomplished,
the pendulum will continue of the same length. But for
such contrivances we must refer to the article Pendulum.
It contributes not a little to the accurate performance Import-
of a good clock that it be firmly fixed to a solid support, ance of a
Any unsteadiness in the support causes the point of sus-steady
pension to follow the motion of the pendulum, and enlarges support,
the radius of the arc described by the pendulum ; it must
therefore tend in general to retard the clock, which might,
after all, be of little consequence, could we be sure its ef¬
fects were always the same. Sometimes, however, an un¬
steady support may be of such a nature as to accelerate
the motion ; and an observation of this kind, made by Ber-
thoud, has suggested to Bernoulli a theory of compound
vibrations, which may perhaps be true in some cases, but
is by no means universally applicable. From some circum¬
stances of this kind it happens, as was first observed by
Huygens, that when two clocks are placed near each other,
with their faces looking the same way, and both resting in
a great measure on the same support, or having their cases
connected by a wooden rod, they have often a remarkable
effect on each other’s motions, so as to continue going for
several days without varying a single second, even when
they would have differed considerably if otherwise situat¬
ed ; and it sometimes happens that the clock which goes
the more slowly of the two will set the other in motion,
and then stop itself. This has been explained from the
greater frequency of the vibrations of a pendulum, when
confined to a smaller arc; the tendency of the pendulums
to vibrate in the same time causing the shorter to describe
an arc continually increasing, and the longer to contract
its vibrations, till at last its motion entirely ceases. But
a shorter pendulum does not set a longer one in motion ;
for as the vibrations of the latter increase, they become
still slower. See Ellicott, in Phil. Trans, for 1739.
This sympathy of clocks, as it is called, has some resem¬
blance to the alternate vibrations of two weighing scales
hanging on the same beam, one of which may often be
5 G
786
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and observed to stop its vibrations when the other begins to
Watch move, and to resume its motion when the latter ceases ;
Work. it ig still more analogous to the mutual influence of
1two strings, or even two organ pipes, which, though not
separately tuned to a perfect unison, still influence each
other’s vibrations in such a manner as to produce exactly
the same note when they sound together. It is probably
owing to a like cause that the notes of a tune, when
heard at a distance, succeed each other quite in their
proper order; and if so, we have no right to infer from
this, as is usually done, that sounds of every tone and in¬
tensity travel at precisely the same rate. _
Hardy’s A very ingenious instrument has been invented by Mr
instrument Hardy, for trying the stability of any thing on which it
for trying may be set. It is a sort of inverted pendulum, having its
the steadi- iow*er en(J, which is a spring, fixed in a portable pedestal,
ness of carrying a weight on the upper part of its rod. \\ hen
supports. ^ instrument is set on any unsteady support, it is sure
to be set a nodding, especially if we have known the pro¬
bable frequency of the oscillations of the suppoit, and ad¬
justed the position of the weight on the rod of the instru¬
ment, so as it may vibrate nearly in the same time, should
it be set in motion by such oscillations.
principally accumulated in its ring or rim. Its axis or verge Clock aj
carries two pallets vv, upon which the crown wheel C acts, uta
as was particularly explained before for clocks, and will J
be farther considered after for watches. The axis of the ^
II.—Watch Work.
It was formerly observed, that after balance clocks had
attained a certain degree of perfection, they only needed
to be reduced in size to be portable. The next step,
therefore, to making them watches, evidently was to re¬
duce them still further in size. This must have been ac¬
complished at an early period, but the precise date is far
from being ascertained. Between forty and fifty years
ao-o there was a great noise about the discovery of a
vTatch, which, from an inscription on the dial-plate, was
supposed to have belonged to King Robert Bruce, and
which, after passing through several hands, and attain¬
ing a high price, was said to have reached King George
III. Some learned antiquaries were perfectly satisfied
of its authenticity, particularly the Honourable Dames
Barrington, who expressed his convictions at great length
and in strong terms. But on this ancient watch being
shown to the Rev. Dr Jamieson, he pronounced it to be
an imposture, from the inscription, “ Robertus B. Rex
Scotorum,” being in Roman characters; whereas had it
really belonged to the age of that prince, the letters be¬
hoved to have been Saxon. It in short turned out.to be
an old watch from America, and, therefore, very likely
several centuries more recent than the days of Robeit
Bruce. Watches are said to have been made at Nurem-
bero- in 1477 ; but if such was the case, they no doubt
felHar short of that perfection to which they were brought
by Hooke and Huygens, about two centuries later, as
will be noticed more particularly afterwards. Some m
the early ones, were very small, in the shape of a pear,
and sometimes sunk or fitted into the top of a walking
cane. But any thing further in the way of history will
be noticed as we proceed, after explaining the consti no¬
tion of the common watch in its simplest form.
Structure Fig. 10, Plate CLXIII., exhibits at one view the seve-
ofthecom-raj acting parts of a small portable timepiece, in their con-
monwatch. nection witi1 otheV5 an(l therefore forms perhaps the
simplest introduction to the structure of watches, espe¬
cially since these parts are essentially the same with the
corresponding ones in the common watch- A few things
which, for the sake of simplicity, are omitted, shall be
described separately. The frame DEFG needs no ex¬
planation, and as little does'the dial-plate RS, which it
carries upon two pillars. A is the balance, which only
differs from those formerly described in having its weight
crown wheel turns with one end in a branch t of the
I, and the other in the counterpotance H.^ Its pinion c? is
moved by the fourth or contrate wheel K, on the axis of
which is the pinion c, moved by the third wheel L ; and on
the axis of L is the pinion b, which is turned by the se¬
cond or centre wheel M, which again derives its motion
from the action of the first wheel N on the pinion a. The
axis of the centre wheel M is prolonged through the dial-
plate, and upon it is put spring-tight the tube or cannon
of the cannon pinion Q. The upper end of this cannon is
squared for receiving the minute hand. The pinion Q
leads the minute wheel T, whose pinion g leads the hour
wheel V, fixed on a socket t, which embraces the cannon
of Q, and carries the hour hand. To the lower end of the
arbor qq of the first wheel N is hooked or fixed one end
of the mainspring OP, which is coiled in the form of a
spiral, and has its other end fixed to the pillar p of the
frame. This spring is here represented as being in a
great measure in its natural relaxed state. But when we
put the key on the upper end o of the arbor qq, and turn
it round in the direction in which the hands^/* turn, the
spring is gradually wrapped closer upon the arbor, and
when this is done sufficiently, the spring is in a state of
tension, and is said to be wound up. During this opera¬
tion the arbor carries round with it the ratchet X, but
turns freely in the wheel N, which remains at rest.
When the key is withdrawn, the spring endeavours to
unwind itself, and turn the arbor in the other direction;
but this it cannot do suddenly, because the small spring
n makes the click m catch into the hooked teeth ot the
ratchet X, and prevent it from turning without taking
with it the wheel N, which impels the whole train.
The reason why the minute hand ef is not put on the
bare arbor itself of the centre wdieel M, but on a tube or
cannon holding somewhat stifly upon it, is, that we maybe
at liberty to shift the minute hand at pleasure without at all
interfering with the position of any thing else except the
three dial wheels T, g, and V, which move the hour hand At.
The chief design of this figure is to exhibit the working
parts of a common watch in the plainest possible manner,
without regard to the form or position of the fixtures;
for in a watch neither pivot of the balance runs in the
frame plates. The one turns in a branch of the potance,
and the balance itself being outside the frame, has its
other pivot running in a piece called the cock, which for¬
merly used to be very much ornamented. Besides, the
balance in fig. 10 is without a spring ; but fig. 11 shows a
balance A having one end of a small spiral spring, which
is extremely slender, fixed in a collet which is spring-
tight on the verge at p, and the other end pinned into a
fixed stud s. This is a flat spiral; but not unfrequently
such springs are coiled in the form of a cyhndric spiral,
similar to the spring tc in fig. 1. Both these figures o
balances will be further described aftei wards.
The mainspring is here placed upon the axis of the nrsc
wheel, and so it is in many French watches and clocks;
but since the force of a spring is greater the more it is
wound up, it does not, when so applied, act umfoim y
the watch; and therefore, to obviate this, the spring is
commonly put on a separate axis, and inclosed in such
barrel as B in fig. 9. In that case, the axis of t ie sP" J
continues at rest, while the barrel turns with the outer
end of the spring fixed to the inside ot its rim.
of a gut or chain being attached to and wound up
barrel, the other end is hooked to and coiled upon the
somewhat conical piece e&A called the/wsee, which
>ck and
ratcb
Fork.
'V
wry
t; bal
IH^S.
fixed upon the nxis of the first wheel N. The nxis of the
spring or barrel B has on its lower end a small ratchet,
not seen in the figure, which holds against a click, and
keeps the axis from turning. By means of this ratchet,
too, we can give a greater or less degree of tension to the
mainspring; but this must not be done after the fusee has
been adjusted to it. To the fusee is fixed the ratchet X,
and the beak of the plate O is to prevent overwinding, as
will be explained in describing the horizontal watch. ° By
turning the fusee so as to coil the chain upon it, we uncoil
it fiom the bairel, and in so turning the barrel we wind up
the spring. But it will be observed, that the barrel and
fusee in fig. 9 must be inverted when applied to fig. 10.
It is generally supposed that, to equalize the action of the
spring, the radius of the fusee at any point to which the
chain is a tangent should be inversely as the tension of
the chain in that position. Within moderate limits this is
nearly true ; but we shall afterwards see that, if adopted
as a datum, it may lead to an erroneous determination of
the figure of the fusee, because the radius of the chain’s
curvature does not pass through the axis of the fusee, or
coincide with its radius.
The motions of the spring barrel and fusee are different
in different watches. For an ordinary thirty hours’ wind¬
ing, the barrel may make from three to four turns, the
fusee from five to seven. When the axis of the fourth or
contrate wheel carries a seconds hand, it revolves in one
minute, or makes sixty turns for one of the centre wheel;
but in the more common sorts of watches, which have no
seconds hand, it usually makes more than sixty turns in a
minute. The scape wheel again commonly moves so as to
make the balance give from four to five vibrations in a se¬
cond. But chronometers, and watches of peculiar con¬
structions, differ widely in these particulars.
The action of watch springs is treated of at consider¬
able length in the Berlin Memoirs for 1769, by Lagrange,
a mathematician of uncommon reputation, who is usually
looked up to as an authority on the subject. But the
greatest efforts of talents or learning are only thrown away
when applied to mistaken or erroneous data. For unfor¬
tunately this great man, not having previously acquainted
himself sufficiently with springs, conducts his investiga¬
tions upon principles so very different from those on which
spiral springs are actually employed, or indeed could be
employed, that whatever might have been his results,
we could not regard them as throwing any light on the
structure of watches. Thus the mainsprings whose ac¬
tion he investigates are supposed to become perfectly
straight when left to themselves. He seems to have known
that this is not the case with those employed in watches
or clocks; hut he surely was not aware of the importance
of the difference, or that a spring which would admit of
so great a change of figure without breaking must be so
extremely thin that it would scarcely bear to be touched,
much less could it have strength or force to move a watch
or anything else. But, which is still more objectionable,
he did not proceed as if aware that a mainspring properly
applied has its outer end fixed to the barrel, and that this
lessens the rubbing of the coils on one another, while it
may occasion a considerable strain and flexure near that end,
and almost none at some distance from it, if not rather
a tendency to straighten it there. Nay, he seems to have
had no idea that the coils, however well shaped when free,
are prone to lean and rub on one another when in action,
and that they would be far more prone to this, nay would
bear all to one side of the arbor, forming a most distorted
spiral, were the outer end of the spring only pulled or push¬
ed round as he assumed, and as would be the case were
it simply attached but not fixed to the barrel. He ought
likewise to have known that one end of the balance spring
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
787
W ork.
being fixed to the balance, and the other to a stud in the Clock and
frame, neither end is simply pushed or pulled round as he Watch
assumed. . Similar objections attach to all the investiga¬
tions on spiral springs with which we are acquainted; so
that we are led to suspect that this subject is still in its
infancy, with the exception of what light has been thrown
on it by practice and experiment.
Ihe case of mainsprings is usually regarded as the same
with that of a flat spiral spring having only its inner end
fixed, while a simple force acts on the other extremity.
It is, however, a great mistake to suppose that such a
spring, under the action of a simple force, or rather of a
change of such force, will preserve anything like the ori¬
ginal spiral figure, only varied in size. For if we pull a
thread attached to the outer end of the spring, we shall
find that, in place of being able to bend it regularly round,
we drag all the coils towards one side of the arbor, making
them crowd together at one side and widen at the oppo¬
site, in such a manner that the figure of the spring will
no longer deserve the name of a spiral. Neither this fact,
which lies at the very foundation of the research, nor the
real circumstances of a mainspring strongly compressed in,
and having its outer end fixed to the barrel, have, so far
as we know, been attended to by our learned theorists.
I he figure of the fusee has not yet been determined with F- f
anything like accuracy. It is treated, though rather in a ch?fusee.
preliminary way, by Lahire, in tome ix. p. 156 of the Mem.
de l Academic. It was afterwards considered somewhat more
systematically by Varignon, who at different times commu¬
nicated his ideas on the subject to the Academic; and at
length a long article of his on the fusee was inserted in
their Memoires for 1702, p. 192. He there professes to
treat the question in a very comprehensive manner, so as
to suit various laws of elasticity ; though indeed the law
discovered by Hooke was the only one then known, and
as yet no other seems to exist. Hooke contented himself
with what experience taught him, viz. that within mode¬
rate limits the force of a spring is nearly in proportion to
its distance from its resting position. This alone La-
hire adopted, any other being superfluous. But Va-
rignon’s investigations are professedly so comprehensive
as to allow of springs having their forces proportional to
almost any power or function of their distances from rest.
The result which he obtained when adopting Hooke’s law
amounts to this, that the radii of the fusee should be every¬
where inversely as the square roots of their distances from a
fixed point in the axis. Of course the fusee is not here
generated by a common hyperbola revolving on one of its
asymptotes; for in that curve the co-ordinates to the
asymptotes are simply in a reciprocal proportion. But we
shall afterwards see that even Varignon’s investigations
are not free from objection.
Notwithstanding all that had been done by Varignon,
we find Mr B. Martin, a long time afterwards, taking up
the subject, and treating it in a much more superficial
manner, in his Mathematical Institutions. By entirely
overlooking what Varignon had partly overlooked, and
which is one of the most important elements in the problem,
viz. the lengths of the parts of the chain or string coiled up¬
on the fusee, he very readily gives a solution, in which he
makes the fusee to be generated by a common equilateral
hyperbola ; and the worst of all is, that, ever since the pub¬
lication of this result, almost every one in this country
repeats the same thing on Martin’s authority, without giv¬
ing himself any further concern. Indeed, not only Mar¬
tin’s result, but the investigation of it, has been copied into
Rees’ Cyclopcedia, under the article Fusee. But allowing
that the common hyperbola had been the generating curve,
we are quite at a loss to see why its vertex must necessa¬
rily have described the circumference of the base or wide
788
Clock and
Watch
Work.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
end of the fusee, as it is made to do in each of the various
cases considered in that article. The consequence is, that
the theory, as there laid down, is so cramped and restrict¬
ed that it could scarcely have been applied in any case,
even if it had had no other defect. It is, however, to be
observed, that both under the article Clock, and also under
that of Watch, in the Cyclopedia, the fusee is always said
to be generated by the revolution of a parabola, which is
quite out of the question. The learned Dr Hutton, too, in
his Dictionary, after stating that Varignon has investigat¬
ed the figure of the fusee, and that it is generated by a
hyperbola, just gives us Martin’s solution, making the ge¬
nerating curve a common equilateral hyperbola; from
which it would seem he was not aware how widely these
authors differed in their results. t
The figure of the fusee, it is well known, is not so much
attended to in practice as it ought to be ; and it is surely
high time it were begun to be more correctly considered
in theory. In his preliminary remarks, Varignon thought
it was easy to show that the fusee must be a solid, gene¬
rated by a curve, emf, fig. 8, Plate CLXIIL, of the hy¬
perbolic sort, revolving about one asymptote ab, which is
the axis of the fusee, and having another asymptote ac,
at right angles to that axis. We suppose he would have
reasoned thus: Let the mainspring be ever so much bent
or wound up, its force being finite, must require a lever
or radius to act upon; and hence neither the surface of
the fusee nor the generating curve can meet the axis ab,
which must therefore be one asymptote. On the other
hand, suppose the spring were allowed to continue to act
even till it approached the position in which it would rest
if not confined by the barrel, the radius of the fusee upon
which itacts would during this require to increase continual¬
ly till it became infinite, and after that it could advance no
farther laterally. Hence that radius, or at least the nearest
parallel ac beyond it, would be another asymptote. _ This,
however, implies that the axis of the fusee is at an infinite
distance from that of the spring, which is as different from
the actual state of the case as it is possible to imagine ;
for the greatest efficient radius, in place of being infinite,
cannot exceed, if it so much as equal, the distance be¬
tween those axes. A second asymptote is therefore en¬
tirely out of the question.
But the particular kind of curve has not yet been de¬
termined, even on the most simple hypothesis of elasticity.
If we adopt Hooke’s law, that the intensity of the spiing
is everywhere as its angular distance from its resting po¬
sition, the parts of the chain or string which are wound off
or on the barrel will be measures of, or proportional to, the
corresponding parts of its angular motion. But it does
not, therefore, follow, as Varignon has assumed, that the
radius of the fusee should be everywhere inversely pro¬
portional to the tension of the chain, even abstracting from
its thickness ; because the angle which a radius of the
fusee makes with the chain at the point to which it is a
tangent, in place of being a right angle, as his assumption
implies, is always acute; but since this angle diminishes
continually as the radius increases, the radius of the fusee
must observe a different ratio from that of the reciprocal
of the chain’s tension. Yet even this might not have been
of so much importance, had Varignon s investigations not
depended materially upon or involved that part of the
curve which is near the supposed asymptote ac.
But we have not yet pointed out the most faulty part
of the process ; for Varignon in effect assumed, that when
an inch of the chain is uncoiled from the spring barrel, no
more than an inch is wound upon the fusee. Such, to be
sure, is the case with a chain passing from one pulley to
another, and may even be nearly true in our watches and
clocks; but it can by no means be admitted as a datum
for accurately investigating the figure of the fusee, unless Clock an:
we do what Varignon has not done, viz. prosecute such watch
investigation without regard to that part of the curve
which approaches the supposed asymptote ac. For while
the spring, when near the resting position, parts with one
inch of the chain, the fusee may gain, or at least come
into contact with many, nay with an indefinite number of
inches. Perhaps some may think it impossible that the
surface of the fusee can acquire the chain faster than that
of the barrel parts with it; but if any one thinks so he
must be in a very great delusion. The radii of the fusee
differ prodigiously one from another, especially on Varig-
non’s supposition that they at length become infinite.
For instance, the radius of an inch would differ by an in¬
finite quantity from the infinite radius, and it would there¬
fore take an infinite portion of the chain to reach from the
extremity of the one radius round to that of the other;
whereas during the corresponding turning of the spring,
that is, while it was being turned from its resting position
to that in which it has force enough to act on a radius of
an inch, it can only have parted with a few inches of the
chain. Varignon has therefore assumed quantities to be
equal which differ in every possible degree.
To show to what an inconsistency these faulty princi¬
ples have led that eminent mathematician, put ap — x
pm — y. Then, according to Varignon, xy2 equals a con¬
stant quantity ; but this, it is well known, is a property of
a curve emf'm which the area apmc is finite, and conse¬
quently the surface generated by the revolution of the
arc em, being proportional to that area, must hejinite also.
But the same surface must likewise be infinite, that it may
contain an infinite quantity of the chain, which is absurd.
It is remarkable, that though a similar inconsistency at¬
taches to each of the various cases to which Varignon
supposed his investigations extended, he does not seem
to have had the least suspicion of their being liable to any
such objection. Still we are willing to admit that his re¬
sult above quoted is by much the best we have yet met
with, as an approximation to that part of the fusee which
is usually employed. For since the increment of the
chain coiled on the fusee is proportional to ydx, if that
were also as the increment of the force of the spring, and
this again as the variation —^ of-, we should obtain by
y* y *
integration equal to a constant quantity.
A properly shaped fusee must no doubt owe something
of its tapering form to the very considerable change which,
during the motion of the barrel, the parallelism of the
straight part of the chain undergoes in respect of a plane
passing through the axes of the fusee and spring, and which
is owing to the smallness of the distance between theseaxes.
No notice seems ever to have been taken of this change
of parallelism, the effect of which would increase so much
as the radius of the fusee increased, that we suspect it
would be found a very unmanageable ingredient in an ac¬
curate investigation, and yet it ought not to be neglected.
Every one, we dare say, is aware that the thickness of the
chain must not be overlooked; but we know no problem
that has been handled more superficially than the figure
of the fusee. Most authors who treat on it have, how¬
ever, availed themselves of a very random-looking asser¬
tion, which seems to have been first made in the tlist. de
VAcademic for 1702, page 123, viz. that the fusee would be
a cone, did the force of the spring vary exactly as its dis¬
tance from its resting position; which is exceedingly cu¬
rious, considering that neither Lahire, Varignon, nor ilar-
tin, when they proceed on that hypothesis, arrive at any
such cone. But it would not be difficult to show, that if a
cylindric barrel were put in the usual place of the fusee, a
frustum of a cone would be nearly the figure of a fusee to
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK. 789
lock and be formed upon the spring barrel or on its arbor. This
^ Watch would be much more easily executed, and might be con-
4 Work, veniently employed in box chronometers and spring clocks,
but there is scarcely room for it in pocket watches.
:ape- It is a far more delicate and difficult problem to execute
■?nts for a proper scapement for watches than for clocks, on ac-
ntches. count 0f the small size, which requires much more accu¬
rate workmanship, because the error of the hundredth part
of an inch bears as great a proportion to the dimensions of
the regulator as an inch in a common house clock. Tt is
much more difficult on another account. We have no
means of accumulating such a control, or dominion as it
is called, over the wheel work in the regulator of a watch
as in that of a clock. The heaviest balance that we can
employ without the risk of snapping its pivots at every
jolt, is a mere trifle in comparison with the pendulum of
an ordinary clock; from a dozen to twenty grains being
the weight of the balance of a pocket watch. The only
way that we can accumulate any notable quantity of re¬
gulating power in such a small pittance of matter is by
giving it a very great velocity. This we do by accumu¬
lating as much as possible of its weight in the rim, by
giving it very wide vibrations, and by making them ex¬
tremely frequent. The balance rim of a middling good
watch should pass through at least ten inches per second.
Now when we reflect on the small momentum of this regu¬
lator, the inevitable inequalities of the maintaining power,
the great proportion of the arc of vibration on which these
inequalities will operate, and the comparative magnitude
even of an almost insensible friction or clamminess, it ap¬
pears almost chimerical to expect any thing near to equa¬
bility in the vibrations, and incredible that a watch can be
made which will not vary more than one beat in 86,400.
Yet such have been made, and must be considered as
among the most masterly exertions of human art.
In treating on scapements for pendulums, we assumed
as a leading principle that the natural vibrations of a pen¬
dulum are isochronous, or performed in equal times, whe¬
ther wide or narrow. This is so nearly true when the
arches of vibration do not exceed eight degrees, that the
retardation of the wider arches within that limit will not
become sensible, though accumulated for a long time. The
common scapement, with a plane face of the pallet, helps
to correct even this small inequality, much better than the
nicest form of the cycloidal cheeks proposed by Huygens.
A similar principle is assumed in watches, namely, that
the oscillations of a balance urged by its spring, and un¬
disturbed by any foreign force, are performed in equal
times, whether they are wide or narrow. This principle
was assumed by the celebrated Dr Hooke, on the autho¬
rity of many experiments which he had made on the
bending and unbending of springs. He found that the
force necessary for retaining a spring in any constrained
position, was proportional to the space through which it is
stretched or bent from its natural form, as we noticed
when treating on the fusee. He expressed this in an ana¬
gram which he published about the year 1660, to esta¬
blish his claim to the discovery, and yet conceal it till he
had made some important application of it. When the ana¬
gram, namely, ceiiinosssttuv, was explained some years
afterwards, it was “ Ut tensio sic vis.” Dr Hooke thought
of applying this discovery to the regulation of watch move¬
ments. For if a slender spring be properly applied to the
axis of a watch balance, it will put that balance in a cer¬
tain determinate position. If the balance be turned aside
from this position, it seems to follow that it will be urged
back towards it by a force proportional to its distance
from it. He immediately (in 1658) applied a spring to the
balance of an old watch, which he afterwards gave to Bi¬
shop Wilkins. So amazingly improved was its motion, that
Hooke, persuaded thereby of the perfection of his princi- Clock and
pie, thought nothing further was wanting for making a Watch
watch of this kind a perfect chronometer, but the hand of Work,
a good workman; for, compared with former ones, his
watch seemed almost perfect, though made in a small
country town, in a very rough manner.
Mr Huygens also published a claim to this discovery
about the year 1675, and proposed by means of it to make
watches for discovering the longitude at sea. But there
is the most unquestionable evidence of Dr Hooke’s prio¬
rity by at least fifteen years, and of his having made seve¬
ral watches of this kind. One of them having a double
balance was presented to King Charles II. Upon it was
engraved “ Bob. Hooke, inven. 1658.” Dr Hooke’s first
balance spring was straight, and acted on the balance in
a very imperfect manner. But he soon saw this, and made
several alterations; and, among others, he employed the
cylindrical spiral, which he at length gave up for the flat
spiral. The king’s watch had one of this kind before Mr
Huygens published his invention in 1675. Indeed, in his
Horologium Oscillatorium, published two years before, there
is not one word of it. But both Dr Hooke and Mr Huy¬
gens were too sanguine in their expectations. We have
by no means the evidence for the truth of this principle
that we have for the accelerating action of gravity on a
pendulum. It rests on the nicety and the propriety of
the experiments ; and long experience has shown that it
is sensibly true only within certain limits. The demon¬
strations by which Bernoulli supports the unqualified
principle of Mr Huygens, proceed on hypothetical doc¬
trines concerning the nature of elasticity. But even these
show that the law of elasticity which he assumed was se¬
lected, not because founded on simpler principles than any
other, but because it was consistent with the experiments
of Hooke and Huygens. Besides, though this should be
the true law of a spring in certain circumstances, it does
not follow that this spring, applied in any way whatever
to the axis of a balance, will urge it, agreeably to the same
law; and if it did, it does not follow that the oscillations
of the balance will be isochronous ; for the force has not
only to move the balance, but also to overcome the iner¬
tia of the spring. Part of the restoring force of the
spring is employed in restoring it rapidly to its quiescent
shape, and thus enabling it to follow, and still impel, the
yielding balance. The surplus, therefore, is all that is
employed in actually moving the balance; and it is un¬
certain whether this surplus varies according to the same
law, or be always proportional to the whole force of the
spring. It is an extremely difficult problem to deter¬
mine the law by which this surplus varies, even in the
simplest form of the spring; nor is it easy to determine
the law of oscillation for a spring free from any balance.
There may be such forms of a spring, that although the
velocity with which the different parts approach their
quiescent position were exactly as their excursion from
it, this might by no means be the law of velocity which
such a spring would produce in a balance. When the
spring is a simple and straight steel wire, suspending the
balance in the direction of its axis, the motions, if not im¬
moderate, agree remarkably well with Hooke and Huy¬
gens’ rule. But the motion of a balance urged by a spring
wound up into a flat or cylindrical spiral, as in common
watches, deviates considerably from it, unless a certain
analogy be preserved between the length and the elasti¬
city of the spring. If the spring be immoderately long,
the wide vibrations are slower than the narrow ones, and
the reverse takes place with a short spring. A certain
taper or gradual diminution in the thickness of the spring
is found to equalize the vibrations. There is also a great
difference between the force with which a part of the
790
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Work.
Clock and spring unbends itself, and the action of that force in urg-
Watch ing the balance round its axis; and the performance of
many watches, good in other respects, is often faulty
from the manner in which this unbending force is em¬
ployed.
But, supposing these corrections, which are in a consi¬
derable degree in our power, to be applied, and the true
motion, which we shall call the cycloidal, to be attained,
we may then adapt the construction of the scapement to
preserving this motion undisturbed. But here we may
see at once that the problem is incomparably more deli¬
cate than in the case of pendulums. The vibrations must
be very wideband the angular motion rapid, that it may
be little affected by external motions. The smallest ine¬
qualities of maintaining power, acting through so great a
space, must bear a considerable proportion to the very
minute momentum of a watch balance. Oil is as clammy
on the pallets of a watch as on those of a clock; but a vis¬
cidity which would never be felt by a pendulum of twenty
pounds, will stop a balance of twenty grains altogether.
For the same reason it is evident, that any impropriety in
the form of the pallet must be incomparably more perni¬
cious than in the case of a pendulum, because the devia¬
tion which this may occasion from a force proportional to
the angular distance from the middle point, must bear a
great proportion to the whole force.
In ordinary pocket watches, the original recoiling scape¬
ment, with the crown wheel, which was used in the older
scapement. docks, still holds its place, and answers very well for all
common purposes in a watch. A well-finished watch,
with that scapement, will keep time within a minute
in the day, which is sufficient for ordinary affairs. But
such watches are subject to great irregularities in their
rate of going, by any change in the force of the wheels.
This is evident; for, if the key be put on its square, and
the watch be held back or pressed forward by it, we hear
the beating greatly retarded or accelerated. The
Common
watch
    main
tainin«T power in the best of such watches is supposed against the front of E, which is inclined 25° to CL.
to be never less than one fifth of the regulating power of this add ACB rr 95°, anu we have aCL = 120° T*
mities of the vibrations, and being very abrupt, the varia- Clock am!
tions in its force are most hurtful to the isochronism of Watch
the vibrations. v Work.
This scapement, though extremely simple, is, by the va-
nation of the few particulars of its construction, suscep¬
tible of more degrees of excellence or imperfection than
almost any other. We shall therefore briefly describe that
construction which long experience has sanctioned, as the
best for the common scapement. Fig. 4, Plate CLXIL,
represents it in what are thought its best proportions, as
it appears when looking straight down on the end of the
verge or balance arbor. C is the centre of the balance
and verge, C A and CB are the two pallets ; C A being the
upper, or the one next the balance, and CB the lower one.
F and D are two teeth of the crown wheel, moving from
left to right; and E, G, are other two teeth on the lower
part of the circumference, moving from right to left. The
tooth D is represented as just escaped from the point of
CA, and the lower tooth E as just come in contact with
the lower pallet. The scapement should not, however, be
quite so close, because an inequality in the teeth might
prevent D from escaping at all. For if E touch the pallet
CB before D has quitted CA, all will stand still. This
may be obviated in some cases by withdrawing the wheel
a little from the verge, in others by shortening the pallets.
The proportions are as follow:—The nearest approach
of the teeth to the axis C of the balance is one fifth of
AF, the interval between two teeth. The radius or length
CA or CB of the pallets is three fifths of AF. The pal¬
lets make an angle ACB of 95°, and the front DH or FK
of the teeth make an angle of 25°, with the axis of tlm
crown wheel. The sloping side of the tooth should be of
an epicycloidal form, or suited to the relative motion of
the tooth and pallet. From these proportions it appears
that the pallet A can throw out, by the action of the tooth
D, till it reaches a, 120° from CL, the line of the crown
wheel axis. For it can throw out till the pallet B strike
To
In like
the spring, and the following is the argument by which manner, B will throw out as far on the other side, from
this opinion is supported. If we take off the balance 240°, the sum of these angles, take the angle between the
spring, and allow the balance to vibrate by the impulse pallets 95°, and there remains 145° for the greatest vibra-
of the wheels alone, the minute hand will only pass over tion which the balance can make without striking the front
from twenty-five to thirty minutes on the dial-plate per of the teeth. _ .
hour. Suppose it thirty: then, since the wheels‘act This extent of vibration supposes the teeth to terminate
through equal spaces with or without the spring, the in points, and the acting faces of the pallets to be planes
forces are as the squares of the acquired velocities. But directed to the very axis of the verge, but the points of
the velocity is double when aided by the spring; therefore the teeth must be rounded oft a little for strength, and to
the accelerating force is quadruple, and so the force of diminish friction ; for nothing can be more injudicious than
the spring is three times that of the wheels. In the same to attempt, as some do, to lessen friction by making mere
way, if the hand go forward twenty-five minutes, the force points scratch along surfaces, lifts rounding, however,
of the wheels is about one fifth of that of the spring. So lessens very considerably the angle of scapement, by short-
great a proportion is supposed necessary, that the watch ening the teeth. Besides, we must by no means allow the
may go so soon as unstopped. point of the pallet to bank or strike on the foresi e o a
Such is the usual mode of reasoning on this point; but tooth. This would greatly derange the vibration by the
we suspect it involves a very doubtful assumption, name- violence and abruptness of the check which the ^hee
ly, that the balance receives exactly the same degree of would give to the pallet; a circumstance which makes it
force from the wheels when its spring is on as when it is off. improper to continue the vibrations much beyond the
But the principle and manner of action, as also the good angle of scapement. One third of a circle, or I2U , is
and bad qualities of this scapement, are much the same therefore reckoned a very proper vibiation for a s£aP^*
as those of the like scapement for pendulums. The main- ment made in these proportions. The impulse o e
taining power being applied in a direct manner, and du- wheels, or the angle of scapement, may be increase y
ring the greater part of the vibration, will have great in- making the face of the pallets a little concave, preserving
fluence in moving the balance. A given mainspring and still the same angle at the centre. 4 he vibration may
train will keep in motion a heavier balance by means of also be widened by pushing the wheel nearer to the verge,
this scapement than by almost any other. But, on the which would likewise diminish the recoil. Indeed t ns may
other hand, and for the same reason, the balance has less be entirely removed by bringing the front of t le w lee
dominion over the wheel work, and its vibrations are more up to C, and making the face of the pallet not a la ms, u
affected by any irregularities of the train. Besides, the parallel to a radius, and behind it; that is, by placing e
chief action of the scape wheel being at the very extre- pallet CA so that its acting face may be wheie its ac is
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
raham’s
Jrizontal
apement
at present. The tooth would then drop on it at the cen¬
tre^ and lie there at rest, while the balance completes its
^ vibration. Rut this would make the banking or strikinp-
on the teeth almost unavoidable. In short, the best
makers, after varying every circumstance, have settled
on a scapement very nearly such as we have described.
Precise rules can scarcely be given, because the law by
which the foice acting on the pallets varies in its inten¬
sity, deviates so widely from the action of the balance
spring, especially near the limits of the excursions.
The discoveries of Huygens and Newton in rational
mechanics engaged the mathematical philosophers in the
solution of mechanical problems about the end of the
seventeenth century. The vibrations of elastic blades or
wires, and their influence on watch balances, became a
subject of inquiry. The principal requisites for pro¬
ducing isochronous vibrations were pretty well under¬
stood, and the artists were prompted by the speculators
to attempt constructions of scapements proper for this
purpose. It appeared clearly that the most effectual
means for this purpose was to leave the balance uncon¬
nected with the wheels, especially near the extremities of
the vibrations, where the motion is languid, and where
every inequality of maintaining power must act for a
longer time, and therefore have a great effect on the
whole duration of the vibrations. The maxim of con¬
struction naturally arising from these reflections is to con-
line, if possible, the action of the wheels to the middle of
the vibrations, where the motion is rapid, and where the
chief effect of an increase or diminution of the maintain¬
ing power will be to enlarge or contract the angular mo¬
tion, but will make little change in their duration, because
the greatest part of the motion will be effected by the
lance spring alone. This maxim was inculcated in ex¬
press terms by John Bernoulli, in his Recherches Mecha-
niqueset Physiques ; but it had previously been suggested
by common sense to several unlettered artists.
One of the methods first thought of for accomplishing
this was to make the scape wheel rest upon a cylindric
surface concentric with the verge, while the balance was
in the exterior parts of its excursion, and only to impel
the balance when near the middle of its vibrations. This
was attempted with some degree of success by Tompion.
He made a tooth fall upon a solid cylinder; and, after
resting there till the cylinder turned a little round, it fell
into a notch in the side of the cylinder. On escaping
from the notch, the tooth slid along a pallet fixed to the
cylinder, and, in so doing, gave an impulse to the balance
when near the middle of its vibration.
This contrivance was materially improved upon by
Graham, who, much about the time that he contrived his
' dead beat for clocks, succeeded in adapting the same sort
of scapement to the wider vibrations of balances. The
following is his construction:—In fig. 2, Plate CLXII.,
AA represents part of the rim of the scape wheel, which
is to move from left to right. E and G are two of its
teeth, having their faces nc,gp formed into planes inclined
to the circumference of the wheel at an angle of about fif¬
teen degrees. Suppose a circular arc, EFG, having the
same centre as the wheel, to be described through E and
G, the middles of the faces of the teeth. The axis of the
balance passes through some point F of this arc, and we
may say that the mean circumference of the teeth passes
through that point, or the centre of the verge. On this axis
is fixed a portion of a thin hollow cylinder, of which cBofis
a section. It is made of hard tempered steel, or of some
hard and tough stone, such as ruby or sapphire. Agates,
though very hard, are brittle. Chalcedony and carnelian
are tough, but inferior in hardness. This cjdinder is so
placed on the verge, that when the balance is in its qui-
79]
escent position, the two edges c and d are in the circum* Clock and
ference which passes through the points of the teeth. Watch
By this construction the portion cV>d of the cylinder will Work,
occupy about 210° of the circumference, or 30° more
than a semicircle. The edge c of the cylinder, to which
the tooth E approaches from without, is rounded. The
other edge d is formed into a plane inclined to the radius
about 30°.
Now suppose the wheel pressing forward in the direc¬
tion EG; the point c of the tooth, touching the rounded
edge, will push it outwards, turning the balance round in
the direction cB<?. 1 he heel n ol the tooth E will escape
from this edge when it is in the position /<, and E in the
position F. I he point c of the tooth has now got to r, and
the edge of the cylinder to i. The tooth therefore rests
on the inside of the cylinder, while the balance continues
its vibration a little way, in consequence of the shove
which it has received from the action of the inclined plane
cn pushing it out of the way, as the mould-board of a plough
shoves a stone aside. When this vibration is ended by
the opposition of the balance spring, the balance returns,
the tooth, now in the position F, rubbing all the while on
the inside of the cylinder. The balance comes back into
its natural position cBd, with an accelerated motion by
the action of its spring, and would of itself vibrate as fat¬
al least on the other side. But it is aided again by the
tooth, which, pressing on the edge d, pushes it aside till
it come into the position h, when the tooth escapes from
the cylinder altogether. At this moment the other edge
of the cylinder is in the position f, and therefore is in the
way of the next tooth, now in the position E. The balance
continues its vibration, the tooth all the while resting and
rubbing on the inside of the cylinder. When this vibra¬
tion in the direction dlic is finished, the balance resumes
it's first motion cBd by the action of the spring, and the
tooth begins to act on the first edge c as soon as the ba¬
lance gets into its natural position, shoves it aside, escapes
from it, and drops on the inside of the cylinder.. In this
manner are the vibrations produced gradually increased
to their maximum, and maintained in that state. Every
succeeding tooth of the wheel acts first on the edge c,
and then on the edge d; resting first on the outside, and
then on the inside of the cylinder. The balance is under
the influence of the wheels while the edge c passes to h,
and while d passes to g; and the rest of the vibration is
performed without any action on the part of the wheels,
but is a little obstructed by friction and by the clammi¬
ness of the oil. In the construction now described, the
arch of action or scapement is evidently 30°, being twice
the angle which .the face of a tooth makes with the cir¬
cumference.
It is evident that when this scapement is executed in
such a manner that the succeeding tooth just reaches the
cylinder at the instant the preceding one escapes from it,
the face of the tooth must be equal to the inside diame¬
ter of the cylinder, and that the distance between the
heel of one tooth and the point of the following one must
be equal to the outside diameter. When the scapement
is so close there is no drop. A good artist approaches as
near to this adjustment as possible; because while a tooth
is dropping, but not yet in contact, it is not acting on the
balance, and some force is lost. The execution is account¬
ed very good if it allows a drop equal to the thickness of
the cylinder, which is about the 20th part of its diameter.
Fig. 7 shows in perspective the entire wheel A, and
cylinder BC. It will now be seen how the cylinder is con¬
nected with the verge, so as to make such a great part of
a revolution round a tooth of the wheel. Each triangular
tooth is placed upon the top of a little pillar, which con¬
nects it with a shank projecting from the rim of the wheel.
792
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and The acting part cd of the cylinder should exceed 180°
Watch tfle arc ir. but to make room for the neck or shank of
Work.
uy L11C CUV/ C' J   “ 1 4.1
the tooth, the cylinder is farther cut away at e under the
acting part, so that scarcely a fourth of the circle is left.
Thus it appears to be a very slender and delicate piece,
but when made of steel it is strong enough to resist mode¬
rate jolts. The ruby cylinders are much more delicate.
From the scape wheel being here parallel to the others,
this contrivance is frequently called the horizontcd scape-
TilCTlt* •
If the excursions of the balance beyond the angle of im¬
pulsion were made altogether unconnected with the wheels,
the whole vibration would be quicker than one of the same
extent made by the action of the balance spring alone, be¬
cause the middle part of it is accelerated by the wheels.
But the excursions and motion are very considerably ob¬
structed by friction, and the clamminess of the oil. M.
Leroy placed the balance so that it rested when the point
of the tooth was on the middle of the cylindnc surface.
When it was drawn 80° from this position, and the wheel
allowed to press on it, it continued tc vibrate only 4-5 se¬
conds. When the wheel was not allowed to touch the
cylinder, it vibrated ninety seconds, or twenty times as
lono-; so much did the friction on the cylinder exceed
that of the pivots. But we are not sufficiently acquainted
with the laws of either of these obstructions, to decide
whether they should increase or diminish the duration of
single vibrations. £
Since the friction may be greatly diminished by fine
polish, fine oil, and a small diameter of the cylinder, we
may reasonably expect that the vibrations of such a ba¬
lance will not vary nearly so much from isochromsm as
with a recoiling scapement, and that they will be less af¬
fected by changes in the force of the wheels. Accordingly,
Graham’s cylindrical scapement supplanted all others, as
soon as it was generally known. We cannot compare the
vibrations with those of a free balance, because we have
no way of making a free balance vibrate for some hours.
But it is found that doubling or trebling the force of the
wheels makes very little alteration in the rate of the watch,
though it greatly enlarges the width of the vibrations. No
grea^ change can be observed in the frequency of the
beats, whether we aid or relax the force by means of the
key, provided we do not stop the watch altogether. But
a more careful examination shows that an increase in the
power of the wheels generally tends to make the watch
go slower, and so much the more as the watch is in great¬
er need of cleaning; which is no doubt owing to the fric¬
tion and oil operating on the wider arches of excursion.
But when the scapement is well executed, in the best pro¬
portions of the parts, the performance is extremely good.
It has been alleged, that by keeping the centre of the
verge about the thickness of the cylinder from its centre
F towards E, the watches so constructed have gone with
astonishing regularity. But it is evident that such watches
must have a minute recoil, and are therefore likely to be
affected by the irregularities of the wheels. We suspect
that the indifferent performance of cylinder watches may
often arise from the cylinder being off the centre in some
disadvantageous manner. This scapement is in its best
state when the acting part cd of the cylinder exceeds
180° by twice the inclination of the faces of the teeth to
the circumference of the wheel. There are, however, very
few which have more than 180°. But this is too little;
for in that case the tooth does not begin to act till its mid¬
dle touch one of the edges of the cylinder in its resting
position. Indeed it may happen that the tooth will never
rest on the cylinder, because the instant it quits one
edge it falls on the other, and pushes it aside, so that the
balance acquires no wider vibration than the angle of
scapement, and is continually under the influence of the Clock and
wheels. * Watch
We formerly mentioned Lepaute’s modification of Work.
Graham’s dead beat, and that he adapted it to watches.
In this he also used two inner cylindric surfaces, but much
larger arches of them than in the pendulum escapement.
A tooth, in quitting one of these arches, acts, as in the for¬
mer case, on the slant face of a pallet, though one which
is much longer in proportion to the other parts. By this
means the motion of the balance is very effectually main¬
tained. Were it not very difficult of execution, and easily
hurt or put out of order, it would be an excellent scape¬
ment. The comma scapement, or echappement d virgule,
is of the same sort, but very inferior to that of Lepaute ; in
particular, that it has only one pallet and one cylindric
arch.
The duplex scapement, apparently so named from the Duplex-
scape wheel having twm sets of teeth, is another in which scapement
a tooth of the scape wheel rests on a cylindric surface
concentric with the verge, during the excursions of the
balance beyond the angle of scapement; but it differs
somewhat in the application of the maintaining power from
all those already described. Fig. 5, Plate CLXII., repre¬
sents the essential parts greatly magnified. AD is a por¬
tion of the scape wheel pressing from left to right, and
having teeth /, b, g, at the circumference, which are en¬
tirely for producing the repose of the wheel during the
excursions of the balance. I his is effected by means of a
very small cylinder opq, concentric with the verge, and
made of hardened steel, or of some hard stone. This
cylinder has an angular notch o, which, while the cylinder
turns in the direction opq., easily passes the tooth B, which
is resting on the cylindric surface ; but when it returns
in the other direction, the tooth B gets into the notch and
follows it, pressing on one side till the notch comes into
the position o. The tooth being then come to b, escapes
from the notch, and another tooth drops on the convex
surface of the cylinder at B. „
The scape wheel is also furnished with another set of
teeth standing upright on its rim, as represented by a, D.
There is also fixed on the verge, above the cylinder, and
clear of the wheel, a pallet CF, which is more distinctly-
seen in perspective in fig. 6. Its position with respect to
the cylinder below it is such, that when the tooth 6 is just
escaped from the notch, the point C has just passed the
tooth a, which was at A while B rested on the small cy¬
linder, but moved from A to a while B moved to b. Ihe
wheel being now at liberty, the tooth a exerts its pressure
on the pallet C in the most direct and advantageous man¬
ner, following and accelerating it till another tooth stops
against the little cylinder. When the balance is in its
quiescent position, the pallet is at H, quite out of the
reach of the teeth a, D, &c.; and if m this state the
mainspring is allowed to act, it can only press a tooth
against the cylinder. Nay, although the tooth were get¬
ting into the notch, its action, being so near the centre,
could not overcome the balance spring. Hence the force
of the wheels cannot set the watch agoing ; and there¬
fore a watch with this scapement may sometimes stop on
receiving a sudden twirl or circular motion in the direc¬
tion in which the balance happens to be moving at that
instant. But every watch which cannot commence its
own vibrations is liable to this, and some of them even
more so than the duplex. In other respects the duplex
scapement gives great satisfaction. Ihe cy inc er o
pose may be made very small, only care must be taken
that the tooth get a sufficient hold of it, and the direc
impulse on the pallet gives it a great superiority ove
those in which the action on the pallet is oblique; but
since all the force with which the teeth strike against tne
ilook and cylinder is lost, the duplex requires a pretty strong main-
Watch spring to make up for the deficiency.
T^e orig.in of the duplex is involved in some uncertain-
T ty, but it is supposed to have been derived from a more
complex scapement of Dr Hooke, upon which Du Tertre
made some improvements. This had two balances in the
form of two toothed wheels pitching into each other, and
consequently turning in opposite directions, with the view
of obviating the effects of external motion, but only one
of these balances had a spring. A part of the verge of
each balance was formed into a semicylinder for the teeth
of the scape wheel to rest on alternately. On the side of
the scape wheel was fixed a smaller wheel with the same
number of teeth, and each balance carried on one of its
arms a stud or pallet to receive an impulse from the
smaller wheel. As soon as the larger wheel had escaped
from the cylinder of one balance, the smaller wheel o-ave
an impulse to the pallet on the other balance. This was
obviously just the duplex in a double form. It is lono-
since Du Tertre and others applied it in the single form
to clocks, though it is scarcely forty years since the du¬
plex appeared, as applied to watches in its present shape,
j under the name of Tyrers’ scapemenfc.
We shall now proceed to a different class of scapements,
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
793
tached
pement. m which the balance is entirely free from the wheels in
the greater part of its vibrations. These are called de¬
tached scapements, and are of more recent date. The first
rude attempt of this sort, of which we have any distinct ac¬
count, seems to be that noticed by Thiout, vol. i., page 110
and the next that of Peter Le Roy, Mem. de VAcademic
tor 1 /48 ; but it is said that Du Tertre had used somethino'
of the sort preferable to this long before, though no descript
turn of it is preserved. Since that time, the attention of
artists, both here and on the Continent, has been very
much occupied with this sort of scapements; but we can
only notice here a few of these contrivances. The follow¬
ing is perhaps one of the simplest forms. In fig. 8, Plate
CLXII., abc is a cylinder of hard steel or stone, having a
notch ab, the side of which serves for the pallet. AB is
part of the scape wheel pressing in the direction AB, and
placed so near the verge that the cylinder is barely clear
of two adjoining teeth. DE is a long spring, so fixed to
the watch plate at E as to press very gently on the stop-
pm G. A small stud or detent F is fixed to the spring on
the side next the wheel. The tooth B rests on this detent
m such a manner that the tooth a is just about to touch
the cylinder, and the tooth f just clear of it. Another
spring, extremely slender, is attached to the spring DE,
and claps pretty close to it, on the side next the scape
wheel. It should either not reach, or it should be clear of,
the stud F, and its point projects a little beyond that of
the long spring. When its point is pressed towards the
wheel it yields readily; but when pressed in the opposite
direction it carries the spring DE along with it. The cy-
tnder is so placed on the verge, that, in the quiescent
position of the balance, the edge a of the notch is close
by the point of a tooth; and a pin i projecting from the
end of the cylinder is then close by the projecting point
of the slender spring.
Wlien the balance is turned from this position 80° or
in the direction abc, and then let go, it returns to this
position with an accelerated motion. The pin i strikes
on the projecting point of the slender spring, and, pressing
the stronger spring DE outward from the wheel, with¬
draws the stud F from the tooth, and thus unlocks the
wheel. The tooth a engages in the notch and urges
round the balance. The pin i quits the spring before the
tooth quits the notch ; so that when it is clear of the pal¬
let, the wheel is locked again on the detent F, and another
tooth comes in the place of a, ready to act in the same
vol. vi.
‘r’ hen the .force of the balance is spent, it stops, Clock and
and then returns to its quiescent position with a motion Watch
continually accelerated. The pin i easily pushes aside Work*
the slender spring without disturbing the stronger one. V ^
I he balance goes on, turning in the direction abc, till its
torce is again spent; it stops, returns, unlocks the wheel
gets a new impulsion, and so on. Thus we see a vibra¬
tion almost free, maintained in a manner even more simple
than the common crutch scapement. The impulse is
given in an advantageous manner, and is continued through
the whole motion of the wheel. Very little force is re¬
quired for unlocking the wheel, because the spring DFE
is very slender towards E. A sudden twitch of the watch
in-ii “irectIon ba might chance to unlock it. But this
will only derange one vibration, and even that not consi-
derab y, because the teeth are so close to the cylinder
that the wheel cannot advance till the notch come round
to the place of scapement. A tooth may then continue
pressing on the cylinder, and, by its friction, change a
little the extent or duration of a single vibration. It is
obvious that, on account of the weight of the springs and
detent, the force required for the unlocking will not be
exactly the same for every position of the "watch. But
“ su.ch ? scapement be very little affected by great varia¬
tion in the moving force, there is little room for alarm from
this quarter.
So nearly allied to the last is Karnshaw’s scapement v* i ,
10, tl’at lfc Wl11 need Jittle or no explanation. The* scapement3
teeth of the scape wheel DF pass behind the long spring
ICB, and would be quite clear of it, but for a pin which
projects from it behind, and acts as a detent. The small
pallet A fixed upon the verge passes clear of the long
spring at B, but in ascending it catches the projecting
point of the slender spring below, and thereby raises the
long spring with its detent pin, which sets at liberty the
tooth D._ The wheel immediately advances till the next
tooth G is locked against the pin. During this the tooth
has entered the notch of the cylinder, and given an im¬
pulse to the hooked pallet E. H is a fixed stud, holdino-
the point of a screw for regulating the distance of the
spring from the wheel. The spring rests on the inside of
t le head of the screw, and is thereby prevented from ^o-
ing too close on the wheel. Sometimes, in place of a me¬
tallic pin, a piece of hard stone is fixed to the spring to
act as a detent. Almost the only difference between this
and the last is in the pallet E being considerably under¬
cut, which is said to be an advantage. Unfortunately we
have never been able to see it in that light. On the con¬
trary, we should think it causes the teeth of the wheel
to act at a needless disadvantage, and adds greatly to the
sliding, and consequently to the friction and wear.
big. 9 shows Arnolds scapement, the same letters de-Arnold’s
noting the same things as in the last, except that each scapement.
tooth has a heel projecting above the plane of the wheel,
for the purpose of holding against the detent on the
spring; and the unlocking is accomplished by the small
pallet A pressing the spring inward, or toward the centre
of the wheel. The regulating screw H passes through a
fixed stud, and bears with its point against the sprin0-.
Ihe acting faces of the teeth are epicycloidal, and some
people fancy that therefore they only roll on the side E of
the notch, and have no friction. All we have to say on
this point is, that it is impossible to make epicycloidal
teeth which shall act on a plane without sliding, and con¬
sequently these are attended with friction.
A great improvement upon the foregoing detached Robinson’s
scapements was made by Mr Owen Robinson, who intro-scapement.
duced a double wheel, such as is used in the duplex. The
extreme points of the long teeth, serving for the locking,
obviously allow the unlocking to be effected with much
5 H
794
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and
Watch
Work.
Work.
Mudge’s
detached
scapement
, „ . . ^nuicp ran WZ. When the balance has described an angle of 27°= Clock an;
less pressure and friction, while a po p Q ^ 0GQ> the rod LM meets with the arm GQ, and, Watch
readily be given to the balance, by the s de t _ s turning the axis TR, and the pallet p, in the direction ,
on the side of the notch. It is remarkable t ^ re]eases the tooth from the projecting point
cellent contrivance is scarcely ever employed. ^ n wheel a(ivances, and a tooth
A scapement very different from any of the last sort ot the pane the auxiUa
was invented by Mr Mudge^aud applied^ his marine below, ~wUh ^ ^ ^ gl
27° where the arm Oi remains so long as the tooth is
locked by the pallet q. During the winding up of the
spring v through the arc Ok, the balance describes the
rest of the semi-arc hB, and LM carries round the arm GQ,
timekeepers. It is of the remontoir class, but the balance
is perfectly detached from the wheels, except during
the extremely short interval of str.kmg out the parts
which serve the purpose of detents. In fig. 13, i fate
C’l XII BEN is the balance vibrating by the joint action
CLXIL, BEN is the balance vibrating by the join acuon ^ ^ an angle hcB or /^B^ 108°=arc
of two spiral springs, not here represented, on « balance has arrived at the extremity of
CADH, which passes through the centre C. ho make ML OB=l350j the auxiUary spring u will have
room for the other work, the axis is j wound Up through the same angle of 135° ; viz. 27°
AXYD, for which there is a counterpoise I on the o{ p the ®heel on tbe pallet p, and 108° by
site arm of the balance. LM, ZW, are t'vo ro s xec y b l itseif carrying with it the arm GO, while it
the crank at the points L, Z, parallel to XY ; and describes the arc AB. The balance therefore returns
are fixed parts of the machine. Ill is an axis coocen ^ the arc B0) 5y the joint action of the balance
with that of the balance, and carrying an arm GO nea y ^ and the auxiliary spring u; the acceleration of
at right angles to it, and a small aoxihary spn , J ^ & iu ceasing the instant the balance arrives at the
is wound up whenever the arm GO i* moved , 1 1 auiescent position. When the balance has proceeded_m
rection OQ. To the axis TR is fixed a curved pallet p,
which receives the tooth l of the crown wheel near the
verge. The tooth, proceeding along the curved surface
by the force of the mainspring, turns the axis and its arm
GO, and winds up the spring u. A small projection at
the extremity of the curved surface of the pallet p pi e
^   4-1^ hpn flip arm xtv
quiescent position. "When the balance has proceeded in
its vibration about 27° beyond the point O to the position
Ok the rod WZ meets with the arm ik, and by carrying
it forward releases the tooth of the crown wheel from the
pallet q. The wheel again advances, and an upper tooth
meeting the pallet p, winds up the spring u as before.
the extremity of the curved surface of the pallet p pre- , - .lth the crank proceeding to describe the
vent, the farther progress of an£ «maining semi-arc *E, winds‘up the spring , through the
has been turned through an aic OG of about » anu’ , , a° le /iCE=108°, and returns through the semi-
consequently, the spring m has been wound up throug 1 ^ ion of the balance spring and the
the same angle OGG of 27°. Ihere is another axis ^rc^^ J both of which cease to accelerate the
exactly similar to TR. It carries its arm Q? and sprmg ^uxihary spring^ arrived at 0.
and the tooth m of the crown wheel winds up the
v; and the tootn m ui tuc ‘
spring v, by acting on the pallet q, and is detained by
projection, after having carried it through an ang e of 27 ,
as in the other case. The arcs passed through by the
arms GO and Oi, and marked m the figure, are also de¬
noted by the same letters on the rim of the balance.. Inis
figure is reduced from the large one which Pennington,
who worked for Mudge, drew for Mr Attwood s paper in
the Phil Trans, for 1794. Though it differs from some
drawings of this machine in which the backs of the scape-
wheel teeth are nearly parallel to their faces, the acting
surfaces are meant to be the same.
balance the instant it has arrived at O.
Thus it appears that the balance is opposed by each
auxiliary spring through an angle of 108°, and assisted
through an angle of 135°. This difference of action
maintains the vibrations, and the necessary winding up
of the auxiliary springs is performed by the wheel work
while they are entirely disengaged from the balance, ao
irregularity of the wheel work can have any influence on
the force of the auxiliary springs, and therefore the ba¬
lance is completely disengaged from all these irregulari¬
ties, except in the short moment of unlocking the wheel
that winds up the springs. During this the balance de-
Suppose the balance in the quiescent state, the mam- sciibes anangR o^about^ timekeeper, under the
spring being unwound, and the branch or ciank m P severestItrialSj equalled any that were compared with it,
sition represented in the figure. If the quiesce p ;n c0 far as depended on scapement alone. But this scape-
of the auxiliary springs coincide with that of the balance simPle Pin principle, must always be
springs, the arm GO will just touch the lod LM, ^ moreSdifficult to execute than any of the three or
like manner the arm Oi will just touch the rod M Z. f ) described. There is so little room, that the parts
two arms GO, Of, in this position are parallel to the line smali, requiring the nicest workman-
CO. This position of the balance and auxiliary spn g ^ ^ we do not gee that it is superior to them even
remains as long as the mainspring is not wound up ; tbeo’retically. The irregularities of the wheels affect those
whenever the action of the mainspring sets the crown ^ments onl fn the act of impulsion, where the
wheel in motion, a tooth thereof meeting ^ , one velocity is great, and the time of action very short. Be-
S sides, tUe lief effect of tffese irregulariues is on y upon
ary springs. Suppose it should be the spnng . ^ extent ot. tbe excursi0ns of the balance, during the
arm GO, being carried into the position GO by the fore . wheels are at rest. It is almost needless to ob-
of the crown wheel on the pallet p, remains in that posi- r00m for such a scapement could never be found
tion so long as the tooth of the wheel continues locked by of a raode1ite size.
the projection on that pallet; and the balance itself, not 1 h detached scapement invented by Mr Mudge, Mute
being at all affected by the motion of the arm GO, nor by pother & i§ interp0sed between forkecl
the winding up of the spring u, remains in its quiescen ‘ gc ’ wbeel and balance. The crutch EDI, fig. 3,soP
position, consequently no vibration can take place excep standing outwards from the junction
by the assistance of some external force to set the balance of twi(fe their length. This arm ex¬
in motion. . , . rn ovvtivhalflnres the other two, and terminates in a fork AGB.
But now suppose an impulse given to the balance su - ^ y hag a allet (jj which, when all is at rest,
cient to carry it through the semi-arc OB, which is about ^ betweea the p0ints A, B, of the fork. But
^ whed wuoh ^». r-., by its «
Work.
wLah e Pa!let„E? fo;ces the fork into the position Bgb, the
Watch point A of the fork being now where B was before, just
touching the cylindrical surface of the verge. The crutch
BDh is not accurately a dead-beat scapement, but has
a very small recoil, beyond the angle of impulsion, by
which the branch A, now at B, is made to press very
gently on the cylinder, while the wheel rests on the pal¬
let F, and the balance turns in the direction BHA. The
point A of the fork passes from A to B, by means of a
notch in the cylinder, which turns round at the same time
by the action of the branch AG on the pallet C. When
the balance returns from its excursion, the pallet C strikes
on the blanch A, still at B, and liberates the wheel, which
now acting on the crutch pallet F, causes the branch b of
the fork to follow the pallet C, and give it a strong impulse
in the direction in which it moves, making the balance de¬
scribe a semi-vibration in the direction AHB. The fork
is now in the situation A^g?, similar to Y^gb^ and the wheel
is again detained by the crutch pallet E.
This is evidently a very steady and effective scapement.
The lockage of the wheel is procured in an ingenious man¬
ner ; and, however powerful the action of the wheel, the pres¬
sure of the fork upon the cylinder may be made as small as
we please, since it depends entirely on the degree of recoil
caused by the pallets E, F. Pressure on the cylinder is
not indeed absolutely necessary, and the crutch scape¬
ment might be a real dead beat. But a small recoil, by
keeping the folk in contact with the cylinder, prevents
any unsteadiness in the motion. This scapement has been
variously modified by other artists. In particular, it has
been found a considerable improvement to substitute a
roller for the simple pallet C ; and this again has some¬
times been combined with Lepaute’s modification of
Graham s dead beat. In several of these modifications, the
crutch is not balanced or counterpoised, which is apt to
make the watch go differently in different positions. Some
of their crutches, again, when counterpoised, are so heavy
that much force is wasted in giving them motion.
A scapement resembling the last, but essentially differ-
apement-ent, was produced by Hautefeuille in 1722. Instead of
the fork, the arm DG carried a circular rack or toothed
segment, whose centre was D, and which we may suppose
represented by the dotted arc <zAB6. Instead of the cy¬
linder V, there was a pinion on the axis of the balance
pitching into the rack. In Rees’ Cyclopcedia, through some
mistake, this scapement is ascribed to Berthoud, though
it was well known before his time. Not long ago, a patent
was taken out for this scapement; and the watches to
which it was applied are known by the name of lever
watches. It is true, that to save room, Hautefeuille ar¬
ranged the parts a little differently. In particular, he put
the scape wheel directly under the balance; but that did
not in the least alter the principle. Indeed he seems to
have borrowed this scapement in a great measure from
one which Huygens had described in 1675, in tome x. of
the Mem. de l Academic, and in Phil. Trans, for same year.
Huygens put a pinion on the axis of the balance, and turn¬
ed it by a vertical contrate wheel, fixed on an axis carry¬
ing pallets which were moved in the ordinary way by a
crown wheel placed horizontally. By this means he could
make the balance vibrate through as wide arcs as he pleas¬
ed ; but unfortunately in all such scapements the balance
is too much under the influence of the wheels, and is par¬
ticularly liable to be affected by the friction and irregula¬
rities in the action of the teeth upon its own pinion.
Descriptions of a variety of other scapements may be
seen in the works already quoted, particularly the Trans¬
actions of the Society of Arts, and The Repertory of Arts
and, Patent Inventions. Some very judicious observations
by Mr Haley on the wear of scapements will be found in
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
795
ever
Nicholson s Journal, vol. viii. The wearing of certain Clock and
parts tends to accelerate the machine, of others to retard Watch
it. Mr Haley suggests that the parts should, if possible, Work-
be so contrived, that the opposite effects of their wearing    
may just balance each other.
. ^ePea-ting watches are such as, by pushing in or turn-Repeating
ing round the pendant, &c. repeat or strike the hour or watches,
quarter at any time required. This repetition was the in¬
vention of Mr Barlow, and first put in practice by him in
larger movements or clocks about the year 1676. “ This
ingenious contrivance, says Dr Derham, “ soon took air,
and being talked of among the London artists, set their
heads to work, who presently contrived several ways to
effect such a performance; and hence arose the divers
ways of repeating-work which so early might be ob-
served to be about the town, every man almost practising
according to his own invention. About the latter end of
King James II.’s reign, Mr Barlow contrived to put his
invention into pocket watches, and endeavoured to get a
patent for it; and in order to it, he set Mr Tompion, the
famous artist, to work upon it, who made a piece accord¬
ing to his directions. I he talk of a patent induced Mr
Quare, watchmaker in London, to resume the thoughts of
a like contrivance, which he had had in view some years
befoie; and he now succeeded in putting it in practice.
This being known among the other watchmakers, they
piessed him to hinder Mr Barlow’s patent. Applications
were accordingly made at court, and a watch of each in¬
vention produced before the king and council, who were
pleased to give the preference to Mr Quare’s. The differ¬
ence between them was, that Barlow’s repeated the hour
on pushing in a piece on one side of the watch, and the
quarters on pushing in a second piece on the other side;
whereas Quare s repeated both hours and quarters by
pushing in only one piece. It is not agreed who this Mr
Barlow was; some suppose him to have been a watch¬
maker, others think he was a clergyman, which would
better agree with his employing Tompion to make his
watch.
. Plate CLXVII. shows the principal parts of a watch, hav-Horizontal
mg Graham s horizontal scapement, together with repeat-and repeat-
ing mechanism. Fig. 1 exhibits the trains of the iroinffhig watch.
r>ari- or,,!    11 . V &
part and of the repetition, as also all the parts which are
put within the frame. The wheels B, C, D, E, F, are
those of the movement or going part. The other train of
smaller wheels a, b, c, d, e, f belongs to the repetition.
I he barrel A contains the mainspring of the going part;
B is the first or fusee wheel; C the centre or second
wheel, whose axis, prolonged through the dial-plate, car¬
ries a pipe or cannon, fig. 9, upon which is put the cannon
pinion c, and the minute hand; D is the third wheel; E
the fourth; and F the scape wheel, whose teeth act on
Graham’s cylinder, which is not here represented, to avoid
confusion, and because it wTas sufficiently explained when
treating on that scapement. The fusee I acts upon the
first wheel B, by means of a ratchet and click; and they
are kept together by a spring-tight collet and pin. The
mainspring and fusee are connected by the chain >S, as
formerly explained. The beak of the plate O is to pre¬
vent the watch being wound up too far. It catches against
the end of the fusee-stop, which is a short lever X, fig. 3,
turning, between the cheeks of a fixed stud, upon the pin
p. The stop is always kept clear of the plate O, by the
action of the long spring s, except when the watch is fully
wound up; for it is only then that the side of the chain
has risen high enough to push the stop X within reach of
the beak O. From a gut or string being sometimes used
in place of a chain, especially in spring clocks, the fusee
stop is also called the guard-gut.
The design of the runners, or train of small wheels, is
796
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Clock and to give a rapid motion to the fly, for the purpose of regu-
Watch luting the intervals between the strokes ol the hammer in
Work. a manner similar to that in the ordinary striking part ot a
clock. If the wheels a, b, c, d, e, have for the numbers
of their teeth respectively 42, 36, 33, 30, and 25 ; and it
each of their pinions has six leaves or teeth, then tor
every turn of the first wheel a, the fly pinion/will make
4812-5 turns. But the ratchet R, on whose axis the
first wheel a turns freely, is never allowed to turn moie
than half round, and has twelve teeth on half its circum¬
ference, for the purpose of lifting the hammer M to strike
twelve times. Hence the fly turns fully 200-5 times for each
stroke of the hammer. Under the ratchet R is a smaller
ratchet, with a click and spring similar to what connects
the fusee and first wheel of the going part. 1 he use ot
it is, that when we push in the pendant or pusher 1,
fig 2, we do not move the wheel a; the ratchet R only
goes back ; and, by this means, the repeating mainspring,
which is on the same axis, is wound up just as much as
enables it to repeat or strike the hour and quarters last
passed by the hands. But so loon as we cease to press
in the pendant, the mainspring just mentioned, which is
in the smaller barrel /3 of fig. 3, brings forward again the
ratchet R, to whose axis g, the spring of the click is fixed,
and the small ratchet, by acting on the click, turns the
wheel a, together with the rest of that train and tne fly.
During this, the teeth of the ratchet R, by acting succes¬
sively on m, the tail of the hammer M, cause it to strike or
repeat the hour. The hammer is brought back to the wheel
by the long spring r, fig. 2, acting on the pallet n, which
is on the axis of the hammer. But this repetition oiiiers
from that of the clock formerly described, in that it re¬
peats the hours before the quarters, and never gives moi e
than three quarters. It likewise ditiers in striking the
quarters, by double blows of two hammeis acting to¬
gether.
Fig. 2 shows the dial work, or motion work, as such parts
of a repeater, between the dial-plate and frame, are some¬
times called. It is represented in the position it would
have when the pendant has just been pushed home to
make it repeat, and the dial-plate removed to let it be
seen. This kind of repeating work is substantial, and has
been long in very general use. Though commonly called
the French repeater, by far the greater part of it was
contrived by the English artists, particularly Barlow, who
invented the first repeaters. Pp is the shank or pusher
of the pendant, which enters in through the socket O
of the watch-case. It is flat on the under side, to pre¬
vent its turning round. Its inner end p acts on the lieel
t of the rack CC, whose centre of motion is y, and at
whose extremity c is fixed one end of the chain ss. iliis
chain passes over the pulley B, and has its other end
attached to the pulley A, which is upon the axis of the
wheel a, as seen in fig. 6. When we press in the pusher
P, the end c of the rack will, by means ot the chain, turn
the pulleys A, B, and make the ratchet R go back till the
arm b of the rack come against the snail L. I hen having
let go the pusher, the repeating mainspring will bring for¬
ward the ratchet R, and the hour will be repeated as al¬
ready described. The number of strokes depends on the
step of the snail L, which is presented to the arm b of
the rack, as was explained when we described the striking
parts of clocks.
Fig 6 shows in perspective some of the principal parts
of the repetition, as if in action, and about to repeat two
hours. They will be easily recognised, by having for the
most part the same letters of reference as the like parts
have either in fig. 1 or 2. The star E and snail L are
screwed together, but are not attached to the frame ;
they only turn on the shank of the screw V, fixed in the
Work.
all or nothing piece TR, which, therefore, carries the star Clock and
and snail, and with them is movable on its centre T. The Watch
all or nothing is supposed to have been invented by Julien (
Leroy, an eminent French artist, for the purpose of insur¬
ing that, according as the pendant is pushed quite home
or not, the watch should either repeat the proper hour or
not repeat at all; it having been found a sad detect in
the first repeaters, that the number of hours struck de¬
pended on the length the pendant was pushed in, a de¬
fect from which some more recent repeaters are not al¬
ways free. .
For repeating the quarters there is another hammer U,
fio-. 1, movable on an axis which comes up within the
motion work, and carries the piece 5, 6, fig 2. The axis
of the hour hammer M is likewise prolonged within the
motion work, and carries the small arm q. These three
pieces make the quarters be struck by double blows, m
consequence of the quarter rack Q. having teeth at the
ends F and G, which act on the pieces 6 and q, and
cause the hammers strike. The arm k is put on a square
of the axis of the ratchet R, above the pulley A. \Vhen
the hours are repeated, the arm k acts on the pin G
in the quarter rack, and causes it to turn, and raise the
arms 6 and q, together with the hammers. The number
of quarters to be struck is determined by the depth of the
step h, 1, 2, or 3, which the quarter snail N presents.
When not otherwise prevented, the quarter rack Q being
pressed by the spring D, retrogrades, and the teeth of the
rack engage more or less with the arms q, 6, which also
recede, but are brought forward again by the springs 9
and 10. While the arm k brings forward die quarter
rack from the snail, the arm m presses on tne end R ot
the ail or nothing TR. In the end R is an opening x,
which, not being quite filled by the end ot a stud fixed
in the plate, allows the end R to traverse a little. So
soon as the arm m comes to the extremity of R, the
spring ix, by re-acting with its point on the fixed stud
just mentioned, presses R past m, which then rests on the
end of R ; so that the quarter rack G cannot now fall un¬
til the all or nothing is pushed aside, ihe other aim n
of the quarter rack is for pushing aside the raising piece m,
fii.r. 1 and 6, which is upon the axis of the hour-hammer, by
means of its pin 11, which comes up within the motion
work ; for after the repeating of the hours and quar¬
ters is completed, the rack G is still moved by the arm
k a little farther, and, by its arm u acting on the pin 11,
turns aside the raising piece or hammer tail m, and thus
detaches it from the ratchet R, until the piece 1R al¬
lows the rack G to drop on its snail, which only occurs
when, the pendant having been pushed home, the arm b
of the rack CC presses the hour snail L, causing it, toge¬
ther with the all or nothing TR, to describe a small arc
about the centre T ; so that the extremity R of the all or
nothing being thus pushed aside, will let go the arm m ot
the rack G, which will then be tree to drop and disengage
the lifting pieces; and first the hours, and then the quai-
ters, - will be struck, which correspond to the steps pre¬
sented by the snails L and N respectively. The dial-
work is drawn in fig. 2, as if ready to repeat eleven hours
and one quarter.
The hour hammer M, best seen in fig. 6, carries a pm
33, which comes up through an opening 33, fig. 2, till it
meets the spring r, which acts on it, and enables the lam-
mer to strike. Another pin 22, belonging to this hammer,
comes through an opening 22. Upon this pin the raising
piece q acts, to enable the hammer M to join in striking
the quarters. The smaller hammer U has likewise a pm,
which comes through the opening 4. Upon this the spring
7 acts, and enables that hammer to strike the quarters in
conjunction with the hammer M. J is the spnng jum
'lock and per which acts on the star E, as was explained when de-
Watch scribing the striking parts of clocks. Fig. 9 represents
in perspective the cannon pinion c, and quarter snail N,
which are riveted together, and the square D is for put¬
ting the minute hand upon. These of course must re¬
volve together in an hour. The snail N carries the sur¬
prise Z, the use of which is this: when the pin O of the
surprise overtakes a tooth of the star wheel E, it conti¬
nues to push it forward, till some .other tooth, having got
over the angle of the jumper, is aided by the inclined face
of the jumper acting behind it, and by that means the
wheel is made to start forward through the remaining
half space between two teeth. While the wheel thus sud¬
denly advances, the tooth next behind the pin O gives
it and the surprise Z a push forward, without carrying
with them the quarter snail ; for though the plate Z,
called the surprise, is attached to the quarter snail, it
has freedom to turn upon it a little way; so that at the
end of each hour the star E and snail L are suddenly
shifted to the next step, which obviates the chance of the
snail L presenting a wrong step ; and the surprise, by
being thrust forward upon the snail N, half way over step
3, prevents the arm of the quarter rack from dropping
into step 3 of the quarter snail, and causing the watch
strike, as it would otherwise do, the three quarters, should
the pendant happen to be pushed in just at the end of an
hour. By this means the watch strikes the precise hours
indicated by the hands.
The socket or pipe cD of the cannon pinion fig. 9, is
slit, that it may move spring-tight on the axis of the
second wheel C, on which it enters with such stiffness as
will just allow of the minute hand being easily set back
or forward, as occasion may require. When turning the
minute hand, we likewise set the hour hand, because the
cannon pinion then moves the other three dial-wheels
shown in figs. 4 and 7. Some imagine that a watch is in¬
jured by moving the hands, and especially by setting them
back. To be convinced that this is not the case, we need
only consider, that when we turn the minute hand, we nei¬
ther move the axis of the centre wheel C, nor indeed any
wheel at all within the frame. It is for this very purpose
that the cannon pinion c is put on a cannon or pipe,
which may slide round on the axis of the centre wheel,
without interfering at all with the internal parts of the
watch. But after having pushed in the pendant of a re¬
peating watch, we should be careful not to move the
hands till the watch has done repeating; because in that
case the dial-wheels may be prevented from shifting, by
being engaged with the repeating work.
The cannon pinion of ten leaves moves the returning
wheel, fig. 7, which turns on the stud 12, fig. 2, and has
forty teeth. Upon it is fixed a pinion of twelve teeth,
which turns the hour wheel, fig. 4, of thirty-six teeth. The
cannon pinion, therefore, turns twelve times for once of
the hour wheel, which carries the wide socket of the hour
hand. Fig. 5 shows the other side of the all or nothing,
with the shanks of the screws T and V. The large hole
e allows the squared end of the fusee arbor to come
through to receive the key which winds up the watch in
a hole of the dial-plate. W is the locking spring and bolt
which keep the work in the case. Y is a small cock to
steady the rack CC. The pieces 13 and 14 are for con¬
necting the fixtures. Fig. 8 shows the star wheel.
In some repeaters the hammers strike on bells, in others
on springs, and in some they strike on the case, or on a
piece of metal fixed to the case. In the repeater just de¬
scribed, a large circular rack and pinion pitching into each
other are sometimes substituted for the pulleys and chain.
The rack is fixed on the piece CC, and its pinion is put
in the place of the pulley A, on the arbor of the repeating
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
797
mainspring. By such an arrangement there is supposed Clock and
less risk of the action of the repetition being interrupted, Watch
as it might be by the breaking of the chain. In place of Work,
the fly, it is not uncommon for repeating work to be regu-
lated by a scapement and balance, which renders it rather
more simple.
Several repeaters of a very simple constructipn have Elliot’s
been contrived by Mr J. M. Elliot, particularly the follow-repeater,
ing one, for which he received from the Society of Arts
a premium of thirty guineas. But the description of it in
their Transactions is so very inexplicit and defective, that
w’e are under the necessity of explaining it more fully in
our own way. The dial-plate being removed, AB, in fig.
1, Plate CLXVIII., represents the upper side of the pillar
plate. CD is a flat ring or circle of steel moving freely
in the grooved edges of the pulleys or rollers E, F, G, H,
in the same manner as the rings which show the days of
the month, or the moon’s age, in a common clock. The
flat ring is put in motion by means of a pinion a fixed on
the inner end of an axis which comes through the case,
and has on its outer end the ring or handle of the pendant,
ihe teeth of this pinion work into a set of teeth formed
on the under side of almost one third of the ring CD.
When, therefore, we turn round the pendant, we necessa¬
rily move the ring. I is the quarter snail, K the minute
wheel, and the hour wheel may easily be supposed. L is
the stud on which turns the hour snail, omitted here to
avoid confusion, but shown in fig. 2 as fixed upon the star
wheel 1, which is moved by means of the arm 2, on the
cannon pinion. POQ and SRT are bent levers, movable
respectively on studs fixed in the pillar-plate at O and R.
The kneed end P is for dropping on the steps of the hour
snail; but in this it observes a rule the very reverse of any
we have yet described, because the highest step of the
snail answers to twelve hours, and the one nearest the cen¬
tre to 1 hour. The like is the case with the end S, which
drops on the quarter snail, neither of which circumstances
are so much as hinted at in the inventor’s own description.
At X is a pin in the flat circle, to which is hooked a chain
wound on the barrel V, containing a spiral spring. This
chain, when the pendant is put in motion, unwinds from
the barrel, and by acting on the rollers U and W, works
both to the right and left. So soon, therefore, as we let
go the pendant, this spring always brings back the large
ring into the same position. The hour hammer, faintly re¬
presented by dotted lines, turns on the stud i, and has a
small tail or pallet, which is acted on by a set of pins
standing upright on the edge of the flat ring; so that,
when we turn the ring in the direction in which the hands
go, each pin which passes i causes the hour hammer to give
one blow. But when the pins return in the other direc¬
tion, they merely push aside the hammer tail, which is
made to give way in that direction, and resumes its place
by help of a small spring. The quarter hammer, which
turns on the stud k, acts in a precisely similar manner by
means of the same set of pins, when passing it in the di¬
rection contrary to that in which the hands go. To pre¬
vent the ring from turning too far, it has a circular slit ss,
which plays or traverses upon a fixed stud/?.
Fig. 1 represents the watch as having just struck one
hour, and fig. 2 shows it just after repeating three quar¬
ters. When the large ring is quite in its resting-place, it
bears upon the levers Q and T, so as to hold their other
ends P and S as far up at least as the highest step of their
respective snails. But when we begin to turn the ring in
the direction of the hands, the angle of the broad part at
C withdrawing from the arm Q, allows the end P to drop
on the hour snail by the action of its spring. During this
turning of the ring, the hour hammer being acted on by
the pins, will continue striking till the end of the arm Q,
798
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Work.
Clock and arrest the motion of the ring, by catching into one or other
Watch of the notches on its inner side. The spring V, if allowed,
will now bring back the ring to its place; and to repeat
the quarters we need only turn the pendant so as to move
the ring CD in the other direction, which will allow the
end S to drop on the quarter snail by help of its spring, and
cause tl}e quarter hammer to strike till the end T arrests
the ring by catching one of the notches on its inner side
at h. This repeater will obviously give either the hours
or quarters first, as may be wished, or the one without the
other ; a property which, we should think, belonged to no
repeaters prior to those of Mr Elliot. _
Among the repeaters formerly in repute is the Mac-
den, Stockten, or Stogden repeater, of which drawings may
be seen in the Encyclopedic Metliodique, and in Kees Cy-
clopcedia. It is rather uncertain why it is so called, but
there is a tradition that a person of some such name ha
worked with Graham, and possibly he may have invented
it. For other forms of repeaters, and likewise for alarm
watches and others of peculiar constructions, we must re¬
fer to the works already quoted.
We have already described Harrison s contrivance for
oJTwind- keephigb^th clocks and watches going in time of wind-
mg
ma- • but watches have sometimes been contrived to need
no winding, provided they were carried, a moderate ex¬
ternal motion being sufficient to make a pendulum or ba¬
lance vibrate so as to act upon a wheel which always con¬
tributes something towards winding up the machine, so
long at least as that is not completed. The same princi¬
ple has been often proposed for propelling a ship when
violently tossed by wind or waves.
Theory of Having already had occasion to mention some particu-
the ba- bars regarding the balance, we have now the less need to
enlarge on it. From Mr Attwood’s investigations on this
subject in the Phil. Trans, for 1794, it appears that if w
be the weight of a balance in grains, r its radius in inches,
q the distance in inches of its centre of gyration from the
axis, and p the force in grains which, acting at the cir¬
cumference of the balance, can keep it 90° from the posi¬
tion in which its spring would allow it to rest, the time ot
one vibration in seconds will be
lance.
 9.— , or nearly
4-9898*/ pr J b pr
Owing to the difficulty of obtaining the dimensions with
sufficient accuracy, this formula can scarcely be applied in
a direct manner to determine either the duration of a vi¬
bration, or to compare the times ot vibration in different
balances; but it throws some light on the effects of tem¬
perature on the time. For when the radius of the balance
varies with change of temperature, g will do so in the same
ratio, and therefore the duration of a vibration is increas¬
ed with heat and diminished with cold, which is conform
to experience. But here again we cannot apply the for¬
mula, because the effect on the time is farther increased
by the influence of heat in diminishing, and of cold in in¬
creasing, the force of the spring in a rather uncertain de¬
cree. Berthoud found a watch to be twenty-four times
more affected by changes of temperature than a clock.
This, however, will depend in some measure on the ma¬
terials employed, we mean when there is no compensation,
as also on the kind of scapement, state of the oil, &c.
Common Generally speaking, the time of vibration of a balance is
regulator, increased by lengthening, and diminished by shortening its
spring. On this depends the usual mode of adjusting or
regulating the going of a watch. In fig. 11, 1 late CLX1IL,
mn is a circular-toothed rack, clear of the balance A, but
movable in a groove concentric with it. The rack car¬
ries an arm r, having a notch or clip, which slides upon the
spring sp. If the notch be so narrow as just to have room
to slide upon the spring, it may be considered as forming Clock and
one end of the spring, andp the other; and therefore, by Watch
putting the key upon the square of the pinion i, and turn-
ing it a little, we shift the notch, and alter the length of
the acting part of the spring. The notch, however, is ge¬
nerally far from being close upon the spring, which there¬
fore sometimes moves from side to side of it; and this
may be attended with both friction and wear. The index
R shows upon a graduated plate how far the regulator,^ as
this contrivance is called, may have been moved. Ihis
was wont to be almost tbe only mode of applying tbe re¬
gulator. Frequently, however, there is neithei rack nor
pinion. The notch or clip is in the arm of a lever, which
has still a motion concentric with the balance, being at¬
tached to the cock or piece covering it. This regulator
is moved by pushing its extremity about, which is not so
precise and convenient as the old method, because it is
apt to move by a start too far; but it is more easily made,
and requires rather less room. It has another advantage ,
for the balance spring in this method being generally put
above the balance, admits of being more easily adjusted
and more readily taken off and on.
In some of tbe more common sorts of scapements, theCompen-
variations in tbe fluidity, &c. of the oil compensate, though sations fo-
in a very uncertain manner, for the effect of temperature
on. the vibrations of the balance; but the first scientific
contrivances for this purpose were applied to the regula¬
tor, or at least to the balance spring, and are called com¬
pensation curbs. When Harrison explained the principles
of his fourth timekeeper to the commissioners of longi¬
tude, he described a compensation which consisted ot a
slip of brass pinned upon another ot steel. One end of
this bar was fixed, and on the other was a notch or clip to
receive the balance spring. The unequal expansions of the
two metals made the compound bar bend and move the
end with the clip, so as to equalize the going of the ma¬
chine, on the principle of the common regulator. If, as is
extremely probable, this remarkable genius used the same
thing in his other three timekeepers or box chronometers,
(for it is next to impossible they could have performed so
well without compensation), he must have been by much
the first who employed it, or indeed any compensation,
in such a timekeeper; but not having published this m
time, earlier claims have been put in for others, ine
first pocket watch with a compensation was made by
Berthoud in 1764, and worn by King George III., who, it
is well known, had a taste for nice machinery, in some
compensations of this sort, the clip, as was the case with
Harrison’s, slides along the spring ; m others, the width ot
the clip is made to vary, so as to give the spring more or
less play. Various sorts of metals are used in the construc¬
tion of these curbs. None of them, however, has yet given
perfect satisfaction, which is in a great measure owing to
the difficulty of interfering with the spring, without dis¬
turbing its isochronism. Le Roy attached two thermome¬
ters to the balance of his marine timekeeper. I be bulbs,
filled with alcohol, were near the verge; but the tubes
were bent in such a manner that an increase of tempera¬
ture drove a portion of mercury into parts of them which
lay along the axis. The reverse took place with a fall ot
temperature ; but such a contrivance could only be used in
a large machine. It seems to have been this artist who hist
applied the compensation to the balance itself, neai y in ®
same form as it is still most commonly used, except that
he pinned together the laminae of the different meta ,
whereas they are now united by fusion,—a mode ot con¬
struction which was introduced by Brookbanks. . •
Compensation balances have been made in a S1 eat 7^2".
ety of forms; but some of them have such a parade ofbalance
tackling, and are otherwise so injudiciously contrived, as
ffatct
ffork
ipen-
:onbs
'lock and
Watch
Work-
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
.  .. roci
“„ta„ Ti:: thTer r° i,are’, b’kb’ °r brass’ "ot ^ite - ^
most of them. In fig. 14, Plate CLXII the inner mrt nf § ! 116 f66 ’ &nd eiaC 1 °n ^ about one tlllrd lts breadth, Watch
the rim is steel, which, rfter having been tu3 Z \he fS , 'f em'’ " 'T h a '!ttle excee<ls “ 'Iork' .
proper size, is immersed in melted brass till it becomes it .or. S V ,rhicb ***
coated with that metal. The superfluous brass is then
turned away, a ring of it only being left on the outer edge
oi the steel. I his compound rim is next cut through in
three places, A, B, C, which sets one end of each third
part at liberty to move inwards when the temperature is
increased, or outwards when it is diminished. D, E, F, are
three equal weights, which admit of beino- fivpd hvenr^Mrc
upon any part of the compound circular bars! G H I nr! ^T' , “ Dra?S b<V"8 “ore slendCT’ a"d bending
three heavy headed screws, which serve as weisrhts to ad nnt'd^ P ^ °Vor lts Jlv 10 e lei?gt}l5 it has less need of any
just the centre of gravity of the balance to its axis of vi- ^ f, CCtS obviou1sly vary witli the heights
it very thin and flexible near the ends. Each brass bar
has one end pinned to the steel bar on the outside of one
notch, and its other to the steel on the inside of the oppo¬
site notch. By this means the effect is nearly double of
what it would be with a single brass bar. As the bars
must necessarily bend, the design of the notches is to make
the steel bend easily, and to form a short stud on the un¬
der side. The brass being more slender, and the bending
bration, and likewise to adjust its mean rate of motion.
When an inciease of temperature tends to lengthen the
arms of the balance, and to relax the force of its spring K
this would make it go slower; but the same cause, b>&ex-
panding the brass more than the steel, must bend in the
bars, so as to throw the weights D, E, F, nearer the axis,
and diminish the effect of the inertia of the balance, which,
if the compensation is properly adjusted, will be as speedi¬
ly earned thiough its course as before. The contrary com¬
pensation takes place with a fall of temperature. The ex-
of the balls above the compound bars, the balls admit of
being shifted higher or lower upon the upright rods, as
may be found necessary. But unless the balls be exactly
at the same height above the bars, they will be unequally
affected by change of temperature, which will of course dis¬
turb the centre of gravity. The like will happen if the
similar parts are not equally flexible. At the same time
it must be admitted, that the expansions being here em¬
ployed in a more direct manner than in the other method,
is a considerable recommendation to this balance, which,
besides, may be made by a less skilful workman. But it
ardy’s
mpen-
j don ba-
ice.
act adjustment of the weights is found by repeated trials fs Tl™7 1? , 7 & 1688 fllful Workman’ But *
from the extreme ends of the compound bars - but if Hip y £’ comPensatl°" balances have succeeded better
gah, be produced by cold, the weighs must' be'se, farther
A different form of compensation balance, in which the ni™UrTh7!n!lTn ^ ,lle effi;cts of tem-
" S.a"d contrac;!ol's,of *0 metals are employed in Lee otrte,
teis a considerable, and, what is worse, a variable resist¬
ance ; and we have already hinted at the difficulty and
uncertainty of keeping the centre of gravity in the axis of
motion. Of late years the French artists have directed
their attention a good deal to the improvement of curbs; and
we should not be surprised though at no distant day these
a more direct manner, has been contrived by Mr Hardy,
who objects to the sort just mentioned, that the two metals,
united by fusion, are liable to partial separations ; that the
centrifugal force of the weights D, E, F, is apt to overpower
or bend the compound bars ; and that the adjustment for
rate and temperature may affect the equilibrium of the ba-
.auce, and consequently tile rate of ,be inliff^t
positions. If the second and third obiections are well fnnnrl. ii.  i • 7
positions. If the second and third objections are well found¬
ed, we are not very clear that Mr Hardy’s balance is quite
free from them, especially the third; for, unless the like
parts of a compensation balance, of whatever sort, be every
way equal, and equally affected by changes of temperature,
balances : unless it be that some artists, having got into the
habit of making or using such balances, must just continue
to do so.
When a watch suddenly receives a circular motion, Banking
there is a nrohahiUtv^W ‘“^7’ fsPecially in a direction contrary to that in which the ba-the ba-
wavs be ac^rate v!n be „v?r f “h ^ 7 W‘ n0‘a1' la"c,e ‘,s m0,!r« at the moment’;t sometimes happens that W.
ways be accurately m the axis of vibration; and, conse- the balance will be thrown so far round as to crinnle its
p”i£’s K* 6 PHteCLXH ‘ T d'ffMeHly j",‘l|ifffrent sPrinf' and if Put likawise beyond the reach of tl,"scape
in nrofilp rfn K tb XIII., shows Mr Hardy s balance wheel, or other parts maintaining its motion, it may be
edPa steel bar^S Twf ’ •S a 0t’ 1° wblcb 18 fix; unable to return ’ though the watch do not stop,7the
that there are on the ^ ^ m P aC® °f balance sPnng maybe permanently altered, so as to affect
:!!! u„,, _a e °,n.t . bar SS, ^ uPright r.ods’ carrying its rate of vibration. To prevent such occurrences, va-
t’ious devices have been adopted, which are known by the
the balls or weights AA; and CC are two heavy-headed
screws, for adjusting the mean rate of the balance. The
steel bar, when lengthening by heat, would throw the balls
A A farther from the centre; but suppose two very short
studs, projecting downwards from the ends of the bar SS,
and that we connect these by a brass bar EE. It is evi¬
dent that the brass, by its excess of expansion, must push
out the studs below so much more than the steel does
above, that the upright rods will be made to lean inward,
and bring the balls A A nearer tbe verge ; and so much
the more as the balls are farther above the steel than the
brass is below it. The contrary will take place with a fall
of temperature.
We have stated the matter in this way for the purpose
of more easily explaining the principle ; but to increase
the effects, the actual construction is a little different.
Fig. 5 shows the under side of the compensation bars.
ri
general name of hanking the balance. This is easily
effected where the vibration does not exceed an entire
revolution. Thus, when the vibration is less than 120°,
the balance A, Fig. 10, Plate CLXIIL, carries on two of
its arms the pins 1, 2, which, so soon as the vibration
amounted to 120°, would strike against and be prevented
from going farther by the fixed tongue s. Had there
been but one pin, and that in the other arm of the ba¬
lance, the vibration would have only been prevented from
exceeding a revolution. However, unless the diameter of
a balance be very small, or its vibrations of unusually long
duration, we have some doubt whether they can ever ex¬
ceed 360°, without encountering a hurtful resistance from
the air. But to bank a balance having greater vibrations,
Mr Hardy put upon its spring a small tongue or lever,
which, by the motion of the spring, was thrown out close
w - — .— “— uaio. wiiim, uy uic xuuuuu ui me spring, was tnrown out close
itie steel one occupies the whole length and breadth of by the side of a fixed stud, just when a pin in the balance
800
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
dock and arrived there. The lever, at the instant it was struck by
Watch the pin, carpe against the stud, which received the shock,
Work. and arrested the balance ; but this method only banked or
'    checked the motions of the balance on one side. A Cer¬
ent method has more recently been employed by Mr
Towson. Instead of using an immovable stud tor hold¬
ing the outer end of the balance spring, he forms that
stud upon the end of a flexible spring-arm. In the stud
is a notch, through which the turned-up end of a lever
carried by the verge can pass quite clear of the sides
when the vibrations are moderate ; but as soon as a vi¬
bration in either direction exceeds a certain extent, the
strain of the balance spring becomes sufficient to bend
the elastic arm of the stud, so as to bring one of the
cheeks of its notch in the way of the turned-up lever, by
which the balance will be immediately arrested, this
contrivance is free from friction, and has the advantage
of Mr Hardy’s in banking both ways. But we are not
very clear that a sufficiently flexible spring-arm might not
be disturbed by external motion, or yield to the action of
gravity so as to make the machine go differently in ditter-
™ f^Wh^mas^s generally the case, balances are entirely or
SK- parUy made ousted, k rarely happens that they are not
lances. more or less possessed of magnetic polarity, which inclines
them to go differently in different positions, according as
this force acts with or against the balance spring. I lie
errors arising from this cause are often far greater than
those from changes of temperature, as has been ascertained
by direct experiments ; and this is farther confirmed from
the circumstance that a common watch usually performs bet¬
ter with a brass balance than a steel one. Various attempts
have been made to neutralize the magnetism of balances
and other fine articles of steel or iron. The following me¬
thod of Mr Abraham seems the most successful. Having
dipped the article which is to have its magnetism neu¬
tralized, into fine steel filings, these will fall oft when the
polarity of the end of a magnet presented to them is ot
the same sort. But if the magnet be held too near, it
may overdo the business, and communicate an opposite
polarity. To ascertain this, as also whether polarity ot
any sort remain, the operation is to be repeated, dipping
again the article in the filings, and only bringing the pro¬
per pole of the magnet near enough to make these filings
all drop off, and so on till the article lift no more filings.
This mode of cure seems very plausible, but we are not
quite persuaded of its being a permanent one. Since steel
tools are generally magnetic, as also articles of steel which
have undergone much work, it is evident that unless great
precaution is used, a balance can scarcely be put in its
place, or a tool applied to the watch, without a risk of the
balance having polarity communicated to it from some
such quarter. But since prevention is better than cure,
we should think it would be preferable to abandon the use
of steel altogether in the construction of balances. Pla-
tina, we presume, would be greatly preferable, especially
where no compensation is to be used. It is scarcely, if at
all, susceptible of polarity; it is much less affected by
changes of temperature, and its great weight should be
no small recommendation. Gold, though sometimes used,
is much more expensive than platina, while it is inferior
in hardness, and is affected in a far greater degree by
changes of temperature.
Work.
Among the numerous devices for which patents have Clock and
been taken out of late years, we may notice Mr Berrollas’ Watch
Keyless Watch. Within the loop of the pendant is a
small knob, which, on being pulled, brings out a part of a
chain; during which a piece connected with the inner
end of the chain catches and turns round a small way
the fusee, or the spring-barrel if there is no fusee. The
chain being now let go, is drawn in by a small spring. Next
the knob is pulled as before, and so on till the watch
is wound up. The chain just mentioned comes through
a larger knob or button, which, on being twisted round,
sets the hands of the watch backward or forward as may
be necessary. A different mode of winding without a
key has been invented by Mr Brown, for which he like¬
wise has a patent. It consists in twisting round a large
circular part of the case, which acts by means of a toothed
ring upon the fusee, or on the spring-barrel when there is
no fusee. MI’Westwood, again, has taken out a patent for
a spring-barrel of unusually large dimensions, being about
three fourths the diameter of the frame plates. Such
springs, he says, are as fit for making vvatches go eight
days, as the ordinary springs are for thirty hours. But
since Mr Westwood uses no fusee in these watches, they
must be liable to much wear, because the force which im¬
pels the wheels is unnecessarily strong during the greater
part of the eight days. .
It is to be feared that, in clock work, as in other de¬
partments, many valuable inventions never see the light,
owing to the influence of the law of patents. I he most
inventive men are not always the most opulent. It is
no uncommon thing for a person to spend many years,
and perhaps his all, in maturing an invention which may
fully answer his expectations, and after he has brought it
thus far he must make up his mind either to publish it
and let others reap the benefit, or to conceal and pro¬
bably consign it to oblivion. ihere is no alternative if
he be unable to raise £500 or £600, which go principally
into the pockets of official people who do nothing for it,
and who do not need it. It is thus a lamentable fact,
that the very laws intended for the protection of inven¬
tions, have in too many instances quite the contrary ef¬
fect. Some allege, that were no needless or exorbitant
expense heaped on patents, they would become too nu¬
merous, and even be obtained for all manner of nostrums.
This certainly would be excellent logic, were the value
of an invention in exact proportion to the wealth of the
inventor, and his willingness to part with it; for then
the prohibition would fall heaviest on the most worthless
inventions. But since the case is far otherwise, we can
see neither policy nor justice in the prohibitory system;
for those only who choose to take out patents tor nostrums
are likely to feel the consequence. It were better surely to
eive free scope to a thousand nostrums, than that one use¬
ful invention should be stifled. The Society for the tn-
couragement of Arts certainly does a great deal of good
in the way of promoting inventions ; but all it can afto
is quite inadequate to compensate individuals for the rui
ous effects of the present system. p
In addition to the various works mentioned in the tou
of this article, those who wish to pursue the subject hi ¬
ther will find extensive catalogues m Berthoud s Histoi
de la Mesure du Temps; Dr T. Youngs Natural Phi¬
losophy; and Gregory s Mechanics (E-
END OF VOLUME SIXTH.
I'nBted and Stereotyped by Thomas Allan, Jun. & Co.
.in Mii.hdi.iift
En,jd by G. A ikm/m, J^d.in r
CAMERA LUC IDA.
PI,ATE CXLI l
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PLATE TALIV-2,
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CONTINUATION OF
SCOTIA &c
English Miles 69-1 Degree
■nwicii? 2
wm
SL*.. -V. .   — |
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CXLYT.
PLATE CXLYI.
Fig .3.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 4,
Fig. 1.
(APT? C. PHILLIPS I MPROVES CAPSTANS.
Eng? by G.Aikmxun.EcLiiE
, • '
2
PLATE iXLYll.
mrr.
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CARPENTRY
PLATE CXLYIIl.
A/A.
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PLATE CXLJX
Fig.17.
Fuj.2o.n?2.
Fig. 26 .
J
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CARPENTRY.
PLATE CLJ.
t
Fig. .38.
Fig .. 3.9.
by Cr. A ikmcuh, Edin r.
CARPENTRY
PLATE CLII,
FLg.43.
Enp d by G.Aik/nan, Eduir
Fig. 45.
E
CARPET
PLATE CLIIl.
En.jJ by G. Atianan. ¥.dinr.
• '\£' 1
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Fig. 4.
PLATE CLY.
Eng!1 by G.AikTruuz.EcbuE
Fig.5. AT? 2.
£ngd by G. Aikrruui.EcLui1.
t
IV 11
Lug": by U.AvarLan,MdAiLT
CENTRE
PLATE CLVII
Fig. 12.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 22.
1
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CLVIII
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3.-
PLATE CLVIII
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64
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Ill'll o nufi/cui.
a .liitf/it .vtcolei'; to
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66 p
67 Af tv-la 1"-",,i!'l'"7ifoir;,</oo,/,
excellent .
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C II I ^ E S E L A N G U A G E .
PLATE CL1X
THE 211 ELEMENTS i>R KEYS .
77
7*
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kail nH
4*1 the jive Indies.
OF VI S Til OKI: S * T67
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OF V STROKES
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CHINESE LAN GI A G E.
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OF VIII STROKES /.V / tell* ^ tt* e/ jf; peeprtreij
202 -^VlN sliu-u iniT/rf.
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15
15
jiJneeil an the Ti/jht
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Er/i/ f by G.AikiruuL. EcLui*
1
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
PLATE ( LXI.
by G^Aikrruur .Edin
Ficj.l.
c LOCK AN U WATC IT W() RK.
PLATE CLXII.
Eng?-by G Aikman, Edznr
CLOCK and WATCH WORK
T*T 4. rr'
XIII.
Eng^ by GJUkman, Edinr.
l.XIV.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
PLATE CLXJV.
Eruj* by G.Aikman,Edinr.
CLK\
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK
PLATE CLXV.
I
"^55
VTATE clxvt
'
thmcun, Edin1
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Fig.l.
PLATE CLXVT.
Eng^by G.AtJuncui, EcUnr
Fig. 3.
Fig.2.
Fig.4.
CLOCK AND WATCH WORK.
Fiq.l.
PLATE CLXVII.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 5.
TI '6^;. 
---jpaii.—
Fig.3.
Etuj^ by &. A.ihrmrL,EdinT
CLOCK, and WATCH WORK
PLATE CL W'W.